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{{Short description|War between North and South Korea, 1950–1953}} | |||
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} | |||
{{For-multi|other conflicts and wars involving Korea|List of Korean battles|the conflict from 1945 to the present|Korean conflict}} | |||
{{Infobox Military Conflict | |||
{{Pp|small=yes}} | |||
|conflict=Korean War | |||
{{Use American English|date=May 2019}} | |||
|partof= the ] | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} | |||
|image=] | |||
{{very long|date=December 2024}} | |||
|caption=Clockwise, from top: American Trucks crossing the ], ] flying over Korea, the port in ] where the ] commenced, Chinese soldiers being welcomed back after the war, and USA 2nd ] ] climbing the seawall in Inchon. | |||
{{Infobox military conflict | |||
|date= ], ] - present. Full-scale fighting until an ] on ], ] | |||
| |
| conflict = Korean War | ||
| |
| partof = the ] and the ] | ||
| image = {{multiple image|border=infobox|perrow=2/2/2|total_width=300px | |||
|terrtory= DMZ; both South and North gain some territory along the 38th parallel. | |||
| image1=Chosin.jpg | |||
|result=]; establishment of ] (DMZ); a few territorial changes along the 38th parallel, but essentially '']'' and '']''. | |||
| image2=Korean_War_bombing_Wonsan_(cropped).jpg | |||
|combatant1='''{{flag|United Nations}}''':<br/> | |||
| image3=Battle_of_Inchon_(cropped).png | |||
{{flag|South Korea}}<br/> | |||
| image4=Namdaemun,_Main_Southern_Entrance_to_Seoul_(cropped).jpg | |||
{{flag|Australia}}<br/> | |||
| image5=KoreanWarRefugeeWithBaby_(cropped).jpg | |||
{{flag|Belgium}}<br/> | |||
| image6=C-119B_Flying_Boxcar_drops_supplies_near_Chungju_1951.JPEG | |||
{{flag|Canada|1921}}<br/> | |||
| footer = '''Clockwise from top left:'''{{Flatlist| | |||
{{flag|Colombia}}<br/> | |||
* Infantry and armor of the U.S. ] during its ], 1950 | |||
{{flag|Ethiopia|1897}}<br/> | |||
* U.S. bombing during the ], {{circa|1951}} | |||
{{flag|France}}<br/> | |||
* Damaged gate of the ] in ], {{circa|1951}} | |||
{{flagicon|Greece|old}} ]<br/> | |||
* U.S. ] airdropping supplies near ], 1951 | |||
{{flag|Luxembourg}}<br/> | |||
* Korean refugees in front of a U.S. ] tank, 1951 | |||
{{flag|Netherlands}}<br/> | |||
* UN amphibious landing at the ], 1950 | |||
{{flag|New Zealand}}<br/> | |||
}} | |||
{{flag|Philippines}}<br/> | |||
}} | |||
{{flagicon|South Africa|1928}} ]<br/> | |||
| date = 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953{{efn|End of physical conflict and signing of an armistice. De jure, North and South Korea are still at war.}}<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=6|day1=25|year1=1950|month2=7|day2=27|year2=1953}}) | |||
{{flag|Thailand}}<br/> | |||
| place = ], ], ], ], ] | |||
{{flag|Turkey}}<br/> | |||
| territory = ] established | |||
{{flag|United Kingdom}}<br/> | |||
* North Korea gains the city of ], but loses a net total of {{Convert|1506|sqmi|km2|abbr=on|order=flip}}, including the city of ], to South Korea<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birtle |first=Andrew J. |url=https://history.army.mil/brochures/kw-stale/stale.htm |title=The Korean War: Years of Stalemate |date=2000 |publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History |page=34 |access-date=21 August 2021 |archive-date=24 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724211722/https://history.army.mil/brochures/kw-stale/stale.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
{{flag|United States|1912}} | |||
| result = Inconclusive | |||
---- | |||
| combatant1 = {{Flagcountry|First Republic of Korea|1949}} | |||
'''Medical staff''':<br/> | |||
| combatant1a = {{Flagdeco|United Nations}} ]{{Refn | name = nbUNforces | group = lower-alpha | On 9 July 1951 troop constituents were: US: 70.4%; ROK: 23.3%; other UNC: 6.3%.<ref name="kim-1996">{{Cite thesis |last=Kim |first=Heesu |title=Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2408/1/U615357.pdf |page=213 |date=1996 |access-date=9 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410050726/http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2408/1/U615357.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2017}}</ref>}}{{blist | |||
{{flag|Denmark}}<br/> | |||
| {{Flag|United States|1912}} | |||
{{flag|Italy}}<br/> | |||
| {{Flag|United Kingdom}} | |||
{{flag|Norway}}<br/> | |||
{{ |
| {{Flag|Canada|1921}} | ||
| {{Flag|Turkey}} | |||
|combatant2='''Communist:'''<br/> | |||
| {{Flag|Australia}} | |||
{{PRK}}<br/> | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Third Philippine Republic|1936}} | |||
{{PRC}}<br/> | |||
{{ |
| {{Flag|New Zealand}} | ||
| {{Flagdeco|Thailand|1917}} ] | |||
|commander1={{flagicon|South Korea}} ] | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Ethiopian Empire}} | |||
{{flagicon|South Korea}} ]<br/> | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state}} | |||
{{flagicon|South Korea}} ]<br /> | |||
| {{Flag|French Fourth Republic|name=France}} | |||
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br/> | |||
| {{Flag|Colombia}} | |||
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br/> | |||
| {{Flag|Belgium}} | |||
{{flagicon|United States}} ]<br /> | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Union of South Africa}} | |||
|commander2={{flagicon|North Korea}} ] | |||
| {{Flag|Netherlands}} | |||
{{flagicon|North Korea}} ]<br/> | |||
| {{Flag|Luxembourg}} | |||
{{flagicon|North Korea}} ]<br/> | |||
}} | |||
{{flagicon|North Korea}} ]<br/> | |||
| combatant2 = {{flag|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} | |||
{{flagicon|China}} ]<br/> | |||
| combatant2a = {{Plainlist | | |||
{{flagicon|China}} ]<br/> | |||
* {{Flag|China}} | |||
{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} ] | |||
* {{Flag|Soviet Union|1936}} | |||
|strength1= | |||
}} | |||
] 590,911<br/> | |||
| commander1 = {{Plainlist | | |||
] 480,000<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|First Republic of Korea|1949}} ] | |||
] 63,000<ref>{{cite web | title =On This Day 29 August 1950 | publisher =] | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/29/newsid_3053000/3053107.stm | |||
* {{flagdeco|First Republic of Korea|1949}} ] | |||
| accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|First Republic of Korea|1949}} ] | |||
] 26,791<ref>{{cite web | title =Veterans Affairs Canada - The Korean War | publisher = Veterans Affairs Canada | url =http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history/koreawar | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|First Republic of Korea|1949}} ] | |||
] 17,000<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|First Republic of Korea|1949}} ] | |||
] 7,000<br/> | |||
}} | |||
] 5,455<ref>{{cite web | last =Walker | first =Jack D | title =A brief account of the Korean War | url =http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/topics/brief/brief_account_of_the_korean_war.htm | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><BR> | |||
| commander1a = {{Plainlist | | |||
] 3,972<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United Nations}} ] | |||
] 3,421,<ref name="frinvolvement">{{cite web | title =French Participation in the Korean War | publisher =Embassy of France | url =http://www.info-france-usa.org/atoz/koreawar.asp | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United Nations}} ] | |||
] 1,389<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912|size=23px}} ] | |||
] 1,294<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 1,271<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 1,263<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 1,068<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 900<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 826<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 44<br/><br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
'''Total: 941,356–1,139,518''' | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
|strength2= | |||
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} ] | |||
] 260,000<br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} ] | |||
] 780,000 <br/> | |||
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} ] | |||
] 26,000<br/><br> | |||
}} | |||
'''Total: 1,066,000'''<br/><br> | |||
| commander2 = {{Plainlist | | |||
<small>Note: All figures may vary according to source. This measures peak strength as sizes changed during the war.</small> | |||
* {{flagdeco|North Korea|1948}} ] | |||
|casualties1='''South Korea:'''<br>58,127 combat deaths<br>175,743 wounded<br>80,000 MIA or POW<ref>{{cite web | title =South Korean POWs | url =http://www.aiipowmia.com/inter27/in250107skoreapw.html | |||
* {{flagdeco|North Korea|1948}} ] | |||
| accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|North Korea|1948}} ] | |||
'''United States:'''<br>36,516 dead (including 10,395 non-combat)<br>92,134 wounded<br>8,176 MIA<br>7,245 POW<ref>{{cite web | title =All POW-MIA Korean War Casualties | url =http://www.aiipowmia.com/koreacw/kwkia_menu.html | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|North Korea|1948}} ] | |||
'''United Kingdom:'''<br>1,109 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =The UK & Korea, Defence Relations | publisher =Office of the Defence Attache, British Embassy, Seoul | url =http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1101397831756 | accessdate =2007-08-15 }}</ref><br>2,674 wounded<br>1,060 MIA or POW<ref name="Hickey">{{cite web | last =Hickey | first =Michael | title =The Korean War: An Overview | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/korea_hickey_04.shtml | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref><br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|North Korea|1948}} ]{{KIA}} | |||
'''Turkey:'''<br>721 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =The Turks in the Korean War | url =http://www.korean-war.com/turkey.html | accessdate =2007-8-15 }}</ref><br>2,111 wounded<br>168 MIA<br>216 POW<br> | |||
}} | |||
'''Canada'''<br>516 dead<ref>{{cite web | title =Canadians in Korea: Epilogue| publisher =Veterans Affairs Canada | date =1998-10-6 | url =http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=history/koreawar/valour/epilogue| accessdate =2007-10-27}}</ref><br> 1042 wounded<br> | |||
| commander2a = {{Plainlist | | |||
'''France:'''<br>300 KIA or MIA<ref>{{cite web | title =''Departure of the French batallion'' | publisher =French newsreels archives (Les Actualités Françaises) | date =] | url =http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2eo52_depart-du-bataillon-francais-051119 | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref><br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
'''Total: Over 474,000''' | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
|casualties2='''North Korea:'''<br>215,000 dead,<br> 303,000 wounded,<br>120,000 MIA or POW<ref name="Hickey"/><br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
'''China<br>''(Chinese estimate)'':'''<br>114,000 killed in combat<br>34,000 non-combat deaths<br>380,000 wounded<br>21,400 POW<ref name="Xu">{{cite web | last =Xu | first =Yan | title =Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness | publisher =Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in New York | url =http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref><br>'''''(US estimate)'':'''<ref name="Hickey"/><br>400,000+ dead<br>486,000 wounded<br>21,000 POW<br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
'''Soviet Union:'''<br>315 dead<br>500+ wounded<br> | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
'''Total: 1,190,000-1,577,000+''' | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
|casualties3='''Civilians killed/wounded (total Koreans)''' = Millions | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
|notes= | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
* {{flagdeco|China}} ] | |||
* {{flagdeco|Soviet Union|1936}} ] | |||
* {{flagdeco|Soviet Union|1936}} ] | |||
}} | |||
| strength1 = {{Collapsible list | |||
|title= '''Peak strength<br />(combat troops):''' | |||
|{{Flagicon|First Republic of Korea|1948|size=23px}} 602,902<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JFvmnDiH-gC&pg=PA692 |title=The Korean War, Volume 3 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |others=Korea Institute of Military History |date=2001 |isbn=978-0803277960 |editor-last=Millett |editor-first=Allan Reed |page=692 |quote=Total Strength 602,902 troops |access-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} 326,863<ref>{{Multiref2 | |||
|1={{Cite web |last=Kane |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Kane |date=27 October 2004 |title=Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–2003 |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2004/10/global-us-troop-deployment-1950-2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128071747/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2004/10/global-us-troop-deployment-1950-2003 |archive-date=28 January 2013 |access-date=15 February 2013 |department=Reports |publisher=]}} | |||
|2={{Cite news |last=Ashley Rowland |date=22 October 2008 |title=U.S. to keep troop levels the same in South Korea |work=] |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/u-s-to-keep-troop-levels-the-same-in-south-korea-1.84294 |url-status=live |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512203739/http://www.stripes.com/news/u-s-to-keep-troop-levels-the-same-in-south-korea-1.84294 |archive-date=12 May 2013}}<br />{{Cite web |last=Colonel Tommy R. Mize, United States Army |date=12 March 2012 |title=U.S. Troops Stationed in South Korea, Anachronistic? |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA562829.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408133136/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA562829 |archive-date=8 April 2013 |access-date=16 February 2013 |website=] |publisher=Defense Technical Information Center}} | |||
|3={{Cite web |last1=Louis H. Zanardi |last2=Barbara A. Schmitt |last3=Peter Konjevich |last4=M. Elizabeth Guran |last5=Susan E. Cohen |last6=Judith A. McCloskey |date=August 1991 |title=Military Presence: U.S. Personnel in the Pacific Theater |url=http://www.gao.gov/assets/160/150991.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615234749/http://www.gao.gov/assets/160/150991.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2013 |access-date=15 February 2013 |website=Reports to Congressional Requesters |publisher=]}}}}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|United Kingdom|1801|size=23px}} 14,198<ref name="UNC-USFK">{{Cite web |last=USFK Public Affairs Office |title=USFK United Nations Command |url=http://www.usfk.mil/About/United-Nations-Command/ |access-date=29 July 2016 |department=United States Forces Korea |publisher=United States Department of Defense |quote=Republic of Korea – 590,911<br />Colombia – 1,068<br />United States – 302,483<br />Belgium – 900<br />United Kingdom – 14,198<br />South Africa – 826<br />Canada – 6,146<br />Netherlands – 819<br />Turkey – 5,453<br />Luxembourg – 44<br />Australia – 2,282<br />Philippines – 1,496<br />New Zealand – 1,385<br />Thailand – 1,204{{Clarify|reason=Conflicts with data on ] article|date=December 2021}}<br />Ethiopia – 1,271<br />Greece – 1,263<br />France – 1,119|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711030514/http://www.usfk.mil/About/United-Nations-Command |archive-date=11 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Multiref2 | |||
|1={{Cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpOp2OO1-DAC&pg=PA126 |title=Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, 1950–1953 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2002 |isbn=978-0275978358 |page=126 |quote=A peak strength of 14,198 British troops was reached in 1952, with over 40,000 total serving in Korea. |access-date=16 February 2013 }} | |||
|2={{cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=9 February 2012 |title=UK-Korea Relations |url=http://ukindprk.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-dprk/uk-korea-relations |access-date=16 February 2013 |website=British Embassy Pyongyang |publisher=] |quote=When war came to Korea in June 1950, Britain was second only to the United States in the contribution it made to the UN effort in Korea. 87,000 British troops took part in the Korean conflict, and over 1,000 British servicemen lost their lives }}{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} | |||
|3={{Cite web |last=Jack D. Walker |title=A Brief Account of the Korean War |url=http://www.kwva.org/brief_account_of_the_korean_war.htm |access-date=17 February 2013 |website=Information |publisher=Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History |quote=Other countries to furnish combat troops, with their peak strength, were: United States (302,483), United Kingdom (14,198), Canada (6,146), Turkey (5,455), Australia (2,282), Thailand (2,274), Philippines (1,496), New Zealand (1,389), France (1,185), Colombia (1,068), Ethiopia (1,271), Greece (1,263), Belgium (900), Netherlands (819), Republic of South Africa (826), Luxembourg (44) |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519043212/http://www.kwva.org/brief_account_of_the_korean_war.htm |url-status=live }} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Canada|1921|size=23px}} 8,123<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=7 January 2013 |title=Land of the Morning Calm: Canadians in Korea 1950–1953 |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/collections/korea/didyouknow |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323093839/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/collections/korea/didyouknow |archive-date=23 March 2013 |access-date=22 February 2013 |website=Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |quote=Peak Canadian Army strength in Korea was 8,123 all ranks.}}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Turkey|size=23px}} 5,455<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Australia|size=23px}} 2,282<ref name="UNC-USFK"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Thailand|size=23px}} 2,274<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Third Philippine Republic|1936|size=23px}} 1,496<ref name="UNC-USFK"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|New Zealand|size=23px}} 1,389<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Ethiopian Empire|size=23px}} 1,271<ref name="517KWA"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Kingdom of Greece|state|size=23px}} 1,263<ref name="UNC-USFK"/><ref name="517KWA"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|French Fourth Republic|size=23px}} 1,185<ref name="517KWA">{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Paul M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5gYCm0bM68sC&pg=PA517 |title=Korean War Almanac |publisher=] |date=2006 |isbn=978-0816074679 |series=Almanacs of American wars |page=517 |access-date=22 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Colombia|size=23px}} 1,068 <ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Belgium|size=23px}} 900<ref name="UNC-USFK"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Union of South Africa|size=23px}} 826<ref name="UNC-USFK"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Netherlands|size=23px}} 819<ref name="UNC-USFK"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Luxembourg|size=23px}} 44<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| '''Medical support and others:''' | |||
| {{Flagicon|India|size=23px}} 346<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramachandran |first=D. p |date=19 March 2017 |title=The doctor-heroes of war |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/the-doctor-heroes-of-war/article17529390.ece |via=www.thehindu.com |access-date=8 May 2019 |archive-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164250/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/the-doctor-heroes-of-war/article17529390.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Sweden|size=23px}} 170<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Japan|1947|size=23px}} 120<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last=Morris-Suzuki |first=Tessa |author-link=Tessa Morris-Suzuki |date=29 July 2012 |title=Post-War Warriors: Japanese Combatants in the Korean War |url=https://apjjf.org/2012/10/31/Tessa-Morris-Suzuki/3803/article.html |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |volume=10 |issue=31 |access-date=24 February 2018 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518035219/https://apjjf.org/2012/10/31/Tessa-Morris-Suzuki/3803/article.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Norway|size=23px}} 109<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Denmark|size=23px}} 100<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flagicon|Italy|size=23px}} 72<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
|'''Together:''' 968,302 | |||
}} | |||
{{Collapsible list | |||
|title='''Total strength<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709114538/https://new.mnd.go.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn2/625_15/index.html |date=9 July 2023 }} {{in lang|ko}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111004201/https://www.imhc.mil.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_201408070704130850.pdf |date=11 January 2021 }} {{in lang|ko}}</ref><br />(combat troops):'''<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|United States|1912|size=23px}} 1,789,000<ref name="Fact Sheet: America's Wars"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127070133/https://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf |date=27 November 2019 }} U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Washington D.C., May 2017.</ref><br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|South Korea|size=23px}} 1,300,000<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mpva.go.kr/ycnc/selectBbsNttView.do?key=493&bbsNo=130&nttNo=215661&searchCtgry=&searchCnd=all&searchKrwd=&pageIndex=1&integrDeptCode= |title=19만7056명 첫 全數조사 "젊은사람들 내 뒤에서 '얼마나 죽였길래' 수군수군 이젠 훈장 안 달고 다녀…세상이 야속하고 나 스스로 비참할 뿐" |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714033626/https://www.mpva.go.kr/ycnc/selectBbsNttView.do?key=493&bbsNo=130&nttNo=215661&searchCtgry=&searchCnd=all&searchKrwd=&pageIndex=1&integrDeptCode= |url-status=live }}</ref><br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|United Kingdom|1801|size=23px}} 56,000<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Canada|1921|size=23px}} 26,791<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Turkey|size=23px}} 21,212<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Australia|size=23px}} 17,164<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Third Philippine Republic|1936|size=23px}} 7,420<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Thailand|size=23px}} 6,326<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Netherlands|size=23px}} 5,322<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Colombia|size=23px}} 5,100<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Kingdom of Greece|state|size=23px}} 4,992<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|New Zealand|size=23px}} 3,794<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Ethiopian Empire|size=23px}} 3,518<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Belgium|size=23px}} 3,498<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|French Fourth Republic|size=23px}} 3,421<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Union of South Africa|size=23px}} 826<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Luxembourg|size=23px}} 110<br /> | |||
'''Medical support and others:'''<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Sweden|size=23px}} 1,124<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Denmark|size=23px}} 630<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|India|size=23px}} 627<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Norway|size=23px}} 623<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Italy|size=23px}} 189<br /> | |||
|{{Flagicon|Japan|1947|size=23px}} 120<br />'''Together:''' 3,257,797 | |||
}} | |||
| strength2 = {{Plainlist | '''Peak strength<br />(combat troops):''' | |||
* {{Flagicon|North Korea|1948|size=23px}} 266,600<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrader |first=Charles R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcGs__qQCzgC&pg=PA90 |title=Communist Logistics in the Korean War |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=1995 |isbn=978-0313295096 |series=Issue 160 of Contributions in Military Studies |page=90 |quote=NKPA strength peaked in October 1952 at 266,600 men in eighteen divisions and six independent brigades. |access-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
* {{Flagicon|China|1949|size=23px}} 1,450,000<ref name="zhang257">{{Harvnb|Zhang|1995|p=257}}.</ref><ref>Xiaobing, Li (2009). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army'' Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 105: "By December 1952, the Chinese forces in Korea had reached a record high of 1.45 million men, including fifty-nine infantry divisions, ten artillery divisions, five antiaircraft divisions, and seven tank regiments. CPVF numbers remained stable until the armistice agreement was signed in July 1953."</ref> | |||
* {{Flagicon|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} 26,000<ref name="Whipped">{{Cite journal |last=Kolb |first=Richard K. |date=1999 |title=In Korea we whipped the Russian Air Force |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-43694886 |journal=VFW Magazine |volume=86 |issue=11 |access-date=17 February 2013 |quote=Soviet involvement in the Korean War was on a large scale. During the war, 72,000 Soviet troops (among them 5,000 pilots) served along the Yalu River in Manchuria. At least 12 air divisions rotated through. A peak strength of 26,000 men was reached in 1952. }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | |||
'''Together:''' 1,742,000 | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Campaignbox Korean War}} | |||
The '''Korean War''' began as a civil war between two rival Korean regimes, each was which was supported by external powers. The ] Army moved south on ], ] to reunite the Korean peninsual, which had been formally divided since 1948. The conflict was then expanded by ] involvement as part of the larger ] between them and the ]. The main hostilities were during the period from ], 1950 until the ] (ceasefire agreement) was signed on ], ]. | |||
'''Total:'''<br />{{Flagicon|China|1949|size=23px}} 2,970,000<ref name="xu"/><br />{{Flagicon|Soviet Union|1936|size=23px}} 72,000<ref name="Whipped"/><br /> '''Together:''' 3,042,000 | |||
The principal support for North Korea came from the ], with limited assistance from the Soviet Union in forms of ], ], and weapons. South Korea was supported by the ] (U.N.) forces, consisting primarily of ], ], ], ] support, weapons, and the threat of ]s. Before the conflict, North and South Korea existed as ]s competing for control over the Korean Peninsula after the ] by the United States and the Soviet Union. | |||
| casualties1 = | |||
| casualties2 = | |||
| casualties3 = {{Plainlist | | |||
* '''Total civilian deaths:''' 2–3 million (est.)<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453"/> | |||
* '''South Koreans:'''<br />''990,968 total casualties''<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
* '''North Koreans:''' <br />''1,550,000 total casualties'' (est.)<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
}} | |||
| notes = | |||
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Korean War}} | |||
}} | |||
The '''Korean War''' (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the ] fought between ] (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and ] (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was supported by the ] and the ], while South Korea was supported by the ] (UNC) led by the ]. The conflict was the first major ] of the ]. Fighting ended in 1953 with an ] but no ], leading to the ongoing ]. | |||
In South Korea, the war is often called '''6·25''' or '''6·25 War''' (]: 6·25 전쟁), from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, ''Hanguk Jeonjaeng'' (]: 한국전쟁, literally “Korean War”). In North Korea, while commonly known as the Korean War, it is formally called the '''Fatherland Liberation War''' (조국해방전쟁). In the United States, the conflict was officially termed a ] — the '''Korean Conflict''' — rather than a war, largely in order to avoid the necessity of a ]. The war is sometimes called '''The Forgotten War''' because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that gets far less attention than ], which preceded it, and the controversial ], which succeeded it.<ref>{{cite web | title =Remembering the Forgotten War: Korea, 1950-1953 | publisher =Naval Historical Center | url =http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/korea/korea1.htm | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref> In China, the conflict was known as the '''War to Resist America and Aid Korea''' (]]]]), but is today commonly called the “Korean War” (]] ''Chaoxian Zhanzheng''<ref>{{cite web | title =War to Resist US Aggression And Aid Korea Marked in DPRK | publisher =(China's) Peoples Daily (English version) | url =http://english.people.com.cn/english/200010/26/eng20001026_53620.html | accessdate =2007-08-16 }}</ref>, 韓國戰爭 ''Hanguo Zhanzheng'', or simply 韓戰 ''Hanzhan''). | |||
After the end of ] in 1945, Korea, which had been a ] for 35 years, was ] by the Soviet Union and the United States into two occupation zones{{Efn|the ] administered by the Soviets and the ] in the south}} at the ], with plans for a future independent state. Due to political disagreements and influence from their backers, the zones formed their own governments in 1948. North Korea was led by ] in ], and South Korea by ] in ]; both claimed to be the sole ] government of all of Korea and engaged in border clashes as internal unrest was fomented by communist groups in the south. On 25 June 1950, the ] (KPA), equipped and trained by the Soviets, launched an invasion of the south. In the absence of the Soviet Union's representative,{{Efn|name=UN|text=At the time, China as a permanent member of the ] (UNSC) was represented by ] not ]. This prompted the Soviet Union's boycott of the UN and absence from the UNSC.<ref>{{cite news |last=White |first=James D. |title=Soviet Union Ending Boycott of United Nation Because War in Korea Getting Bit Too Hot |work=]/] |issue=106 |date=31 July 1950 |location=] |page=9 |via=]}}</ref>}} the ] ] the attack and ] member states to repel the invasion.<ref>Derek W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of United Nations Practice, Stevens, London, 1964, pp. 29–60</ref> UN forces comprised 21 countries, with the United States providing around 90% of military personnel.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pembroke |first=Michael |title=Korea: Where the American Century Began |date=2018 |publisher=Hardie Grant Books |page=141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=United Nations Command > History > 1950–1953: Korean War (Active Conflict)|url=https://www.unc.mil/History/1950-1953-Korean-War-Active-Conflict/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=www.unc.mil|archive-date=20 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920141812/https://www.unc.mil/History/1950-1953-Korean-War-Active-Conflict/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
== Background == | |||
===Japanese occupation=== | |||
After defeating China in the ], the ] forces remained in Korea, occupying strategically important parts of the country against the will of the Korean people and their government. Ten years later, they defeated the ] navy in the ] (1904-1905), contributing to Japan's emergence as an imperial power.<ref>{{cite web | last =James F | first =Schnabel | title =United Army in the Korean War, Policy and Direction: The First Year, Chapter 1, Case History of a Pawn | url =http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/pd-c-01.htm | accessdate =2007-08-19 }}</ref> The Japanese occupied the peninsula against the wishes of the Korean government, expanded their control over local institutions through force, and finally ] in August 1910.<ref>{{cite web | title =Treaty of Annexation (Annexation of Korea by Japan) | publisher =USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center | url =http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm | accessdate =2007-08-19 }}</ref> | |||
Seoul was captured on 28 June, and by early August, the ] (ROKA) and its allies were nearly defeated, holding onto only the ] in the peninsula's southeast. On 15 September, UN forces ] near Seoul, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines. UN forces broke out from the perimeter on 18 September, re-captured Seoul, and ] in October, capturing Pyongyang and advancing towards the ]—the border with China. On 19 October, the Chinese ] (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war on the side of the north.<ref name="Devine 2007 819-821" /> ] in December, following the PVA's ] and ]. Communist forces ] again in January 1951 before losing it to ] two months later. After an abortive ], UN forces ] roughly up to the 38th parallel. Armistice negotiations began in July 1951, but dragged on as the fighting became a ] and the north suffered heavy damage ]. | |||
At the close of World War II, forces of both the ] and the ] occupied the ] without consulataion of the Korean people. The Soviet forces entered the ] on August 10, 1945, followed a few weeks later by the American forces who entered through Incheon. U.S. Army Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge formally accepted the surrender of Japanese forces south of the 38th Parallel on ], 1945 at the Government House in Seoul.<ref name="Appleman">{{cite book | last =Appleman | first =Roy E | title =South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu | publisher =Dept. of the Army | date =1998 | pages =p. 3, p. 15, pp 381, 545, 771, 719 | url =http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/korea/20-2-1/toc.htm | isbn =0160019184 }}</ref> | |||
Many Korean people had organized politically prior to the arrival of American troops.<ref>{{cite web | last =Rustow | first =Dankwart A | title =The Changing Global Order and Its Implications for Korea's Reunification], Sino-Soviet Affairs, Vol. XVII, No. 4, Winter 1994/5 | publisher =The Institute for Sino-Soviet Studies, Hanyang University | url =http://www.hoseo.ac.kr/~css/institutes/archive/rustow.html | accessdate =2007-08-19 }}</ref> | |||
Combat ended on 27 July 1953 with the signing of the ], which allowed the exchange of prisoners and created a {{convert|4|km|mi|adj=on}} wide ] (DMZ) along the frontline, with a ] at ]. The conflict caused more than 1 million military deaths and an estimated 2 to 3 million civilian deaths. ] include the ] by Seoul and the torture and starvation of ] by Pyongyang. North Korea became one of the most heavily bombed countries in history,<ref name="Fisher">{{Cite web |last=Fisher |first=Max |date=2015-08-03 |title=Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea |url=https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime |access-date=2021-10-18 |website=Vox |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407112255/https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime |url-status=live }}</ref> and virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed.<ref name="Robinson 119-120">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Michael E |url=https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/119 |title=Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey |date=2007 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824831745 |location=Honolulu, HI |pages=-}}</ref> No peace treaty has been signed, making the war a ].<ref name="HeFeng2013">{{Cite book |last1=He |first1=Kai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAaHqijyLy8C&pg=PA50 |title=Prospect Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis in the Asia Pacific: Rational Leaders and Risky Behavior |last2=Feng |first2=Huiyun |publisher=Routledge |date=2013 |isbn=978-1135131197 |page=50 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704225317/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAaHqijyLy8C&pg=PA50 |archive-date=4 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LiCribb2014">{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Narangoa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfMYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |title=Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia |last2=Cribb |first2=Robert |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2014 |isbn=978-0231160704 |page=194 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704225317/https://books.google.com/books?id=zfMYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |archive-date=4 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Post-World War II division of Korea === | |||
The eventual division of Korea was considered at the ]<ref name="Appleman" />, though boundaries weren't discussed. No Koreans were in attendance and the opinions of the Korean people were not solicited as to whether to divide the peninsula. During the earlier ] in February 1945, Russian Premier ] called for “buffer zones” in both Asia and Europe.<ref name="Goulden17">{{cite book | last =Goulden | first =Joseph C | title =Korea: The Untold Story of the War | publisher =McGraw-Hill | date =1983 | pages =p. 17 | isbn =0070235805 }}</ref> Stalin believed that Russia should have preeminence in China, and in return he would enter into the war against Japan “two to three weeks after the surrender of Germany.”<ref name="Goulden17" /> On ], ], the Soviet Union declared war on the Japanese Empire and, on ], began an attack on the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. As agreed with the United States, the USSR halted its troops at the ] on ], however on ] Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, commander of XXIV Corps and designated U.S. Commander in Korea, received a radio message from Lt. Gen. Yoshio Kozuki, commander of the Japanese 17th Area Army in Korea, reporting that Soviet forces had advanced south of the 38th Parallel only in the Kaesong area<ref name = "Appleman" />. U.S. troops were in the southern part of the peninsula in early September 1945. | |||
==Names== | |||
On ], ], with the Japanese surrender imminent, the American government was unsure whether the Russians would adhere to the proposal arranged by the U.S. government. A month earlier, Colonels ] and Bonesteel, after deciding that at least two major ports should be included in the U.S. zone, had drawn the dividing line at the 38th parallel in less than one-half an hour using a ] map for reference.<ref name ="Appleman" /><ref> {{Citation | last =McCune | first =Shannon C | title =Physical Basis for Korean Boundaries | journal =Far Eastern Quarterly | volume =May 1946 | issue =No. 5 | pages =286-287 | date =1946-05 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Grajdanzev | first =Andrew | title =Korean Divided | journal =Far Eastern Survey | volume =XIV | pages =282 | date =1945-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Grajdanzev | first =Andrew | title =History of Occupation of Korea | volume =I | issue =ch. 4 | pages =16 }}</ref> Rusk, later U.S. Secretary of State, commented that the American military was “faced with the scarcity of U.S. forces immediately available and time and space factors which would make it difficult to reach very far north before Soviet troops could enter the area.”<ref name="Goulden17" /> | |||
{{Infobox Chinese | |||
| title = Korean War | |||
| skhangul = 6·25 전쟁 or 한국 전쟁 | |||
| skhanja = 六二五戰爭 or 韓國戰爭 | |||
| skrr = Hanguk Jeonjaeng | |||
| skmr = Han'guk Chŏnjaeng | |||
| northkorea = | |||
| nkhangul = 조국해방전쟁 | |||
| nkhanja = 祖國解放戰爭 | |||
| nkrr = Joguk haebang Jeonjaeng | |||
| nkmr = Choguk haebang chŏnjaeng | |||
| northkorea2 = yes | |||
| ibox-order = ko4, ko3 | |||
}} | |||
In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as the "625 War" ({{Korean|hangul=6·25 전쟁|hanja=六二五戰爭|labels=no}}), the "625 Upheaval" ({{Korean|hangul=6·25 동란|hanja=六二五動亂|rr=yugio dongnan|labels=no}}), or simply "625", reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.<ref name="Hoare1999"/> | |||
In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the ''Fatherland Liberation War'' ({{Transliteration|ko|Choguk haebang chŏnjaeng}}) or the '']'' ''War'' ({{Korean|hangul=조선전쟁|mr=Chosŏn chŏnjaeng|context=north|labels=no}}).<ref name="Kim2003"/> | |||
The USSR agreed to the 38th Parallel being the demarcation between occupation zones in the Korean peninsula, partly to better their position in the negotiations with the Allies over eastern Europe. It was agreed that the USSR would receive surrendering Japanese troops on the northern part of Korea; the US, on the southern side. The Soviet forces entered and liberated the northern part of the peninsula weeks prior to the entry of American forces. In accordance with the arrangements made with the American government, the Soviet forces halted their advance at the 38th parallel. | |||
In mainland China, the segment of the war after the intervention of the ] is commonly and officially known as the "Resisting America and Assisting Korea War"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rawnsley |first=Gary D. |date=2009 |title='The Great Movement to Resist America and Assist Korea': How Beijing Sold the Korean War |journal=] |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=285–315 |doi=10.1177/1750635209345186 |s2cid=143193818}}</ref> ({{Zh|t=抗美援朝战争|p=Kàngměi Yuáncháo Zhànzhēng|c=}}), <!---PRC uses traditional Chinese during the war----> although the term "'']'' War" ({{Zh<!-- -->|t=朝鮮戰爭|p= Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng}}) is sometimes used unofficially. The term "'']'' (Korean) War" ({{Zh<!-- -->|t=韓戰|p= Hán Zhàn}}) is most used in ] (Republic of China), ] and ]. | |||
The American forces arrived in Korean in early September. One of Hodge's first directives was to restore many Japanese colonial administrators and collaborators to their previous positions of power within Korean. This policy was understandably very unpopular among Koreans who had suffered horribly under Japanese colonial rule for 35 years, and would prove to have enormous consequences for the American occupation. | |||
In the US, the war was initially described by President ] as a "]" as the US never formally declared war and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the UN.<ref name="Truman1950"/> It has been sometimes referred to in the ] as "The Forgotten War" or "The Unknown War" because of the lack of public attention it received relative to World War II and the ].<ref name="Naval Historical Center"/>{{Sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 2}} | |||
A second policy set forth by Hodge was to refuse to recognize the existing political organizations that had been established by the Korean people. Hodge, mistrustful of Koreans in general, sought to establish firm US control over events through out the southern half of the peninsula. These policies would help give rise to the later insurrections and guerrilla warfare that preceeded the outbreak of the civil war. | |||
==Background== | |||
In December 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to administer the country under the US-Soviet Joint Commission, as termed by the ]. It was agreed that Korea would govern independently after four years of international oversight. However, both the U.S. and the USSR approved Korean-led governments in their respective halves, each of which were favorable to the occupying power's political ideology. These arrangements were largely rejected by the majority of the Korean population, which responded with violent insurrections in the North and protests in the South. | |||
===Imperial Japanese rule (1910–1945)=== | |||
{{Main|Korea under Japanese rule}} | |||
] diminished the influence of ] over Korea in the ] (1894–95).{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=}} A decade later, after defeating ] in the ], Japan made the Korean Empire its ] with the ] in 1905, then annexed it with the ].<ref name="Schnabel1972"/> | |||
Many ] fled the country. The ] was founded in 1919 in ]. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite the nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its US-based founding president, ].{{Sfn|Stueck|2002|pp=19–20}} | |||
In South Korea, an anti-trusteeship right wing group known as the ] emerged with the support of the American forces, though ironically this group came to oppose these U.S. sponsored agreements. Because Koreans had suffered under Japanese colonization for 35 years, most Koreans opposed another period of foreign control. This opposition caused the U.S. to abandon the Soviet supported Moscow Accords. The Americans did not want a left-leaning government in South Korea and so changed their position and called for elections in Korea. Since the population of the South was double that of the North, the Soviets knew that ] would lose the election. Elections backed by the U.S. and the U.N. took place only in the South, where the Joint Commission was replaced by ] which oversaw the elections with minimal resources and knowledge of the Korean people. | |||
In China, the nationalist ] and the communist ] (PLA) helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by ], fought in the ] (1941-45). The communists, led by, among others, ], fought the Japanese in Korea and ].{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=160–61, 195–96}} At the ] in 1943, China, the UK, and the US decided that "in due course, Korea shall become free and independent".<ref name="Early1943"/> | |||
The government that emerged was led by ] ], a Korean who had been imprisoned by the Japanese when a young man and who had then fled to the United States, where he had earned undergraduate and graduate degrees from ], ] and ] universities.<ref name="MacroHistory">{{cite web | title =The Korean War, The U.S. and Soviet Union in Korea | publisher =MacroHistory | url =http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch24kor.html | accessdate =2007-08-19 }}</ref> The South’s left-wing parties ]ted the elections in part to protest U.S. support for Rhee and its suppression of indigenous political movements. The Soviets, in turn, approved and furthered the rise of a ] government in the North. Bolstered by his history as an anti-Japanese fighter, his political skills, and his connections with the Soviet Union, ] rose to become leader of this new government and crushed any opposition to his rule.<ref>{{cite web | title =The Korean War, 1950-1953, (an extract from American Military History, Volume 2 - revised 2005) | url =http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/chapter8.htm | accessdate =2007-08-20 }}</ref> | |||
{{History of Korea}} | |||
In 1949, both Soviet and American forces in Korea withdrew. | |||
===Korea divided (1945–1949)=== | |||
South Korean President ] and North Korean ] ] were each intent on reuniting the peninsula under his own system. Partly because of numbers of outdated Soviet tanks and heavy arms, the North Koreans were able to escalate ongoing border clashes and go on the offensive, while South Korea, with only limited American backing, had far fewer options. The American government believed at the time that the ] was a unified monolith, and that North Korea acted within this monolith as a pawn of the ]. Thus, the United States portrayed the conflict in the context of international aggression rather than a ]. | |||
{{Main|Division of Korea}} | |||
At the ] in 1943 and the ] in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its ] in the ] within three months of the ]. ] and ] on 8 August 1945.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|1995|p=516}}<ref name="Whelan1991"/> By 10 August, the ] had begun to occupy the north of Korea.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=24, 25}} | |||
=== Prelude to war === | |||
On 10 August in ], US Colonels ] and ] were assigned to divide Korea into Soviet and US occupation zones and proposed the ] as the dividing line. This was incorporated into the US ], which responded to the ] on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "Even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U. S. forces in the event of Soviet disagreement ... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops".{{Sfn|Goulden|1983|p=17}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, The British Commonwealth, The Far East, Volume VI - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06/d771 |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=history.state.gov |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105150706/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06/d771 |url-status=live }}</ref> ], however, maintained his wartime policy of cooperation, and on 16 August, the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=24, 25}} | |||
Rhee and Kim competed to reunite the peninsula, with each of them conducting military attacks along the border throughout 1949 and early 1950.<ref>{{cite book | last =Henderson | first =Gregory | title =Korea: The Politics of the Vortex | publisher =Harvard University Press | date =1968 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Lee Chong-sik | title =Korean Workers' Party | publisher =Hoover Institute Press | date =1978 }}</ref> Although Kim and his close associates believed in unifying Korea by force, Stalin was reluctant to embark on a course that might provoke a war with the United States. <ref name="UncertainPartners">{{cite book | last =Concharov | first =Sergei N | coauthors =Lewis, John W. and Xue Litai | title =Uncertain Partners: Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War | publisher =Stanford University Press | date =1995 | pages = | url = | isbn =0804725217 }}</ref> | |||
On 7 September 1945, General ] issued Proclamation No. 1 to the people of Korea, announcing US military control over Korea south of the 38th parallel and establishing English as the official language during military control.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, The British Commonwealth, The Far East, Volume VI - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06/d776 |access-date=2022-06-23 |website=history.state.gov |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111012102/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06/d776 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 8 September, US Lieutenant General ] arrived in ] to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel.{{Sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}} Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the ] (USAMGIK 1945–48).{{Sfn|Halberstam|2007|p=63}} | |||
].]] | |||
In December 1945, Korea was administered by a ], as agreed at the ], to grant independence after a five-year trusteeship.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=25–26}}{{Sfn|Becker|2005|p=53}} Waiting five years for independence was unpopular among Koreans, and riots broke out.<ref name="Schnabel1972" /> To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and People's Committees on 12 December.{{Sfn|Jager|2013|pp=41–42}} Following further civilian unrest,{{Sfn|Cumings|1981|loc=chapter 3, 4}} the USAMGIK declared ]. | |||
On ], ], ] ] said America’s Pacific defense perimeter was made up of the ], ], ], and the ], implying that America might not fight over Korea. Acheson said Korea’s defense would be the responsibility of the United Nations.<ref>{{cite book | last =Acheson | first =Dean | authorlink =Dean Acheson | title =Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department | publisher =W.W. Norton, Inc. | date =1969 | pages =355-358 | url =http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/acheson4.htm | isbn = }}</ref> | |||
Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US government decided{{when|date=December 2023}} to hold an election under UN auspices to create an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and Korean communists refused to cooperate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|p=211}}{{Sfn|Jager|2013|p=47}} The ] was held in May.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=26}}<ref name="Time1946" /> The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July and elected Syngman Rhee as ] on 20 July. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. | |||
In mid 1949, Kim Il-Sung pressed his case with Joseph Stalin that the time had come for a reunification of the Korean Peninsula. Kim needed Soviet support to successfully execute an offensive far across a rugged, mountainous peninsula. Stalin, however refused support, concerned with the relative lack of preparedness of the North Korean armed forces and with possible U.S. involvement. | |||
In the Soviet-Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviets agreed to the establishment of a communist government{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=26}} led by Kim Il Sung.<ref name="AMH" /> The ]s took place in August.{{Sfn|Malkasian|2001|p=13}} The Soviet Union withdrew its forces in 1948 and the US in 1949.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Korea - Division of Korea |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Korea/Division-of-Korea |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227041057/https://www.britannica.com/place/Korea/Division-of-Korea |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Statement by the President on the Decision To Withdraw U.S. Forces From Korea, 1947-1949. {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-the-decision-withdraw-us-forces-from-korea-1947-1949 |access-date=24 June 2022 |website=presidency.ucsb.edu |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818010130/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-the-decision-withdraw-us-forces-from-korea-1947-1949 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Over the next year, the North Korean leadership molded its army into a relatively formidable offensive war machine modeled partly on a Soviet mechanized force but strengthened primarily by an influx of Koreans who had served with the Chinese ] since the 1930s. By early 1950 the time for decision could no longer be postponed by either Moscow or Pyongyang, as by this time Syngman Rhee's police forces, with the earlier help of the Americans, had violently suppressed much of the domestic opposition. During this period, Rhee's American armed forces killed over 100,000 people. The possibility of reunification through insurgency seemed closed, and Rhee's regime was gaining in strength if not popularity. Kim was left with the sole option of conventional invasion if he wished to unify Korea before the Southern government became strong enough to defend itself.<ref name="UncertainPartners" /> By 1950, the North Korean military was equipped with outdated Soviet weaponry, yet it enjoyed substantial advantages over the Southern forces in virtually every category of equipment. On ], ], Stalin, via telegram, informed Kim Il Sung that he was willing to help Kim in his plan to unify Korea. In the discussions with Kim that followed, Stalin suggested that he wanted lead and said that a yearly minimum of 25,000 tons would help. After another visit by Kim to ] in March and April 1950, Stalin approved an attack.<ref name="MacroHistory" /> | |||
===Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)=== | |||
== Course == | |||
With the end of the ], the ] resumed in earnest between the ] and the ]-led government. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with ] and manpower.{{Sfn|Chen|1994|p=110}} According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese PLA during the war.{{Sfn|Chen|1994|pp=110–11}} North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.{{Sfn|Chen|1994|p=110}} As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans who served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea.{{Sfn|Chen|1994|p=110}} China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.{{Sfn|Chen|1994|p=111}} | |||
===Communist insurgency in South Korea (1948–1950)=== | |||
] | |||
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2024}} | |||
By 1948, a North Korea-backed insurgency had broken out in the southern half of the peninsula. This was exacerbated by the undeclared border war between the Koreas, which saw division-level engagements and thousands of deaths on both sides.<ref>Gibby, Bryan (2012). ''Will to Win: American Military Advisors in Korea, 1946–1953''. University Alabama Press. p. 72.</ref>{{additional citations needed|date=September 2024}} The ROK was almost entirely trained and focused on counterinsurgency, rather than conventional warfare. They were equipped and advised by a force of a few hundred American officers, who were successful in helping the ROKA to subdue guerrillas and hold its own against ] (Korean People's Army, KPA) forces along the 38th parallel.<ref name="Bryan, p. 76">Bryan, p. 76.</ref> Approximately 8,000 South Korean soldiers and police officers died in the insurgent war and border clashes.<ref name="EB">{{Cite web |title=Korean War | Combatants, Summary, Years, Map, Casualties, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=29 May 2023 |access-date=25 July 2019 |archive-date=24 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424090911/https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The ] occurred without direct North Korean participation, though the guerrillas still professed support for the northern government. Beginning in April 1948 on ], the campaign saw arrests and repression by the South Korean government in the fight against the South Korean Labor Party, resulting in 30,000 violent deaths, among them 14,373 civilians, of whom ~2,000 were killed by rebels and ~12,000 by ROK security forces. The ] overlapped with it, as several thousand army defectors waving red flags massacred right-leaning families. This resulted in another brutal suppression by the government and between 2,976 and 3,392 deaths. By May 1949, both uprisings had been crushed.{{cn|date=September 2024}} | |||
=== Beginning of the civil war === | |||
Insurgency reignited in the spring of 1949 when attacks by guerrillas in the mountainous regions (buttressed by army defectors and North Korean agents) increased.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} Insurgent activity peaked in late 1949 as the ROKA engaged so-called People's Guerrilla Units. Organized and armed by the North Korean government, and backed by 2,400 KPA commandos who had infiltrated through the border, these guerrillas launched an offensive in September aimed at undermining the South Korean government and preparing the country for the KPA's arrival in force. This offensive failed.<ref>Bryan, pp. 76-77.</ref>{{additional citations needed|date=September 2024}} However, the guerrillas were now entrenched in the Taebaek-san region of the ] and the border areas of the ].<ref name="Bryan, p. 78">Bryan, p. 78.</ref> | |||
The ] struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, ], ], crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery. The North claimed ] (ROK) troops under the “bandit traitor ]"<ref>http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/korea/20-2-1/Sn03.htm</ref> had crossed the border first. Later research established that the South had launched limited attacks across the 38th parallel in places such as ], but the North escalated these border attacks into a full-fledged ]. | |||
While the insurgency was ongoing, the ROKA and KPA engaged in battalion-sized battles along the border, starting in May 1949.<ref name="Bryan, p. 76"/> Border clashes between South and North continued on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel. The 2nd and 18th ROK Infantry Regiments repulsed attacks in Kuksa-bong,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kuksa-bong |url=https://mapcarta.com/16197292 |access-date=11 November 2017 |website=Mapcarta |archive-date=21 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021061118/https://mapcarta.com/16197292 |url-status=live }}</ref> and KPA troops were "completely routed".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cumings |first=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lY5-7ZirsmgC&q=august+4+1949 |title=The Korean War: A History |date=27 July 2010 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=9780679603788 |access-date=11 November 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Border incidents decreased by the start of 1950.<ref name="Bryan, p. 78"/> | |||
Equipped with 242 tanks including 150 Soviet-made ] tanks, the North Korean military began the war with about 180 aircraft, including 40 ] fighters and 70 attack bombers. Their navy was inconsequential. North Korea's most serious weakness was its lack of a reliable logistics system for moving supplies south as the army advanced, but the South Korean forces were weak and ill-equipped compared to the North Koreans. Thousands of Korean civilians running south were forced to hand-carry supplies, many of whom later died in North Korean air attacks. Other civilians died at the hands of the fleeing South Korean police and armed forces who staged mass executions of political prisoners. | |||
Meanwhile, counterinsurgencies in the South Korean interior intensified; persistent operations, paired with worsening weather, denied the guerrillas sanctuary and wore away their fighting strength. North Korea responded by sending more troops to link up with insurgents and build more partisan cadres; North Korean infiltrators had reached 3,000 soldiers in 12 units by the start of 1950, but all were destroyed or scattered by the ROKA.<ref>Bryan, pp. 79-80.</ref> | |||
The South Korean Army had 65,000 soldiers armed, trained, and equipped by the U.S. military, and as a force was deficient in armor and artillery. The South Korean military also had no tanks, attack planes, or any anti-tank weapons. There were no large foreign combat units in the country when the war began, but there were large American forces stationed in nearby Japan. <ref name="Appleman" /> . | |||
On 1 October 1949, the ROKA launched a three-pronged assault on the insurgents in ] and ]. By March 1950, the ROKA claimed 5,621 guerrillas killed or captured and 1,066 small arms seized. This operation crippled the insurgency. Soon after, North Korea made final attempts to keep the uprising active, sending battalion-sized units of infiltrators under the commands of Kim Sang-ho and Kim Moo-hyon. The first battalion was reduced to a single man over the course of engagements by the ROKA ]. The second was annihilated by a two-battalion ] by units of the ROKA ], resulting in a toll of 584 KPA guerrillas (480 killed, 104 captured) and 69 ROKA troops killed, plus 184 wounded.<ref>Bryan, p. 80.</ref> By the spring of 1950, guerrilla activity had mostly subsided; the border, too, was calm.<ref>Bryan, p. 82.</ref> | |||
The North's well-planned attack with about 135,000 troops achieved surprise and quick successes.<ref name="Appleman" /> North Korea attacked a number of key places including ], ], ] and ]. | |||
===Prelude to war (1950)=== | |||
Within days, South Korean forces, outnumbered, outgunned, and often of dubious loyalty to the southern regime, were in full retreat or defecting en masse to the North. As the ground attack continued, the North Korean Air Force conducted bombing of ] near ]. North Korean forces occupied Seoul on the afternoon of ]. | |||
By 1949, South Korean and US military actions had reduced indigenous communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il Sung believed widespread uprisings had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to persuade him.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|pp=3–4}} | |||
Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. PLA forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while US forces remained stationed in South Korea.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=3}} By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces under ] had secured final victory, US forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets ], breaking the US monopoly. As the US had not directly intervened to stop the communists in China, Stalin calculated they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had less strategic significance.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|pp=9, 10}} The Soviets had cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with their ], and reading dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|pp=9, 10}} Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the ].{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=11}} | |||
However, North Korea's hope for a quick surrender by the Rhee government and the reunification of the peninsula evaporated when American and other foreign powers intervened and expanded the civil war into an international conflict. | |||
In April 1950, Stalin permitted Kim to attack the government in the South, under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=10}} For Kim, this was the fulfillment of his goal to unite Korea. Stalin made it clear Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the US{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=10}} | |||
=== Western reaction === | |||
The invasion of South Korea came as a surprise to the United States and other western powers. In the preceding week, Acheson had told the ] on ] no such war was likely. Instead of pressing for a Congressional declaration of war, which he regarded as too alarmist and time-consuming when time was of the essence, Truman went to the United Nations for approval. | |||
Kim met with Mao in May 1950 and differing historical interpretations of the meeting have been put forward. According to Barbara Barnouin and Yu Changgeng, Mao agreed to support Kim despite concerns of American intervention, as China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=139–40}} Kathryn Weathersby cites Soviet documents which said Kim secured Mao's support.{{Sfn|Weathersby|1993|p=29}} Along with Mark O'Neill, she says this accelerated Kim's war preparations.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=13}}<ref>Mark O'Neill, "Soviet Involvement in the Korean War: A New View from the Soviet-Era Archives", OAH Magazine of History, Spring 2000, p. 21.</ref> ] argues Mao never seriously challenged Kim's plans and Kim had every reason to inform Stalin that he had obtained Mao's support.<ref name=Jian>{{cite book |last1=Jian |first1=Chen |title=China's Road to the Korean War |date=27 November 1994 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231100250}}</ref>{{rp|112}} Citing more recent scholarship, ] contends Mao did not approve of Kim's war proposal and requested verification from Stalin, who did so via a telegram.<ref name=Zhao>{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1332788951 |title=The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2022|publisher=] |isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2 |location=Stanford, California |pages=28–29|oclc=1332788951}}</ref>{{rp|28–9}} Mao accepted the decision made by Kim and Stalin to unify Korea but cautioned Kim over possible US intervention.<ref name=Zhao/>{{rp|30}} | |||
The same day the war had officially begun (]), the United Nations immediately drafted ], which called for:<ref>{{cite paper | author =President Harry S. Truman | title =Resolution, dated June 25, from United Nations Security Council calling for North Korea to withdraw its forces to the 38th parallel and for hostilities between North and South Korea to cease | publisher =Truman Library | date =June 25, 1950 | url =http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week1/kw_3_1.htm | accessdate =2007-08-20 }}</ref> | |||
Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from World War II were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. They completed plans for attack by May{{Sfn|Weathersby|1993|pp=29–30}} and called for a skirmish to be initiated in the ] on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch an attack to capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the ROK. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants and capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=14}} | |||
#all hostilities to end and North Korea to withdraw to the 38th Parallel; | |||
#a U.N. Commission on Korea to be formed to monitor the situation and report to the Security Council; | |||
#all U.N. members to support the United Nations in achieving this, and refrain from providing assistance to the North Korean authorities. | |||
] | |||
The resolution was unanimously passed in the Security Council thanks to the temporary Soviet absence from the ] — the Soviets were boycotting the ], protesting that the ] should be transferred from the | |||
(]-controlled) ] to the Communist People's Republic. With the Soviets absent and unable to veto the resolution, and with only ] abstaining, the U.N. voted to aid South Korea on ]. The resolution led to direct action by the United States, whose forces were joined by troops and supplies from 15 other U.N. members: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], the ], ], ], ], ], and ]. However, the United States provided 50% of the ground forces (South Korea provided most of the remainder), 86% of the naval power, and 93% of the air power.<ref>{{cite book | last =LaFeber | first =Walter | authorlink =Walter LaFeber | title =America, Russia and the Cold War, 1945-1996 (8ª ed.) | publisher =The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. | date =1997 | pages = | url = | isbn = }}</ref> | |||
On 7 June 1950, Kim called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in ] on 15–17 June. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture, which Rhee rejected outright.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=10}} On 21 June, Kim revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in Ongjin. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and that South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change.{{Sfn|Weathersby|2002|p=15}} | |||
The Soviet Union and its allies challenged the resolution on grounds of illegality since a permanent member of the council (the Soviet Union) was absent from the voting. Against this, the view prevailed that a permanent member of the Council had to explicitly veto a resolution in order to defeat it. The North Korean government also did not concur, arguing that the conflict was a civil war, and therefore not clearly within the scope of the UN. In 1950, a Soviet resolution calling for an end of hostilities and withdrawal of foreign troops was rejected.<ref>{{cite web | last =Gromyko | first =Andrei A | title =On American Intervention In Korea, 1950 | publisher =Modern History Sourcebook | url =http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1950-gromyko-korea.html |accessdate =2007-08-21 }}</ref> | |||
While these preparations were underway in the North, there were clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at ] and Ongjin, many initiated by the South.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=247–53}}{{Sfn|Stueck|2002|p=71}} The ROK was being trained by the US ] (KMAG). On the eve of the war, KMAG commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice".{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=255–56}} For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when US diplomat ] visited Korea on 18 June.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=249–58}} | |||
American public opinion was solidly behind the intervention. However, Truman later took harsh criticism for not obtaining a declaration of war from Congress before sending troops to Korea. Thus, “Truman’s War” was said by some to have violated the spirit, and the letter, of the ]. | |||
Though some South Korean and US intelligence officers predicted an attack, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had happened.{{Sfn|Millett|2007|p=17}} The ] noted the southward movement by the KPA but assessed this as a "defensive measure" and concluded an invasion was "unlikely".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tom Gjelten |date=25 June 2010 |title=CIA Files Show U.S. Blindsided By Korean War |work=] |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128092817 |url-status=live |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824155650/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128092817 |archive-date=24 August 2013}}</ref> On 23 June UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |url=https://archive.org/details/historykoreafrom00seth |title=A history of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |date=2010 |isbn=978-0742567160 |location=Lanham, MD |page= |url-access=limited}}</ref> | |||
=== U.S. intervention === | |||
Despite the post-World War II demobilization of U.S. and allied forces, which caused serious supply problems for American troops in the region, the United States still had substantial forces in Japan to oppose the North Korean military and its largely outdated Soviet equipment. These American forces were under the command of ] ]. Apart from ] units, no other nation could supply sizable manpower. | |||
===Comparison of forces=== | |||
On being told of the outbreak of large-scale hostilities in Korea, Truman ordered MacArthur to transfer munitions to the ROK Army, while using air cover to protect the evacuation of U.S. citizens. Truman did not agree with his advisors, who called for unilateral U.S. airstrikes against the North Korean forces, but did order the ] to protect ]'s ], thereby ending America’s policy of non-interference in Chinese domestic affairs{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. The ] (confined to ]) asked to participate in the war. Their request was denied by the Americans, who felt that it would only encourage PRC intervention. | |||
Chinese involvement was extensive from the beginning, building on previous collaboration between the Chinese and Korean communists during the Chinese Civil War. Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the PLA were sent to North Korea.{{Sfn|Millett|2007|p=14}} | |||
] | |||
The first significant foreign military intervention was the American ], part of the ]’s ] based in Japan. On ], it fought for the first time at ] and was defeated with heavy losses. The victorious North Korean forces advanced southwards, and the half-strength 24th Division was forced to retreat to ], which also fell to the Northern forces. General ] was taken prisoner. | |||
In the fall of 1949, two PLA divisions composed mainly of ] troops (the ] and ]) entered North Korea, followed by smaller units throughout the rest of 1949. The reinforcement of the KPA with PLA veterans continued into 1950, with the ] and several other units of the former Fourth Field Army arriving in February; the PLA 156th Division was reorganized as the KPA 7th Division. By mid-1950, between 50,000 and 70,000 former PLA troops had entered North Korea, forming a significant part of the KPA's strength on the eve of the war's beginning.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stuecker |first=William |title=Korean War: World History |date=2004 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |pages=102–103}}</ref> The combat veterans and equipment from China, the tanks, artillery, and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, armed by the U.S. military with mostly small arms, but no heavy weaponry.{{Sfn|Millett|2007|p=15}} | |||
By August, the South Korean forces and the ] had been driven back into a small area in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula around the city of ]. As the North Koreans advanced, they rounded up and killed civil servants. On ], MacArthur sent a message warning Kim Il Sung that he would be held responsible for further atrocities committed against U.N. troops.<ref name="MacroHistory" /> | |||
Several generals, such as ], were PLA veterans born to ethnic Koreans in China. While older histories of the conflict often referred to these ethnic Korean PLA veterans as being sent from northern Korea to fight in the Chinese Civil War before being sent back, recent Chinese archival sources studied by Kim Donggill indicate that this was not the case. Rather, the soldiers were indigenous to China, as part of China's longstanding ethnic Korean community, and were recruited to the PLA in the same way as any other Chinese citizen.<ref>Zhihua Shen. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407163505/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWNbDwAAQBAJ&dq=were+indigenous+in+Northeast+China+and+that+the+North+Korean+regime+never+dispatched+soldiers+to+Manchuria&pg=PT306 |date=7 April 2023 }} Columbia University Press, September 2018.</ref> | |||
By September, only the area around Pusan—about 10% of the Korean peninsula—was still in coalition hands. With the aid of massive American supplies, air support, and additional reinforcements, the U.S. and ROK forces managed to stabilize a line along the ]. This desperate holding action became known in the United States as the ]. Although more U.N. support arrived, the situation was dire, and it appeared as if the North would succeed in uniting the peninsula. | |||
According to the first official census in 1949, the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000,<ref>{{Cite book |last=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72lpTkNcJQ4C&pg=PA61 |title=Policy and Economic Performance in Divided Korea During the Cold War Era: 1945–91 |date=27 September 2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780844742748 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and by mid-1950, North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, ], ], and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 ] tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, 150 ] fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea.{{Sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}} Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as seaborne artillery for their armies. | |||
=== Allied forces rally === | |||
] | |||
In the face of fierce North Korean attacks, the allied defense became a desperate battle called the ] by Americans. However, the North Koreans failed to capture Pusan. | |||
In contrast, the South Korean population was estimated at 20 million,<ref name="Armstrong"/> but its army was unprepared and ill-equipped. <!-- In ''South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu'' (1961), R. E. Appleman reports the ROK forces' low combat readiness --> As of 25 June 1950, the ROK had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22-plane air force comprising 12 ] and 10 ] advanced-trainer airplanes. Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan,{{Sfn|Appleman|1998|p=17}} but only 200–300 U.S. troops were in Korea.<ref name="james19500625">{{Cite news |last=James |first=Jack |date=25 June 1950 |title=North Koreans invade South Korea |language=en |agency=United Press |url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1950/06/25/North-Koreans-invade-South-Korea/1012416555294/ |access-date=29 July 2017 |archive-date=6 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806141249/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1950/06/25/North-Koreans-invade-South-Korea/1012416555294/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
American air power arrived in large numbers, flying 40 sorties per day in ground support actions, targeting North Korean forces but also creating widespread destruction among civilians and cities as well. ]s (mostly ] based in Japan) closed most rail and road traffic by day, and destroyed 32 critical bridges necessary not only for the conduct of warfare but also the flight of civilians. Trains used by military and civilians alike waited out the daylight hours in tunnels. | |||
==Course of the war== | |||
Throughout all parts of Korea, the American bombers knocked out the main supply dumps and eliminated oil refineries and seaports that handled imports such as military supplies to starve North Korean forces. Naval air power also attacked transportation chokepoints. The North Korean forces were already strung out over the peninsula, and the destruction caused by American bombers prevented needed supplies from reaching North Korean forces in the south. | |||
] | |||
] | |||
=== Operation Pokpung === | |||
Meanwhile, supply bases in Japan were pouring foreign weapons and soldiers into Pusan. American tank battalions were rushed in from ]; by late August, America had over 500 medium tanks in the Pusan perimeter. By early September, U.N.-ROK forces were vastly stronger and outnumbered the North Koreans by 180,000 to 100,000. At that point, they began a counterattack.<ref name="Appleman" /> | |||
{{Main|Operation Pokpung}} | |||
At dawn on 25 June 1950, the KPA crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=14}} It justified its assault with the claim ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee".{{Sfn|Appleman|1998|p=21}} ] on the strategic Ongjin Peninsula in the west.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=260–63}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buzo |first=Adrian |url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernkore00buzo |title=The Making of Modern Korea |publisher=Routledge |date=2002 |isbn=978-0415237499 |location=London |page= |url-access=limited}}</ref> There were initial South Korean claims that the ] had counterattacked at Haeju; some scholars argue the claimed counterattack was instead the instigating attack, and therefore that the South Koreans may have fired first.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=260–63}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lone |first1=Stewart |title=Korea since 1850 |last2=McCormack |first2=Gavan |publisher=Longman Cheshire |date=1993 |location=Melbourne |pages=110–111 |author-link2=Gavan McCormack}}</ref> However, the report that contained the Haeju claim contained errors and outright falsehoods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simmons |first=Robert R. |date=1973 |title=Some Myths about June 1950 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/652006 |journal=The China Quarterly |volume=54 |issue=54 |pages=354–361 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000015563 |jstor=652006 |s2cid=154722887 |issn=0305-7410 |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206191426/https://www.jstor.org/stable/652006 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
KPA forces attacked all along the 38th parallel within an hour. The KPA had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The ROK had no tanks, anti-tank weapons, or heavy artillery. The South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion, and these were routed in a few days.{{Sfn|Millett|2007|pp=18–19}} | |||
=== Recovery of South Korea === | |||
{{main|Battle of Inchon}} | |||
] | |||
In the face of these overwhelming reinforcements, the North Korean forces found themselves undermanned and with weak logistical support. They also lacked the substantial naval and air support of the Americans. In order to alleviate pressure on the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur, as U.N.] for Korea, argued for an ] far behind the North Korean lines at ] (인천; 仁川). | |||
On 27 June, Rhee evacuated Seoul with some of the government. At 02:00 on 28 June the ROK ] across the ] in an attempt to stop the KPA. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it, and hundreds were killed.<ref name="Chosun2010" /><ref name="johnston20">{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=64ZAy7NvwCgC&q=Han%20River%20demolish&pg=PA20 |title=A war of patrols: Canadian Army operations in Korea |date=1 November 2011 |publisher=Univ of British Columbia Pr |isbn=978-0774810081 |page=20}}</ref> Destroying the bridge trapped many ROK units north of the river.{{Sfn|Millett|2007|pp=18–19}} In spite of such desperate measures, ] that same day. Some South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and 48 subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=269–70}} | |||
The violent tides and strong enemy presence made this an extremely risky operation. MacArthur had started planning a few days after the war began, but he had been strongly opposed by the Pentagon. When he finally received permission, MacArthur activated the ] under General ] (comprising 70,000 troops of the ] and the Army’s ] and augmented by 8,600 Korean troops) and ordered them to land at Inchon in ]. By the time of the attack on ], thanks to reconnaissance by ]s, misinformation and extensive shelling prior to the invasion, the North Korean military had few soldiers stationed in Inchon, so the U.S. forces met only light resistance when they landed. | |||
On 28 June, Rhee ordered the ] in his own country.<ref name="Edwards32">{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scZN59DXeOwC&q=Rhee%20bodo%20league%20massacre%20order&pg=PA32 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Korean War |date=10 June 2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810867734 |page=32}}</ref> In five days, the ROK, which had 95,000 troops on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 troops. In early July, when US forces arrived, what was left of the ROK was placed under US operational command of the ].<ref name="Webb" /> | |||
The landing was a decisive victory, as X Corps rolled over the few defenders and threatened to trap the main North Korean army. MacArthur quickly recaptured Seoul. The North Koreans, almost cut off, rapidly retreated northwards; about 25,000 to 30,000 made it back.<ref name="Schnabel">{{cite book | last =Schnabel | first =James F | title =United States Army In The Korean War: Policy And Direction: The First Year | publisher =Center of Military History | date =1992 | pages =pp. 155-192, p.212, pp. 283-284, pp. 288-289, p.304 | url =http://www.army.mil/cmh/books/P&D.HTM | isbn =0-16-035955-4 }}</ref><ref name="KIMH">{{cite book | last =Korea Institute of Military History | first = | title =The Korean War: Korea Institute of Military History 3 Volume Set | publisher =Bison Books, University of Nebraska Press | pages =vol. 1, p.730, vol. 2, pp. 512-529 | isbn =0803277946 }}</ref> | |||
===Factors in U.S. intervention=== | |||
=== Invasion of North Korea === | |||
{{Main|United States in the Korean War|Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration}} | |||
The United Nations troops drove the North Koreans back past the 38th parallel. The American goal of saving South Korea’s government had been achieved, but lured by the success and the prospect of uniting all of Korea under the government of Syngman Rhee, the U.N. forces advanced into North Korea. This marked a crucial moment in American foreign policy, when the American leaders decided to go beyond simply “]” perceived communist threats to actual rollback.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} Other issues included the psychological effects of destroying a communist nation and the liberation of ]. | |||
The ] was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by ] ].{{Sfn|Kim|1973|p=30}} Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than that of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wells |first=Samuel |date=23 June 2020 |title=Korea and the Fear of World War III |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/korea-and-fear-world-war-iii |publisher=Wilson Center |accessdate=4 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185115/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/korea-and-fear-world-war-iii |url-status=live }}</ref> The administration was worried a war in Korea could quickly escalate without American intervention. Diplomat John Foster Dulles stated: "To sit by while Korea is overrun by unprovoked armed attack would start a disastrous chain of events leading most probably to world war."{{Sfn|Beschloss|2018|p=447}} | |||
] | |||
The U.N. forces crossed into North Korea in early October 1950. The U.S. X Corps made amphibious landings at ] and ], which had already been captured by South Korean forces advancing by land. The rest of the U.S. Army, along with the South Koreans, drove up the western side of Korea and captured ] on ]. By the end of October, the North Korean Army was rapidly disintegrating, and the U.N. took 135,000 prisoners. | |||
While there was hesitance by some in the US government to get involved, considerations about Japan fed into the decision to engage on behalf of South Korea. After the fall of China to the communists, US experts saw Japan as the region's counterweight to the Soviet Union and China. While there was no US policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased its importance. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene ... The essential point ... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan."{{Sfn|Kim|1973|p=46}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrew Glass |title=Truman orders U.S. military intervention in Korea, June 27, 1950 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/06/27/this-day-in-politics-june-27-1950-665397 |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=POLITICO |date=27 June 2018 |language=en |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105150709/https://www.politico.com/story/2018/06/27/this-day-in-politics-june-27-1950-665397 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The U.N. offensive greatly concerned the Chinese, who worried that the U.N. forces would not stop at the ], the border between North Korea and China, and extend their rollback policy into China. Many in the West, including General MacArthur, thought that spreading the war to China would be necessary. However, Truman and the other leaders disagreed, and MacArthur was ordered to be very cautious when approaching the Chinese border. Eventually, MacArthur disregarded these concerns, arguing that since the North Korean troops were being supplied by bases in China, those supply depots should be bombed. However, except on some rare occasions, U.N. bombers remained out of ] during the war. | |||
Another consideration was the Soviet reaction if the US intervened. The Truman administration was fearful a Korean war was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the US committed in Korea. At the same time, "here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from ".{{Sfn|Rees|1964|p=22}} ]—a possible Soviet target because of the ]—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the ]'s post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots".<ref name="schindler19980224">{{Cite journal |last=Schindler, John R. |date=24 February 1998 |title=Dodging Armageddon: The Third World War That Almost Was, 1950 |url=http://20committee.com/2015/09/29/dodging-armageddon-the-third-world-war-that-almost-was-1950/ |url-status=usurped |journal=Cryptologic Quarterly |pages=85–95 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930082157/http://20committee.com/2015/09/29/dodging-armageddon-the-third-world-war-that-almost-was-1950/ |archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would start that would marginalize the UN and encourage communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans, and the US immediately began using air and naval forces in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing troops on the ground, because advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.{{Sfn|Rees|1964|p=23}} | |||
===Entrance of China=== | |||
China warned American leaders through neutral diplomats that it would intervene to protect its ]. Truman regarded the warnings as “a bald attempt to blackmail the U.N.” and did not take it seriously{{Fact|date=October 2007}}. On ], ], Truman went to ] for a short, highly publicized meeting with MacArthur. The ] had previously told Truman that Chinese involvement was unlikely. {{Fact|date=October 2007}} MacArthur, saying he was speculating, saw little risk. {{Fact|date=October 2007}} MacArthur explained that the Chinese had lost their window of opportunity to help North Korea’s invasion. He estimated the Chinese had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, with between 100,000-125,000 men along the Yalu; half could be brought across the Yalu. But the Chinese had no air force; hence, “if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter.”<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref>{{cite book | last =Donovan | first =Robert J | title =Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1949-1953 | publisher =University of Missouri Press | date =1996 | pages =p 285 | url = | isbn =0826210856 }}</ref> MacArthur assumed that Chinese wished to avoid heavy casualties. | |||
The Truman administration was uncertain whether the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union, or just a test of US resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against US forces in Korea.{{Sfn|Rees|1964|p=26}} The Truman administration believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere. | |||
] | |||
On ], ], the day after American troops crossed the 38th parallel, Chairman ] issued the order to assemble the ]. Seventy percent of the members of the PVA were Chinese regulars from the Chinese ]. Mao ordered the army to move to the Yalu River, ready to cross. Mao sought Soviet aid and saw intervention as essentially defensive: “If we allow the U.S. to occupy all of Korea… we must be prepared for the U.S. to declare… war with China,” he told Stalin. Premier ] was sent to ] to add force to Mao’s cabled arguments. Mao delayed while waiting for substantial Soviet help, postponing the planned attack from ] to ]. However, Soviet assistance was limited to providing air support no nearer than sixty miles (100 km) from the battlefront. The Russian ]s in PRC colors did pose a serious challenge to U.N. pilots. In one area nicknamed “]” by U.N. forces, they held local air superiority against the American-made ] until the newer ]s were deployed. The Chinese were angry at the limited extent of Soviet involvement, having assumed that they had been promised full scale air support. The Soviet role was known to the U.S., but it was kept quiet so as to avoid the possibility of escalating the conflict into a ]. | |||
===United Nations Security Council resolutions=== | |||
The Chinese made contact with American troops on ], ], with 270,000 PVA troops under the command of General ], much to the surprise of the U.N., which had disregarded evidence of such a massive force. However, after these initial engagements, the Chinese forces pulled back into the mountains. U.N. leaders saw the withdrawal as a sign of weakness and greatly underestimated the Chinese fighting capability. The U.N. forces thus continued their advance to the Yalu River, ignoring stern warnings from the Chinese. | |||
{{Further|List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning North Korea}} | |||
On 25 June 1950, the ] unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of South Korea with ]. The Soviet Union, a ], had boycotted Council meetings since January 1950, protesting ]'s occupation of ].{{Sfn|Malkasian|2001|p=16}} The Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published ] recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help. On 4 July the Soviet deputy foreign minister accused the U.S. of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.<ref name="Gromyko1950"/> | |||
The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated ] Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council, some legal scholars posited that deciding upon this type of action required the unanimous vote of all five permanent members.<ref name="Gross1951"/><ref name="Schick1950"/> | |||
U.S. intelligence, sketchy during this phase for various reasons, did not work as well in North Korea as it had in South Korea during the days of the Pusan Perimeter. The Chinese march and ] discipline also minimized any possible detection. In a well-documented instance, a CCF army of three ] marched on foot from An-tung in Manchuria, on the north side of the Yalu River, 286 miles (460 km) to its assembly area in North Korea, in the combat zone, in a period ranging from 16 to 19 days. One division of this army, marching at night over circuitous mountain roads, averaged 18 miles (29 km) per day for 18 days. The day's march began after dark at 19:00 and ended at 03:00 the next morning. Defense measures against aircraft were to be completed before 05:30. Every man, animal, and piece of equipment were to be concealed and camouflaged. During daylight, bivouac scouting parties moved ahead to select the next day's bivouac area. When CCF units were compelled for any reason to march by day, they were under standing orders for every man to stop in his tracks and remain motionless if aircraft appeared overhead. Officers were empowered to shoot any man who violated this order.<ref name ="Appleman" /> | |||
Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were retreating southwards or ] en masse to the northern side, the KPA.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=23}} | |||
].]] | |||
In late November, the Chinese struck in the west, along the Chongchon River, and completely overran several South Korean divisions and successfully landed a heavy blow to the flank of the remaining U.N. forces. The ensuing defeat of the U.S. Eighth Army resulted in the longest retreat of any American military unit in history.<ref>{{cite book | last =Cohen | first =Eliot A | coauthors =Gooch, John | title =Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War | publisher =Free Press | date =2005 | pages =pp 165-195 | url = | isbn =0743280822 }}</ref> In the east, at the ], a 30,000 man unit from the ] was also unprepared for the Chinese tactics and was soon surrounded, though they eventually managed to escape the ], albeit with over 15,000 casualties. The ] were also ] and forced to retreat after inflicting heavy casualties on six Chinese divisions.<ref>{{cite book | last =Hopkins | first =William | title =One Bugle No Drums: The Marines at Chosin Reservoir | publisher =Algonquin | date =1986 | location = | pages = | url = | isbn = }}</ref> | |||
===United States' response (July–August 1950)=== | |||
While the Chinese soldiers initially lacked heavy fire support and light infantry weapons, their tactics quickly adapted to this disadvantage, as explained by ] in his book ]: | |||
] | |||
As soon as word of the attack was received,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Truman Address on Korea |url=https://www.learner.org/workshops/primarysources/coldwar/docs/onkorea.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408045123/https://www.learner.org/workshops/primarysources/coldwar/docs/onkorea.html |archive-date=8 April 2017 |access-date=17 August 2017 |website=www.learner.org}}</ref> Acheson informed Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea.{{Sfn|Goulden|1983|p=48}}<ref name="Hess2001"/> Truman and Acheson discussed a US invasion response and agreed the US was obligated to act, comparing the North Korean invasion with ]'s aggressions in the 1930s, and the mistake of ] must not be repeated.<ref name="Graebner1979"/> US industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War.<ref>Reis, M. (12 May 2014), "" ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715064838/http://www.historyassociates.com/blog/historical-research-blog/industrial-mobilization-records-overview/ |date=15 July 2014 }}), History Associates, retrieved 17 June 2014.</ref> Truman later explained he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the ] of communism as outlined in the ]: | |||
:"The usual method was to infiltrate small units, from a ] of fifty men to a ] of 200, split into separate detachments. While one team cut off the escape route of the Americans, the others struck both the front and the flanks in concerted assaults. The attacks continued on all sides until the defenders were destroyed or forced to withdraw. The Chinese then crept forward to the open flank of the next platoon position, and repeated the tactics." | |||
{{Blockquote|Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.<ref name="Truman1980"/>}} | |||
Roy Appleman further clarified the initial Chinese tactics as: | |||
:"In the First Phase Offensive, highly skilled enemy light infantry troops had carried out the Chinese attacks, generally unaided by any weapons larger than mortars. Their attacks had demonstrated that the Chinese were well-trained disciplined fire fighters, and particularly adept at night fighting. They were masters of the art of camouflage. Their patrols were remarkably successful in locating the positions of the U.N. forces. They planned their attacks to get in the rear of these forces, cut them off from their escape and supply roads, and then send in frontal and flanking attacks to precipitate the battle. They also employed a tactic which they termed Hachi Shiki, which was a V-formation into which they allowed enemy forces to move; the sides of the V then closed around their enemy while another force moved below the mouth of the V to engage any forces attempting to relieve the trapped unit. Such were the tactics the Chinese used with great success at Onjong, Unsan, and Ch'osan but with only partial success at Pakch'on and the Ch'ongch'on bridgehead."<ref name="Appleman" /> | |||
In August 1950, Truman and Acheson obtained the consent of ] to appropriate $12 billion for military action, equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|12|1950|fmt=c}} billion in {{Inflation/year|US}}.<ref name="Hess2001"/> Because of the extensive defense cuts and emphasis on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were able to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General ], Chair of the ], was faced with deploying a force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.{{Sfn|Blair|2003|p=290}}<ref>Hofmann, George F., "Tanks and the Korean War: A case study of unpreparedness", ''Armor'', Vol. 109 Issue 5 (Sep/Oct 2000), pp. 7–12: In 1948, the ] had to impose an 80 percent reduction in equipment requirements, deferring any equipment modernization. When the Joint Chiefs of Staff submitted a $30 billion total defense budget for FY 1948, the administration capped the ] budget at the $14.4 billion set in 1947 and progressively reduced in succeeding fiscal years until January 1950, when it was reduced again to $13.5 billion.</ref> | |||
The U.S. forces in northeast Korea, who had rushed forward with great speed only a few months earlier, were forced to race southwards with even greater speed and form a defensive perimeter around the port city of ], where a major evacuation was carried out in late December 1950. Facing complete defeat and surrender, 193 shiploads of American men and material were evacuated from Hungnam Harbor, and about 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies were shipped to Pusan in orderly fashion. As they left, the American forces blew up large portions of the city to deny its use to the communists, depriving many Korean civilians of shelter during the winter.<ref name ="Schnabel" /><ref> {{Citation | last =Rear Admiral Doyle | first =James H | last2 =Mayer | first2 =Arthur J | title =December 1950 at Hungnam | journal =U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings | volume =vol. 105 | issue =no. 4 | pages =pp. 44-65 | date =April 1979 | year =1979 }}</ref> | |||
Acting on Acheson's recommendation, Truman ordered MacArthur, the ] in Japan, to transfer matériel to the South Korean military, while giving air cover to evacuation of US nationals. Truman disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral bombing of the North Korean forces and ordered the ] to protect Taiwan, whose government asked to fight in Korea. The US denied Taiwan's request for combat, lest it provoke retaliation from the PRC.{{Sfn|Rees|1964|page=27}} Because the US had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" the ], Chinese Premier ] criticized the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory".{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=140}} The US supported the ] in the hope these KMT forces would harass China from the ], thereby diverting Chinese resources from Korea.<ref name=":Han">{{Cite book |last=Han |first=Enze |title=The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia |date=2024 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-769659-0 |location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp|page=65}} | |||
=== Fighting across the 38th Parallel (early 1951) === | |||
] Invaders bomb supply warehouses in Wonsan, North Korea, 1951.]] | |||
===The drive south and Pusan (July–September 1950)=== | |||
In January 1951, the Chinese and North Korean forces struck again in their 3rd Phase Offensive (also known as the ''Chinese Winter Offensive''). The Chinese repeated their previous tactics of mostly night attacks, with a stealthy approach from positions some distance from the front, followed by a rush with overwhelming numbers, and using trumpets or gongs both for communication and to disorient their foes. Against this the U.N. forces had no remedy, and their resistance crumbled; they retreated rapidly to the south (referred to by U.N. forces as the “bug-out”). Seoul was abandoned and was captured by communist forces on ], ]. | |||
] | |||
] tank along the Nakdong River front, August 1950]] | |||
The ], the first significant US engagement, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, a small forward element of the ] flown in from Japan.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=45}} On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the KPA at ] but without weapons capable of destroying KPA tanks. The KPA defeated the US, with 180 American casualties. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back US forces at ], ], and ], forcing the 24th Division's retreat to ], which the KPA captured in the ]. The 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major General ].{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=48}} | |||
To add to the Eighth Army’s difficulties, General Walker was killed in an accident. He was replaced by a World War II airborne veteran, Lieutenant-General ], who took immediate steps to raise the morale and fighting spirit of the battered Eighth Army, which had fallen to low levels during its retreat. Nevertheless, the situation was so grim that MacArthur mentioned the use of ]s against China, much to the alarm of America’s allies. | |||
By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK and the ] southwards.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=53}} The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks was keenly felt, as US troops fought costly rearguard actions. Facing a veteran and well-led KPA force, and lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, the Americans retreated and the KPA advanced down the Peninsula.<ref>Dunford, J.F. (Lt. Col.) ''The Strategic Implications of Defensive Operations at the Pusan Perimeter July–September 1950'', Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College (7 April 1999) pp. 6–8, 12</ref><ref>Zabecki, David T., ''Stand or Die: 1950 Defense of Korea's Pusan Perimeter'', Military History (May 2009): The inability of US forces to stop the 1950 North Korean summer offensive cost the Eighth Army 4,280 killed in action, 12,377 wounded, with 2,107 missing and 401 confirmed captured between 5 July and 16 September 1950. In addition, the lives of tens of thousands of South Korean soldiers and civilians were lost as well.</ref> By September, UN forces were hemmed into a corner of southeast Korea, near ]. This {{Convert|140|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=off|adj=on}} perimeter enclosed about 10% of Korea, in a line defined by the ]. | |||
U.N. forces continued to retreat until they had reached a line south of ] in the west and ] in the center, and north of ] in the east, where the front stabilized. The People's Volunteer Army had outrun its supply line and was forced to recoil. The Chinese could not go beyond Seoul because they were at the end of their logistics supply line — all food and ammunition had to be carried at night on foot or bicycle from the Yalu River. | |||
The KPA purged South Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, MacArthur warned Kim Il Sung he would be held responsible for KPA atrocities.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p= 56}} | |||
In late January, finding the lines in front of his forces deserted, Ridgway ordered reconnaissance in force, which developed into a full-scale offensive, ]. The operation was planned to proceed gradually, to make full use of the U.N.’s superiority in firepower on the ground and in the air; by the time ''Roundup'' was completed in early February, U.N. forces had reached the Han River and re-captured Wonju. | |||
Kim's early successes led him to predict the war would finish by the end of August. Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible US deployment, Zhou secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and he deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of ]. Zhou authorized a topographical survey of Korea and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military adviser in Korea, to analyze the military situation. Lei concluded MacArthur would likely attempt a landing at Incheon.<ref>{{Citation | url = https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/rsis-pubs/WP105.pdf | title = THE KOREAN WAR JUNE-OCTOBER 1950: INCHON AND STALIN IN THE "TRIGGER VS. JUSTIFICATION" DEBATE | issue = 105 | author = Tan Kwoh Jack | location = Singapore | publisher = Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies | date = January 2006 | page = 21 | access-date = 28 November 2022 | archive-date = 28 November 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221128195523/https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/rsis-pubs/WP105.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QoyAAAAMAAJ&q=%E4%BB%81%E5%B7%9D%E7%99%BB%E9%99%86|title=在最高统帅部当参谋: 雷英夫将军回忆录|date=28 November 1997|publisher=百花洲文艺出版社|language=zh-cn|pages=147, 153–154|isbn=9787805798998|access-date=15 December 2022|archive-date=21 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421193437/https://books.google.com/books?id=2QoyAAAAMAAJ&q=%E4%BB%81%E5%B7%9D%E7%99%BB%E9%99%86|url-status=live}}</ref> After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to PLA commanders to prepare for US naval activity in the ].{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=141}} | |||
The Chinese struck back in mid-February with their Fourth Phase Offensive, from ] in the center against ] positions around ]. A short but desperate siege there fought by units of the ], including the ], broke up the offensive; in this action, the U.N. learned how to deal with Chinese offensive tactics and be able to stand their ground. | |||
In the resulting ], UN forces withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at ], ], and ]. The ] (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support ]s, which destroyed 32 bridges, halting daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=47–48, 66}} To deny military equipment and supplies to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, refineries, and harbors, while ] aircraft attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the overextended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=58}} On 27 August, ] aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory, and the Soviet Union called the Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302173851/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v07/pg_793 |date=2 March 2016 }} ''] Official Records'' No. 35, p. 25</ref> The US proposed a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation, but the Soviets vetoed this.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302165211/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1950v07/d551 |date=2 March 2016 }} '']'' 1950 Volume VII, Korea, Document 551</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1950 |title=work of the Security Council from August 1, 1950 to September 18, 1950 |journal=] |volume=4 |issue=4 |page=638 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300029465 |s2cid=249414462}}</ref> | |||
Roundup was followed in the last two weeks of February 1951, with ], by a revitalized Eighth Army, restored by Ridgway to fighting trim. This was a full-scale offensive across the front, again staged to maximize firepower and with the aim of destroying as much of the Chinese and North Korean armies as possible. By the end of ''Killer'', ] had re-occupied all territory south of the Han, while IX Corps had captured Hoengsong. | |||
Meanwhile, US garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and military supplies to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=59–60}} MacArthur went so far as to call for Japan's rearmament.<ref name="masuda12">{{cite book |doi=10.7591/cornell/9780801449390.003.0013|chapter=The Korean War and the Dismissal of Mac ''Arthur'', June 1950 to April 1951 |title=Mac ''Arthur'' in Asia |year=2012 |last1=Masuda |first1=Hiroshi |last2=Yamamoto |first2=Reiko |pages=249–274 |isbn=9780801449390 }}</ref> Tank battalions deployed to Korea, from the ] to the ], the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had 500 medium tanks battle-ready.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=61}} In early September 1950, UN forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=}}{{Sfn|Appleman|1998|p=61}} | |||
On ], ], the Eighth Army pushed forward again, in ], and on ] they expelled the North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, the fourth time in a year the city had changed hands. Seoul was in utter ruins; its prewar population of 1.5 million had dropped to 200,000, with severe food shortages.<ref name ="KIMH" /> | |||
===Battle of Incheon (September 1950)=== | |||
MacArthur was removed from command by President Truman on ], ], for ], setting off a firestorm of protest back in the U.S. The new supreme commander was Ridgway, who had managed to regroup U.N. forces for the series of effective counter-offensives. Command of Eighth Army passed to General ]. | |||
{{Main|Battle of Incheon}} | |||
Against the rested and rearmed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN, they lacked naval and air support.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=58, 61}} To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, MacArthur recommended an ] at Incheon, near Seoul, well over {{Convert|100|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} behind the KPA lines.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=67}} On 6 July, he ordered Major General ], commander of the U.S. ], to plan an amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from ], Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.<ref name="Cavalry Outpost Publications"/> | |||
] | |||
A further series of attacks slowly drove back the communist forces, such as Operations ] and ], a combined ground- and air-assault to trap communist forces between ] and ]. U.N. forces continued to advance until they reached Line Kansas, some miles north of the 38th parallel. | |||
Soon after the war began, MacArthur began planning an Incheon landing, but ] opposed him.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=67}} When authorized, he activated a combined ] and ], and ROK force. The ], consisted of 40,000 troops of the ], the ] and around 8,600 ROK soldiers.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=68}} By 15 September, the amphibious force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, ], ] reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of Incheon.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=70}} | |||
The Chinese were far from beaten, however; In April 1951 they launched their Fifth Phase Offensive, (also called the ''Chinese Spring Offensive'') This was a major effort, involving three field armies (up to 700,000 men). The main blow fell on I Corps, but fierce resistance in battles at the ] and ], blunted its impetus, and the Chinese were halted at a defensive line north of Seoul (referred to as the ''No-Name Line''). | |||
===Breakout from the Pusan Perimeter=== | |||
A further Communist offensive in the east against ROK and X Corps on ] also made initial gains, but by ] the attack had ground to a halt. Eighth Army counterattacked and by the end of May had regained Line Kansas. | |||
{{Main|Pusan Perimeter offensive|UN September 1950 counteroffensive|Second Battle of Seoul}} | |||
] tanks during the ] in September 1950. In the foreground, UN troops round up North Korean prisoners-of-war.]] | |||
On 16 September Eighth Army began its breakout from the Pusan Perimeter. Task Force Lynch,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoyt |first=Edwin P. |title=On to the Yalu |publisher=Stein and Day |date=1984 |location=New York |page=104}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CHAPTER XXVIII: Pursuit and Exploitation |url=https://history.army.mil/books/korea/20-2-1/sn28.htm |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=history.army.mil |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205040750/https://www.history.army.mil/BOOKS/KOREA/20-2-1/sn28.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> 3rd Battalion, ], and 70th Tank Battalion units advanced through {{Convert|106.4|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} of KPA territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan on 27 September.<ref name="Cavalry Outpost Publications"/> X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=71–72}} | |||
The decision by U.N. forces to halt at Line Kansas, just north of the 38th Parallel, and not to persist in offensive action into North Korea, ushered in the period of stalemate which typified the remainder of the conflict. | |||
On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General ] to advise Kim to halt his offensive around the Pusan Perimeter, and redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. Zhou suggested the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the UN forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}} | |||
=== Stalemate (July 1951 - July 1953) === | |||
The rest of the war involved little territory change, large-scale bombing of the north and its population, and lengthy peace negotiations, which began on ], ], at ]. Even during the peace negotiations, combat continued. For the South Korean and allied forces, the goal was to recapture all of South Korea before an agreement was reached in order to avoid loss of any territory. The Chinese and North Koreans attempted similar operations, and later in the war they undertook operations designed to test the resolve of the U.N. to continue the conflict. Principal military engagements in this period were the actions around the Punchbowl, in the east, such as ] and ] in 1951, the battles for ], in the center, and the ], in the west, during 1952–53, ] in 1952, and the battle for ] in 1953. | |||
] | |||
The peace negotiations went on for two years, first at Kaesong, and later at ]. A major issue of the negotiations was repatriation of ]. The Communists agreed to voluntary repatriation but only if the majority would return to China or North Korea, something that did not occur. Since many refused to be repatriated to the communist North Korea and China, the war continued until the Communists eventually dropped this issue. | |||
On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by UN forces. US air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and artillery. KPA troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving ] vulnerable.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}} During the retreat, only 25,000-30,000 KPA soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="KIMH" /> On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the ], where he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}} | |||
In October 1951, U.S. forces performed ] intending to establish the capability to use ]s. Several B-29s conducted individual simulated bomb runs from ] to North Korea, delivering “dummy” nuclear bombs or heavy conventional bombs; the operation was coordinated from ] in Japan. The battle exercise was intended to test “actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming,” and so on. The results indicated that nuclear bombs would be less effective than anticipated, because “timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare.”<ref>{{Citation | last =Hasbrouck | first =S. V | title =memo to file (November 7, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A | publisher =Library of Congress | year =1951 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Army Chief of Staff | title =memo to file (November 20, 1951), G-3 Operations file, box 38-A | publisher =Library of Congress | year =1951 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Watson | first =Robert J | coauthors =Schnabel, James F. | title =The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, 1950-1951, The Korean War and 1951-1953, The Korean War (History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Volume III, Parts I and II) | publisher =Office of Joint History, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff | date =1998 | pages =part 1, p. v; part 2, p. 614 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Commanding General, Far East Air Force | title =Memo to 98th Bomb Wing Commander, Okinawa | year =1951 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Far East Command G-2 Theater Intelligence | title =Resumé of Operation, Record Group 349, box 752 | year =1951 }}</ref> | |||
===UN forces invade North Korea (September–October 1950)=== | |||
On ], ], U.S. President-elect ] fulfilled a campaign promise by going to Korea to find out what could be done to end the conflict. With the U.N.’s acceptance of ]’s proposal for a Korean ], a ] was established on ], ], by which time the front line was back around the proximity of the 38th parallel, and so a ] (DMZ) was established around it, presently defended by North Korean troops on one side and South Korean and American troops on the other. The DMZ runs north of the parallel towards the east, and to the south as it travels west. The site of the peace talks, ], the old capital of Korea, was part of the South before hostilities broke out but is currently a special city of the North. North Korea and the United States signed the ], with Syngman Rhee refusing to sign.<ref>{{cite web | title =Syngman Rhee Biography: Rhee Attacks Peace Proceedings | publisher =Korean War Commemoration Biographies | url =http://korea50.army.mil/history/biographies/rhee.shtml | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> | |||
{{Main|UN offensive into North Korea}} | |||
On 27 September, MacArthur received secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily".<ref name="Weintraub2000"/> On 29 September, MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=143}} The Joint Chiefs of Staff on 27 September sent MacArthur a comprehensive directive: it stated the primary goal was the destruction of the KPA, with unification of the Peninsula under Rhee as a secondary objective "if possible"; the Joint Chiefs added this objective was dependent on whether the Chinese and Soviets would intervene, and was subject to changing conditions.<ref>Appleman 1998, pp. 607-609.</ref> | |||
] attacking railroads south of ] on the eastern coast of North Korea]] | |||
===Casualties=== | |||
On 30 September, Zhou warned the US that China was prepared to intervene if the US crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise KPA commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics that allowed Chinese Communist forces to escape Nationalist ] in the 1930s, but KPA commanders did not use these tactics effectively.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=143–44}} ] argues, however, that the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=278–81}} | |||
The total numbers of casualties suffered by all parties involved may never be known. In Western countries, the numbers have been subjected to numerous scholarly reviews, and in the case of one U.S. estimate, the number was revised after a clerical error was discovered. Each country's self-reported casualties were largely based upon troop movements, unit rosters, battle casualty reports, and medical records. | |||
By 1 October, the UN Command had driven the KPA past the 38th parallel, and RoK forces pursued the KPA northwards.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=79–94}} MacArthur demanded the KPA's unconditional surrender.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=144}} On 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=81}} The Eighth US Army drove up western Korea and ] on 19 October.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=90}} On 20 October, the ] made their first of their two combat jumps during the war ]. The mission was to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping Pyongyang, and to rescue US ]. | |||
The Western numbers of Chinese and/or North Korean casulties are based primarily on battle reports of estimated casualties, interrogation of POWs and captured documents. The Chinese estimation of UN casualties states "The after-war joint declaration of the Chinese People's Volunteers and the Korean People's Army claimed that they 'eliminated 1.09 million enemy forces, including 390,000 from the United States, 660,000 from South Korean, and 29,000 from other countries.' The vague 'eliminated' number gave no details to that of dead, wounded and captured." Regarding their own casualties, the same source said "During the wartime, 70 percent of the forces of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) were dispatched to Korea as the Chinese People's Volunteers (accumulated to 2.97 million), along with more than 600,000 civil workers. The Chinese People's Volunteers suffered 148,000 deaths altogether, among which 114,000 died in combats, incidents, and winterkill, 21,000 died after being hospitalized, 13,000 died from diseases; and 380,000 were wounded. There were also 29,000 missing, including 21,400 POWs, of whom 14,000 were sent to Taiwan, 7,110 were repatriated." This same source concluded with these numbers for North Korean casualties, "The Korean People's Army had 290,000 casualties and 90,000 POWs. There was a large number of civilian deaths in the northern part of Korea, but no accurate figures were available."<ref>{{cite web | last = Xu | first = Yan | authorlink = Xu Yan | title =Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness | publisher = Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in New York | date = ] | url = http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm | accessdate = 2007-08-12 }}</ref> | |||
At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by {{Convert|50–100|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} of mountainous terrain.{{Sfn|Stueck|2002|pp=92–93}} In addition to the 135,000 captured, the KPA had suffered some 200,000 soldiers killed or wounded, for a total of 335,000 casualties since end of June 1950, and lost 313 tanks. A mere 25,000 KPA regulars retreated across the 38th parallel, as their military had collapsed. The UN forces on the peninsula numbered 229,722 combat troops (including 125,126 Americans and 82,786 South Koreans), 119,559 rear area troops, and 36,667 US Air Force personnel.{{Sfn|Clodfelter|1989|p=11}} MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the war into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean effort. Truman disagreed and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=83}} | |||
The casulties of the various UN forces are listed in the infobox, along with their estimates of Chinese and North Korean forces. | |||
===China intervenes (October–December 1950)=== | |||
== Characteristics == | |||
{{stack|]}} | |||
===Armored warfare=== | |||
] fires its 76 mm gun at enemy bunkers on “Napalm Ridge,” in support of the 8th ROK Division ], ].]] | |||
In the initial invasion stage of the war, North Korean armor was able to establish dominance using their Soviet-supplied ] medium tanks. The WW2-vintage North Korean tanks were facing a South Korean force with no tanks of their own and few modern anti-tank weapons. Most South Korean soldiers were unfamiliar with tanks or how to counter them. | |||
On 3 October 1950, China attempted to warn the US, through its embassy in India, it would intervene if UN forces crossed the Yalu River.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Hammond |first=Ken |title=China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future |publisher=1804 Books |year=2023 |isbn=9781736850084 |location=New York |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=42}}<ref name=Jian/>{{Rp|page=169}} The US did not respond as policymakers in Washington, including Truman, considered it a bluff.<ref name=":322" />{{Rp|page=42}}<ref name=Jian/>{{Rp|page=169}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shulsky |first1=Abram |title=Deterrence theory and Chinese behavior |date=2000 |publisher=RAND |location=Santa Monica, California |isbn=9780833028532}}</ref>{{Rp|page=57}} | |||
The South Korean army had anti-tank rockets but these were World War II vintage 2.36 inch (60 mm) M9 bazookas. These weapons could pierce the armor of the T-34-85s only at extremely close range. Until the U.S. introduced the heavier 3.5 inch (89 mm) M20 bazooka, South Korean troops were unable to effectively counter North Korean tanks. | |||
On 15 October Truman and MacArthur ]. This was much publicized because of MacArthur's discourteous refusal to meet the president in the contiguous US.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=88}} To Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea,{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=89}} and the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria and 100,000–125,000 at the Yalu River. He concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter" without Soviet air force protection.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref name="Donovan1996" /> | |||
] | |||
As US forces arrived in Korea, they were accompanied only by light ] tanks which had been left in Japan for post-WWII occupation duties (heavier tanks would have torn up Japanese roads). These light tanks were ineffective against the larger North Korean T-34-85 tanks. US 105mm howitzers were used on at least one occasion to fire HEAT ammunition over open sights. | |||
Meanwhile on 13 October, the Politburo decided China would intervene even without Soviet air support, basing its decision on a belief superior morale could defeat an enemy that had superior equipment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1332788951 |title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy |date=2022 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2 |location=Stanford, California |pages=32 |oclc=1332788951}}</ref> To that end, 200,000 Chinese ] (PVA) troops crossed the Yalu into North Korea.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=147–48}} UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and ] discipline minimized detection.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=102}} The PVA marched "dark-to-dark" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers remained motionless if an aircraft appeared;{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=102}} PVA officers were under orders to shoot security violators.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-] army to march the {{Convert|286|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} from ], Manchuria, to the combat zone in 19 days. Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging {{Convert|18|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} daily for 18 days.{{Sfn|Appleman|1998|p=}} | |||
As the US buildup continued, shipments of heavier American tanks such as the ], the ], the ], and the British ] as well as American and Allied ground attack aircraft were able to reverse the Communist's tank advantage. All of the UN medium tanks were able to defeat the T-34-85 with ease. | |||
] in action near the Ch'ongch'on River (20 November 1950).]] | |||
However, in contrast to World War II’s heavy emphasis on armor, few open tank battles actually occurred over the course of the Korean War. The country’s heavily forested and mountainous terrain, as well as the poor road network, meant that tanks were able to operate only in small groups. | |||
After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the ] on 25 October, attacking advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after PVA troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the ] to provide air cover and supported more aid to China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shen |first=Zhihua |date=2010 |title=China and the Dispatch of the Soviet Air Force: The Formation of the Chinese–Soviet–Korean Alliance in the Early Stage of the Korean War |journal=Journal of Strategic Studies |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=211–230 |doi=10.1080/01402391003590291 |s2cid=154427564}}</ref> After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK ] at the ], the first confrontation between Chinese and US military occurred on 1 November 1950. Deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA ] ] and attacked the US ] with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the ].<ref name="Stewart"/> | |||
=== Air warfare === | |||
{{see|MiG Alley|United States Air Force Aircraft of the Korean War}} | |||
On 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with ] as field commander.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=147–48}} On 25 November, on the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the ], and then inflicted heavy losses on the US ] on the UN forces' right flank.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=98–99}} Believing they could not hold against the PVA, the Eighth Army began to ] in mid-December.{{Sfn|Mossman|1990|p=160}} | |||
The Korean War was the last major war where propeller-powered fighters such as the ], ] and ]-based ] were used. ] fighter aircraft such as ]s and ]s came to dominate the skies, overwhelming North Korea’s propeller-driven ]s and ]s. | |||
] | |||
From 1950, North Koreans began flying the Soviet-made ] jet fighters, some of which were piloted by experienced ] pilots, a '']'' deliberately overlooked by the U.N. allied forces who were reluctant to engage in open war with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. At first, U.N. jet fighters, which also included ] ]s, had some success, but the superior quality of the MiGs soon held sway over the first-generation jets used by the U.N. early in the war.<ref>{{cite web | last =CW2 Sewell | first =Stephen L | title =FEAF/U.N. Aircraft Used in Korea and Losses by Type | publisher =Korean-War.com | url =http://korean-war.com/AirWar/AircraftType-LossList.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> | |||
In the east, on 27 November, the PVA 9th Army Group initiated the ]. Here, the UN forces fared better: like the Eighth Army, the surprise attack forced X Corps to retreat from northeast Korea, but they were able to break out from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute a ]. X Corps established a defensive perimeter at the port city of ] on 11 December and ], to reinforce the depleted Eighth Army to the south.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=104–11}}{{Sfn|Mossman|1990|p=158}} About 193 shiploads of UN forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=110}} The ] was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN forces ] most of Hungnam, with particular attention to the port.<ref name="Schnabel"/><ref name="DoyleMayer1979"/> | |||
In December 1950, the ] began using the ]. The MiG could fly higher, 50,000 vs. {{convert|42000|ft|m|-2}}, offering a distinct advantage at the start of combat. In level flight, their maximum speeds were comparable - about {{convert|660|mi/h|km/h|-1|abbr=on}}. The MiG could climb better, while the Sabre could turn and dive better. For weapons, the MiG carried two 23 mm and one 37 mm cannon, compared to the Sabre’s six .50 (12.7 mm) caliber machine guns. The American .50 caliber machine guns, while not packing the same punch, carried many more rounds and were aimed with a superior ]. The US pilots also had the advantage of ]s, which were used for the first time in this war. However, maintenance was an issue with the Sabre, and a large proportion of the U.N. air strength was grounded because of repairs during the war. | |||
In early December UN forces, including the ]'s ], evacuated Pyongyang along with refugees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pyongyang taken as UN retreats, 1950 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/pyongyang-taken-as-un-retreats/znhynrd |access-date=2021-09-10 |website=BBC Archive |language=en |archive-date=21 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821095028/https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/pyongyang-taken-as-un-retreats/znhynrd |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 4.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled South or elsewhere abroad.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welle (www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche |title=Faces of the Korean War {{!}} DW {{!}} 25.07.2013 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/faces-of-the-korean-war/g-16973830 |access-date=2021-09-10 |website=DW.COM |language=en-GB |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925044408/https://www.dw.com/en/faces-of-the-korean-war/g-16973830 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 16 December Truman declared a ] with Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953),<ref>{{Cite web |title=The American Presidency Project Harry S Truman Proclamation 2914—Proclamation 2914—Proclaiming the Existence of a National Emergency |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2914-proclaiming-the-existence-national-emergency |access-date=22 October 2021 |website=UC Santa Barbara |archive-date=22 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022143108/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-2914-proclaiming-the-existence-national-emergency |url-status=live }}</ref> which remained in force until September 1978.{{Refn|name=nbJolley1971|group=lower-alpha|See 50 U.S.C. S 1601: "All powers and authorities possessed by the President, any other officer or employee of the Federal Government, or any executive agency... as a result of the existence of any declaration of national emergency in effect on 14 September 1976 are terminated two years from 14 September 1976."; ''Jolley v. INS'', 441 F.2d 1245, 1255 n.17 (5th Cir. 1971).}} The next day, 17 December, Kim Il Sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.<ref>Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, MAO: The Unknown Story.</ref> | |||
Even after the United States Air Force introduced the advanced F-86, its pilots often struggled against the jets piloted by elite Soviet pilots. The U.N. gradually gained a large numerical advantage, and this with their aggressiveness (along with limits on the Soviet involvement) gave them an air superiority over most of Korea that lasted until the end of the war — a decisive factor in helping the U.N. first advance into the north, and then resist the Chinese invasion of South Korea. The Chinese and North Koreans also had jet power, but their training and experience were limited. With the introduction of the F-86F in late 1952, the Soviet and American aircraft had virtually identical performance characteristics. | |||
===Fighting around the 38th parallel (January–June 1951)=== | |||
] were shot down by North Korean aircraft.]] | |||
] bomb logistics depots in Wonsan, North Korea, 1951]] | |||
After the war, the USAF claimed 792 MiG-15s and 108 additional aircraft shot down by Sabres for the loss of 78 Sabres, a ratio in excess of 10:1. Some post-war research has been able to confirm only 379 victories, although the USAF continues to maintain its official credits and the debate is possibly irreconcilable. Recently exposed Stalin-era Soviet documentation shows that only 345 Soviet MiG-15s were lost to all causes during the Korean War. | |||
A ceasefire presented by the UN to the PRC, after the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River on 11 December, was rejected by the PRC, which was convinced of the PVA's invincibility after its victory in that battle and the wider ].{{Sfn|Zhang|1995|pp=119–126}}<ref>{{Citation |last=Alexander |first=Bevin R. |title=Korea: The First War We Lost |pages=371–376 |date=1986 |place=New York |publisher=Hippocrene Books, Inc |isbn=978-0-87052-135-5 |author-link=Bevin Alexander}}</ref> With Lieutenant General ] assuming command of the Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their ] on New Year's Eve. Using night attacks in which UN fighting positions were encircled and assaulted by numerically superior troops, who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which facilitated tactical communication and disoriented the enemy. UN forces had no familiarity with this tactic, and some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=117}} The offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to capture Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951. | |||
The Soviets claimed about 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 combat MiG losses at that time. China’s official losses were 231 planes shot down in air-to-air combat (mostly MiG-15) and 168 other losses. The number of losses of the North Korean Air Force was not revealed. It is estimated that it lost about 200 aircraft in the first stage of the war, and another 70 aircraft after Chinese intervention. Soviet claims of 650 victories over the Sabres, and China’s claims of another 211 F-86s, are considered to be exaggerated by the USAF. According to a recent U.S. publication, the number of F-86s ever present in the Korean peninsula during the war totaled only 674 and the total F-86 losses from all causes were about 230.<ref>{{cite web | title =Korean War Aces, USAF F-86 Sabre jet pilots | publisher =AcePilots.com | url =http://www.acepilots.com/korea_aces.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> | |||
These setbacks prompted MacArthur to consider using ]s against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, intending radioactive fallout zones to interrupt the Chinese supply chains.<ref name="MacArthur"/> However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the ''esprit de corps'' of the bloodied Eighth Army revived.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=113}} | |||
Direct comparison of Sabre and MiG losses seem irrelevant, since primary targets for MiGs were heavy B-29 bombers and ground-attack aircraft, while the primary targets for Sabres were MiG-15s. | |||
UN forces retreated to ] in the west, ] in the center, and the territory north of ] in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=117}} The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=118}} On 25 late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became ].{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} A full-scale advance fully exploited the UN's air superiority,{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=120}} concluding with the UN forces reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} | |||
By early 1951, the battle lines hardened and did not change much for the rest of the conflict. Throughout the summer and early fall of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres (as few as 44 at one point) of the ] continued to seek battle in ] near the Yalu against an enemy fielding as many as 500 planes, although only a fraction of these were operational and active. Following ] ]’s famous message to the Pentagon, the ] reinforced the beleaguered 4th in December 1951.<ref name="thyngcite"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://sabre-pilots.org/classics/v101thyng.htm| title = Harrison R. Thyng| format = | work = | publisher = Sabre Jet Classics| accessdate = 24 Dec| accessyear = 2006}}</ref> For the next year and a half, the combat continued in generally the same fashion. | |||
Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the ] passed ] on 1 February, condemning the PRC as an aggressor and calling upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 February 1951 |title=Resolution 498(V) Intervention of the Central People's Government of People's Republic of China in Korea |url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/5/ares5.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525180549/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/5/ares5.htm |archive-date=25 May 2017 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cold War International History Project's Cold War Files |url=http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/index-3262.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930121857/http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/index-3262.html |archive-date=30 September 2013 |publisher=Wilson Center}}</ref> | |||
=== American air interdiction and civilian casualties === | |||
] | |||
The United Nations Command enjoyed freedom from air attack after the North Korean Air Force was defeated soon after the start of the war. The UN also earned the freedom to deal air damage. Except for nuisance raids at night by obsolete aircraft attacking singly, the North did not attempt to attack the battle line or bases south of it. | |||
In early February, the ROK ] ran an operation to destroy guerrillas and pro-DPRK sympathizers in the ].<ref name=jd030210/> The division and police committed the ] and ]s.<ref name="jd030210">{{Cite news |date=10 February 2003 |title=SURVIVOR Hundreds were killed in a 1951 massacre. One man is left to remember. |work=] |url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=1932280 |url-status=live |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608041139/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=1932280 |archive-date=8 June 2011}}</ref> In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved victory ]. However, the offensive was blunted by US ] at ] in the center.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} The US ] and ] fought a ] that broke the attack's momentum.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} The battle is sometimes known as the "] of the Korean War": 5,600 U.S., and French troops were surrounded by 25,000 PVA. UN forces had previously retreated in the face of large PVA/KPA forces instead of getting cut off, but this time, they stood and won.<ref name="Timmons"/> | |||
Conversely, the U.N. Command's air force, operating primarily through the ] and the U.S. Navy’s ], exerted constant pressure both day and night against the industrial infrastructure of North Korea and against the logistics system supplying the communist armies. Some lengthy operations, such as ], an attempt to force the communists to truck in supplies by cutting its railroads, were unsuccessful, while others, such as the joint-service and multi-national ] and the capital city of Pyongyang in 1952 achieved military success. | |||
] move out over rugged mountain terrain while closing with North Korean forces.]] | |||
Although images of the civilian victims of the weapon were to be ingrained upon the memory of the world in Vietnam, it was later claimed that significantly more ] was dropped on North Korea, despite the relative short length of the conflict. Tens of thousands of ]s were dropped on Korea each day.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} | |||
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Thunderbolt was followed by ], carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=121}} Operation Killer concluded with US ] re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=122}} On 7 March the Eighth Army attacked with ], expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March. This was the fourth and final conquest of the city in a year, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000 and people were suffering from food shortages.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=122}}<ref name="KIMH"/> | |||
On 6 March MacArthur gave a press conference at Suwon where he stated "Assuming no diminution of the enemy’s flow of ground forces and materiel to the Korean battle area, a continuation of the existing limitation upon our freedom of counter-offensive action, and no major additions to our organizational strength, the battle lines cannot fail in time to reach a point of theoretical stalemate." No one in Washington disputed MacArthur’s prediction that a stalemate could develop out of the conditions obtaining. But a military victory, because of the commitments and risks an attempt to achieve it would entail, was no longer considered a practical objective. The preferred course, preferred because it would be consistent with the greater strategy and ongoing preparations against the possibility of world war, was to seek a cease-fire and a negotiated settlement of Korean issues.{{Sfn|Mossman|1990|p=319}} On 12 March Ridgway gave his own press conference at his command post at ] stating that regaining the 38th parallel would be a "tremendous victory" for the Eighth Army. It would mean that the encroachment of communism in Korea had been stopped - exactly what the UNC had set out to accomplish. Conversely, if the Chinese failed to drive the UNC out of Korea, they would have "failed monumentally." In any case, he emphasized, "we didn't set out to conquer China."{{Sfn|Mossman|1990|p=320}} | |||
=== Proposed use of nuclear weapons === | |||
Historian ] believes that Truman's allusions to the possibility of nuclear weapons use at a press conference on November 30, 1950 "was a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assumed it to be."<ref name="Cumings1">{{cite book | last =Cumings | first =Bruce | authorlink =Bruce Cumings | title =Korea's Place in the Sun: A History | publisher =WW Norton & Company | date =1997 | pages =pp 289-92 | isbn =0393316815 }}</ref> Cumings argues that Truman sought MacArthur's removal primarily because he felt that MacArthur would not be reliable enough in a situation where Washington had decided to use atomic weapons. Cumings notes that the same day as the press conference, orders were sent between top Air Forces generals for the ] to "augment its capacities and that this should include “atomic capabilities."<ref name="Cumings1" /> According to Cumings, the U.S. reached its closest point of using nuclear weapons during the war in April 1951. At the end of March, after the Chinese had moved large amounts of new forces near the Korean border, U.S. bomb loading pits at Kadena air base in ] were made operational, and bombs were assembled there "lacking only the essential nuclear cores." On April 5, the Joint Chiefs of Staff released orders for immediate retaliatory attacks using atomic weapons against Manchurian bases in the event that large numbers of new Chinese troops entered into the fights or bombing attacks originated from those bases. The same day Truman gave his approval for transfer of nine Mark IV nuclear capsules "to the air force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons" and "the president signed an order to use them against against Chinese and Korean targets." Remarking that the signed order was never sent, Cuming's offers two reasons why this was the case. Firstly, Truman had used the crisis to convince the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the necessity of MacArthur's removal (announced April 10) and secondly, since the war was not thereafter escalated by the Chinese and Soviets, no necessity of using them presented itself.<ref name="Cumings1" /> | |||
In late April, Peng sent his deputy, ], to brief Zhou in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these were never sufficient. Large-scale air defense training programs were carried out and the ] (PLAAF) began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=149}} The Fourth Phase Offensive had failed to match the achievements of the Second Phase or the limited gains of the Third Phase. The UN forces, after earlier defeats and retraining, proved much harder to infiltrate by Chinese light infantry than in previous months. From 31 January to 21 April, the Chinese suffered 53,000 casualties.<ref>Xiaobing, Li (2014). ''China's Battle for Korea: The 1951 Spring Offensive''. Indiana University Press. p. 63.</ref> | |||
This viewpoint is contradicted however by the facts, as on ], ], President Truman at a press conference, remarked, no doubt extemporaneously, that the use of the atomic bomb was under active consideration, unintentionally implying to some observers that its use would be left to the discretion of General MacArthur. Even though subsequently he attempted to subdue the storm of protest and consternation which followed by pointing out that only he could authorize use of the atomic bomb and that he had not given such authorization, he could not avoid the real issue that any decision to use the bomb would be a United States, not a United Nations, decision. This led to a meeting ] with ], Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (who also represented the leaders of the other Commonwealth nations and with the French Premier and Foreign Minister, to discuss their concerns over the possible use of the atomic bomb. Indian Ambassador ] recalls, "that Truman announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed totally unmoved by this threat.... The propaganda against American aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the revolution to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities." <ref name="Schnabel" /><ref>{{cite book | last =Knightley | first =Phillip | title =The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker | publisher =Quartet | date =1982 | pages =p 334 | isbn =080186951X }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Panikkar | first =Kavalam Madhava | authorlink =Kavalam Madhava Panikkar | title =In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat | publisher =Hyperion Press | date =1981 | isbn =0830500138 }}</ref> | |||
On 11 April Truman ] as supreme commander in Korea for several reasons.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=123–27}} MacArthur had crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed the use of nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the president's.{{Sfn|Stein|1994|p=69}} MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a larger war, feeling a truce and orderly withdrawal could be a valid solution.{{Sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 600}} MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined he had defied the orders of the president and thus violated the ].{{Sfn|Stein|1994|p=79}} A popular criticism of MacArthur was he never spent a night in Korea and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.{{Sfn|Halberstam|2007|p= 498}} | |||
Six days later, on ], ], after the Chinese intervention had forced the UN forces into a retreat from northern North Korea, General ] (]), General MacArthur, Admiral ], and General Stratemeyer, and with key staff officers, Hickey, Willoughby, and Wright, met in Tokyo for a full discussion of what moves to take against the Chinese. They projected three hypothetical scenarios covering the next few weeks or months.<ref name="Schnabel" /> | |||
], March 1951]] | |||
In the first, they theorized that if the Chinese continued their all-out attack but with the UN Command forbidden to mount air attacks against China, no blockade of China set up, no reinforcements sent to Korea by ], and that there would be no substantial increase in MacArthur's U.S. forces until April 1951 when four ] divisions might be sent, then the ] might be used in North Korea.<ref name="Schnabel" /> | |||
Ridgway was appointed supreme commander, and he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=127}} while General ] assumed command of the Eighth Army.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=130}} Further attacks depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations ] (23–28 March) and ] (23 March) (a combat jump by the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team) were joint ground and airborne infiltrations meant to trap PVA forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to the ''Kansas Line'', north of the 38th parallel.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=131}} | |||
Under the second scenario, the conferees assumed a situation in which the Chinese attack would continue but with an effective naval blockade of China put in effect, air reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese mainland allowed, Chinese Nationalist forces exploited to the maximum, and the atomic bomb to be used if tactically appropriate. Given these conditions, General MacArthur said he should be directed to hold positions in Korea as far north as possible.<ref name="Schnabel" /> | |||
The PVA counterattacked in April 1951, with the ], with three field armies (700,000 men).{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=131–32}} The first thrust of the offensive fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the ] (22–25 April) and ] (22–25 April), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the ''No-name Line'' north of Seoul.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=133–34}} Casualty ratios were grievously disproportionate; Peng had expected a 1:1 or 2:1 ratio, but instead, Chinese combat casualties from 22 to 29 April totaled between 40,000 and 60,000 compared to only 4,000 for the UN—a ratio between 10:1 and 15:1.<ref>Xiaobing 2014, pp. 124-125.</ref> By the time Peng had called off the attack in the western sector on 29 April, the three participating armies had lost a third of their front-line combat strength within a week.<ref>Xiaobing 2014, p. 125.</ref> On 15 May the PVA commenced the second impulse of the spring offensive and ] in the east at the ]. Approximately 370,000 PVA and 114,000 KPA troops had been mobilized, with the bulk attacking in the eastern sector, with about a quarter attempting to pin the I Corps and IX Corps in the western sector. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May and repulsed over the following days, with Western histories generally designating 22 May as the end of the offensive.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=136–37}}<ref>Xiaobing 2014, p. 149.</ref> | |||
Under the third scenario, in which the Chinese would agree not to cross south of the 38th Parallel, MacArthur felt the United Nations should accept an armistice. The conditions of the armistice should preclude movement of North Korean and Chinese forces below the parallel. North Korean guerrillas should withdraw into their own territory with the Eighth Army remaining in positions covering the Seoul-Inch'on area, while X Corps pulled back to Pusan. An United Nations commission should supervise the implementation of armistice terms.<ref name="Schnabel" /> | |||
At month's end, the Chinese planned the third step of the Fifth Phase Offensive (withdrawal), which they estimated would take 10-15 days to complete for their 340,000 remaining men, and set the date for the night of 23 May. They were caught off guard when the Eighth Army counterattacked and regained the ''Kansas Line'' on the morning of 12 May, 23 hours before the expected withdrawal.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=137–38}}<ref name="Xiaobing 2014, p. 181">Xiaobing 2014, p. 181.</ref> The surprise attack turned the retreat into "the most severe loss since our forces had entered Korea"; between 16-23 May, the PVA suffered another 45,000 to 60,000 casualties before their soldiers managed to evacuate.<ref name="Xiaobing 2014, p. 181"/> The Fifth Phase Offensive as a whole had cost the PVA 102,000 soldiers (85,000 killed/wounded, 17,000 captured), with significant losses for the KPA.<ref>Xiaobing 2009, pp. 101-102</ref> | |||
So, while the US had contemplated using the atomic bomb in Korea, Truman did not publicly threaten to use the bomb immediately after the Chinese intervention, but instead remarked about the consideration of using the bomb around 45 days later and only after UN forces were in retreat and had suffered some serious losses. MacArthur and other military leaders did not work on scenarios for using the bomb until after Truman's inadvertent remark during a press conference 6 days earlier. The decision not to use the atomic bomb also was not due to "a disinclination by the USSR and PRC to escalate" but rather due to pressure from UN allies, notably Britain, the British Commonwealth, and France, who were concerned that if the United States became involved in a war with Communist China, American commitments to NATO would, through sheer necessity, go by the board. China then might have little difficulty in persuading Russia to move into western Europe and without U.S. resistance to this aggression, Russia could take all of Europe at little cost.<ref name="Schnabel" /><ref>{{cite book | last =Truman | first =Harry S | authorlink =Harry S Truman | title =Memoirs (2 volumes) | publisher =Doubleday | date =1955-1956 | pages =vol. II, p. 394-395 | isbn =156852062X }}</ref> | |||
The end of the Fifth Phase Offensive preceded the start of the ]. During the counteroffensive, the US-led coalition captured land up to about {{Convert|6|mi|km|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} north of the 38th parallel, with most forces stopping at the ''Kansas Line'' and a minority going further to the ''Wyoming Line.'' PVA and KPA forces suffered greatly, especially in the Chuncheon sector and at Chiam-ni and Hwacheon; in the latter sector alone the PVA/KPA suffered over 73,207 casualties, including 8,749 captured, compared to 2,647 total casualties of the IX Corps.<ref>Mossman, Billy (1988). United States Army in the Korean War: Ebb and Flow November 1950 – July 1951. United States Army Center of Military History. p. 465.</ref> | |||
The halt at the ''Kansas Line'' and offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953. The disastrous failure of the Fifth Phase Offensive (which Peng recalled as one of only four mistakes he made in his military career) "led Chinese leaders to change their goal from driving the UNF out of Korea to merely defending China's security and ending the war through negotiations".<ref>Xiaobing 2009, p. 103</ref> | |||
===Stalemate (July 1951–July 1953)=== | |||
] tanks, painted with tiger heads thought to demoralize Chinese forces]] | |||
For the rest of the war, the UN and the PVA/KPA fought but exchanged little territory. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted ] began on 10 July 1951 at Kaesong in the North.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=145, 175–77}} On the Chinese side, Zhou directed peace talks, and ] and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=149}} Combat continued; the goal of the UN forces was to recapture all of South Korea and avoid losing territory.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=159}} The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations and later effected military and psychological operations to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war. | |||
The sides constantly traded artillery fire along the front, with American-led forces possessing a large firepower advantage over Chinese-led forces. In the last three months of 1952 the UN fired 3,553,518 field gun shells and 2,569,941 mortar shells, while the communists fired 377,782 field gun shells and 672,194 mortar shells: a 5.8:1 ratio.<ref>Clodfelter 1989, p. 22.</ref> The communist insurgency, reinvigorated by North Korean support and scattered bands of KPA stragglers, resurged in the south. | |||
In the autumn of 1951, Van Fleet ordered Major General ] to break the back of guerrilla activity. The UN's limited offensive (31 August – 12 November) to shorten and straighten sections of the lines, acquire better defensive terrain, and deny the enemy key vantage points, saw heavy fighting by UN forces, with I Corps and X Corps making limited tactical advances against PVA and KPA forces. The campaign resulted in approximately 60,000 casualties, including 22,000 Americans. The intense battles at ], ] and ] underscored the challenges of penetrating the Chinese "active defense." Despite PVA/KPA losses of 100,000–150,000 troops, these were not crippling, and the PVA forces remained resolute. By November, the UNC abandoned major offensive operations, and the PVA launched counterattacks with some success.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-29 |title=Korean War - Armistice, Negotiations, Conflict {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War/Talking-and-fighting-1951-53 |access-date=2024-12-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> | |||
From December 1951 to March 1952, ROK security forces claimed to have killed 11,090 partisans and sympathizers and captured 9,916 more.<ref name="EB" /> | |||
PVA troops suffered from deficient military equipment, logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. These factors led to a rate of Chinese casualties far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that in November 1951 Zhou called a conference in ] to discuss the PVA's logistical problems. It was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields, to increase the trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to address the problems.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=148}} | |||
] | |||
In the months after the Shenyang conference, Peng went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties and the increasing difficulty of keeping front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced the war would be protracted and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the ], presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of government agencies. After government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the war demands, Peng shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?" The atmosphere became so tense Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou called a series of meetings, where it was agreed the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate training of pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|pp=148–49}} | |||
With peace negotiations ongoing, the Chinese attempted a final offensive in the final weeks of the war to capture territory: on 10 June, 30,000 Chinese troops struck South Korean and U.S. divisions on a {{Convert|8|mi|km|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} front, and on 13 July, 80,000 Chinese soldiers struck the east-central Kumsong sector, with the brunt of their attack falling on 4 South Korean divisions. The Chinese had success in penetrating South Korean lines but failed to capitalize, particularly when US forces responded with overwhelming firepower. Chinese casualties in their final major offensive (above normal wastage for the front) were about 72,000, including 25,000 killed compared to 14,000 for the UN (most were South Koreans, 1,611 were Americans).<ref>Clodfelter 1989, p. 24.</ref> | |||
While Chinese forces grappled with significant logistical and supply difficulties, the stalemate also stemmed from mounting frustrations within the UNC. Despite superior firepower, the war proved difficult to fight and the US public was becoming impatient of a war that was lacking a victory. By mid-1951, the stalemate had worn away Truman's ], and political pressures mounted on the Truman administration to seek an end to the fighting. On 29 November 1952 U.S. President-elect ] went to Korea to learn what might end the war.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=240}} Eisenhower took office on 20 January 1953 and his administration prioritized containment over rollback and sought to reduce American involvement in the conflict, contributing to the later armistice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Korean War |url=https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/korean-war |website=Eisenhower Library}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NSC-68 and the Korean War |url=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/koreanwar#:~:text=The%20Korean%20War%20was%20difficult,Eisenhower%2C%20as%20the%20next%20President |website=Office of the Historian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-25 |title=Harry S. Truman - Korean War, 33rd US President, Cold War {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harry-S-Truman/Outbreak-of-the-Korean-War |access-date=2024-12-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> | |||
===Armistice (July 1953–November 1954)=== | |||
{{Main|Korean Armistice Agreement}} | |||
], June 1953]] | |||
The on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years,{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=144–53}} first at Kaesong, then ].{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=147}} A problematic point was ] repatriation.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=187–99}} The PVA, KPA and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north,<ref name="Boose2000"/> which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=189–90}} A ] was set up to handle the matter.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=242–45}} | |||
Stalin died on 5 March. The new Soviet leaders, engaged in their internal power struggle, had no desire to continue supporting China's efforts and called for an end to the hostilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Agov |first=Avram |date=2013 |title=North Korea's Alliances and the Unfinished Korean War |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/528256 |journal=The Journal of Korean Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=225–262 |doi=10.1353/jks.2013.0020 |s2cid=145216046 |doi-access=free |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604110556/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/528256 |url-status=live }}</ref> China could not continue without Soviet aid, and North Korea was no longer a major player. Armistice talks entered a new phase. With UN acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrison (Lt. Col.) |first=William T. |title=Military Armistice in Korea: A Case Study for Strategic Leaders |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA404504.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801180412/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA404504 |archive-date=1 August 2013 |access-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> the KPA, PVA and UN Command signed the armistice agreement on 27 July 1953. South Korean President Syngman Rhee refused to sign. The war ended at this point, even though there was no ].<ref name="US neutral commission"/> North Korea nevertheless claims it won the war.<ref name="Ho1993"/><ref name="KCNA2011"/> | |||
Under the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) which mostly follows the 38th parallel. In the eastern part, the DMZ runs north of the 38th parallel; to the west, it travels south of it. Kaesong, site of the initial negotiations, was in pre-war South Korea but is now part of North Korea. The DMZ has since been patrolled by the KPA and the ROKA, with the US still operating as the UN Command. | |||
] was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatants to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 US Army and US Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN POW camps were delivered to the South Korean government.<ref name="OperationGlory"/> After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the ], on ], Hawaii. ] (DPMO) records indicate the PRC and North Korea transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the US, and all but 416 were identified by name.<ref name="DPMO"/> From 1996 to 2006, North Korea recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.<ref name="Army Times"/> | |||
===Continued division (1954–present)=== | |||
{{See also|Korean Demilitarized Zone}} | |||
].]] | |||
The Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the ], composed of members from the Swiss<ref name="SwissArmy"/> and Swedish<ref name="SwedishArmy"/> armed forces, has been stationed near the DMZ. | |||
In April 1975, ]'s capital of ] by the ]. Encouraged by that communist success, Kim Il Sung saw it as an opportunity to invade South Korea. Kim visited China in April 1975 and met with Mao and Zhou to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, Beijing refused to help North Korea in another war.<ref name="KimIlsung1975">{{Cite web |last=Ria Chae |date=May 2012 |title=NKIDP e-Dossier No. 7: East German Documents on Kim Il Sung's April 1975 Trip to Beijing |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/nkidp-e-dossier-no-7-east-german-documents-kim-il-sung%E2%80%99s-april-1975-trip-to-beijing#_ftn2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104124051/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/nkidp-e-dossier-no-7-east-german-documents-kim-il-sung%E2%80%99s-april-1975-trip-to-beijing |archive-date=4 November 2012 |access-date=30 May 2012 |series=North Korea International Documentation Project |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
Since the armistice, there have been incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. From 1966 to 1969, many cross-border incursions took place in what has been referred to as the ] or Second Korean War. In 1968, a North Korean commando team unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate South Korean president ] in the ]. In 1976, the ] was widely publicized. Since 1974, 4 incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine ] the South Korean ] {{ROKS|Cheonan|PCC-772|6}}, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors.<ref name="BBC2010"/> Again in 2010, North Korea ] island, killing 2 military personnel and 2 civilians.<ref name="Reuters2010"/> | |||
After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Park |first=Madison |date=11 March 2013 |title=North Korea declares 1953 armistice invalid |work=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/11/world/asia/north-korea-armistice/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311175505/http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/11/world/asia/north-korea-armistice/index.html |archive-date=11 March 2013}}</ref> On 13 March, North Korea confirmed it ended the Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression".<ref name="end of armistise">{{Cite web |last=Chang-Won |first=Lim |title=North Korea confirms end of war armistice |url=http://www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/9765-north-korea-confirms-end-of-war-armistice |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702052515/http://www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/9765-north-korea-confirms-end-of-war-armistice |archive-date=2 July 2014 |access-date=17 June 2014 |publisher=Tolo News}}</ref> On 30 March, North Korea stated it entered a "state of war" and "the long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over".<ref name="NK state of war">{{Cite news |date=30 March 2013 |title=North Korea enters 'state of war' with South |publisher=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21979127 |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330013512/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21979127 |archive-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> Speaking on 4 April, US Secretary of Defense ] said that Pyongyang "formally informed" the Pentagon that it "ratified" the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the US, including Guam and Hawaii.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 March 2013 |title=North Korea threatens pre-emptive nuclear strike against US |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/07/north-korea-threatens-nuclear-strike-us |url-status=live |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104194322/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/07/north-korea-threatens-nuclear-strike-us |archive-date=4 November 2013}}</ref> Hagel stated the US would deploy the ] ] system to Guam because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 April 2013 |title=North Korea threats: US to move missiles to Guam |publisher=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22021832 |url-status=live |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404001650/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22021832 |archive-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> | |||
In 2016, it was revealed North Korea approached the US about conducting formal peace talks to end the war officially. While the ] agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected because North Korea refused to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the treaty.<ref name="CassellaChiacu">{{Cite news |last1=Cassella |first1=Megan |last2=Chiacu |first2=Doina |date=21 February 2016 |title=U.S. rejected North Korea peace talks offer before last nuclear test: State Department |work=] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-nuclear-idUSKCN0VU0XE |url-status=live |access-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222022637/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-nuclear-idUSKCN0VU0XE |archive-date=22 February 2016}}</ref> In 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talk to end the conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Griffiths |first=James |date=27 April 2018 |title=North and South Korea vow to end the Korean War in historic accord |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/27/asia/korean-summit-intl/index.html |access-date=29 April 2018 |archive-date=27 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427092617/https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/27/asia/korean-summit-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> North Korean leader ] and South Korean President ] signed the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=11 September 2018 |title=Panmunjom Declaration for Peace, Prosperity and Unification of the Korean Peninsula (2018.4.27) |url=https://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/brd/m_5478/view.do?seq=319130&srchFr=&srchTo=&srchWord=&srchTp=&multi_itm_seq=0&itm_seq_1=0&itm_seq_2=0&company_cd=&company_nm=&page=1&titleNm= |access-date=28 April 2023 |website=Ministry of Public Affairs Republic of Korea |archive-date=29 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429002936/https://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/brd/m_5478/view.do?seq=319130&srchFr=&srchTo=&srchWord=&srchTp=&multi_itm_seq=0&itm_seq_1=0&itm_seq_2=0&company_cd=&company_nm=&page=1&titleNm= |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2021, Moon reiterated his call to end the war formally, in a speech at the UN.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-21 |title=South Korean leader repeats call for declaration to end Korean War |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korean-leader-repeats-call-declaration-end-korean-war-2021-09-21/ |access-date=2021-09-22 |website=Reuters |language=en |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922131541/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korean-leader-repeats-call-declaration-end-korean-war-2021-09-21/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==Casualties== | |||
About 3 million people were killed in the war, mostly civilians, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era.<ref name="Cumings p. 35">{{Cite book |last=Cumings |first=Bruce |title=The Korean War: A History |publisher=] |date=2011 |isbn=9780812978964 |page=35 |quote=Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of non-hostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat. |author-link=Bruce Cumings}}</ref><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453">{{Cite book |last=Lewy |first=Guenter |title=America in Vietnam |title-link=America in Vietnam |publisher=] |date=1980 |isbn=9780199874231 |pages=450–453 |quote=For the Korean War the only hard statistic is that of American military deaths, which included 33,629 battle deaths and 20,617 who died of other causes. The North Korean and Chinese Communists never published statistics of their casualties. The number of South Korean military deaths has been given as in excess of 400,000; the South Korean Ministry of Defense puts the number of killed and missing at 281,257. Estimates of communist troops killed are about one-half million. The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1 million military deaths and a possible 2.5 million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict. The proportion of civilians killed in the major wars of this century (and not only in the major ones) has thus risen steadily. It reached about 42 percent in World War II and may have gone as high as 70 percent in the Korean War. ... we find that the ratio of civilian to military deaths is not substantially different from that of World War II and is well below that of the Korean War. |author-link=Guenter Lewy}}</ref><ref name="Kim p.45">{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Samuel S. |title=International Relations of Asia |publisher=] |date=2014 |isbn=9781442226418 |page=45 |chapter=The Evolving Asian System |quote=With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including the Chinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), the Vietnam War (2 million), and the ] ] in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McGuire |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/wealthhealthdemo00mcgu |title=Wealth, Health, and Democracy in East Asia and Latin America |publisher=] |date=2010 |isbn=9781139486224 |page= |quote=In Korea, war in the early 1950s cost nearly 3 million lives, including nearly a million civilian dead in South Korea. |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Painter |first=David S. |url=https://archive.org/details/coldwarinternati00pain |title=The Cold War: An International History |publisher=] |date=1999 |isbn=9780415153164 |page= |quote=Before it ended, the Korean War cost over 3 million people their lives, including over 50,000 U.S. servicemen and women, and a much higher number of Chinese and Korean lives. The war also set in motion a number of changes that led to the militarization and intensification of the Cold War. |author-link=David S. Painter |url-access=limited}}</ref> Samuel Kim lists the war as the deadliest conflict in East Asia—the region most affected by armed conflict related to the Cold War.<ref name="Kim p.45"/> Though only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than World War II or the Vietnam War, with Bruce Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2 million and ] in the range of 2-3 million.<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453"/> | |||
Cumings states that civilians represent at least half the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests it may have gone as high as 70%, compared to his estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%–46% in Vietnam.<ref name="Cumings p. 35" /><ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453" /> Data compiled by the ] lists just under 1 million battle deaths over the war and a mid-estimate of 3 million total deaths, attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lacina |first=Bethany |date=September 2009 |title=The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946–2008, Version 3.0 |url=https://files.prio.org/ReplicationData/BattleDeathsDataset/PRIO%20Battle%20Deaths%20Dataset%203.0%20Documentation.pdf |access-date=29 August 2019 |publisher=] |pages=359–362 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328071648/https://files.prio.org/ReplicationData/BattleDeathsDataset/PRIO%20Battle%20Deaths%20Dataset%203.0%20Documentation.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Compounding this devastation for civilians, virtually all major cities on the Peninsula were destroyed.<ref name="Lewy pp. 450-453" /> In per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the most devastated by the war. According to ], the war resulted in the death of an estimated 12%–15% of the North Korean population ({{Circa}} 10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of ]".<ref name="Armstrong">{{Cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=Charles K. |date=20 December 2010 |title=The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960 |url=https://apjjf.org/-Charles-K--Armstrong/3460/article.pdf |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal |volume=8 |issue=51 |page=1 |access-date=13 September 2019 |quote=The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II. |archive-date=16 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116204532/https://apjjf.org/-Charles-K--Armstrong/3460/article.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
===Military=== | |||
], South Africa.]] | |||
{{See also|Australia in the Korean War|l1=Australia|Belgian Volunteer Corps for Korea|l2=Belgium|Canada in the Korean War|l3=Canada|Colombian Battalion|l4=Colombia|Kagnew Battalion|l5=Ethiopia|French Battalion|l6=France|Greek Expeditionary Force (Korea)|l7=Greece|Luxembourg in the Korean War|l8=Luxembourg|Regiment van Heutsz#Korean War|l9=Netherlands|New Zealand in the Korean War|l10=New Zealand|Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea|l11=Philippines|Thailand in the Korean War|l12=Thailand|Turkish Brigade|l13=Turkey|2 Squadron SAAF#Korean War|l14=South Africa|United Kingdom in the Korean War|l15=United Kingdom|United States in the Korean War|l16=United States}} | |||
{{See also|People's Volunteer Army|l1=China|North Korea in the Korean War|l2=North Korea|Soviet Union in the Korean War|l3=Soviet Union}} | |||
South Korea reported some 137,899 military deaths and 24,495 missing, 450,742 wounded, 8,343 POW.<ref name="ROK Web"/> The US suffered 33,686 battle deaths, 7,586 missing,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dpaa.mil/Our-Missing/Past-Conflicts/|title=Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency > Our Missing > Past Conflicts|website=www.dpaa.mil|access-date=30 April 2020|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501075425/https://www.dpaa.mil/Our-Missing/Past-Conflicts/|url-status=live}}</ref> along with 2,830 non-battle deaths. There were 17,730 other non-battle US military deaths that occurred outside Korea during the same period that were erroneously included as war deaths until 2000.<ref name="Vogel">{{Cite news |last=Vogel |first=Steve |date=2000-06-25 |title=Death Miscount Etched Into History |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/06/25/death-miscount-etched-into-history/ab9d6830-b10d-429c-a3b0-cbdbaa3a23d1/ |access-date=2023-02-17 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en |archive-date=9 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109082437/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2000/06/25/death-miscount-etched-into-history/ab9d6830-b10d-429c-a3b0-cbdbaa3a23d1/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="amerdead">{{Cite news |last=Rhem, Kathleen T. |date=8 June 2000 |title=Defense.gov News Article: Korean War Death Stats Highlight Modern DoD Safety Record |publisher=defense.gov. US Department of Defense |url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45275 |access-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114121831/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45275 |archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref> The US suffered 103,284 wounded in action.<ref name=casualties>{{cite book |last1=Micheal Clodfelter |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 |date=2017 |page=664 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=9780786474707 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8urEDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA664}}</ref> UN losses, excluding those of the US or South Korea, amounted to 4,141 dead and 12,044 wounded in action. | |||
American combat casualties were over 90% of non-Korean UN losses. US battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20141221221335/http://aad.archives.gov/aad/display-partial-records.jsp?dt=2512&sc=27406,27409,27410,27361,27363,27364,27366,27384,27392&cat=all&tf=F&bc=,sl,fd&q=&as_alq=&as_anq=&as_epq=&as_woq=&nfo_27406=V,10,1900&op_27406=0&txt_27406=&nfo_27409=V,40,1900&op_27409=0&txt_27409=&nfo_27410=V,1,1900&cl_27410=&nfo_27361=N,8,1889&op_27361=3&txt_27361=&txt_27361=&nfo_27363=V,50,1900&op_27363=0&txt_27363=&nfo_27364=V,50,1900&op_27364=0&txt_27364=&nfo_27366=V,2,1900&cl_27366=&nfo_27384=D,8,1950&op_27384=8&txt_27384=06/28/1950&txt_27384=10/31/1950&nfo_27392=V,2,1900&cl_27392=H |date=21 December 2014 }} Korean War Extract Data File. Accessed 21 December 2014.</ref> The first four months prior to the Chinese intervention were by far the bloodiest per day for US forces, as they engaged the well-equipped KPA in intense fighting. American medical records show that from July to October 1950, the army sustained 31% of the combat deaths it ultimately incurred in the entire 37-month war.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808093826/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/korea/reister/appb.htm |date=8 August 2020 }}. Accessed 7 January 2019. Table B-1.</ref> The US spent US$30 billion on the war.<ref>Daggett, Stephen. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116202015/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22926.pdf |date=16 January 2019 }}. Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC, p. 2.</ref> Some 1,789,000 American soldiers served in the war, accounting for 31% of the 5,720,000 Americans who served on active duty worldwide from June 1950 to July 1953.<ref name="Fact Sheet: America's Wars"/> | |||
Deaths from non-American UN militaries totaled 3,730, with another 379 missing.<ref name="ROK Web"/> {{Collapsible list | |||
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| {{Flag|United Kingdom|1801}}:<br />1,109 dead<ref name="BESeoul"/><br />2,674 wounded<ref name="BESeoul">{{Cite web |last=Office of the Defence Attaché |date=30 September 2010 |title=Korean war |url=http://ukinrok.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-korea/defence-relations/korean-war |access-date=16 February 2013 |website=British Embassy Seoul |publisher=] |archive-date=9 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120409080726/http://ukinrok.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-korea/defence-relations/korean-war |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />179 MIA<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />977 POW<ref name="ROK Web"/> | |||
| {{Flag|Turkey|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />741 dead<br />2,068 wounded<br />163 MIA<br />244 POW | |||
| {{Flag|Canada|1921|size=23px}}:<br />516 dead<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=11 October 2011 |title=Korean War WebQuest |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/teach_resources/korwebquest/grp02/korsum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130062836/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/teach_resources/korwebquest/grp02/korsum |archive-date=30 January 2013 |access-date=28 May 2013 |website=Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |quote=In Brampton, Ontario, there is a 60-metre long "Memorial Wall" of polished granite, containing individual bronze plaques which commemorate the 516 Canadian soldiers who died during the Korean War.}}<br />{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=1 March 2013 |title=Canada Remembers the Korean War |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/history/KoreaWar/koreawar_fact |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006110456/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/history/KoreaWar/koreawar_fact |archive-date=6 October 2012 |access-date=27 May 2013 |website=Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |quote=The names of 516 Canadians who died in service during the conflict are inscribed in the Korean War Book of Remembrance located in the Peace Tower in Ottawa.}}</ref><br />1,042 wounded<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Aiysha Abdullah |last2=Kirk Fachnie |date=6 December 2010 |title=Korean War veterans talk of "forgotten war" |url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=4854 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523072128/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=4854 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |access-date=28 May 2013 |website=Canadian Army |publisher=Government of Canada |quote=Canada lost 516 military personnel during the Korean War and 1,042 more were wounded.}}<br />{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Canadians in the Korean War |url=http://www.kvacanada.com/canadians_in_the_korean_war.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511043518/http://www.kvacanada.com/canadians_in_the_korean_war.htm |archive-date=11 May 2013 |access-date=28 May 2013 |website=kvacanada.com |publisher=Korean Veterans Association of Canada Inc. |quote=Canada's casualties totalled 1,558 including 516 who died.}}<br />{{Cite news |date=8 January 2013 |title=2013 declared year of Korean war veteran |work=MSN News |agency=The Canadian Press |url=http://news.ca.msn.com/canada/2013-declared-year-of-korean-war-veteran |url-status=dead |access-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102154432/http://news.ca.msn.com/canada/2013-declared-year-of-korean-war-veteran |archive-date=2 November 2013 |quote=The 1,558 Canadian casualties in the three-year conflict included 516 people who died.}}</ref><br />1 MIA<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />33 POW<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ted Barris |date=1 July 2003 |title=Canadians in Korea |url=http://legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2003/07/canadians-in-korea/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720042136/http://legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2003/07/canadians-in-korea/ |archive-date=20 July 2013 |access-date=28 May 2013 |website=legionmagazine.com |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion |quote=Not one of the 33 Canadian PoWs imprisoned in North Korea signed the petitions.}}</ref> | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Australia|size=23px}}:<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328164845/https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/korea/mia/ |date=28 March 2012 }} Retrieved 17 March 2012</ref><br />339 dead<br />1,216 wounded<br />43 MIA<br />26 POW | |||
| {{Flagcountry|French Fourth Republic|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />262 dead<br />1,008 wounded<br />7 MIA<br />12 POW | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state|size=23px}}<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />192 dead<br />543 wounded<br />3 POW | |||
| {{Flag|Colombia|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />163 dead<br />448 wounded<br />28 POW | |||
| {{Flag|Thailand|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />129 dead<br />1,139 wounded<br />5 MIA{{Clarify|reason=Conflicts with data on ] article|date=December 2021}} | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Ethiopian Empire|size=23px}}<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />121 dead<br />536 wounded | |||
| {{Flag|Netherlands|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />122 dead<br />645 wounded<br />3 MIA | |||
| {{Flag|Belgium|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />101 dead<br />478 wounded<br />5 MIA<br />1 POW | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Third Philippine Republic|1936|size=23px}}:<ref name="GWHQ2002">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PA160 |title=Ground Warfare: H–Q |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2002 |isbn=978-1576073445 |editor-last=Sandler |editor-first=Stanley |series=Volume 2 of Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia |page=160 |quote=Philippines: KIA 92; WIA 299; MIA/POW 97<br />New Zealand: KIA 34; WIA 299; MIA/POW 1 |access-date=19 March 2013 |archive-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320155413/https://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PA160 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />92 dead<br />299 wounded<br />97 MIA/POW | |||
| {{Flag|Japan|1947}}:<ref name="auto"/><br />79 dead | |||
| {{Flagcountry|Union of South Africa|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />34 dead<br />9 POW | |||
| {{Flag|New Zealand|size=23px}}:<ref name="GWHQ2002"/><br />34 dead<br />299 wounded<br />1 MIA/POW | |||
| {{Flag|Norway|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />3 dead | |||
| {{Flag|Luxembourg|size=23px}}:<ref name="ROK Web"/><br />2 dead<br />13 wounded | |||
| {{Flag|India|size=23px}}:<ref name="The Times, 14 August 1950">{{Cite news |date=14 August 1950 |title=Two War Reporters Killed |work=] |location=London |issn=0140-0460 |ref={{SfnRef|''The Times'', 14 August 1950}}}}</ref><br />1 dead | |||
}} | |||
Chinese sources reported that the PVA suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 21,000 deaths from wounds, 13,000 deaths from illness, 340,000 wounded, and 7,600 missing. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China.<ref name="xu"/> In 2010, the Chinese government revised their official tally of war losses to 183,108 dead (114,084 in combat, 70,000 deaths from wounds, illness and other causes) and 21,374 POW,<ref>{{Cite web|title=南北375万人死亡した朝鮮戦争 終戦宣言が期待されるも数歩後退に|url=https://www.koreaworldtimes.com/topics/news/8584/|website=KOREA WORLD TIMES|date=30 January 2021|accessdate=2024-01-25|archive-date=5 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205092413/https://www.koreaworldtimes.com/topics/news/8584/|url-status=live}}</ref> 25,621 missing.<ref name="china.org.cn"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603132334/http://www.china.org.cn/china/2010-06/28/content_20365659.htm |date=3 June 2013 }}. China Daily, 28 June 2010. State Council Information Office, Chinese government, Beijing. "According to statistics compiled by the army's medical departments and hospitals, 114,084 servicemen were killed in military action or accidents, and 25,621 soldiers had gone missing. The other about 70,000 casualties died from wounds, illness and other causes, he said. To date, civil affairs departments have registered 183,108 war martyrs, Xu said."</ref> Overall, 73% of Chinese infantry troops served in Korea (25 of 34 armies, or 79 of 109 infantry divisions, were rotated in). More than 52% of the Chinese air force, 55% of the tank units, 67% of the artillery divisions, and 100% of the railroad engineering divisions were sent to Korea as well.<ref>Xiaobing 2009, p. 106</ref> Chinese soldiers who served in Korea faced a greater chance of being killed than those who served in World War II or the Chinese Civil War.<ref>Xiaobing 2009, p. 111.</ref> China spent over 10 billion yuan on the war (roughly US$3.3 billion), not counting USSR aid.<ref name="Xiaobing 2009, p. 112">Xiaobing 2009, p. 112.</ref> This included $1.3 billion in money owed to the Soviet Union by the end of it. This was a relatively large cost, as China had only 4% of the national income of the US.<ref name="xu"/> Spending on the war constituted 34–43% of China's annual government budget from 1950 to 1953, depending on the year.<ref name="Xiaobing 2009, p. 112"/> Despite its underdeveloped economy, Chinese military spending was the world's fourth largest globally for most of the war after that of the US, the Soviet Union, and the UK; however, by 1953, with the winding down of the Korean War and the escalation of the ], French spending also surpassed Chinese spending by about a third.<ref>Correlates of War: National Material Capabilities (v4.0) Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808224851/https://ourworldindata.org/military-spending |date=8 August 2019 }} Accessed 8 August 2019.</ref> | |||
According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, North Korean military losses totaled 294,151 dead, 91,206 missing, and 229,849 wounded, giving North Korea the highest military deaths of any belligerent in absolute and relative terms.<ref name="Andrew C. Nahm 2004 pages 129-130">Andrew C. Nahm; James Hoare (2004). "Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Korea". Scarecrow Press, pp. 129–130.</ref> The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset gave a similar figure for North Korean military deaths of 316,579.<ref name="PRIO">Bethany Lacina and Nils Petter Gleditsch, 2005. ―Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths.‖ European Journal of Population: 21(2–3): 145–166. Korean data available at {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220604135816/https://files.prio.org/ReplicationData/BattleDeathsDataset/PRIO%20Battle%20Deaths%20Dataset%203.0%20Documentation.pdf |date=4 June 2022 }}, pp. 359–362</ref> Chinese sources reported similar figures for the North Korean military of 290,000 "casualties" and 90,000 captured.<ref name="xu"/> The financial cost of the war for North Korea was massive in direct losses and lost economic activity; the country was devastated by the cost of the war and ], which, among other things, destroyed 85% of North Korea's buildings and 95% of its power generation.<ref>Harden, Blaine (2017). ''King of Spies: The Dark Reign of America's Spymaster in Korea''. New York, p. 9.</ref> The Soviet Union suffered 299 dead, with 335 planes lost.<ref name="Krivosheev1997">{{Cite book |last=Krivošeev |first=Grigorij F. |title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Greenhill |date=1997 |isbn=978-1853672804 |location=London}}</ref> | |||
The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the US, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated" from the battlefield.<ref name="xu"/> Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed, 303,000 wounded, and over 101,000 captured or missing.<ref name="Hickey"/> Cumings cites a much higher figure of 900,000 fatalities among Chinese soldiers.<ref name="Cumings p. 35"/> | |||
===Civilian=== | |||
According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, there were over 750,000 confirmed violent civilians deaths during the war, another million civilians were pronounced missing, and millions more ended up as refugees. Estimates of the number of civilians killed in the entire war range from 244,000 to 990,000 for South Korea. The North Korean government has never published estimates of civilian deaths in the war, but more than one million killed has been an estimate common among historians who have studied the Korean War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conway-Lanz |first=Sahr |title=Collateral Damage: Americans, Noncombatant Immunity, and Atrocity after World War II |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |location=New York |pages=151}}</ref> Over 1.5 million North Koreans fled to the South.<ref name="Andrew C. Nahm 2004 pages 129-130"/> | |||
=== War crimes === | === War crimes === | ||
{{Main|War crimes in the Korean War}} | |||
==== Crimes against civilians ==== | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, starting in the war's first days. In 2005–2010, a ] investigated atrocities and other human rights violations through much of the 20th century, from the ] through the Korean War and beyond. It excavated some mass graves from the Bodo League massacres and confirmed the general outlines of those political executions. Of the Korean War-era massacres the commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Truth Commission: South Korea 2005 |url=http://www.usip.org/publications/truth-commission-south-korea-2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610224046/http://www.usip.org/publications/truth-commission-south-korea-2005 |archive-date=10 June 2015 |access-date=23 December 2018 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>cf. the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's preliminary March 2009 report: {{Cite web |date=March 2009 |title=Truth and Reconciliation: Activities of the Past Three Years |url=http://jinsil.go.kr/pdf/%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8%EB%B0%B1%EC%84%9C_20MS%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%BC_0205.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171441/http://jinsil.go.kr/pdf/%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8%EB%B0%B1%EC%84%9C_20MS%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%BC_0205.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |publisher=] |page=39 |quote=Out of those 9,600 petitions, South Korean forces conducted 7,922 individual massacres and North Korean forces conducted 1,687 individual massacres.}}</ref><ref name="bloodbath">{{Cite news |date=10 July 2010 |title=Korea bloodbath probe ends; US escapes much blame |work=The San Diego Union Tribune |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-korea-bloodbath-probe-ends-us-escapes-much-blame-2010jul10-story.html |access-date=11 June 2019 |quote=Last November, after investigating petitions from surviving relatives, the commission announced it had verified and identified 4,934 execution victims. But historian Kim Dong-choon, the former commissioner who led that investigation, estimates at least 60,000 to 110,000 died, and similar numbers were summarily executed when northern troops were driven from South Korea later in 1950 and alleged southern collaborators were rounded up. 'I am estimating conservatively,' he said. Korean War historian Park Myung-lim, methodically reviewing prison records, said he believes perhaps 200,000 were slaughtered in mid-1950 alone. |archive-date=4 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104180904/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-korea-bloodbath-probe-ends-us-escapes-much-blame-2010jul10-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The commission also received petitions alleging more than 200 large-scale killings of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military during the war, mostly air attacks. It confirmed several such cases, including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs, which survivors said killed 360 people, and an air attack that killed 197 refugees gathered in a field in the far south. It recommended South Korea seek reparations from the United States, but in 2010, a reorganized commission under a new, conservative government concluded that most U.S. mass killings resulted from "military necessity", while in a small number of cases, they concluded, the U.S. military had acted with "low levels of unlawfulness", but the commission recommended against seeking reparations.<ref name="bloodbath"/> | |||
] | |||
Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed during the war.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=297–98}}{{Sfn|Jager|2013|pp=237–42}} The war's highest-ranking U.S. POW, Major General William F. Dean,<ref name="Witt2005" /> reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland.<ref name="Cumings2004" /><ref>William F Dean (1954) ''General Dean's Story'', (as told to William L Worden), Viking Press, pp. 272–73.</ref> North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent".<ref name="japanfocus.org">{{Cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=Charles |date=20 December 2010 |title=The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960 |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-charles_k_-armstrong/3460/article.html |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal |volume=8 |issue=51 |access-date=13 June 2015 |archive-date=15 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615003900/http://www.japanfocus.org/-charles_k_-armstrong/3460/article.html |url-status=live }}</ref> North Korea ranks as among the most heavily bombed countries in history,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kiernan |first1=Ben |author-link=Ben Kiernan |last2=Owen |first2=Taylor |date=27 April 2015 |title=Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications |url=http://apjjf.org/2015/13/16/Ben-Kiernan/4313.html |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal |volume=13 |issue=17 |access-date=30 August 2019 |archive-date=12 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912002843/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs (including 32,557 tons of napalm) on Korea, more than during the entire Pacific War.<ref name="Walkom2010" /><ref name="japanfocus.org" /> By the end of the war, eighteen of the twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated according to damage assessments by the U.S. Air Force.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crane |first=Conrad C. |title=American Airpower Strategy in Korea, 1950-1953 |publisher=University of Kansas Press |year=2000 |location=Lawrence, KS}}</ref> During a Senate hearing in the spring of 1951, MacArthur expressed his horror at the devastation that the war was inflicting on the Koreans, describing it as the worst he had ever seen in his military career. As the most humane solution, MacArthur suggested that the war should be escalated in order to bring it to an end sooner.<ref>Committee on Foreign Relations, Military Situation in the Far East, 43, 82-83, 194, 219, 397-398,1362-1363. MacArthur's comments were popular with the weekly news magazines. See "The MacArthur Hearing," Time, May 14, 1951, 20.</ref> | |||
When parts of South Korea were under North Korean control, political killings, reportedly into the tens of thousands, took place in the cities and villages. The Communists systematically killed former South Korean government officials and others deemed hostile to the Communists, and such killing was intensified as North Koreans retreated from the South.<ref name="SOD">{{cite book | last =Rummel | first =R.J | title =Statistics of Democide | pages =Chapter 10, Statistics Of North Korean Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources | url =http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP10.HTM | isbn = }}</ref> | |||
==Characteristics== | |||
South Korean military, police and ] forces, often with U.S. military knowledge and without trial, executed in turn tens of thousands of leftist inmates and alleged Communist sympathizers in the incidents such as the massacre of the political prisoners from the Daejeon Prison and the bloody crackdown on the ]. ], a U.S. diplomat in Korea at the time, put the total figure at 100,000, and the bodies of those killed were often dumped into ]s.<ref>{{cite web | last =Toussaint | first =Éric | title =South Korea : The Miracle Unmasked | publisher =CADTM Belgium (Committee for the Abolition of the Third World Debt) | date = ] | url =http://www.cadtm.org/article.php3?id_article=1847 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }} | |||
===U.S. unpreparedness=== | |||
</ref> Recently, the South Korean ] has received reports of more than 7,800 cases of civilian killings in 150 locations across the country where mass killings of civilians took place before and during the war. In the other incidents, South Koreans also blew up several bridges that were crowded with fleeing civilians when they could not clear the bridges before the enemy arrived. | |||
In postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of US forces deployed during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General ] stated "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament."<ref>Lewis, Adrian R., ''The American culture of war'', New York: Taylor & Francis Group, {{ISBN|978-0415979757}} (2007), p. 82</ref> | |||
] | |||
By 1950, US Secretary of Defense ] had established a policy of faithfully following Truman's defense economization plans and aggressively attempted to implement it, even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks and widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained military forces in the war's early stages.{{Sfn|Blair|2003|p=}} | |||
Korean forces on both sides routinely rounded up and forcibly ] both males and females in their area of operations; thousands of them never returned home. According to the estimate by ], a professor at the ], some 400,000 South Korean citiziens were conscripted into the North Korean Army.<ref name="SOD"/> Before the September 1950 liberation of Seoul by the U.S. forces, an estimated 83,000 citizens of the city were taken away by retreating North Korean forces and disappeared, according to the South Korean government; their fate remains unknown.<ref>{{cite news | last =Choe | first =Sang-Hun | title =A half-century wait for a husband abducted by North Korea | publisher =International Herald Tribune:Asia Pacific | date =] | url =http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/06/25/news/missing.php | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> North Korea insists the South Koreans ] voluntarily and were not held against their will.<ref>{{cite news | title =S Korea 'regrets' refugee mix-up | publisher =British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC) | date =] | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6274297.stm | accessdate =2008-08-22 }}</ref> | |||
As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper" since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request.{{Sfn|Blair|2003|p=}}<ref name="blockade">{{Cite web |date=6 July 1950 |title=Memorandum of Information for the Secretary – Blockade of Korea |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809213846/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg |archive-date=9 August 2007 |access-date=28 July 2007 |publisher=Truman Presidential Library – Archives}}</ref> Army officials, desperate for weaponry, ] ]s and other equipment from Pacific War battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea.{{Sfn|Blair|2003|p=}} Army ordnance officials at ] pulled down ] tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army's hastily formed ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Connor |first=Arthur W. |title=The Armor Debacle in Korea, 1950: Implications For Today |publisher=U.S. Army War College |date=1992 |page=73}}</ref> Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter-bomber aircraft, the Air Force took ] propeller-driven aircraft out of storage or from existing ] squadrons and rushed them into front-line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.<ref>Close, Robert A. (Cmdr), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214182049/https://www.usna.com/SSLPage.aspx?pid=656 |date=14 February 2012 }}, Class of '45, U.S. Naval Academy Alumni Association & Foundation: "There were insufficient spare sets of blades for all ships having helos. Naturally, the ship didn't have a set. So we used our hands to smooth the busted ribs and fabric back into reasonable aerodynamic shape and bandaged the wound with masking tape...Flew that way for two weeks."</ref> | |||
For a time, American troops were under orders to consider any Korean civilians on the battlefield approaching their position as hostile, and were instructed to "neutralize" them because of fears of ]. This led to the indiscriminate killings of hundreds of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military at places such as ], where many defenseless refugees — most of whom were women, children and old men — were shot at by the ] and may have been ] by the U.S. Air Force. Recently, the U.S. admitted having a policy of strafing civilians in other places and times. <ref name="wash">{{cite news | |||
| first =Charles J. | |||
| last =Hanley | |||
| coauthors =Martha Mendoza | |||
| date = ] | |||
| title =U.S. Policy Was to Shoot Korean Refugees | |||
| url =http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/29/AR2006052900485.html | |||
| work = ] | |||
| publisher = ] | |||
| accessdate = 2007-04-15 | |||
}} </ref> | |||
<ref name="Letter_reveals" > | |||
{{cite news | |||
| first = Charles J. | |||
| last = Hanley | |||
| coauthors = Martha Mendoza | |||
| title = Letter reveals U.S. intent at No Gun Ri | |||
| url = http://www.nola.com/newsflash/topstories/index.ssf?/base/international-21/1176512119139600.xml&storylist=topstories | |||
| work = ] | |||
| publisher = ] | |||
| date = ] | |||
| accessdate = 2007-04-14 | |||
}}</ref> | |||
U.S. ] and ] infantry soldiers and new inductees (called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions) found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground-support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the ].<ref>Blair, Clay, ''The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953'', Naval Institute Press (2003), p. 50: The planned introduction into service of the M20, an antitank weapon urgently required to defeat the thick cast armor of Soviet tanks being supplied to the North Koreans, had been cancelled due to budget cuts.</ref> Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn-out, "red-lined" ] or ] in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999–2000 |title=Memoirs, William E. Anderson sub. Defective Weapons |url=http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/memoirs/anderson_william/index.htm#Defective |access-date=8 July 2018 |publisher=Korean War Educator |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013162139/http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/memoirs/anderson_william/index.htm#Defective |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012 |title=Veterans' Memoirs: George W. Gatliff |url=http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/memoirs/gatliff_george/index.htm |access-date=23 June 2017 |website=Korean War Educator |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031418/http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/memoirs/gatliff_george/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully understrength,<ref>Warren, James A., ''American Spartans: The U.S. Marines'', New York: Simon & Schuster (2005), pp. 139–40: Repeated cuts in active-duty ]s (FMF), planned combat deployments in the Atlantic and ] (in the event of war with the Soviet Union), and ] deployments in the Mediterranean left only the under-strength ] – a reserve unit – available for combat in the western Pacific.</ref> as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).<ref name="Shipmate2000">{{Cite journal |last=Krulak |first=Lieutenant General Victor H. (USMC retired) |date=June 2000 |title=You Can't Get There From Here: The Inchon Story |url=http://www.usna.com/News_pubs/Publications/Shipmate/2000/2000_06/inchon.htm |journal=Shipmate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021113195108/http://www.usna.com/News_pubs/Publications/Shipmate/2000/2000_06/inchon.htm |archive-date=13 November 2002}}</ref> | |||
==== Crimes against POWs ==== | |||
] by Chinese forces and shot in the head with his hands tied behind his back.]] | |||
Prisoners of war were severely mistreated by both sides of the conflict. Various historical accounts reported frequent beatings, starvation, ], ]s and ]es imposed by the Communist forces on U.N. prisoners.<ref>{{cite book | last =Carlson | first =Lewis H | title =Remembered Prisoners of a Forgotten War: An Oral History of Korean War POWs | publisher =St. Martin's Griffin | date =2003 | isbn =0312310072 }}</ref> North Korean forces committed several massacres of captured U.S. troops at places such as Hill 312 and Hill 303<ref>{{cite web | last =Lakshmanan | first =Indira A.R | title =Hill 303 Massacre | publisher =Boston Globe | date =1999 | url =http://www.rt66.com/~korteng/SmallArms/hill303.htm | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> on the Pusan Perimeter, and in and around Daejeon; this occurred particularly during early mopping-up actions. According to the ]ional report: | |||
===Armored warfare=== | |||
:"More than 5,000 American prisoners of war died because of Communist war atrocities and more than a thousand who survived were victims of war crimes. (…) Approximately two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died due to war crimes."<ref>{{cite web | last =Van Zandt | first =James E | title =`You are about to die a horrible death' - Korean War - the atrocities committed by the North Koreans during the Korean War | publisher =VFW Magazine | date =February 2003 | url =http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0LIY/is_6_90/ai_97756107 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title =American Ex-Prisoners of War | publisher =Department of Veterans Affairs | pages = | url =http://www1.va.gov/vhi/docs/pow_www.pdf | isbn = }}</ref> | |||
The initial assault by KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet ] tanks.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=14, 43}} A KPA ] equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These faced an ROK that had few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the T-34s.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=39}} Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed.{{Sfn|Perrett|1987|pp=134–35}} The KPA tanks had a good deal of early successes against ROK infantry, Task Force Smith, and the U.S. ] light tanks that they encountered.<ref>]</ref>{{Sfn|Stein|1994|p=18}} Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing KPA armor. The tide turned in favor of the UN forces in August 1950 when the KPA suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including American ] and M26 medium tanks, alongside British ], ] and ] tanks.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=182–84}} | |||
The Incheon landings on 15 September cut off the KPA supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result of this and the Pusan perimeter breakout, the KPA had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the KPA withdrew from the South, 239 T-34s and 74 ] self-propelled guns were lost.{{Sfn|Perrett|1987|p=135}} After November 1950, KPA armor was rarely encountered.<ref>]</ref> | |||
The Communists claimed that they had captured over 70,000 South Korean soldiers overall, but they returned only 8,000 of them. In contrast, 76,000 North Korean POWs were repatriated by South Korea.<ref>{{cite web | last =Lee | first =Sookyung | title =Hardly Known, Not Yet Forgotten, South Korean POWs Tell Their Story | publisher =AII POW-MIA InterNetwork | date =2007 | url =http://www.aiipowmia.com/inter27/in250107skoreapw.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> In addition to some 12,000 deaths in captivity, up to 50,000 South Korean POWs may have been illegally pressed into the North Korea military.<ref name="SOD"/> According to the South Korean Ministry of Defense there were at least 300 POWs still alive being held captive in North Korea in 2003. Recently, a South Korean soldier escaped from North Korea and returned home in 2003,<ref>{{cite news | title =S Korea POW celebrates escape | publisher =British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC) | date =] | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3409835.stm | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> the then-latest of more than 30 South Korean prisoners who have managed to escape the North since 1994. Pyongyang denies holding any POWs. | |||
Following the initial assault by the North, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the eastern central zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.{{Sfn|Ravino|Carty|2003|p=130}} | |||
== Legacy == | |||
{{main|Legacy of the Korean War}} | |||
===Naval warfare=== | |||
The Korean War was the first armed confrontation of the ] and set the standard for many later conflicts. It created the idea of a ], where the two ]s would fight in another country, forcing the people in that nation to suffer the bulk of the destruction and death involved in a war between such large nations. The superpowers avoided descending into an all-out war with one another, as well as the mutual use of nuclear weapons. It also expanded the Cold War, which to that point had mostly been concerned with ]. The war eventually led to a strengthening of alliances in the Western bloc and the ]. | |||
{{Further|List of US Navy ships sunk or damaged in action during the Korean War}} | |||
{{Naval engagements of the Korean War}} | |||
], North Korea, 21 October 1950]] | |||
Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the war featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser {{USS|Juneau|CL-119|6}}, the Royal Navy cruiser {{HMS|Jamaica|44|6}} and the Royal Navy frigate {{HMS|Black Swan|L57|6}} fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USS ''Juneau'' later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship ''PC-703'' sank a North Korean minelayer in the ] Island, near Incheon. Three other supply ships were sunk by ''PC-703'' two days later in the Yellow Sea.<ref name="Marolda2003"/> | |||
During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to UN navy ships was from ]s. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Korean War |url=http://www.korean-war.com/USNavy/usnavyshipssunk.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120050209/http://www.korean-war.com/USNavy/usnavyshipssunk.html |archive-date=20 January 2013 |website=korean-war.com}}</ref> | |||
The Korean War damaged both Koreas heavily. Although South Korea stagnated economically in the decade following the war, it was later able to modernize and industrialize. In contrast, the North Korean economy recovered quickly after the war and until around 1975 surpassed that of South Korea. However, North Korea's economy eventually slowed. Today, the North Korean economy is virtually nonexistent while the South Korean economy is expanding. The ] estimates North Korea's ] (]) to be $40 billion, which is a mere 3.34% of South Korea's $1.196 trillion GDP (PPP). The North's per capita income is $1,800, which is 7.35% of South Korea's $24,500 per capita income. | |||
===Aerial warfare=== | |||
A ] (DMZ) on the 38th Parallel continues to divide the peninsula today. Anti-Communist and anti-North Korea sentiment still remain in South Korea today, and most South Koreans are against the North Korean government. However, a "]" is used by the controlling party, the ]. The Uri Party and President Roh, the current South Korean president, have often disagreed with the United States in talks about North Korea. The ] (GNP), the Uri Party's main opposing party, maintains an anti-North Korea policy today. | |||
{{Further|USAF units and aircraft of the Korean War|Bombing of North Korea}} | |||
The war was the first in which ] played the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, ], and ]{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=174}}—all ], propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, ] fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the ], ], ], and other jets under the UN flag dominated the ] (KPAF) propeller-driven Soviet ] and ]s.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=182}}{{Sfn|Werrell|2005|p=71}} By early August 1950, the KPAF was reduced to only about 20 planes.<ref name="airforcemag1april20">{{Cite web |last=Correll |first=John T. |date=1 April 2020 |title=The Difference in Korea |url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-difference-in-korea/ |access-date=14 June 2020 |website=] |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715062930/https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-difference-in-korea/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The war affected other nations as well. ]'s participation in the war helped it become a ] member. The entrance into the war has been criticized inside the country, however{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. | |||
] dropping napalm in Korea, May 1952]] | |||
In the United States, the Korean War has not received much attention as World War II or the Vietnam War had, so it is sometimes called the ''Forgotten War''. | |||
The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the KPAF with the ], one of the world's most advanced jet fighters.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=182}} The USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the ]. These arrived in December 1950.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=183}}{{Sfn|Werrell|2005|pp=76–77}} The Soviet Union denied the involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the radio in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a '']'' that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war expand to include the Soviet Union and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.{{Sfn|Stokesbury|1990|p=182}} | |||
After the war and to the present day, the USAF reported an inflated F-86 Sabre ] in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire.<ref name="Puckett2005"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frans P.B. Osinga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3DtoVuj_Sn4C&pg=PA24 |title=Science, Strategy and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd |date=24 January 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134197095 |page=24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903234731/https://books.google.com/books?id=3DtoVuj_Sn4C&pg=PA24 |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live}}<br />{{Cite book |last1=Mark A. Lorell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhtEM2Knh_cC&pg=PA48 |title=The Cutting Edge: A Half Century of Fighter Aircraft R&D |last2=Hugh P. Levaux |publisher=Rand Corporation |date=1998 |isbn=978-0833025951 |page=48 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921220856/https://books.google.com/books?id=EhtEM2Knh_cC&pg=PA48 |archive-date=21 September 2015 |url-status=live}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Craig C. Hannah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CEb1sFobGgcC&pg=PA90 |title=Striving for Air Superiority: The Tactical Air Command in Vietnam |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |date=2002 |isbn=978-1585441464 |page=90 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044307/https://books.google.com/books?id=CEb1sFobGgcC&pg=PA90 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's PLAAF reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively.<ref>Sewell, Stephen L. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061101081848/http://www.korean-war.com/sovietunion.html|date=1 November 2006}} ''korean-war.com''. Retrieved: 19 July 2011.</ref><ref>Zhang, Xiaoming. ''Red Wings over the Yalu: China, the Soviet Union, and the Air War in Korea''. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|1-58544-201-1}}.</ref> | |||
According to a September 7, 2007 ] report, ] stated that it is his administration's position that a formal peace treaty with North Korea was possible only when the north abandoned its nuclear weapons programs.<ref>{{cite news | last =Gonyea | first =Don | title =U.S., South Korea Differ over North Korea | publisher =National Public Radio (NPR) | date =] | url =http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14232869 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> According to Bush, "We look forward to the day when we can end the Korean War. That will end - will happen when Kim verifiably gets rid of his weapons programs and his weapons."<ref>{{cite news | title =N. Korea Agrees to Allow Nuclear Inspectors | publisher =National Public Radio (NPR) | date =] | url =http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14232535 | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> Some have characterized this as a reversal of Mr. Bush's stated policy of regime change with respect to North Korea.<ref>{{cite news | last =Goldenberg | first =Suzanne | title =Policy Shift Offers US Hope of N Korea Success | publisher =Sydney Morning Herald | date =] | url =http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/policy-shift-offers-us-hope-of-n-korea-success/2007/09/04/1188783237179.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> | |||
More modern American estimates place the overall USAF kill ratio at around 1.8:1 with the ratio dropping to 1.3:1 against MiG-15s with Soviet pilots but increasing to a dominant 12:1 against Chinese and North Korean adversaries.<ref>Dorr, Robert F.; Lake, Jon; and Thompson, Warren E. ''Korean War Aces''. London: Osprey Publishing, 2005. {{ISBN|1-85532-501-2}}.</ref><ref>Stillion, John and Scott Perdue. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006120643/http://www.mossekongen.no/downloads/2008_RAND_Pacific_View_Air_Combat_Briefing.pdf|date=6 October 2012}} ''Project Air Force'', Rand, August 2008. Retrieved 11 March 2009.</ref><ref>Igor Seidov and Stuart Britton. ''Red Devils over the Yalu: A Chronicle of Soviet Aerial Operations in the Korean War 1950–53'' (Helion Studies in Military History). Helion and Company 2014. {{ISBN|978-1909384415}}. Page 554.</ref> | |||
{{main|Inter-Korean Summit}} | |||
At the second ] in October 2007, ] ] and North Korean leader ] signed a joint declaration calling for international talks towards a peace treaty formally ending the war.<ref>{{cite news |title=Korean leaders issue peace call |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7027236.stm |publisher=] |date=] |accessdate=2007-10-04 }}</ref> | |||
Reports by Lieutenant General ], commander of Soviet air forces in Korea, are more favorable to the communist side. The 64th Corps claimed a total 1,097 enemy aircraft of all types during operations, for the loss of 335 aircraft (including lost to enemy ground fire, accidents, etc) and 110 pilots. Soviet reports put the overall kill ratio at 3.4:1 in favor of Soviet pilots.<ref name="digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org">{{cite web | url=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/report-64th-fighter-aviation-corps-soviet-air-forces-korea | title=Report from the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps of the Soviet Air Forces in Korea | Wilson Center Digital Archive | access-date=25 December 2022 | archive-date=25 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225231244/https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/report-64th-fighter-aviation-corps-soviet-air-forces-korea | url-status=live }}</ref> As reported, effectiveness of the Soviet fighters declined as the war progressed. from an overall kill ratio of 7.9:1 from November 1950 through January 1952, declining to 2.2:1 in later 1952 and 1.9:1 in 1953. This was because more advanced jet fighters appeared on the UN side as well as improved U.S. tactics.<ref name="digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org"/> | |||
== Depictions == | |||
===Art=== | |||
]’s ] (1951; in the Musée Picasso, Paris).]] | |||
Artist ]’s painting ''Massacre in Korea'' (1951) depicted violence against civilians during the Korean War. By some accounts, killing of civilians by U.S. forces in Shinchun, ] Province was the motive of the painting. | |||
Regardless of the actual ratio, American Sabres were very effective at controlling the skies over Korea. Since no other UN fighter could contend with the MiG-15, F-86s largely took over air combat once they arrived, relegating other aircraft to air-to-ground operations. Despite much greater numbers (the number of Sabres in theater never exceeded 150 while MiG-15s reached 900 at their peak), communist aircraft were seldom encountered south of Pyongyang. UN ground forces, supply lines, and infrastructure were not attacked from the air. Although North Korea had 75 airfields capable of supporting MiGs, after 1951, any serious effort to operate from them was abandoned. The MiGs were instead based across the Yalu River in the safety of China. This confined most air-to-air engagements to ]. UN aircraft had free rein to conduct strike missions over enemy territory with little fear of interception. Although jet dogfights are remembered as a prominent part of the Korean War, counter-air missions comprised just 12% of ] sorties, and four times as many sorties were performed for close air support and interdiction.<ref name="airforcemag1april20"/> | |||
]'s '' War Trash'' contains a vivid description of the beginning of the war from the point of view of a Chinese soldier. | |||
The war marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for ], featuring the first large-scale deployment of ]s for ] (medevac).<ref name="Kreisher2007"/> In 1944–45, during World War II, the ] had seen limited ambulance duty. In Korea, where rough terrain prevented use of the ] as a speedy medevac vehicle,<ref name="OliveDrab"/> helicopters like the ] were heavily used. This helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as ]s (MASH).<ref name="Day"/> As such, the medical evacuation and care system for the wounded was so effective for the UN forces that a wounded soldier who arrived at a MASH unit alive typically had a 97% chance of survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Booker |last2=Jatoi |first2=Ismail |date=May 2005 |title=The Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH): A Military and Surgical Legacy |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=650–651 |pmc=2569328 |pmid=15926641 |quote=Air evacuation undoubtedly contributed to the dramatic reduction in the death rate of wounded soldiers in the Korean War, compared with previous conflicts (World War I, 8.5%; World War II, 4%; and Korean War, 2.5%)}}</ref> The limitations of jet aircraft for ] highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to the development of the helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War.<ref name="Kreisher2007"/> | |||
=== Film === | |||
Unlike World War II, the Korean War had relatively few movies made depicting the war. | |||
===U.S. threat of atomic warfare=== | |||
The most successful artistic depiction of the war in the U.S. is '']'', a novel by ] (pseudonym for H. Richard Hornberger) that was later turned into a successful ] and ]. The ''M*A*S*H ''TV series had a total of 251 episodes and lasted 11 years. It won numerous awards, and its final episode was one of the most watched programs ever.<ref>{{cite web | title =What is M*A*S*H | url =http://www.mash4077.co.uk/what.html | accessdate =2007-08-22 }}</ref> However, these seemed to be more set in the Seventies than the Fifties, many people believing setting it in the Korean War was a way to avoid controversy, as they were actually trying to depict Vietnam. | |||
]]] | |||
On 5 November 1950, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either of their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. President Truman ordered the transfer of nine ]s "to the Air Force's ], the designated carrier of the weapons ... signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets", which he never transmitted.{{Sfn|Cumings|2005|pp=289–92}} | |||
] (1959) is a ] directed film starring ] as a lieutenant fighting the bitterly fierce first ] between soldiers of the U.S. Army's ], and Chinese Communist Forces in the tail end of the Korean War, in April of 1953. | |||
Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the ] of 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their ]), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to ] was leaked to ''The New York Times''. As UN forces retreated to Pusan, and the ] reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.<ref name="jstor2538736">{{Cite journal |last=Dingman |first=R. |date=1988–1989 |title=Atomic Diplomacy during the Korean War |journal=International Security |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=50–91 |doi=10.2307/2538736 |jstor=2538736 |s2cid=154823668}}</ref> | |||
] (1955) stars ] as a Korean War pilot assigned to destroy the bridge at Toko Ri while battling his own nerves and doubts. It is based on a ] novel. | |||
As PVA forces pushed back the UN forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always active consideration", with control under the local military commander.{{R|jstor2538736}} Indian ambassador ] reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat ... The PRC's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities."<ref name="Schnabel"/><ref name="Knightley1982"/><ref name="Panikkar1981"/> | |||
Men In War (1957) by director Anthony Man regards taking difficult hills in Korea under adverse conditions. Based on a Van Van Praag novel, the movie stars Robert Ryan (The Dirty Dozen) who must guide his platoon through battle. | |||
After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December with UK Prime Minister and ] spokesman ], French Premier ], and French Foreign Minister ] to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The U.S.' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate ", but because UN allies—notably the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a ] imbalance rendering ] defenseless while the U.S. fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe.<ref name="Schnabel"/><ref name="Truman1955"/> The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the U.S. would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster".{{R|jstor2538736}} | |||
], a 1959 thriller novel was adapted into ] (1962) staring ] and Oscar-nominated ]. This ] thriller was about men brainwashed during their time as POW’s in Korea and one man’s quest to find out what really happened. | |||
On 6 December after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN armies from northern North Korea, General ] (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral ], General ] and staff officers Major General ], Major General ] and Major General ] met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.<ref name="Schnabel"/> | |||
'']'' (2005) shows the effect of the warring sides on a remote village. First the villagers are nonplussed by the aggression of a couple of South Korean soldiers, then by some North Korean soldiers. These soldiers eventually come to realise that they are not really enemies at all, but are all Koreans who need to defend their people against the really aggressive people, i.e. the U.S. forces, who assume anyone not explicitly on their side is an enemy. | |||
* In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without Taiwanese reinforcements, and without an increase in U.S. forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.<ref name="Schnabel"/> | |||
* In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the Taiwanese soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.<ref name="Schnabel"/> | |||
* In the third scenario: if China agreed not to cross the 38th parallel border, MacArthur would recommend UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.<ref name="Schnabel"/> | |||
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.{{R|jstor2538736}} | |||
'']'' (Shanggan Ling, Chinese: 上甘岭) is another depiction of the Korean War from the Chinese point of view, made in 1956. The movie is about a group of Chinese Peoples Volunteer soldiers are blocked in Shangganling mountain area for several days and survive until they are relieved. | |||
In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, ground crews at the ], ], assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores." In October 1951, the United States effected ] to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practiced individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from ] in east-central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare".<ref name="Hasbrouck1951"/><ref name="Chiefof Staff1951"/><ref name="Watson1998"/><ref name="CommandingGeneral1951"/><ref name="FarEastCommand"/> | |||
'']'' is a movie that portrays the ], a turning point in the war. Controversially, the film was partially financed by ]’s ]. It became a notorious financial and critical failure, losing an estimated $40 million of its $46 million budget, and remains the last mainstream Hollywood film to use the war as its backdrop. The film was directed by ], and starred an elderly ] as General Douglas MacArthur. According to press materials from the film, psychics hired by Moons church contacted MacArthur in heaven and secured his posthumous approval of the casting. | |||
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear, and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June.{{R|jstor2538736}} | |||
A more recent move about the Korean War is '']'' (2004). Directed by ], it became extremely popular in South Korea and at the 50th ], ''Taegukgi'' won the "Best Film", while Kang Je-gyu was awarded the "Best Director". Taegukgi was limitedly released in the United States. | |||
Despite the greater destructive power that atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of PVA/KPA forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf, the threat of a possible nuclear exchange was unimportant in the decision not to deploy atomic bombs; their use offered little operational advantage and would undesirably lower the "threshold" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farley |first=Robert |date=5 January 2016 |title=What If the United States had Used the Bomb in Korea? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/what-if-the-united-states-had-used-the-bomb-in-korea/ |access-date=5 January 2016 |website=] |archive-date=7 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107130940/http://thediplomat.com/2016/01/what-if-the-united-states-had-used-the-bomb-in-korea/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
=== Games === | |||
* ''Sabre Ace: Conflict Over Korea'' (1997-Eagle Interactive) Players use a U.S. F-86 Sabre in the Korean War. | |||
* ''Korea: Forgotten Conflict'' (2003-Plastic Reality) A squad based strategy game. Players take command of a U.N. unit consisting of several specialists such as a Ranger, Medic, Demolitions Expert, Sniper, or Korean to fight against the Communist forces. | |||
* '']'' (2004-Big Huge Games) The player fights the Korean War in the Cold War campaign, in which he or she is also given the choice to extend the war after 1953. | |||
When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953, he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, he feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle.{{R|jstor2538736}} | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{reflist|2}} | |||
==Aftermath== | |||
{{sisterlinks|Korean War}} | |||
{{Main|Aftermath of the Korean War|Korean reunification}} | |||
== |
=== North Korea === | ||
As a result of the war, "North Korea had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society". After the armistice, Kim Il Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts", and promised to grant North Korea one billion ] in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the ] also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, medical supplies". China canceled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 million ], promised trade cooperation and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.<ref name="japanfocus.org" /> Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped<ref>. View.koreaherald.com (18 August 2010). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.</ref> and continues to be a ] dictatorship since the end of the war, with an elaborate ] around the ].<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=9 April 2018 |title=North Korea country profile |publisher=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15256929 |access-date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308085335/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15256929 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite news |title=Kim Jong Un's North Korea: Life inside the totalitarian state |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/world/north-korea-defectors/ |access-date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201200057/https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/world/north-korea-defectors/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="britannica">{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=Totalitarianism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816213316/https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
] at night, shown in a 2017 composite photograph from ]]] | |||
* Brune, Lester and Robin Higham, eds., ''The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research'' (Greenwood Press, 1994) | |||
* Edwards, Paul M. '' Korean War Almanac'' (2006) | |||
* Foot, Rosemary, "Making Known the Unknown War: Policy Analysis of the Korean Conflict in the Last Decade," ''Diplomatic History'' 15 (Summer 1991): 411-31, in JSTOR | |||
* Goulden, Joseph C., ''Korea: The Untold Story of the War'', New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982. | |||
* Hickey, Michael, ''The Korean War: The West Confronts Communism, 1950-1953'' (London: John Murray, 1999) ISBN 0719555590 9780719555596 | |||
* Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Korean Conflict'' (Greenwood Press, 1999). | |||
* Knightley, P. ''The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker'' (Quartet, 1982) | |||
* Korea Institute of Military History, ''The Korean War'' (1998) (English edition 2001), 3 vol, 2600 pp; highly detailed history from South Korean perspective, U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7802-0 | |||
* Leitich, Keith. ''Shapers of the Great Debate on the Korean War: A Biographical Dictionary'' (2006) covers Americans only | |||
* James I. Matray, ed., ''Historical Dictionary of the Korean War'' (Greenwood Press, 1991) | |||
* Millett, Allan R, “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” ''Journal of Military History'' (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+ full text in JSTOR; | |||
* Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50 Year Critical Historiography," ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 24 (March 2001), pp. 188-224. full text in Ingenta and Ebsco; discusses major works by British, American, Korean, Chinese, and Russian authors | |||
* Summers, Harry G. ''Korean War Almanac'' (1990) | |||
* Sandler, Stanley ed., ''The Korean War: An Encyclopedia'' (Garland, 1995) | |||
* {{cite news |last=Masatake |first=Terauchi |url=http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm |title=Treaty of Annexation |publisher=USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center |date=1910-08-27 |accessdate=2007-01-16}} | |||
Present-day North Korea follows '']'', or "military-first" policy and has the ] in the world, with 7,769,000 active, reserve and paramilitary personnel, or approximately {{Percentage|7,769,000|{{UN_Population|Dem. People's Republic of Korea}}}} of its population. Its active-duty army of 1.28 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, the United States and India; consisting of {{Percentage|1280000|{{UN_Population|Dem. People's Republic of Korea}}|1}} of its population. North Korea ]. A 2014 UN inquiry into abuses of ] concluded that, "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world," with ] and ] holding similar views.<ref name="Amnesty International 2007">{{Cite web |last=Amnesty International |author-link=Amnesty International |date=2007 |title=North Korea: Human Rights Concerns |url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/north_korea/index.do |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329050950/http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/north_korea/index.do |archive-date=29 March 2007 |access-date=1 August 2007 }}</ref><ref name="ohchr.org">{{Citation |title=Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Chapter VII. Conclusions and recommendations |date=17 February 2014 |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIDPRK/Report/A.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc |work=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |page=346 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227104633/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIDPRK/Report/A.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=27 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hrw1">{{Cite web |last=Kay Seok |date=15 May 2007 |title=Grotesque indifference |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/05/16/nkorea15944.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929174709/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/05/16/nkorea15944.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007 |access-date=1 August 2007 |website=]}}</ref><ref name="hrw2">{{Cite web |date=17 February 2009 |title=Human Rights in North Korea |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/02/17/human-rights-north-korea |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429044053/http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/02/17/human-rights-north-korea |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=13 December 2010 |author1=Kay Seok |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> | |||
==Further reading== | |||
=== Combat studies, soldiers === | |||
=== South Korea === | |||
* Appleman, Roy E. ''South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu'' (1961), Official US Army history covers the Eighth Army and X Corps from June to November 1950 | |||
Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea, which started from a far lower industrial base than North Korea (the latter contained 80% of Korea's heavy industry in 1945),<ref name="Robinson 119-120" /> stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a ]. | |||
* Appleman, Roy E.. ''East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea'' (1987); ''Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950'' (1987); ''Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur'' (1989); ''Ridgway Duels for Korea'' (1990). | |||
* Blair, Clay. ''The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953'' (1987), revisionist study that attacks senior American officials | |||
* Field Jr., James A. ''History of United States Naval Operations: Korea'', University Press of the Pacific, 2001, ISBN 0-89875-675-8. official U.S. Navy history | |||
* Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. ''The British Part in the Korean War'', HMSO, 1995, hardcover 528 pages, ISBN 0-11-630962-8 | |||
* Futrell, Robert F. ''The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950–1953,'' rev. ed. (Office of the Chief of Air Force History, 1983), official U.S. Air Force history | |||
* Hallion, Richard P. ''The Naval Air War in Korea'' (1986). | |||
* Hamburger, Kenneth E. ''Leadership in the Crucible: The Korean War Battles of Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni.'' Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 257 pp. | |||
* Hastings, Max. ''The Korean War'' (1987). British perspective | |||
* Hermes, Jr., Walter. ''Truce Tent and Fighting Front'' (1966), Official US Army history on the "stalemate" period from October 1951 to July 1953. | |||
* James, D. Clayton ''The Years of MacArthur: Triumph and Disaster, 1945-1964'' (1985) | |||
* James, D. Clayton with Anne Sharp Wells, ''Refighting the Last War: Command and Crises in Korea, 1950-1953'' (1993) | |||
* Johnston, William. ''A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea.'' U. of British Columbia Press, 2003. 426 pp. | |||
* Kindsvatter, Peter S. ''American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam.'' U. Press of Kansas, 2003. 472 pp. | |||
* Millett, Allan R. ''Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953.'' Brassey's, 2003. 310 pp. | |||
* Montross, Lynn et al., ''History of U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953,'' 5 vols. (Washington: Historical Branch, G-3, Headquarters, Marine Corps, 1954–72), | |||
* Mossman, Billy. ''Ebb and Flow'' (1990), Official US Army history covers November 1950 to July 1951. | |||
* Russ, Martin. ''Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950'', , Penguin, 2000, 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4 | |||
* Toland, John. ''In Mortal Combat: Korea, 1950-1953'' (1991) | |||
* Varhola, Michael J. ''Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950-1953'' (2000) | |||
* Watson, Brent Byron. ''Far Eastern Tour: The Canadian Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953.'' 2002. 256 pp. | |||
South Korean ] after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of ] military personnel and U.S. support for Park's authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s.<ref name="NYTimes12July1987" /> However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011,<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310043046/http://www.pewglobal.org/2007/06/27/chapter-1-views-of-the-u-s-and-american-foreign-policy/ |date=10 March 2013 }}. Pew Research Center. 27 June 2007.</ref> making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123070720/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/mar11/BBCEvalsUS_Mar11_rpt.pdf |date=23 November 2012 }}, 7 March 2011.</ref> | |||
=== Origins, politics, diplomacy === | |||
A large number of ] "GI babies" (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954.<ref name="Jang1998"/> The U.S. ] legalized the ] of non-Blacks and non-Whites as U.S. citizens and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea. With the passage of the ], which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, ] became one of the fastest-growing ] groups in the United States.<ref name="Choe2005"/> | |||
* Chen Jian, ''China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation'' (Columbia University Press, 1994), | |||
* Goncharov, Sergei N., John W. Lewis; and Xue Litai, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War'', Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8047-2521-7, diplomatic | |||
* Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command''. Temple University Press, 1986), focus is on Washington | |||
* Matray, James. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," ''Journal of American History'' 66 (September, 1979), 314-33. Online at JSTOR | |||
* Millett, Allan R. ''The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning'' vol 1 (2005)ISBN 0-7006-1393-5, origins | |||
* | |||
* Spanier, John W. ''The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War'' (1959). | |||
* Stueck, William. ''Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History.'' Princeton U. Press, 2002. 285 pp. | |||
* Stueck, Jr., William J. ''The Korean War: An International History'' (Princeton University Press, 1995), diplomatic | |||
* Zhang Shu-gang, ''Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950-1953'' (University Press of Kansas, 1995) | |||
=== |
=== Communism === | ||
] in 2009]] | |||
Mao Zedong's decision to take on the United States was a direct attempt to confront what the communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese communist regime was still consolidating its own power. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the U.S. was inevitable after the U.S. entered the war, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community. In his later years, Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-communist dissent.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=150}} | |||
* Bassett, Richard M. ''And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea.'' Kent State U. Press, 2002. 117 pp. | |||
* Bin Yu and Xiaobing Li, eds ''Mao's Generals Remember Korea'', University Press of Kansas, 2001, hardcover 328 pages, ISBN 0-7006-1095-2 | |||
* S. L. A. Marshall, ''The River and the Gauntlet'' (1953) on combat | |||
* Matthew B. Ridgway, ''The Korean War'' (1967). | |||
The Chinese government has encouraged the viewpoint that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an underequipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's ] by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the PLA and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kaishek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day.{{Sfn|Barnouin|Yu|2006|p=150}} ], which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, were ingrained into Chinese culture during the ] campaigns of the Korean War.<ref>{{Citation |last=Zhang |first=Hong |title=The Making of Urban Chinese Images of the United States, 1945–1953 |pages=164–167 |date=2002 |place=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0313310010}}</ref> | |||
== External links == | |||
The Korean War affected other participant combatants. ], for example, entered NATO in 1952,<ref name="StateDept"/> and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade ].<ref name="Turquie2010"/> The war also played a role in the ]. | |||
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* showing the dynamics of the front. | |||
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{{Cold War}} | |||
==See also== | |||
{{American conflicts}} | |||
{{Portal|North Korea|South Korea|1950s}} | |||
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] operating from 1953 to the present | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
{{Div col end}} | |||
===War memorials=== | |||
] | |||
]]] | |||
] | |||
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}} | |||
] | |||
* ],{{Ref|25|map}} ], Ontario | |||
* ], Washington, D.C. | |||
* ], ], China | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ], ], ] | |||
* ], ], ] {{In lang|tr}} | |||
* ], Pyongyang, North Korea | |||
* ] ], Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea | |||
{{Div col end}} | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{Notelist}} | |||
==References== | |||
{{Link FA|ru}} | |||
===Citations=== | |||
{{Link FA|vi}} | |||
{{Reflist|refs = | |||
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<ref name="Truman1950">{{Cite web |last=Truman |first=Harry S. |date=29 June 1950 |title=The President's News Conference of June 29, 1950 |url=http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=594 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226063925/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=594 |archive-date=26 December 2010 |access-date=4 January 2011 |publisher=Teachingamericanhistory.org}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Naval Historical Center">{{Cite web |title=Remembering the Forgotten War: Korea, 1950–1953 |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/korea/korea1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819014820/http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/korea/korea1.htm |archive-date=19 August 2007 |access-date=16 August 2007 |publisher=Naval Historical Center}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Hoare1999">{{Cite book |last1=Pratt |first1=Keith L. |title=Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary |last2=Rutt |first2=Richard |last3=Hoare |first3=James |publisher=Curzon |date=1999 |isbn=978-0700704644 |location=Richmond, Surrey |page=239}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Kim2003">{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Ilpyong J. |title=Historical Dictionary of North Korea |publisher=Scarecrow Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0810843318 |location=Lanham, MD |page=79}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="CRI2008">{{Cite news |date=25 October 2008 |title=War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea Commemorated in Henan |publisher=China Radio International |url=http://english.cri.cn/2946/2008/10/25/195s417906.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120202855/http://english.cri.cn/2946/2008/10/25/195s417906.htm |archive-date=20 January 2012}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="Xinhua2000">{{Cite news |date=26 October 2000 |title=War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea Marked in DPRK |agency=Xinhua News Agency |url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-America/actives/dprk.htm |url-status=live |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501075600/http://www.china.org.cn/e-America/actives/dprk.htm |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="Schnabel1972">{{Cite book |last=Schnabel |first=James F. |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/P&D.HTM |title=Policy and Direction: The First Year |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |date=1972 |isbn=978-0160359552 |series=United States Army in the Korean War |volume=3 |location=Washington, DC |pages=3, 18, 22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517132751/http://www.history.army.mil/books/P%26D.HTM |archive-date=17 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Early1943">{{Cite web |last=Early |first=Stephen |date=1943 |title=Cairo Communiqué |url=http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/01/002_46/002_46tx.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206020831/http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/shiryo/01/002_46/002_46tx.html |archive-date=6 December 2010 |publisher=National Diet Library |location=Japan}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Whelan1991">{{Cite book |last=Whelan |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/drawinglinekorea00whel/page/22 |title=Drawing the Line: the Korean War 1950–53 |publisher=] |date=1991 |isbn=978-0316934039 |location=Boston |page=}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Time1946">{{Cite magazine |date=20 May 1946 |title=Korea: For Freedom |magazine=Time |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,792877-1,00.html |url-status=dead |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106193407/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C792877-1%2C00.html |archive-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> | |||
<!--<ref name="Stueck2004">{{Cite book |last=Stueck |first=William |title=The Korean War in World History |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |date=2004 |isbn=0813123062 |location=Lexington, KY |page=38}}</ref> --> | |||
<ref name="AMH">{{Cite book |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/index.htm#cont |title=American Military History, Volume 2 |publisher=] |date=2005 |editor-last=Stewart, Richard W. |chapter=The Korean War, 1950–1953 |id=CMH Pub 30-22 |access-date=20 August 2007 |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/chapter8.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518095626/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/index.htm |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
<!--<ref name="VoA2010">{{Cite web |last=白桦 |date=26 June 2010 |script-title=zh:韩战无赢家 中苏北韩领袖策划战争 |trans-title=No winner in the Korean War, Soviet war plans North Korea leader |url=http://www1.voanews.com/chinese/news/20100626-Korean-war-97220239.html |access-date=27 June 2010 |publisher=] |language=zh}}</ref> --> | |||
<!--<ref name="Wainstock1999">{{Cite book |last=Wainstock |first=Dennis |title=Truman, MacArthur, and the Korean War |date=1999 |page=137}}</ref> --> | |||
<!--<ref name="HankyorehJanuary2009">{{Cite news |date=8 January 2009 |title=439 civilians confirmed dead in Yeosu-Suncheon Uprising of 1948 New report by the Truth Commission places blame on Syngman Rhee and the Defense Ministry, advises government apology |work=] |url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/332032.html |url-status=live |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511184103/http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/332032.html |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> --> | |||
<!--<ref name="Chosun2009">{{Cite news |date=6 August 2009 |script-title=ko:'문경학살사건' 유족 항소심도 패소 |language=ko |work=] |url=http://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/08/06/2009080600689.html |url-status=dead |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501014757/http://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/08/06/2009080600689.html |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref> --> | |||
<!--ref name="OhMyNews2009">{{Cite news |date=17 February 2009 |script-title=ko:두 민간인 학살 사건, 상반된 판결 왜 나왔나?'울산보도연맹' – ' 문경학살사건' 판결문 비교분석해 봤더니... |language=ko |work=] |url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/view/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0001070694 |access-date=16 July 2010}}</ref--> | |||
<ref name="Chosun2010">{{Cite news |date=29 June 2010 |script-title=ko:만물상 625 한강다리 폭파의 희생자들 |language=ko |work=] |url=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/06/29/2010062902370.html |url-status=live |access-date=15 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501063615/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/06/29/2010062902370.html |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref> | |||
<!--ref name="HankyorehJune2010">{{Cite news |date=25 June 2010 |script-title=ko:60년 만에 만나는 한국의 신들러들 |language=ko |work=] |url=http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/special/special_general/27607.html |url-status=live |access-date=15 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427181702/http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/special/special_general/27607.html |archive-date=27 April 2011}}</ref--> | |||
<!--ref name="OhMyNews2007">{{Cite news |date=4 July 2007 |script-title=ko:"보도연맹 학살은 이승만 특명에 의한 것" 민간인 처형 집행했던 헌병대 간부 최초증언 출처 : "보도연맹 학살은 이승만 특명에 의한 것" – 오 마이뉴스 |language=ko |work=] |url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000420451 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503211221/http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000420451 |archive-date=3 May 2011}}</ref--> | |||
<ref name="Webb">{{cite web |last=Webb |first=William J. |title=The Korean War: The Outbreak |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/KW-Outbreak/outbreak.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612073344/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/KW-Outbreak/outbreak.htm |archive-date=12 June 2010 |access-date=16 December 2011 |publisher=United States Army Center for Military History}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Gromyko1950">{{Cite web |last=Gromyko |first=Andrei A. |date=4 July 1950 |title=On American Intervention in Korea, 1950 |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1950-gromyko-korea.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206141853/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1950-gromyko-korea.html |archive-date=6 February 2012 |access-date=16 December 2011 |website=Modern History Sourcebook |publisher=Fordham University |location=New York}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Gross1951">{{Cite journal |last=Gross |first=Leo |date=February 1951 |title=Voting in the Security Council: Abstention from Voting and Absence from Meetings |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5390&context=ylj |journal=The Yale Law Journal |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=209–257 |doi=10.2307/793412 |jstor=793412 |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=26 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426173818/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5390&context=ylj |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Schick1950">{{Cite journal |last=Schick |first=F. B. |date=September 1950 |title=Videant Consules |journal=The Western Political Quarterly |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=311–325 |doi=10.2307/443348 |jstor=443348}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Hess2001">{{Cite book |last=Hess |first=Gary R. |title=Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf |publisher=] |date=2001 |isbn=978-0801865152 |location=Baltimore, MD}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Graebner1979">{{Cite book |last1=Graebner |first1=Norman A. |title=The Age of Global Power: The United States Since 1939 |last2=Trani |first2=Eugene P. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |date=1979 |volume=V3641 |location=New York |oclc=477631060 |author-link2=Eugene P. Trani}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Truman1980">{{Cite book |last1=Truman |first1=Harry S. |title=The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman |last2=Ferrell |first2=Robert H. |publisher=University Press of Colorado |date=1980 |isbn=978-0870810909 |location=Boulder, CO |author-link=Harry S. Truman |author-link2=Robert H. Ferrell}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Cavalry Outpost Publications"> | |||
{{Cite web |title=History of the 1st Cavalry Division and Its Subordinate Commands |url=http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308064029/http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/ |archive-date=8 March 2010 |access-date=27 March 2010 |publisher=Cavalry Outpost Publications}}<!--Reliable?--></ref> | |||
<ref name="Schnabel">{{Cite book |last=Schnabel |first=James F |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/P&D.HTM |title=United States Army in the Korean War: Policy And Direction: The First Year |publisher=] |date=1992 |isbn=978-0160359552 |pages=155–92, 212, 283–84, 288–89, 304 |id=CMH Pub 20-1-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517132751/http://www.history.army.mil/books/P%26D.HTM |archive-date=17 May 2011 |url-status=live |orig-year=1972}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="KIMH">{{Cite book |last=Korea Institute of Military History |title=The Korean War: Korea Institute of Military History |publisher=Bison Books, University of Nebraska Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0803277946 |series=3-volume set |volume=1, 2 |pages=512–29, 730}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Weintraub2000">{{Cite book |last=Weintraub |first=Stanley |url=https://archive.org/details/macarthurswarkor00wein/page/157 |title=MacArthur's War: Korea and the Undoing of an American Hero |publisher=] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0684834191 |location=New York |pages= |author-link=Stanley Weintraub}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="Offner2002">{{Cite book |last=Offner |first=Arnold A. |title=Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2002 |isbn=978-0804747745 |location=Stanford, CA |page=390}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Weng1966">{{Cite journal |last=Weng |first=Byron |date=Autumn 1966 |title=Communist China's Changing Attitudes Toward the United Nations |journal=International Organization |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=677–704 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300012935 |oclc=480093623 |s2cid=154687870}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Academy2000">{{Cite book |last=Chinese Military Science Academy |date=September 2000 |publisher=Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House |isbn=978-7801373908 |volume=I |location=Beijing |page=160 |language=zh |script-title=zh:抗美援朝战争史 |trans-title=History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="AcademyB2000">{{Cite book |last=Chinese Military Science Academy |date=September 2000 |publisher=Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House |isbn=978-7801373908 |volume=I |location=Beijing |pages=86–89 |language=zh |script-title=zh:抗美援朝战争史 |trans-title=History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="AcademyC2000">{{Cite book |last=Chinese Military Science Academy |date=September 2000 |publisher=Chinese Military Science Academy Publishing House |isbn=978-7801373908 |volume=I |location=Beijing |pages=35–36 |language=zh |script-title=zh:抗美援朝战争史 |trans-title=History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea}}</ref> | |||
REFS NOT BEING USED --> | |||
<ref name="Donovan1996">{{Cite book |last=Donovan |first=Robert J |url=https://archive.org/details/tumultuousyearsp0000dono/page/285 |title=Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1949–1953 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0826210852 |page=}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Stewart">{{Cite web |editor-last=Stewart |editor-first=Richard W |title=The Korean War: The Chinese Intervention |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-chinter/chinter.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203234437/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/kw-chinter/chinter.htm |archive-date=3 December 2011 |access-date=17 December 2011 |website=history.army.mil |publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History}}</ref> | |||
<!-- not used<ref name="CohenGooch2006">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliot A. |title=Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War |last2=Gooch |first2=John |publisher=Free Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0743280822 |location=New York |pages=165–95}}</ref>--> | |||
<!--<ref name="Hopkins1986">{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=William B. |title=One Bugle No Drums: The Marines at Chosin Reservoir |publisher=Algonquin |date=1986 |isbn=978-0912697451 |location=Chapel Hill, NC}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Roe1996">{{Cite web |last=Roe |first=Patrick C. |date=August 1996 |title=The Chinese Failure at Chosin |url=http://www.koreanwar.org/html/units/frontline/chosin.htm |access-date=17 December 2011 |publisher=Korean War Project |location=Dallas, TX}}</ref>--> | |||
<ref name="DoyleMayer1979">{{Cite journal |last1=Doyle |first1=James H. |last2=Mayer |first2=Arthur J |date=April 1979 |title=December 1950 at Hungnam |journal=U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings |volume=105 |issue=4 |pages=44–65}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="Espinoza2001">{{Cite court |litigants=Espinoza-Castro v. I.N.S. |date=2001 |vol=242 |reporter=F.3d |opinion=1181 |pinpoint=30 |url=http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/242/242.F3d.1181.99-70588.html}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="MacArthur">''Reminiscences'', MacArthur, Douglas.</ref><!unacceptable as-is; data will have to be confirmed or removed--> | |||
<ref name="Timmons">{{Cite web |last=Timmons |first=Robert |title=Allies mark 60th anniversary of Chipyong-ni victory |url=http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/20110222chipyongni-timmons.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113141628/http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/20110222chipyongni-timmons.asp |archive-date=13 January 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=8tharmy.korea.army.mil |publisher=US Eighth Army}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Boose2000">{{Cite web |last=Boose | first=Donald W. Jr. |date=Spring 2000 |title=Fighting While Talking: The Korean War Truce Talks |url=http://www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/korea/boose.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712210732/http://www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/korea/boose.html |archive-date=12 July 2007 |access-date=7 November 2009 |website=OAH Magazine of History |publisher=Organization of American Historians |quote=... the UNC advised that only 70,000 out of over 170,000 North Korean and Chinese prisoners desired repatriation.}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Ho1993">{{Cite book |last=Ho |first=Jong Ho |title=The US Imperialists started the Korean War |publisher=] |date=1993 |location=Pyongyang, N. Korea |page=230 |asin=B0000CP2AZ}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="KCNA2011">{{Cite web |date=1 August 2011 |title=War Victory Day of DPRK Marked in Different Countries |url=http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2011/201108/news01/20110801-02ee.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529130625/http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2011/201108/news01/20110801-02ee.html |archive-date=29 May 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="OperationGlory">{{Cite web |title=Operation Glory |url=http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/korea/op_glory.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228095437/http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/korea/op_glory.htm |archive-date=28 December 2007 |access-date=16 December 2007 |publisher=Army Quartermaster Museum, US Army |location=Fort Lee, VA}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="DPMO">{{Cite web |last=US Department of Defense |title=DPMO White Paper: Punch Bowl 239 |url=http://www.dtic.mil/dpmo/news/special_reports/documents/010228_punch_bowl_239.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106054156/http://www.dtic.mil/dpmo/news/special_reports/documents/010228_punch_bowl_239.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Army Times">{{Cite news |date=1 March 2008 |title=Remains from Korea identified as Ind. soldier |publisher=Army News |url=http://www.armytimes.com/news/2008/03/ap_korea_remains_022908/ |access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="SwissArmy">{{Cite web |title=NNSC in Korea |url=http://www.vtg.admin.ch/internet/vtg/en/home/themen/einsaetze/peace/korea.parsys.0003.downloadList.53335.DownloadFile.tmp/nnsc2011e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825200823/http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Forces-abroad/Korea-/ |archive-date=25 August 2010 |access-date=22 December 2011 |publisher=Swiss Armed Forces, International Command}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="SwedishArmy">{{Cite web |date=1 November 2007 |title=Korea – NSCC |url=http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Forces-abroad/Korea-/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825200823/http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Forces-abroad/Korea-/ |archive-date=25 August 2010 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=Forsvarsmakten.se |publisher=Swedish Armed Forces}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="BBC2010">{{Cite news |date=20 May 2010 |title='North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship – report |publisher=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10129703 |url-status=live |access-date=22 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210225444/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10129703 |archive-date=10 December 2011}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Reuters2010">{{Cite news |last1=Kim |first1=Jack |last2=Lee |first2=Jae-won |date=23 November 2010 |title=North Korea shells South in fiercest attack in decades |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-artillery-idUSTRE6AM0YS20101123 |url-status=live |access-date=22 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104032417/http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/11/23/us-korea-north-artillery-idUSTRE6AM0YS20101123 |archive-date=4 January 2012}}</ref> | |||
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<ref name="CNN2000">{{Cite news |date=4 June 2000 |title=U.S. death toll from Korean War revised downward, Time reports |publisher=CNN |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/06/04/korea.deaths/ |access-date=22 December 2011}}{{Failed verification|date=December 2011}}</ref> | |||
--> | |||
<ref name="xu">{{Cite web |last=Xu |first=Yan |date=29 July 2003 |title=Korean War: In the View of Cost-effectiveness |url=http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715215412/http://www.nyconsulate.prchina.org/eng/xw/t31430.htm |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=12 August 2007 |publisher=Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in New York}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Puckett2005">{{Cite web |last=Puckett |first=Allen L. |date=1 April 2005 |title=Say 'hello' to the bad guy |url=http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123010176 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119204158/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123010176 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=af.mil |publisher=US Air Force}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Kreisher2007">{{Cite web |last=Kreisher |first=Otto |date=16 January 2007 |title=The Rise of the Helicopter During the Korean War |url=http://www.historynet.com/the-rise-of-the-helicopter-during-the-korean-war.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106153420/http://www.historynet.com/the-rise-of-the-helicopter-during-the-korean-war.htm |archive-date=6 January 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=historynet.com |publisher=Weider History Group}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="OliveDrab"> | |||
{{Cite web |title=WW II Helicopter Evacuation |url=http://www.olive-drab.com/od_medical_evac_helio_ww2.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113060208/http://olive-drab.com/od_medical_evac_helio_ww2.php |archive-date=13 January 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |publisher=Olive Drab}}<!--reliable?--></ref> | |||
<ref name="Day">{{Cite web |last=Day |first=Dwayne A. |title=M.A.S.H./Medevac Helicopters |url=http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Rotary/MASH/HE12.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119001032/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Rotary/MASH/HE12.htm |archive-date=19 January 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=CentennialOfFlight.gov |publisher=US Centennial of Flight Commission}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Walkom2010">{{Cite web |last=Walkom |first=Thomas |date=25 November 2010 |title=Walkom: North Korea's unending war rages on |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/896502--walkom-north-korea-s-unending-war-rages-on |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501192619/http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/896502--walkom-north-korea-s-unending-war-rages-on |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=Toronto Star}}</ref> | |||
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{{Citation |author=Commanding General, Far East Air Force |date=1951 |title=Memo to 98th Bomb Wing Commander, Okinawa}}<!--WTF? unverifiable as is--></ref> | |||
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{{Citation |author=((Far East Command G-2 Theater Intelligence)) |date=1951 |title=Résumé of Operation, Record Group 349, box 752}}<!--unverifiable as is--></ref> | |||
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<ref name="Kim2010">{{Cite web |last=Kim Dong‐choon |date=5 March 2010 |title=The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Korea: Uncovering the Hidden Korean War |url=http://www.jinsil.go.kr/English/Information/notice/read.asp?num=500 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101112431/http://www.jinsil.go.kr/English/Information/notice/read.asp?num=500 |archive-date=1 November 2013 |access-date=24 December 2011 |website=jinsil.go.kr |df=dmy-all}}</ref> --> | |||
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<ref name="KCNA">{{Cite web |title=DPRK Foreign Ministry memorandum on GI mass killings |url=http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200003/news03/22.htm#14 |access-date=22 December 2011 |website=Kcna.co.jp |publisher=]}} | |||
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<ref name="NYTimes12July1987">{{Cite news |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=12 July 1987 |title=Anti-Americanism Grows in South Korea |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7D6113FF931A25754C0A961948260 |access-date=11 April 2008}}</ref> | |||
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{{cite journal | last=Kim | first=Jinhyouk | title=Development and Influence of Military Medicine during the Korean War: the Medical Field Service School and Training in the U.S. | journal=Korean Journal of Medical History | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=2023-12-31 | issn=1225-505X | doi=10.13081/kjmh.2023.32.891 | pages=891–930| pmid=38273724 | pmc=10822703 }} | |||
{{cite web | last=Millett | first=Allan R. | title=Korean War—Invasion, Counterinvasion, 1950-51 - Combatants, Summary, Years, Map, Casualties, & Facts | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=1999-05-04 | url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War | access-date=25 July 2019 | archive-date=24 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424090911/https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War | url-status=live }} | |||
}} | |||
=== Bibliography === | |||
{{See also|United States in the Korean War#Further reading|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union}} | |||
{{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
*{{Cite book |last=Appleman |first=Roy E |title=South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu |publisher=] |date=1998 |isbn=978-0160019180|access-date=14 July 2010 |url=https://www.history.army.mil/html/books/020/20-2/|orig-year=1961}}{{PD-notice}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Barnouin |first1=Barbara |title=Zhou Enlai: A Political Life |last2=Yu |first2=Changgeng |publisher=Chinese University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-9629962807 |location=Hong Kong}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Becker |first=Jasper |url=https://archive.org/details/rogueregimekimjo00beck |title=Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0195170443 |location=New York }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Beschloss |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSxyDwAAQBAJ |title=Presidents of War: The Epic Story, from 1807 to Modern Times |publisher=Crown |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-307-40960-7 |location=New York }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Clay |title=The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |date=2003 |author-link=Clay Blair}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Jian |title=China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=1994 |isbn=978-0231100250 |location=New York}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=Micheal |title=A Statistical History of the Korean War: 1950-1953 |publisher=Merriam Press |date=1989 |location=Bennington, Vermont}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Cumings |first=Bruce |title=Korea's Place in the Sun : A Modern History |publisher=] |date=2005 |isbn=978-0393327021 |location=New York |author-link=Bruce Cumings}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Cumings |first=Bruce |title=Origins of the Korean War |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=1981 |isbn=978-8976966124 |chapter=3, 4 |author-link=Bruce Cumings}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Dear |first1=Ian |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00dear/page/516 |title=The Oxford Companion to World War II |last2=Foot |first2=M.R.D. |publisher=] |date=1995 |isbn=978-0198662259 |location=Oxford, NY |page= |author-link=I. C. B. Dear |author-link2=M. R. D. Foot }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Goulden |first=Joseph C |title=Korea: The Untold Story of the War |publisher=] |date=1983 |isbn=978-0070235809 |location=New York |page=17}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Halberstam |first=David |title=The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War |title-link=The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War |publisher=Hyperion |date=2007 |isbn=978-1401300524 |location=New York |author-link=David Halberstam}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Jager |first=Sheila Miyoshi |title=Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea |publisher=Profile Books |date=2013 |isbn=978-1846680670 |location=London |author-link=Sheila Miyoshi Jager}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Yǒng-jin |title=Major Powers and Korea |publisher=Research Institute on Korean Affairs |date=1973 |location=Silver Spring, MD |oclc=251811671}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Lee | first=Steven Hugh | title=The Korean War in History and Historiography | journal=The Journal of American-East Asian Relations | volume=21 | issue=2 | date=2014-06-14 | issn=1058-3947 | doi=10.1163/18765610-02102010 | pages=185–206}} | |||
* Lin, L., et al. "Whose history? An analysis of the Korean war in history textbooks from the United States, South Korea, Japan, and China". ''Social Studies'' 100.5 (2009): 222–232. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217110137/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Hoge/publication/249038081_Whose_History_An_Analysis_of_the_Korean_War_in_History_Textbooks_from_the_United_States_South_Korea_Japan_and_China/links/55108ab00cf20352196c0c69/Whose-History-An-Analysis-of-the-Korean-War-in-History-Textbooks-from-the-United-States-South-Korea-Japan-and-China.pdf |date=17 February 2022 }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Malkasian |first=Carter |title=The Korean War, 1950–1953 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |date=2001 |isbn=978-1579583644 |series=Essential Histories |location=London; Chicago}} | |||
* Matray, James I., and Donald W. Boose Jr, eds. ''The Ashgate research companion to the Korean War'' (2014) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901052646/https://www.amazon.com/Ashgate-Research-Companion-Korean-War/dp/0367669382 |date=1 September 2021 }}; covers historiography | |||
* Matray, James I. "Conflicts in Korea" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012) pp 498–531; emphasis on historiography. | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Millett |first=Allan R. |title=The Korean War: The Essential Bibliography |publisher=Potomac Books Inc. |date=2007 |isbn=978-1574889765 |series=The Essential Bibliography Series |location=Dulles, VA}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Mossman |first=Billy C. |title=Ebb and Flow, November 1950 – July 1951 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |date=1990 |series=United States Army in the Korean War |volume=5 |location=Washington, DC |oclc=16764325 |access-date=3 May 2010 |url=https://www.history.army.mil/html/books/020/20-4/}}{{PD-notice}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Perrett |first=Bryan |url=https://archive.org/details/sovietarmoursinc0000perr |title=Soviet Armour Since 1945 |publisher=Blandford |date=1987 |isbn=978-0713717358 |location=London }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Ravino |first1=Jerry |title=Flame Dragons of the Korean War |last2=Carty |first2=Jack |publisher=Turner |date=2003 |location=Paducah, KY}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Rees |first=David |title=Korea: The Limited War |publisher=St Martin's |date=1964 |location=New York |oclc=1078693}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Stein |first=R. Conrad |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanwarthefor00stei |title=The Korean War: "The Forgotten War" |publisher=Enslow Publishers |date=1994 |isbn=978-0894905261 |location=Hillside, NJ }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Stokesbury |first=James L |title=A Short History of the Korean War |publisher=Harper Perennial |date=1990 |isbn=978-0688095130 |location=New York}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Stueck |first=William W. |title=The Korean War: An International History |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanwarinterna0000stue |date=1995 |place=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691037677 }} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Stueck |first=William W. |title=Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History |date=2002 |place=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691118475}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Weathersby |first=Kathryn |title=Soviet Aims in Korea and the Origins of the Korean War, 1945–50: New Evidence From the Russian Archives |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/soviet-aims-korea-and-the-origins-the-korean-war-1945-50-new-evidence-the-russian |date=1993 |publisher=Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 8 |access-date=21 April 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225022000/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/soviet-aims-korea-and-the-origins-the-korean-war-1945-50-new-evidence-the-russian |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Weathersby |first=Kathryn |title="Should We Fear This?" Stalin and the Danger of War with America |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/should-we-fear-stalin-and-the-danger-war-america |date=2002 |publisher=Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 39 |access-date=21 April 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225031023/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/should-we-fear-stalin-and-the-danger-war-america |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Werrell |first=Kenneth P. |title=Sabres Over MiG Alley |publisher=] |date=2005 |isbn=978-1591149330 |location=Annapolis, MD}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Zaloga |first1=Steven J. |title=Soviet Tanks in Combat 1941–45: The T-28, T-34, T-34-85, and T-44 Medium Tanks |last2=Kinnear |first2=Jim |last3=Aksenov |first3=Andrey |last4=Koshchavtsev |first4=Aleksandr |date=1997 |publisher=Concord Publication |isbn=9623616155 |series=Armor at War |location=Hong Kong |ref=Zaloga-1997}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Zhang |first=Shu Guang |title=Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953 |date=1995 |place=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0700607235}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
==External links== | |||
{{Sister project links|Korean War|voy=Korean War}} | |||
* Records of {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421195550/https://search.archives.un.org/united-nations-commission-for-unification-and-rehabilitation-of-korea-uncurk-1950-1973 |date=21 April 2021 }} at the United Nations Archives | |||
===Historical=== | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709122734/https://new.mnd.go.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/thekoreanwar01/index.html |date=9 July 2023 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607035938/https://www.imhc.mil.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_202303310234112240.pdf |date=7 June 2023 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709122735/https://new.mnd.go.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/thekoreanwar02/index.html |date=9 July 2023 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607120011/https://www.imhc.mil.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_202303310233492010.pdf |date=7 June 2023 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709122732/https://new.mnd.go.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/thekoreanwar03/index.html |date=9 July 2023 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607132444/https://www.imhc.mil.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_202303310233258330.pdf |date=7 June 2023 }} | |||
* The Research Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221204021/http://www.shapell.org/btl.aspx?60th-anniversary-of-the-korean-war-armistice |date=21 February 2015 }} Shapell Manuscript Foundation | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626024426/http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/korean_war.html |date=26 June 2014 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210530002127/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/program/north-korea-international-documentation-project |date=30 May 2021 }} | |||
* | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309061111/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/25/opinion/25KoreaIntro.html |date=9 March 2021 }} – four testimonials in '']'' | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427055750/http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/KW.html |date=27 April 2021 }} an online collection of the ] | |||
* U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314194140/http://www.koreanwar-educator.org/home.htm |date=14 March 2021 }} | |||
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.li.263.927|name=Film No. 927}} | |||
===Media=== | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316035459/https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/korean-war |date=16 March 2021 }} | |||
* – slideshows by '']'' magazine | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080531/https://www.flickr.com/photos/imcomkorea/sets/72157607808414225/ |date=8 March 2021 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105223106/http://www.awesomestories.com/history/korean-war/war-pictures |date=5 November 2013 }} | |||
* | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106060612/http://www.britishpathe.com/workspace.php?id=32&display=listBritish |date=6 January 2012 }} Online newsreel archive featuring films on the war | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108131646/http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/korean-war/forgotten-heroes-canada-and-the-korean-war/canadas-troops-head-to-korea.html |date=8 November 2012 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815185949/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26287786 |date=15 August 2021 }}. ''Air Power History.'' (Spring 1997). '''44''', 1, 32–45. | |||
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* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307162850/http://www.kwva.org/pow_mia/index.htm |date=7 March 2021 }} | |||
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* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304075426/http://www.koreanchildren.org/ |date=4 March 2021 }} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226202230/http://www.china.org.cn/e-America/index.htm |date=26 February 2021 }} | |||
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Latest revision as of 19:06, 22 December 2024
War between North and South Korea, 1950–1953 For other conflicts and wars involving Korea, see List of Korean battles. For the conflict from 1945 to the present, see Korean conflict.
This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (December 2024) |
Korean War | |||||||||
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Part of the Cold War and the Korean conflict | |||||||||
Clockwise from top left:
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Belligerents | |||||||||
South Korea | North Korea | ||||||||
United Nations | |||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
Peak strength (combat troops):
(combat troops): |
Peak strength (combat troops): Together: 1,742,000 Total:2,970,000 72,000 Together: 3,042,000 | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
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The Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, while South Korea was supported by the United Nations Command (UNC) led by the United States. The conflict was the first major proxy war of the Cold War. Fighting ended in 1953 with an armistice but no peace treaty, leading to the ongoing Korean conflict.
After the end of World War II in 1945, Korea, which had been a Japanese colony for 35 years, was divided by the Soviet Union and the United States into two occupation zones at the 38th parallel, with plans for a future independent state. Due to political disagreements and influence from their backers, the zones formed their own governments in 1948. North Korea was led by Kim Il Sung in Pyongyang, and South Korea by Syngman Rhee in Seoul; both claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea and engaged in border clashes as internal unrest was fomented by communist groups in the south. On 25 June 1950, the Korean People's Army (KPA), equipped and trained by the Soviets, launched an invasion of the south. In the absence of the Soviet Union's representative, the UN Security Council denounced the attack and recommended member states to repel the invasion. UN forces comprised 21 countries, with the United States providing around 90% of military personnel.
Seoul was captured on 28 June, and by early August, the Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and its allies were nearly defeated, holding onto only the Pusan Perimeter in the peninsula's southeast. On 15 September, UN forces landed at Inchon near Seoul, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines. UN forces broke out from the perimeter on 18 September, re-captured Seoul, and invaded North Korea in October, capturing Pyongyang and advancing towards the Yalu River—the border with China. On 19 October, the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war on the side of the north. UN forces retreated from North Korea in December, following the PVA's first and second offensive. Communist forces captured Seoul again in January 1951 before losing it to a UN counter-offensive two months later. After an abortive Chinese spring offensive, UN forces retook territory roughly up to the 38th parallel. Armistice negotiations began in July 1951, but dragged on as the fighting became a war of attrition and the north suffered heavy damage from U.S. bombing.
Combat ended on 27 July 1953 with the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement, which allowed the exchange of prisoners and created a 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) wide Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) along the frontline, with a Joint Security Area at Panmunjom. The conflict caused more than 1 million military deaths and an estimated 2 to 3 million civilian deaths. Alleged war crimes include the mass killing of suspected communists by Seoul and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by Pyongyang. North Korea became one of the most heavily bombed countries in history, and virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed. No peace treaty has been signed, making the war a frozen conflict.
Names
Korean War | |||||||
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South Korean name | |||||||
Hangul | 6·25 전쟁 or 한국 전쟁 | ||||||
Hanja | 六二五戰爭 or 韓國戰爭 | ||||||
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North Korean name | |||||||
Chosŏn'gŭl | 조국해방전쟁 | ||||||
Hancha | 祖國解放戰爭 | ||||||
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In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as the "625 War" (6·25 전쟁; 六二五戰爭), the "625 Upheaval" (6·25 동란; 六二五動亂; yugio dongnan), or simply "625", reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.
In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War (Choguk haebang chŏnjaeng) or the Chosŏn War (조선전쟁; Chosŏn chŏnjaeng).
In mainland China, the segment of the war after the intervention of the People's Volunteer Army is commonly and officially known as the "Resisting America and Assisting Korea War" (Chinese: 抗美援朝战争; pinyin: Kàngměi Yuáncháo Zhànzhēng), although the term "Chosŏn War" (Chinese: 朝鮮戰爭; pinyin: Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng) is sometimes used unofficially. The term "Hán (Korean) War" (Chinese: 韓戰; pinyin: Hán Zhàn) is most used in Taiwan (Republic of China), Hong Kong and Macau.
In the US, the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action" as the US never formally declared war and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the UN. It has been sometimes referred to in the English-speaking world as "The Forgotten War" or "The Unknown War" because of the lack of public attention it received relative to World War II and the Vietnam War.
Background
Imperial Japanese rule (1910–1945)
Main article: Korea under Japanese ruleImperial Japan diminished the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95). A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan made the Korean Empire its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910.
Many Korean nationalists fled the country. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite the nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its US-based founding president, Syngman Rhee.
In China, the nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in the Burma campaign (1941-45). The communists, led by, among others, Kim Il Sung, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria. At the Cairo Conference in 1943, China, the UK, and the US decided that "in due course, Korea shall become free and independent".
Korea divided (1945–1949)
Main article: Division of KoreaAt the Tehran Conference in 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. The USSR declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria on 8 August 1945. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the north of Korea.
On 10 August in Washington, US Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were assigned to divide Korea into Soviet and US occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel as the dividing line. This was incorporated into the US General Order No. 1, which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "Even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U. S. forces in the event of Soviet disagreement ... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops". Joseph Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of cooperation, and on 16 August, the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces.
On 7 September 1945, General Douglas MacArthur issued Proclamation No. 1 to the people of Korea, announcing US military control over Korea south of the 38th parallel and establishing English as the official language during military control. On 8 September, US Lieutenant General John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48).
In December 1945, Korea was administered by a US–Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, to grant independence after a five-year trusteeship. Waiting five years for independence was unpopular among Koreans, and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and People's Committees on 12 December. Following further civilian unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law.
Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US government decided to hold an election under UN auspices to create an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and Korean communists refused to cooperate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. The 1948 South Korean general election was held in May. The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July and elected Syngman Rhee as president on 20 July. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948.
In the Soviet-Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviets agreed to the establishment of a communist government led by Kim Il Sung. The 1948 North Korean parliamentary elections took place in August. The Soviet Union withdrew its forces in 1948 and the US in 1949.
Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)
With the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest between the Communists and the Nationalist-led government. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese PLA during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans who served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.
Communist insurgency in South Korea (1948–1950)
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By 1948, a North Korea-backed insurgency had broken out in the southern half of the peninsula. This was exacerbated by the undeclared border war between the Koreas, which saw division-level engagements and thousands of deaths on both sides. The ROK was almost entirely trained and focused on counterinsurgency, rather than conventional warfare. They were equipped and advised by a force of a few hundred American officers, who were successful in helping the ROKA to subdue guerrillas and hold its own against North Korean military (Korean People's Army, KPA) forces along the 38th parallel. Approximately 8,000 South Korean soldiers and police officers died in the insurgent war and border clashes.
The first socialist uprising occurred without direct North Korean participation, though the guerrillas still professed support for the northern government. Beginning in April 1948 on Jeju Island, the campaign saw arrests and repression by the South Korean government in the fight against the South Korean Labor Party, resulting in 30,000 violent deaths, among them 14,373 civilians, of whom ~2,000 were killed by rebels and ~12,000 by ROK security forces. The Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion overlapped with it, as several thousand army defectors waving red flags massacred right-leaning families. This resulted in another brutal suppression by the government and between 2,976 and 3,392 deaths. By May 1949, both uprisings had been crushed.
Insurgency reignited in the spring of 1949 when attacks by guerrillas in the mountainous regions (buttressed by army defectors and North Korean agents) increased. Insurgent activity peaked in late 1949 as the ROKA engaged so-called People's Guerrilla Units. Organized and armed by the North Korean government, and backed by 2,400 KPA commandos who had infiltrated through the border, these guerrillas launched an offensive in September aimed at undermining the South Korean government and preparing the country for the KPA's arrival in force. This offensive failed. However, the guerrillas were now entrenched in the Taebaek-san region of the North Gyeongsang Province and the border areas of the Gangwon Province.
While the insurgency was ongoing, the ROKA and KPA engaged in battalion-sized battles along the border, starting in May 1949. Border clashes between South and North continued on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel. The 2nd and 18th ROK Infantry Regiments repulsed attacks in Kuksa-bong, and KPA troops were "completely routed". Border incidents decreased by the start of 1950.
Meanwhile, counterinsurgencies in the South Korean interior intensified; persistent operations, paired with worsening weather, denied the guerrillas sanctuary and wore away their fighting strength. North Korea responded by sending more troops to link up with insurgents and build more partisan cadres; North Korean infiltrators had reached 3,000 soldiers in 12 units by the start of 1950, but all were destroyed or scattered by the ROKA.
On 1 October 1949, the ROKA launched a three-pronged assault on the insurgents in South Cholla and Taegu. By March 1950, the ROKA claimed 5,621 guerrillas killed or captured and 1,066 small arms seized. This operation crippled the insurgency. Soon after, North Korea made final attempts to keep the uprising active, sending battalion-sized units of infiltrators under the commands of Kim Sang-ho and Kim Moo-hyon. The first battalion was reduced to a single man over the course of engagements by the ROKA 8th Division. The second was annihilated by a two-battalion hammer-and-anvil maneuver by units of the ROKA 6th Division, resulting in a toll of 584 KPA guerrillas (480 killed, 104 captured) and 69 ROKA troops killed, plus 184 wounded. By the spring of 1950, guerrilla activity had mostly subsided; the border, too, was calm.
Prelude to war (1950)
By 1949, South Korean and US military actions had reduced indigenous communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il Sung believed widespread uprisings had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to persuade him.
Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. PLA forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while US forces remained stationed in South Korea. By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces under Mao Zedong had secured final victory, US forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets had detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the US monopoly. As the US had not directly intervened to stop the communists in China, Stalin calculated they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had less strategic significance. The Soviets had cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance.
In April 1950, Stalin permitted Kim to attack the government in the South, under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed. For Kim, this was the fulfillment of his goal to unite Korea. Stalin made it clear Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the US
Kim met with Mao in May 1950 and differing historical interpretations of the meeting have been put forward. According to Barbara Barnouin and Yu Changgeng, Mao agreed to support Kim despite concerns of American intervention, as China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. Kathryn Weathersby cites Soviet documents which said Kim secured Mao's support. Along with Mark O'Neill, she says this accelerated Kim's war preparations. Chen Jian argues Mao never seriously challenged Kim's plans and Kim had every reason to inform Stalin that he had obtained Mao's support. Citing more recent scholarship, Zhao Suisheng contends Mao did not approve of Kim's war proposal and requested verification from Stalin, who did so via a telegram. Mao accepted the decision made by Kim and Stalin to unify Korea but cautioned Kim over possible US intervention.
Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from World War II were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. They completed plans for attack by May and called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch an attack to capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the ROK. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants and capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.
On 7 June 1950, Kim called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15–17 June. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture, which Rhee rejected outright. On 21 June, Kim revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in Ongjin. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and that South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change.
While these preparations were underway in the North, there were clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The ROK was being trained by the US Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of the war, KMAG commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice". For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when US diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.
Though some South Korean and US intelligence officers predicted an attack, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had happened. The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the KPA but assessed this as a "defensive measure" and concluded an invasion was "unlikely". On 23 June UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.
Comparison of forces
Chinese involvement was extensive from the beginning, building on previous collaboration between the Chinese and Korean communists during the Chinese Civil War. Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the PLA were sent to North Korea.
In the fall of 1949, two PLA divisions composed mainly of Korean-Chinese troops (the 164th and 166th) entered North Korea, followed by smaller units throughout the rest of 1949. The reinforcement of the KPA with PLA veterans continued into 1950, with the 156th Division and several other units of the former Fourth Field Army arriving in February; the PLA 156th Division was reorganized as the KPA 7th Division. By mid-1950, between 50,000 and 70,000 former PLA troops had entered North Korea, forming a significant part of the KPA's strength on the eve of the war's beginning. The combat veterans and equipment from China, the tanks, artillery, and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, armed by the U.S. military with mostly small arms, but no heavy weaponry.
Several generals, such as Lee Kwon-mu, were PLA veterans born to ethnic Koreans in China. While older histories of the conflict often referred to these ethnic Korean PLA veterans as being sent from northern Korea to fight in the Chinese Civil War before being sent back, recent Chinese archival sources studied by Kim Donggill indicate that this was not the case. Rather, the soldiers were indigenous to China, as part of China's longstanding ethnic Korean community, and were recruited to the PLA in the same way as any other Chinese citizen.
According to the first official census in 1949, the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000, and by mid-1950, North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T-34-85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, 150 Yak fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as seaborne artillery for their armies.
In contrast, the South Korean population was estimated at 20 million, but its army was unprepared and ill-equipped. As of 25 June 1950, the ROK had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22-plane air force comprising 12 liaison-type and 10 AT-6 advanced-trainer airplanes. Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan, but only 200–300 U.S. troops were in Korea.
Course of the war
Operation Pokpung
Main article: Operation PokpungAt dawn on 25 June 1950, the KPA crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire. It justified its assault with the claim ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee". Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin Peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that the 17th Regiment had counterattacked at Haeju; some scholars argue the claimed counterattack was instead the instigating attack, and therefore that the South Koreans may have fired first. However, the report that contained the Haeju claim contained errors and outright falsehoods.
KPA forces attacked all along the 38th parallel within an hour. The KPA had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The ROK had no tanks, anti-tank weapons, or heavy artillery. The South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion, and these were routed in a few days.
On 27 June, Rhee evacuated Seoul with some of the government. At 02:00 on 28 June the ROK blew up the Hangang Bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the KPA. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it, and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge trapped many ROK units north of the river. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. Some South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and 48 subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.
On 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country. In five days, the ROK, which had 95,000 troops on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 troops. In early July, when US forces arrived, what was left of the ROK was placed under US operational command of the United Nations Command.
Factors in U.S. intervention
Main articles: United States in the Korean War and Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administrationThe Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than that of East Asia. The administration was worried a war in Korea could quickly escalate without American intervention. Diplomat John Foster Dulles stated: "To sit by while Korea is overrun by unprovoked armed attack would start a disastrous chain of events leading most probably to world war."
While there was hesitance by some in the US government to get involved, considerations about Japan fed into the decision to engage on behalf of South Korea. After the fall of China to the communists, US experts saw Japan as the region's counterweight to the Soviet Union and China. While there was no US policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased its importance. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene ... The essential point ... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan."
Another consideration was the Soviet reaction if the US intervened. The Truman administration was fearful a Korean war was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the US committed in Korea. At the same time, "here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from ". Yugoslavia—a possible Soviet target because of the Tito-Stalin split—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council's post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots". Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would start that would marginalize the UN and encourage communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans, and the US immediately began using air and naval forces in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing troops on the ground, because advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.
The Truman administration was uncertain whether the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union, or just a test of US resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against US forces in Korea. The Truman administration believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.
United Nations Security Council resolutions
Further information: List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning North KoreaOn 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of South Korea with Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had boycotted Council meetings since January 1950, protesting Taiwan's occupation of China's permanent seat. The Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help. On 4 July the Soviet deputy foreign minister accused the U.S. of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.
The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council, some legal scholars posited that deciding upon this type of action required the unanimous vote of all five permanent members.
Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were retreating southwards or defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.
United States' response (July–August 1950)
As soon as word of the attack was received, Acheson informed Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a US invasion response and agreed the US was obligated to act, comparing the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, and the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. US industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. Truman later explained he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68):
Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.
In August 1950, Truman and Acheson obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action, equivalent to $152 billion in 2023. Because of the extensive defense cuts and emphasis on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were able to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with deploying a force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.
Acting on Acheson's recommendation, Truman ordered MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Japan, to transfer matériel to the South Korean military, while giving air cover to evacuation of US nationals. Truman disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral bombing of the North Korean forces and ordered the U.S. Seventh Fleet to protect Taiwan, whose government asked to fight in Korea. The US denied Taiwan's request for combat, lest it provoke retaliation from the PRC. Because the US had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" the Taiwan Strait, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai criticized the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory". The US supported the Kuomintang in Burma in the hope these KMT forces would harass China from the southwest, thereby diverting Chinese resources from Korea.
The drive south and Pusan (July–September 1950)
The Battle of Osan, the first significant US engagement, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the KPA at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying KPA tanks. The KPA defeated the US, with 180 American casualties. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back US forces at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon. The 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major General William F. Dean.
By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK and the Eighth United States Army southwards. The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks was keenly felt, as US troops fought costly rearguard actions. Facing a veteran and well-led KPA force, and lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, the Americans retreated and the KPA advanced down the Peninsula. By September, UN forces were hemmed into a corner of southeast Korea, near Pusan. This 230-kilometre (140-mile) perimeter enclosed about 10% of Korea, in a line defined by the Nakdong River.
The KPA purged South Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, MacArthur warned Kim Il Sung he would be held responsible for KPA atrocities.
Kim's early successes led him to predict the war would finish by the end of August. Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible US deployment, Zhou secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and he deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou authorized a topographical survey of Korea and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military adviser in Korea, to analyze the military situation. Lei concluded MacArthur would likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to PLA commanders to prepare for US naval activity in the Korea Strait.
In the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter, UN forces withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang-dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties, which destroyed 32 bridges, halting daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny military equipment and supplies to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, refineries, and harbors, while U.S. Navy aircraft attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the overextended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory, and the Soviet Union called the Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident. The US proposed a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation, but the Soviets vetoed this.
Meanwhile, US garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and military supplies to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. MacArthur went so far as to call for Japan's rearmament. Tank battalions deployed to Korea, from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had 500 medium tanks battle-ready. In early September 1950, UN forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.
Battle of Incheon (September 1950)
Main article: Battle of IncheonAgainst the rested and rearmed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Incheon, near Seoul, well over 160 km (100 mi) behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, commander of the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division, to plan an amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.
Soon after the war began, MacArthur began planning an Incheon landing, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined US Army and Marine Corps, and ROK force. The X Corps, consisted of 40,000 troops of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of Incheon.
Breakout from the Pusan Perimeter
Main articles: Pusan Perimeter offensive, UN September 1950 counteroffensive, and Second Battle of SeoulOn 16 September Eighth Army began its breakout from the Pusan Perimeter. Task Force Lynch, 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and 70th Tank Battalion units advanced through 171.2 km (106.4 mi) of KPA territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan on 27 September. X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force.
On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H. M. Zakharov to advise Kim to halt his offensive around the Pusan Perimeter, and redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. Zhou suggested the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the UN forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.
On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by UN forces. US air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and artillery. KPA troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the retreat, only 25,000-30,000 KPA soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, where he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.
UN forces invade North Korea (September–October 1950)
Main article: UN offensive into North KoreaOn 27 September, MacArthur received secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily". On 29 September, MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. The Joint Chiefs of Staff on 27 September sent MacArthur a comprehensive directive: it stated the primary goal was the destruction of the KPA, with unification of the Peninsula under Rhee as a secondary objective "if possible"; the Joint Chiefs added this objective was dependent on whether the Chinese and Soviets would intervene, and was subject to changing conditions.
On 30 September, Zhou warned the US that China was prepared to intervene if the US crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise KPA commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics that allowed Chinese Communist forces to escape Nationalist encirclement campaigns in the 1930s, but KPA commanders did not use these tactics effectively. Bruce Cumings argues, however, that the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.
By 1 October, the UN Command had driven the KPA past the 38th parallel, and RoK forces pursued the KPA northwards. MacArthur demanded the KPA's unconditional surrender. On 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The Eighth US Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang on 19 October. On 20 October, the US 187th Airborne Regiment made their first of their two combat jumps during the war at Sunchon and Sukchon. The mission was to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping Pyongyang, and to rescue US prisoners of war.
At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 80–161 km (50–100 mi) of mountainous terrain. In addition to the 135,000 captured, the KPA had suffered some 200,000 soldiers killed or wounded, for a total of 335,000 casualties since end of June 1950, and lost 313 tanks. A mere 25,000 KPA regulars retreated across the 38th parallel, as their military had collapsed. The UN forces on the peninsula numbered 229,722 combat troops (including 125,126 Americans and 82,786 South Koreans), 119,559 rear area troops, and 36,667 US Air Force personnel. MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the war into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean effort. Truman disagreed and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.
China intervenes (October–December 1950)
On 3 October 1950, China attempted to warn the US, through its embassy in India, it would intervene if UN forces crossed the Yalu River. The US did not respond as policymakers in Washington, including Truman, considered it a bluff.
On 15 October Truman and MacArthur met at Wake Island. This was much publicized because of MacArthur's discourteous refusal to meet the president in the contiguous US. To Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria and 100,000–125,000 at the Yalu River. He concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter" without Soviet air force protection.
Meanwhile on 13 October, the Politburo decided China would intervene even without Soviet air support, basing its decision on a belief superior morale could defeat an enemy that had superior equipment. To that end, 200,000 Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) troops crossed the Yalu into North Korea. UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized detection. The PVA marched "dark-to-dark" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers remained motionless if an aircraft appeared; PVA officers were under orders to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-division army to march the 460 km (286 mi) from An-tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in 19 days. Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 29 km (18 mi) daily for 18 days.
After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after PVA troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Forces to provide air cover and supported more aid to China. After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and US military occurred on 1 November 1950. Deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the US 8th Cavalry Regiment with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan.
On 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng Dehuai as field commander. On 25 November, on the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then inflicted heavy losses on the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces' right flank. Believing they could not hold against the PVA, the Eighth Army began to retreat, crossing the 38th parallel in mid-December.
In the east, on 27 November, the PVA 9th Army Group initiated the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. Here, the UN forces fared better: like the Eighth Army, the surprise attack forced X Corps to retreat from northeast Korea, but they were able to break out from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute a successful tactical withdrawal. X Corps established a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam on 11 December and evacuated by 24 December, to reinforce the depleted Eighth Army to the south. About 193 shiploads of UN forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN forces razed most of Hungnam, with particular attention to the port.
In early December UN forces, including the British Army's 29th Infantry Brigade, evacuated Pyongyang along with refugees. Around 4.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled South or elsewhere abroad. On 16 December Truman declared a national state of emergency with Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until September 1978. The next day, 17 December, Kim Il Sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.
Fighting around the 38th parallel (January–June 1951)
A ceasefire presented by the UN to the PRC, after the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River on 11 December, was rejected by the PRC, which was convinced of the PVA's invincibility after its victory in that battle and the wider Second Phase Offensive. With Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway assuming command of the Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive on New Year's Eve. Using night attacks in which UN fighting positions were encircled and assaulted by numerically superior troops, who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which facilitated tactical communication and disoriented the enemy. UN forces had no familiarity with this tactic, and some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to capture Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.
These setbacks prompted MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, intending radioactive fallout zones to interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army revived.
UN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. On 25 late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became Operation Thunderbolt. A full-scale advance fully exploited the UN's air superiority, concluding with the UN forces reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.
Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning the PRC as an aggressor and calling upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.
In early February, the ROK 11th Division ran an operation to destroy guerrillas and pro-DPRK sympathizers in the South Gyeongsang Province. The division and police committed the Geochang and Sancheong–Hamyang massacres. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved victory at Hoengseong. However, the offensive was blunted by US IX Corps at Chipyong-ni in the center. The US 23rd Regimental Combat Team and French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the "Gettysburg of the Korean War": 5,600 U.S., and French troops were surrounded by 25,000 PVA. UN forces had previously retreated in the face of large PVA/KPA forces instead of getting cut off, but this time, they stood and won.
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Thunderbolt was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with US I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March. This was the fourth and final conquest of the city in a year, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000 and people were suffering from food shortages.
On 6 March MacArthur gave a press conference at Suwon where he stated "Assuming no diminution of the enemy’s flow of ground forces and materiel to the Korean battle area, a continuation of the existing limitation upon our freedom of counter-offensive action, and no major additions to our organizational strength, the battle lines cannot fail in time to reach a point of theoretical stalemate." No one in Washington disputed MacArthur’s prediction that a stalemate could develop out of the conditions obtaining. But a military victory, because of the commitments and risks an attempt to achieve it would entail, was no longer considered a practical objective. The preferred course, preferred because it would be consistent with the greater strategy and ongoing preparations against the possibility of world war, was to seek a cease-fire and a negotiated settlement of Korean issues. On 12 March Ridgway gave his own press conference at his command post at Yoju stating that regaining the 38th parallel would be a "tremendous victory" for the Eighth Army. It would mean that the encroachment of communism in Korea had been stopped - exactly what the UNC had set out to accomplish. Conversely, if the Chinese failed to drive the UNC out of Korea, they would have "failed monumentally." In any case, he emphasized, "we didn't set out to conquer China."
In late April, Peng sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these were never sufficient. Large-scale air defense training programs were carried out and the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) began participating in the war from September 1951 onward. The Fourth Phase Offensive had failed to match the achievements of the Second Phase or the limited gains of the Third Phase. The UN forces, after earlier defeats and retraining, proved much harder to infiltrate by Chinese light infantry than in previous months. From 31 January to 21 April, the Chinese suffered 53,000 casualties.
On 11 April Truman relieved General MacArthur as supreme commander in Korea for several reasons. MacArthur had crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed the use of nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the president's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a larger war, feeling a truce and orderly withdrawal could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined he had defied the orders of the president and thus violated the US Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was he never spent a night in Korea and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.
Ridgway was appointed supreme commander, and he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the Eighth Army. Further attacks depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23–28 March) and Tomahawk (23 March) (a combat jump by the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team) were joint ground and airborne infiltrations meant to trap PVA forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to the Kansas Line, north of the 38th parallel.
The PVA counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, with three field armies (700,000 men). The first thrust of the offensive fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22–25 April) and Battle of Kapyong (22–25 April), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the No-name Line north of Seoul. Casualty ratios were grievously disproportionate; Peng had expected a 1:1 or 2:1 ratio, but instead, Chinese combat casualties from 22 to 29 April totaled between 40,000 and 60,000 compared to only 4,000 for the UN—a ratio between 10:1 and 15:1. By the time Peng had called off the attack in the western sector on 29 April, the three participating armies had lost a third of their front-line combat strength within a week. On 15 May the PVA commenced the second impulse of the spring offensive and attacked the ROK and U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. Approximately 370,000 PVA and 114,000 KPA troops had been mobilized, with the bulk attacking in the eastern sector, with about a quarter attempting to pin the I Corps and IX Corps in the western sector. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May and repulsed over the following days, with Western histories generally designating 22 May as the end of the offensive.
At month's end, the Chinese planned the third step of the Fifth Phase Offensive (withdrawal), which they estimated would take 10-15 days to complete for their 340,000 remaining men, and set the date for the night of 23 May. They were caught off guard when the Eighth Army counterattacked and regained the Kansas Line on the morning of 12 May, 23 hours before the expected withdrawal. The surprise attack turned the retreat into "the most severe loss since our forces had entered Korea"; between 16-23 May, the PVA suffered another 45,000 to 60,000 casualties before their soldiers managed to evacuate. The Fifth Phase Offensive as a whole had cost the PVA 102,000 soldiers (85,000 killed/wounded, 17,000 captured), with significant losses for the KPA.
The end of the Fifth Phase Offensive preceded the start of the UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive. During the counteroffensive, the US-led coalition captured land up to about 10 km (6 mi) north of the 38th parallel, with most forces stopping at the Kansas Line and a minority going further to the Wyoming Line. PVA and KPA forces suffered greatly, especially in the Chuncheon sector and at Chiam-ni and Hwacheon; in the latter sector alone the PVA/KPA suffered over 73,207 casualties, including 8,749 captured, compared to 2,647 total casualties of the IX Corps.
The halt at the Kansas Line and offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953. The disastrous failure of the Fifth Phase Offensive (which Peng recalled as one of only four mistakes he made in his military career) "led Chinese leaders to change their goal from driving the UNF out of Korea to merely defending China's security and ending the war through negotiations".
Stalemate (July 1951–July 1953)
For the rest of the war, the UN and the PVA/KPA fought but exchanged little territory. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began on 10 July 1951 at Kaesong in the North. On the Chinese side, Zhou directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued; the goal of the UN forces was to recapture all of South Korea and avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations and later effected military and psychological operations to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war.
The sides constantly traded artillery fire along the front, with American-led forces possessing a large firepower advantage over Chinese-led forces. In the last three months of 1952 the UN fired 3,553,518 field gun shells and 2,569,941 mortar shells, while the communists fired 377,782 field gun shells and 672,194 mortar shells: a 5.8:1 ratio. The communist insurgency, reinvigorated by North Korean support and scattered bands of KPA stragglers, resurged in the south.
In the autumn of 1951, Van Fleet ordered Major General Paik Sun-yup to break the back of guerrilla activity. The UN's limited offensive (31 August – 12 November) to shorten and straighten sections of the lines, acquire better defensive terrain, and deny the enemy key vantage points, saw heavy fighting by UN forces, with I Corps and X Corps making limited tactical advances against PVA and KPA forces. The campaign resulted in approximately 60,000 casualties, including 22,000 Americans. The intense battles at Bloody Ridge, the Punchbowl and Heartbreak Ridge underscored the challenges of penetrating the Chinese "active defense." Despite PVA/KPA losses of 100,000–150,000 troops, these were not crippling, and the PVA forces remained resolute. By November, the UNC abandoned major offensive operations, and the PVA launched counterattacks with some success.
From December 1951 to March 1952, ROK security forces claimed to have killed 11,090 partisans and sympathizers and captured 9,916 more.
PVA troops suffered from deficient military equipment, logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. These factors led to a rate of Chinese casualties far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that in November 1951 Zhou called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA's logistical problems. It was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields, to increase the trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to address the problems.
In the months after the Shenyang conference, Peng went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties and the increasing difficulty of keeping front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced the war would be protracted and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of government agencies. After government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the war demands, Peng shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?" The atmosphere became so tense Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou called a series of meetings, where it was agreed the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate training of pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.
With peace negotiations ongoing, the Chinese attempted a final offensive in the final weeks of the war to capture territory: on 10 June, 30,000 Chinese troops struck South Korean and U.S. divisions on a 13 km (8 mi) front, and on 13 July, 80,000 Chinese soldiers struck the east-central Kumsong sector, with the brunt of their attack falling on 4 South Korean divisions. The Chinese had success in penetrating South Korean lines but failed to capitalize, particularly when US forces responded with overwhelming firepower. Chinese casualties in their final major offensive (above normal wastage for the front) were about 72,000, including 25,000 killed compared to 14,000 for the UN (most were South Koreans, 1,611 were Americans).
While Chinese forces grappled with significant logistical and supply difficulties, the stalemate also stemmed from mounting frustrations within the UNC. Despite superior firepower, the war proved difficult to fight and the US public was becoming impatient of a war that was lacking a victory. By mid-1951, the stalemate had worn away Truman's public approval, and political pressures mounted on the Truman administration to seek an end to the fighting. On 29 November 1952 U.S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower went to Korea to learn what might end the war. Eisenhower took office on 20 January 1953 and his administration prioritized containment over rollback and sought to reduce American involvement in the conflict, contributing to the later armistice.
Armistice (July 1953–November 1954)
Main article: Korean Armistice AgreementThe on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, then Panmunjom. A problematic point was prisoner of war repatriation. The PVA, KPA and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. A Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission was set up to handle the matter.
Stalin died on 5 March. The new Soviet leaders, engaged in their internal power struggle, had no desire to continue supporting China's efforts and called for an end to the hostilities. China could not continue without Soviet aid, and North Korea was no longer a major player. Armistice talks entered a new phase. With UN acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, PVA and UN Command signed the armistice agreement on 27 July 1953. South Korean President Syngman Rhee refused to sign. The war ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims it won the war.
Under the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) which mostly follows the 38th parallel. In the eastern part, the DMZ runs north of the 38th parallel; to the west, it travels south of it. Kaesong, site of the initial negotiations, was in pre-war South Korea but is now part of North Korea. The DMZ has since been patrolled by the KPA and the ROKA, with the US still operating as the UN Command.
Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatants to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 US Army and US Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN POW camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific, on Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate the PRC and North Korea transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the US, and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, North Korea recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.
Continued division (1954–present)
See also: Korean Demilitarized ZoneThe Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission, composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish armed forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.
In April 1975, South Vietnam's capital of Saigon was captured by the People's Army of Vietnam. Encouraged by that communist success, Kim Il Sung saw it as an opportunity to invade South Korea. Kim visited China in April 1975 and met with Mao and Zhou to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, Beijing refused to help North Korea in another war.
Since the armistice, there have been incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. From 1966 to 1969, many cross-border incursions took place in what has been referred to as the Korean DMZ Conflict or Second Korean War. In 1968, a North Korean commando team unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate South Korean president Park Chung Hee in the Blue House Raid. In 1976, the Korean axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, 4 incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing 2 military personnel and 2 civilians.
After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid. On 13 March, North Korea confirmed it ended the Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression". On 30 March, North Korea stated it entered a "state of war" and "the long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over". Speaking on 4 April, US Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel said that Pyongyang "formally informed" the Pentagon that it "ratified" the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the US, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel stated the US would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat.
In 2016, it was revealed North Korea approached the US about conducting formal peace talks to end the war officially. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected because North Korea refused to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the treaty. In 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talk to end the conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Peninsula. North Korean leader Kim Jong Un and South Korean President Moon Jae-in signed the Panmunjom Declaration. In September 2021, Moon reiterated his call to end the war formally, in a speech at the UN.
Casualties
About 3 million people were killed in the war, mostly civilians, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era. Samuel Kim lists the war as the deadliest conflict in East Asia—the region most affected by armed conflict related to the Cold War. Though only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than World War II or the Vietnam War, with Bruce Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2 million and Guenter Lewy in the range of 2-3 million.
Cumings states that civilians represent at least half the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests it may have gone as high as 70%, compared to his estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%–46% in Vietnam. Data compiled by the Peace Research Institute Oslo lists just under 1 million battle deaths over the war and a mid-estimate of 3 million total deaths, attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease. Compounding this devastation for civilians, virtually all major cities on the Peninsula were destroyed. In per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the most devastated by the war. According to Charles K. Armstrong, the war resulted in the death of an estimated 12%–15% of the North Korean population (c. 10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II".
Military
See also: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Philippines, Thailand, Turkey, South Africa, United Kingdom, and United States See also: China, North Korea, and Soviet UnionSouth Korea reported some 137,899 military deaths and 24,495 missing, 450,742 wounded, 8,343 POW. The US suffered 33,686 battle deaths, 7,586 missing, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths. There were 17,730 other non-battle US military deaths that occurred outside Korea during the same period that were erroneously included as war deaths until 2000. The US suffered 103,284 wounded in action. UN losses, excluding those of the US or South Korea, amounted to 4,141 dead and 12,044 wounded in action.
American combat casualties were over 90% of non-Korean UN losses. US battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. The first four months prior to the Chinese intervention were by far the bloodiest per day for US forces, as they engaged the well-equipped KPA in intense fighting. American medical records show that from July to October 1950, the army sustained 31% of the combat deaths it ultimately incurred in the entire 37-month war. The US spent US$30 billion on the war. Some 1,789,000 American soldiers served in the war, accounting for 31% of the 5,720,000 Americans who served on active duty worldwide from June 1950 to July 1953.
Deaths from non-American UN militaries totaled 3,730, with another 379 missing.
Details- United Kingdom:
1,109 dead
2,674 wounded
179 MIA
977 POW - Turkey:
741 dead
2,068 wounded
163 MIA
244 POW - Canada:
516 dead
1,042 wounded
1 MIA
33 POW - Australia:
339 dead
1,216 wounded
43 MIA
26 POW - France:
262 dead
1,008 wounded
7 MIA
12 POW - Greece
192 dead
543 wounded
3 POW - Colombia:
163 dead
448 wounded
28 POW - Thailand:
129 dead
1,139 wounded
5 MIA - Ethiopia
121 dead
536 wounded - Netherlands:
122 dead
645 wounded
3 MIA - Belgium:
101 dead
478 wounded
5 MIA
1 POW - Philippines:
92 dead
299 wounded
97 MIA/POW - Japan:
79 dead - South Africa:
34 dead
9 POW - New Zealand:
34 dead
299 wounded
1 MIA/POW - Norway:
3 dead - Luxembourg:
2 dead
13 wounded - India:
1 dead
Chinese sources reported that the PVA suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 21,000 deaths from wounds, 13,000 deaths from illness, 340,000 wounded, and 7,600 missing. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China. In 2010, the Chinese government revised their official tally of war losses to 183,108 dead (114,084 in combat, 70,000 deaths from wounds, illness and other causes) and 21,374 POW, 25,621 missing. Overall, 73% of Chinese infantry troops served in Korea (25 of 34 armies, or 79 of 109 infantry divisions, were rotated in). More than 52% of the Chinese air force, 55% of the tank units, 67% of the artillery divisions, and 100% of the railroad engineering divisions were sent to Korea as well. Chinese soldiers who served in Korea faced a greater chance of being killed than those who served in World War II or the Chinese Civil War. China spent over 10 billion yuan on the war (roughly US$3.3 billion), not counting USSR aid. This included $1.3 billion in money owed to the Soviet Union by the end of it. This was a relatively large cost, as China had only 4% of the national income of the US. Spending on the war constituted 34–43% of China's annual government budget from 1950 to 1953, depending on the year. Despite its underdeveloped economy, Chinese military spending was the world's fourth largest globally for most of the war after that of the US, the Soviet Union, and the UK; however, by 1953, with the winding down of the Korean War and the escalation of the First Indochina War, French spending also surpassed Chinese spending by about a third.
According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, North Korean military losses totaled 294,151 dead, 91,206 missing, and 229,849 wounded, giving North Korea the highest military deaths of any belligerent in absolute and relative terms. The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset gave a similar figure for North Korean military deaths of 316,579. Chinese sources reported similar figures for the North Korean military of 290,000 "casualties" and 90,000 captured. The financial cost of the war for North Korea was massive in direct losses and lost economic activity; the country was devastated by the cost of the war and the American strategic bombing campaign, which, among other things, destroyed 85% of North Korea's buildings and 95% of its power generation. The Soviet Union suffered 299 dead, with 335 planes lost.
The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the US, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated" from the battlefield. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed, 303,000 wounded, and over 101,000 captured or missing. Cumings cites a much higher figure of 900,000 fatalities among Chinese soldiers.
Civilian
According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, there were over 750,000 confirmed violent civilians deaths during the war, another million civilians were pronounced missing, and millions more ended up as refugees. Estimates of the number of civilians killed in the entire war range from 244,000 to 990,000 for South Korea. The North Korean government has never published estimates of civilian deaths in the war, but more than one million killed has been an estimate common among historians who have studied the Korean War. Over 1.5 million North Koreans fled to the South.
War crimes
Main article: War crimes in the Korean WarThere were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, starting in the war's first days. In 2005–2010, a South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated atrocities and other human rights violations through much of the 20th century, from the Japanese colonial period through the Korean War and beyond. It excavated some mass graves from the Bodo League massacres and confirmed the general outlines of those political executions. Of the Korean War-era massacres the commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces.
The commission also received petitions alleging more than 200 large-scale killings of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military during the war, mostly air attacks. It confirmed several such cases, including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs, which survivors said killed 360 people, and an air attack that killed 197 refugees gathered in a field in the far south. It recommended South Korea seek reparations from the United States, but in 2010, a reorganized commission under a new, conservative government concluded that most U.S. mass killings resulted from "military necessity", while in a small number of cases, they concluded, the U.S. military had acted with "low levels of unlawfulness", but the commission recommended against seeking reparations.
Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed during the war. The war's highest-ranking U.S. POW, Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent". North Korea ranks as among the most heavily bombed countries in history, and the U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs (including 32,557 tons of napalm) on Korea, more than during the entire Pacific War. By the end of the war, eighteen of the twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated according to damage assessments by the U.S. Air Force. During a Senate hearing in the spring of 1951, MacArthur expressed his horror at the devastation that the war was inflicting on the Koreans, describing it as the worst he had ever seen in his military career. As the most humane solution, MacArthur suggested that the war should be escalated in order to bring it to an end sooner.
Characteristics
U.S. unpreparedness
In postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of US forces deployed during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament."
By 1950, US Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following Truman's defense economization plans and aggressively attempted to implement it, even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks and widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained military forces in the war's early stages.
As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper" since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered Sherman tanks and other equipment from Pacific War battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea. Army ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down M26 Pershing tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army's hastily formed 70th Tank Battalion. Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter-bomber aircraft, the Air Force took F-51 (P-51) propeller-driven aircraft out of storage or from existing Air National Guard squadrons and rushed them into front-line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.
U.S. Army Reserve and Army National Guard infantry soldiers and new inductees (called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions) found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground-support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the M20 3.5-inch (89 mm) "Super Bazooka". Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn-out, "red-lined" M1 rifles or carbines in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair. Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully understrength, as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).
Armored warfare
The initial assault by KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T-34-85 tanks. A KPA tank corps equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These faced an ROK that had few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the T-34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The KPA tanks had a good deal of early successes against ROK infantry, Task Force Smith, and the U.S. M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing KPA armor. The tide turned in favor of the UN forces in August 1950 when the KPA suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including American M4A3 Sherman and M26 medium tanks, alongside British Centurion, Churchill and Cromwell tanks.
The Incheon landings on 15 September cut off the KPA supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result of this and the Pusan perimeter breakout, the KPA had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the KPA withdrew from the South, 239 T-34s and 74 SU-76 self-propelled guns were lost. After November 1950, KPA armor was rarely encountered.
Following the initial assault by the North, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the eastern central zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.
Naval warfare
Further information: List of US Navy ships sunk or damaged in action during the Korean WarNaval engagements of the Korean War (1950–1953) and post-armistice incidents | |
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Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the war featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser USS Juneau, the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Jamaica and the Royal Navy frigate HMS Black Swan fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship PC-703 sank a North Korean minelayer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Incheon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC-703 two days later in the Yellow Sea.
During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to UN navy ships was from magnetic mines. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships.
Aerial warfare
Further information: USAF units and aircraft of the Korean War and Bombing of North KoreaThe war was the first in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury—all piston-engined, propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet-powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P-80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor, and other jets under the UN flag dominated the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) propeller-driven Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-9s. By early August 1950, the KPAF was reduced to only about 20 planes.
The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the KPAF with the MiG-15, one of the world's most advanced jet fighters. The USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F-86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The Soviet Union denied the involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the radio in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war expand to include the Soviet Union and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.
After the war and to the present day, the USAF reported an inflated F-86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's PLAAF reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively.
More modern American estimates place the overall USAF kill ratio at around 1.8:1 with the ratio dropping to 1.3:1 against MiG-15s with Soviet pilots but increasing to a dominant 12:1 against Chinese and North Korean adversaries.
Reports by Lieutenant General Sidor Slyusarev, commander of Soviet air forces in Korea, are more favorable to the communist side. The 64th Corps claimed a total 1,097 enemy aircraft of all types during operations, for the loss of 335 aircraft (including lost to enemy ground fire, accidents, etc) and 110 pilots. Soviet reports put the overall kill ratio at 3.4:1 in favor of Soviet pilots. As reported, effectiveness of the Soviet fighters declined as the war progressed. from an overall kill ratio of 7.9:1 from November 1950 through January 1952, declining to 2.2:1 in later 1952 and 1.9:1 in 1953. This was because more advanced jet fighters appeared on the UN side as well as improved U.S. tactics.
Regardless of the actual ratio, American Sabres were very effective at controlling the skies over Korea. Since no other UN fighter could contend with the MiG-15, F-86s largely took over air combat once they arrived, relegating other aircraft to air-to-ground operations. Despite much greater numbers (the number of Sabres in theater never exceeded 150 while MiG-15s reached 900 at their peak), communist aircraft were seldom encountered south of Pyongyang. UN ground forces, supply lines, and infrastructure were not attacked from the air. Although North Korea had 75 airfields capable of supporting MiGs, after 1951, any serious effort to operate from them was abandoned. The MiGs were instead based across the Yalu River in the safety of China. This confined most air-to-air engagements to MiG Alley. UN aircraft had free rein to conduct strike missions over enemy territory with little fear of interception. Although jet dogfights are remembered as a prominent part of the Korean War, counter-air missions comprised just 12% of Far East Air Forces sorties, and four times as many sorties were performed for close air support and interdiction.
The war marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large-scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944–45, during World War II, the YR-4 helicopter had seen limited ambulance duty. In Korea, where rough terrain prevented use of the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H-19 were heavily used. This helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals (MASH). As such, the medical evacuation and care system for the wounded was so effective for the UN forces that a wounded soldier who arrived at a MASH unit alive typically had a 97% chance of survival. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to the development of the helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War.
U.S. threat of atomic warfare
On 5 November 1950, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either of their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. President Truman ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs "to the Air Force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons ... signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets", which he never transmitted.
Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As UN forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.
As PVA forces pushed back the UN forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always active consideration", with control under the local military commander. Indian ambassador K. Madhava Panikkar reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat ... The PRC's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities."
After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December with UK Prime Minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The U.S.' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate ", but because UN allies—notably the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the U.S. fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the U.S. would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster".
On 6 December after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.
- In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without Taiwanese reinforcements, and without an increase in U.S. forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.
- In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the Taiwanese soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.
- In the third scenario: if China agreed not to cross the 38th parallel border, MacArthur would recommend UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.
In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, ground crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores." In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practiced individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east-central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare".
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear, and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June.
Despite the greater destructive power that atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of PVA/KPA forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf, the threat of a possible nuclear exchange was unimportant in the decision not to deploy atomic bombs; their use offered little operational advantage and would undesirably lower the "threshold" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts.
When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953, he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, he feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle.
Aftermath
Main articles: Aftermath of the Korean War and Korean reunificationNorth Korea
As a result of the war, "North Korea had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society". After the armistice, Kim Il Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts", and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, medical supplies". China canceled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped and continues to be a totalitarian dictatorship since the end of the war, with an elaborate cult of personality around the Kim dynasty.
Present-day North Korea follows Songun, or "military-first" policy and has the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel in the world, with 7,769,000 active, reserve and paramilitary personnel, or approximately 30% of its population. Its active-duty army of 1.28 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, the United States and India; consisting of 4.9% of its population. North Korea possesses nuclear weapons. A 2014 UN inquiry into abuses of human rights in North Korea concluded that, "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world," with Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch holding similar views.
South Korea
Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea, which started from a far lower industrial base than North Korea (the latter contained 80% of Korea's heavy industry in 1945), stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a Mutual Defense Treaty.
South Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of United States Forces Korea military personnel and U.S. support for Park's authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries.
A large number of mixed-race "GI babies" (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-Blacks and non-Whites as U.S. citizens and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest-growing Asian groups in the United States.
Communism
Mao Zedong's decision to take on the United States was a direct attempt to confront what the communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese communist regime was still consolidating its own power. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the U.S. was inevitable after the U.S. entered the war, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community. In his later years, Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-communist dissent.
The Chinese government has encouraged the viewpoint that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an underequipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the PLA and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kaishek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day. Anti-U.S. sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, were ingrained into Chinese culture during the communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War.
The Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952, and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea. The war also played a role in the refugee crisis in Turkey in 1950–1951.
See also
- Korean War in popular culture
- Korean–American Volunteer Group
- List of books about the Korean War
- List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients
- List of Korean War weapons
- List of military equipment used in the Korean War
- Partisans in the Korean War
- Transfer of People's Volunteer Army soldiers' remains from South Korea to China
- UN Command Military Armistice Commission operating from 1953 to the present
- UN Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea
- UN Temporary Commission on Korea
- United Service Organizations
War memorials
- Korean War Memorial Wall, Brampton, Ontario
- Korean War Veterans Memorial, Washington, D.C.
- Memorial of the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea, Dandong, China
- National War Memorial (New Zealand)
- Philadelphia Korean War Memorial
- United Nations Memorial Cemetery, Busan, Republic of Korea
- Memorial of Turks Who Fought in Korea, Ankara, Turkey (in Turkish)
- Victorious War Museum, Pyongyang, North Korea
- War Memorial of Korea Yongsan-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea
Notes
- On 9 July 1951 troop constituents were: US: 70.4%; ROK: 23.3%; other UNC: 6.3%.
- End of physical conflict and signing of an armistice. De jure, North and South Korea are still at war.
- the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea administered by the Soviets and the United States Army Military Government in Korea in the south
- At the time, China as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) was represented by Taipei not Beijing. This prompted the Soviet Union's boycott of the UN and absence from the UNSC.
- See 50 U.S.C. S 1601: "All powers and authorities possessed by the President, any other officer or employee of the Federal Government, or any executive agency... as a result of the existence of any declaration of national emergency in effect on 14 September 1976 are terminated two years from 14 September 1976."; Jolley v. INS, 441 F.2d 1245, 1255 n.17 (5th Cir. 1971).
References
Citations
- Kim, Heesu (1996). Anglo-American Relations and the Attempts to Settle the Korean Question 1953–1960 (PDF) (Thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 213. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
- Birtle, Andrew J. (2000). The Korean War: Years of Stalemate. U.S. Army Center of Military History. p. 34. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
- Millett, Allan Reed, ed. (2001). The Korean War, Volume 3. Korea Institute of Military History. U of Nebraska Press. p. 692. ISBN 978-0803277960. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
Total Strength 602,902 troops
-
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Republic of Korea – 590,911
Colombia – 1,068
United States – 302,483
Belgium – 900
United Kingdom – 14,198
South Africa – 826
Canada – 6,146
Netherlands – 819
Turkey – 5,453
Luxembourg – 44
Australia – 2,282
Philippines – 1,496
New Zealand – 1,385
Thailand – 1,204
Ethiopia – 1,271
Greece – 1,263
France – 1,119 -
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- Weathersby, Kathryn (1993), Soviet Aims in Korea and the Origins of the Korean War, 1945–50: New Evidence From the Russian Archives, Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 8, archived from the original on 25 February 2021, retrieved 21 April 2013
- Weathersby, Kathryn (2002), "Should We Fear This?" Stalin and the Danger of War with America, Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 39, archived from the original on 25 February 2021, retrieved 21 April 2013
- Werrell, Kenneth P. (2005). Sabres Over MiG Alley. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1591149330.
- Zaloga, Steven J.; Kinnear, Jim; Aksenov, Andrey; Koshchavtsev, Aleksandr (1997). Soviet Tanks in Combat 1941–45: The T-28, T-34, T-34-85, and T-44 Medium Tanks. Armor at War. Hong Kong: Concord Publication. ISBN 9623616155.
- Zhang, Shu Guang (1995), Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953, Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0700607235
External links
- Records of the United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) (1950–1973) Archived 21 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine at the United Nations Archives
Historical
- THE KOREAN WAR (1) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1997 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (1) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1997 (PDF) Archived 7 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (2) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1998 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (2) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1999 (PDF) Archived 7 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (3) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1999 (E-BOOK) Archived 9 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (3) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1998 (PDF) Archived 7 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- History of the Just Fatherland Liberation War of the Korean People (PDF) The Research Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
- Anniversary of the Korean War Armistice: Truman on Acheson's Crucial Role in Going to War Archived 21 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Shapell Manuscript Foundation
- Korean War resources, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Archived 26 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- North Korea International Documentation Project Archived 30 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection
- The Forgotten War, Remembered Archived 9 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine – four testimonials in The New York Times
- Collection of Books and Research Materials on the Korean War Archived 27 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine an online collection of the United States Army Center of Military History
- Korean War, US Army Signal Corps Photograph Collection U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
- Koreanwar-educator.org Archived 14 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- The short film Film No. 927 is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
Media
- West Point Atlas of the Korean War Archived 16 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- The Korean War You Never Knew – slideshows by Life magazine
- U.S. Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online image archive Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Rare pictures of the Korean War from the U.S. Library of Congress and National Archives Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Land of the Morning Calm Canadians in Korea – multimedia project including veteran interviews
- Pathé Archived 6 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine Online newsreel archive featuring films on the war
- CBC Digital Archives – Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War Archived 8 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Uncertain Enemies: Soviet Pilots in the Korean War Archived 15 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Air Power History. (Spring 1997). 44, 1, 32–45.
Organizations
- Korea Defense Veterans of America
- Korean War Ex-POW Association
- Korean War Veterans Association Archived 7 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- The Center for the Study of the Korean War
Memorials
- Korean Children's War Memorial Archived 4 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial Archived 26 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
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