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{{Short description|German priest, theologian and author (1483–1546)}}
{{Redirect|Luther|other uses|Luther (disambiguation)}}
{{About|the medieval priest|other uses|Martin Luther (disambiguation)}} {{hatnote group|{{distinguish|Martin Luther King Jr.{{!}}Martin Luther King Jr}} {{other uses}}}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox theologian {{Infobox theologian
| honorific_prefix = ]
|name = Martin Luther
| name = Martin Luther
|image = Luther46c.jpg
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|post-noms=]|size=100%}}
|caption = Luther in 1533 by ]
| image = Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg).jpg
|birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1483|11|10}}
| caption = ''Martin Luther'', 1528
|birth_place = ], ], ]
| birth_name = Martin Luder
|death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1546|2|18|1483|11|10}}
| birth_date = 10 November 1483
|death_place = ], ], ]
| birth_place = ], County of Mansfeld, Holy Roman Empire
|titles = Monk, Priest, Theologian
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1546|02|18|1483|11|10}}
|spouse = ]
| death_place = Eisleben, County of Mansfeld, Holy Roman Empire
|parents = Hans and Margarethe Luther (née Lindemann)
| education = ] (], 1502; ], 1505)<br />] (] in ], 1508; ] in <em>]</em>, 1509; ] in Bible, 1512)
|children = Hans (Johannes), Elisabeth, Magdalena, Martin, Paul, Margarethe
| titles = {{hlist| ] | ] |Author | ]}}
| main_interests =
| module2 = {{Ordination
| notable_ideas =
| embed = yes
| notableworks = ], ], ], ]
| name = Martin Luther
| influences = ], ]
| denomination = Catholic
| influenced = ], ]
| ordained deacon by = Johannes (or Johann) Bonemilch von Laasphe, Auxiliary Bishop of the ]
|signature = Martin Luther Signature.svg
| date of diaconal ordination = 27 February 1507
| place of diaconal ordination = ], ], Holy Roman Empire
| ordained priest by = Hieronymus (or Jerome) Schultz {{post-nominals|post-noms=]}}, Bishop of the ]
| date of priestly ordination = 3/4 April 1507
| place of priestly ordination = Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Erfurt, Holy Roman Empire
| consecrated by =
| co-consecrators =
| date of consecration =
| place of consecration =
| elevated by =
| date of elevation =
| sources =
| bishop 1 =
| consecration date 1 = }}
| spouse = {{marriage |] |1525}}
| children = {{hlist |Hans&nbsp;(Johannes) |] |] |Martin |] |Margarethe}}
| notable_works = {{ubl|'']'' (1517)}}
| signature = Martin Luther Signature.svg
| era = ]
| tradition_movement = {{Tree list}}
* ]
** ]
{{tree list/end}}
| main_interests = {{hlist | ] | ]}}
| notable_ideas = {{hlist | ] | ] | ] | ]}}
}} }}
{{Lutheranism}}


'''Martin Luther''' {{post-nominals|post-noms=]}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|uː|θ|ər}} {{respell|LOO|thər}};<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227044730/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/martin%20luther |date=27 December 2014 }}. '']''.</ref> {{IPA|de|ˈmaʁtiːn ˈlʊtɐ|lang|De-Martin Luther.ogg}}; 10 November 1483<ref>Luther himself, however, believed that he had been born in 1484. {{cite book|last1=Hendrix|first1=Scott H.|title=Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer|date=2015|publisher=]|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NHKhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|access-date=12 November 2017|isbn=978-0-300-16669-9}}</ref> – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, ], author, ], professor, and ].<ref>Luther consistently referred to himself as a former monk. For example: "Thus formerly, when I was a monk, I used to hope that I would be able to pacify my conscience with the fastings, the ], and the vigils with which I used to afflict my body in a way to excite pity. But the more I sweat, the less quiet and peace I felt; for the true light had been removed from my eyes." Martin Luther, Lectures on Genesis: Chapters 45–50, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 8 ''Luther's Works''. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 5:326.</ref> Luther was the seminal figure of the ], and his ] beliefs form the basis of ]. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hillerbrand |first=Hans J. |date=14 February 2024 |title=Martin Luther |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Martin-Luther |access-date=29 March 2024 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>
'''Martin Luther''' (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a ] priest and professor of ] who initiated the ].<ref name=Plass>Plass, Ewald M. "Monasticism," in ''What Luther Says: An Anthology''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1959, 2:964.</ref> Strongly disputing the claim that freedom from God's punishment of sin could be purchased with money, he confronted ] salesman ] with his '']'' in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of ] in 1520 and the ] at the ] in 1521 resulted in his ] by the pope and condemnation as an ] by the emperor.


Luther was ordained to the ] in 1507. He came to reject several teachings and practices of the ], in particular the view on ]s. Luther attempted to resolve these differences amicably, first proposing an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in '']'', which he authored in 1517. In 1520, ] demanded that Luther renounce all of his writings, and when Luther refused to do so, ] him in January 1521. Later that year, ] condemned Luther as an outlaw at the ]. When Luther died in 1546, Pope Leo X's excommunication was still in effect.
Luther taught that ] is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's ] through ] in ] as redeemer from sin. ] challenged the authority of the ] of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the ] is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge<ref>Ewald M. Plass, ''What Luther Says'', 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, ''Luther and the Scriptures'', Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.</ref> and opposed ] by considering ].<ref>Luther, Martin. ''Concerning the Ministry'' (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.</ref> Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called ].


] into the language of the people (instead of ]) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the ], added several principles to the art of translation,<ref>Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity''. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.</ref> and influenced the translation into English of the ].<ref name="Tyndale">''Tyndale's New Testament'', trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: ] Press, 1989, ix–x.</ref> His ]s influenced the development of singing in churches.<ref name=Bainton269>]. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.</ref> His marriage to ] set a model for the practice of ], allowing Protestant priests to marry.<ref name=Bainton223>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.</ref> Luther taught that ] and, consequently, ] are not earned by good deeds; rather, they are received only as the free gift of God's ] through the believer's ] in ]. ] challenged the authority and office of the pope by teaching that the ] is the ] of ] knowledge,<ref>Ewald M. Plass, ''What Luther Says'', 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, ''Luther and the Scriptures'', (Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.</ref> and opposed ] by considering all baptized Christians to be a ].<ref>Luther, Martin. ''Concerning the Ministry'' (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) ''Luther's Works''. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.</ref> ] into ] from ] made the Bible vastly more accessible to the laity, which had a tremendous impact on both the church and German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the ], added several principles to the art of translation,<ref>Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity''. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.</ref> and influenced the writing of an ] translation, the ].<ref name="Tyndale">''Tyndale's New Testament'', trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: ] Press, 1989, ix–x.</ref> His hymns ] of singing in Protestant churches.<ref name="Bainton269">]. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.</ref> His marriage to ], a former nun, set a model for the practice of ], allowing Protestant ] to marry.<ref name="Bainton223">Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.</ref>


In his later years, Luther became strongly anti-semitic, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. These statements have made Luther a controversial figure among many historians and religious scholars.<ref>Hendrix, Scott H. , ''Word & World'' 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN, p. 393: "And, finally, after the Holocaust and the use of his anti-Jewish statements by National Socialists, Luther's anti-semitic outbursts are now unmentionable, though they were already repulsive in the sixteenth century. As a result, Luther has become as controversial in the twentieth century as he was in the sixteenth." Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. , in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) ''The Cambridge Companion to Luther''. Cambridge University Press, 2003.</ref> In two later works, Luther expressed ], calling for the expulsion of ] and the burning of ]s.<ref>Hendrix, Scott H. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302005613/http://www2.luthersem.edu/word%26world/Archives/3-4_Luther/3-4_Hendrix.pdf |date=2 March 2011 }}, ''Word & World'' 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN. Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716031045/http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol0521816483_CCOL0521816483A018 |date=16 July 2011 }}, in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) ''The Cambridge Companion to Luther''. Cambridge University Press, 2003.


In 1523, Luther wrote that Jesus Christ was born a Jew which discouraged mistreatment of the Jews and advocated their conversion by proving that the ] could be shown to speak of Jesus Christ. However, as the Reformation grew, Luther began to lose hope in large-scale Jewish conversion to Christianity, and in the years his health deteriorated he grew more acerbic toward the Jews, writing against them with the kind of venom he had already unleashed on the Anabaptists, ], and the ].</ref> These works also targeted ]s, ], and ].<ref>Schaff, Philip: ''History of the Christian Church, Vol. VIII: Modern Christianity: The Swiss Reformation'', William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, US, 1910, page 706.</ref> Based upon his teachings, despite the fact that Luther did not directly advocate the murdering of Jews,<ref>Martin Brecht, ''Martin Luther'' (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1985–1993), 3:336.</ref><ref>Luther's letter to Rabbi Josel as cited by Gordon Rupp, ''Martin Luther and the Jews'' (London: The Council of Christians and Jews, 1972), 14. According to {{cite web |title=Luther and the Jews |url=http://www.ntrmin.org/Luther%20and%20the%20Jews%20(Web).htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051104181522/http://www.ntrmin.org/Luther%20and%20the%20Jews%20%28Web%29.htm |archive-date=4 November 2005 |access-date=21 March 2017}}, this paragraph is not available in the English edition of Luther's works.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sydow |first=Michael |date=1 December 1999 |title=Journal of Theology: Martin Luther, Reformation Theologian and Educator |url=http://clclutheran.org/library/jtheo_arch/jtdec1999.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928132039/http://clclutheran.org/library/jtheo_arch/jtdec1999.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref> some historians contend that his rhetoric contributed to the development of ] and the emergence, centuries later, of the ].<ref name="Wallman1">"The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant ] and modern racially oriented antisemitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century", '']'', n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.</ref><ref>For similar views, see:
==Early life==
* Berger, Ronald. ''Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach'' (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
===Birth and education===
* ]. "Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner," (Princeton University Press, 1990), quoted in Berger, 28;
], 1527]]
* ]. ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'', (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).
Martin Luther was born to ''Hans Luder'' (or Ludher, later Luther)<ref name=Marty1>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.</ref> and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in ], Germany, then part of the ]. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of ]. His family moved to ] in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters<ref name=Brecht3>]. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.</ref> and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council.<ref name=Marty1/> The religious scholar ] describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means" and notes that Luther's enemies would later wrongly describe her as a whore and bath attendant.<ref name=Marty1/> He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.<ref name=Marty3>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.</ref>
* ]. ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242.
Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then ] in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a ] called the ], and ] in 1498.<ref name=RuppEB>]. "Martin Luther," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', accessed 2006.</ref> The three schools focused on the so-called "'']''": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to ] and ].<ref name=Marty2>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 2-3.</ref>
* ]. ''History of Anti-Semitism: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews''. (N.P.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 216.
* ]. ''The World Must Know''. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and the ], 1993, 2000), 8–9.</ref><ref name="Grunberger1971">]. ''The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany 1933–1945'' (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.</ref>


==Early life and education==
In 1501, at the age of nineteen, he entered the ] — which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse.<ref name=Marty4>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.</ref> The schedule called for waking at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises."<ref name=Marty4/> He received his master's degree in 1505.<ref name=Marty5>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.</ref>
===Birth and early life<!--'Hans Luther (15th century)' redirects here-->===
] in 1527]]
] in ]]]
], where he began teaching ] in 1508]]
] with a ]]]
Martin Luther was born on 10 November 1483 to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther)<ref name=Marty1>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.</ref> and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) in ], ], in the ]. Luther was ] the next morning on the ] of ].


In 1484, his family moved to ], where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters<ref name=Brecht3>]. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.</ref> and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council; in 1492, he was elected as a town councilor.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Martin-Luther | title=Martin Luther &#124; Biography, Reformation, Works, & Facts| date=17 May 2023}}</ref><ref name=Marty1/> The religious scholar ] describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means", contrary to Luther's enemies, who labeled her a whore and bath attendant.<ref name=Marty1/>
In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty.<ref name=Marty5/> Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in ], ], and ].<ref name=Marty5/> He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomäus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers<ref name=Marty5/> and to test everything himself by experience.<ref name=Marty6>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.</ref> Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of ] but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.<ref name=Marty6/> For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through ], he believed, and ] therefore became increasingly important to him.<ref name=Marty6/>


He had several brothers and sisters and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.<ref name=Marty3>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.</ref>
He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he was on horseback during a thunderstorm and a ] bolt struck near him as he was returning to university after a trip home. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! ], I will become a monk!"<ref name=Brecht48>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.</ref> He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. He left law school, sold his books, and entered a closed ] friary in ] on 17 July 1505.<ref>Schwiebert, E.G. ''Luther and His Times''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.</ref> One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.<ref name=Marty6/> His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.<ref name=Marty7>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.</ref>


===Education===
===Monastic and academic life===
Hans Luther, Martin's father, was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then ] in 1497, where he attended the ], a school operated by a ], and ] in 1498.<ref name=RuppEB>]. "Martin Luther," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', accessed 2006.</ref> The three schools focused on the so-called "]": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to ] and ].<ref name=Marty2>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.</ref>
] monk]]
] monk]]
Luther dedicated himself to ], devoting himself to ], long hours in ], ], and frequent ].<ref name=Bainton40>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40-42.</ref> He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them."<ref name=Kittelson53>Kittelson, James. ''Luther The Reformer''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986), 53.</ref> Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul."<ref name=Kittelson79>Kittelson, James. ''Luther The Reformer''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.</ref>


In 1501, at age 17, Martin entered the ], which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse.<ref name=Marty4>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.</ref> He was made to wake at 4 a.m. for "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises."<ref name=Marty4/> He received his master's degree in 1505.<ref name=Marty5>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.</ref>
], his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching ] at the ].<ref name=Bainton44>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44-45.</ref> He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the '']'' by ] in 1509.<ref name=Brecht93>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.</ref> On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his ] and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of ''Doctor in Bible''.<ref name=Brecht12>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:12-27.</ref> He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.


In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law was an uncertain profession.<ref name=Marty5/> Luther instead sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing interest in ], ], and ].<ref name=Marty5/> He was deeply influenced by two tutors, ] von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers<ref name=Marty5/> and to test everything himself by experience.<ref name=Marty6>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.</ref>
==The start of the Reformation==
{{See|History of Protestantism}}


Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying to Luther because it offered assurance about the use of ] but none about loving ], which Luther believed was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, Luther felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over Aristotle's emphasis on reason.<ref name=Marty6/> For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine ], he believed, leading him to view ] as increasingly important.<ref name=Marty6/>
] in Wittenberg to which Luther nailed his ] on 31 October 1517, sparking the ].]]
In 1516-17, ], a ] and papal commissioner for ], was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild ] in Rome.<ref>"]," ''Encyclopaedia Britanica'', 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church."</ref> Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;<ref>(Trent, l. c., can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, a.s.")</ref> and that only such faith as is active in charity and good works (''fides caritate formata'') can justify man.<ref>(cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)</ref> The benefits of good works could be obtained by donating money to the church.


On 2 July 1505, while Luther was returning to university on horseback following a trip home, a ] bolt struck near him during a thunderstorm. He later told his father that he was terrified of death and divine judgment, and he cried out, "Help! ], I will become a monk!"<ref name=Brecht48>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Google Books Archive of Martin Luther: His road to Reformation, 1483–1521 (By Martin Brecht)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hH6nI6Q6qBIC&q=Martin%20Luther%3A%20His%20road%20to%20Reformation%2C%201483-1521%20%20By%20Martin%20Brecht%20Help%20me%20saint%20Anne%20I%20will%20become%20a%20monk&pg=PA48|access-date=14 May 2015|isbn=978-1-4514-1414-1|last1=Brecht|first1=Martin|year=1985| publisher=Fortress Press }}</ref> He came to view his cry for help as a vow that he could never break. He withdrew from the university, sold his books, and entered ] in ] on 17 July 1505.<ref>Schwiebert, E.G. ''Luther and His Times''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.</ref> One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.<ref name=Marty6/> His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.<ref name=Marty7>]. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.</ref>
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to ], protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be known as '']''. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire."<ref name=HillerbrandIndulgences>Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2007.</ref> Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"<ref name=HillerbrandIndulgences/>


===Monastic life===
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs."<ref>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 60; Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:182; Kittelson, James. ''Luther The Reformer''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986),104.</ref> He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
] friar<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwiebert |first=Ernest G |date=Mar 1948 |title=The Reformation from a New Perspective. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3160546 |journal=Church History |volume=17 |issue=1 |page=16 |doi=10.2307/3160546 |jstor=3160546 }}</ref>]]
Luther dedicated himself to the ], devoting himself to ], long hours in ], ], and frequent ].<ref name=Bainton40>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40–42.</ref> Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailer and hangman of my poor soul."<ref name=Kittelson79>Kittelson, James. ''Luther The Reformer''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.</ref>


], his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career.{{cn|date=December 2024}} On 3 April 1507, Jerome Schultz, the ], ordained Luther in ].
] of Augsburg, circa 1530.]]


The following year, in 1508, Luther began teaching ] at the ].<ref name=Bainton44>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther''. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44–45.</ref> He received two bachelor's degrees, one in biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another in the '']'' by ] in 1509.<ref name=Brecht93>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.</ref> On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his ].
According to ], writing in 1546, Luther "wrote theses on indulgences and posted them on the church of All Saints on 31 October 1517", an event now seen as sparking the ].<ref>Brecht, 1:200–201.</ref> Some scholars have questioned Melanchthon's account, since he did not move to Wittenberg until a year later and no contemporaneous evidence exists for Luther's posting of the theses.<ref>Iserloh, Erwin. ''The Theses Were Not Posted''. Toronto: Saunders of Toronto, Ltd., 1966; Derek Wilson, ''Out of the Storm: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther'', London: Hutchinson, 2007, ISBN 978-0-09-180001-7, 96.</ref> Others counter that such evidence is unnecessary because it was the custom at the University of Wittenberg to advertise a ] by posting theses on the door of ], also known as "Castle Church".<ref>Junghans, Helmer. "Luther's Wittenberg," in McKim, Donald K. (ed.) ''The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 26.</ref>


==Later life, ministry, and the Reformation==
The ''95 Theses'' were quickly translated from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the ].<ref name=Brecht204>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204-205.</ref> Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
===University of Wittenberg===
On 21 October 1512, Luther was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the ],<ref name="Brecht12">Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:112–127.</ref> succeeding von Staupitz as chair of theology.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hendrix |first=Scott H. |year=2015 |title=Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer |place=New Haven, CT |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-16669-9 |page=44}}</ref> He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.


In 1515, he was made provincial ] of ] and ], which required him to visit and oversee eleven monasteries in his province.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hendrix |first=Scott H. |year=2015 |title=Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer |place=New Haven, CT |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-16669-9 |page=45}}</ref>
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on ] and his ''Work on the Psalms''. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.<ref>Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Renaissance and Reformation Movements'', St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.</ref> Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: '']'', '']'', and '']''.


===Justification by faith=== ===Lectures on Psalms and justification by faith===
{{Main|Sola fide}} {{Main|Sola fide}}
] depicting Luther discovering the doctrine of '']'' (by faith alone)]]
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as ] and ] by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of ] – God's act of declaring a sinner righteous – by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that ] or redemption is a gift of God's ], attainable only through faith in Jesus as the ].<ref name=Wriedt>Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in ''The Cambridge Companion to Luther''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.</ref> "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification," he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness.<ref>Bouman, Herbert J. A. , ''Concordia Theological Monthly'', 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.</ref>
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, and on the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as ] and ] by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of ]—God's act of declaring a sinner righteous—by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's ], attainable only through faith in Jesus as the ].<ref name=Wriedt>Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in ''The Cambridge Companion to Luther''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.</ref> "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification", he writes, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness."<ref>Bouman, Herbert J.A. , ''Concordia Theological Monthly'', 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.</ref>


Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication '']'', which was written in response to ''On Free Will'' by ] (1524). Luther based his position on ] on St. Paul's epistle to the {{bibleverse||Ephesians|2:8-10|NKJV}}. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in ''cooperation'' with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually ''is'' the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.<ref>Dorman, Ted M., ", ''Quodlibet Journal'': Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.</ref> "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the ] through the merits of Christ."<ref name=faith>{{cite web|url=http://www.ProjectWittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt|title=Luther's Definition of Faith}}</ref> Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God" -- a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=155| title=Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence }}</ref> He explained his concept of "justification" in the ]: Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication '']'', which was written in response to '']'' by ] (1524). Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in {{em|cooperation}} with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually {{em|is}} the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.<ref>Dorman, Ted M., ", ''Quodlibet Journal'': Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.</ref>
"That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he writes. "Faith is that which brings the ] through the merits of Christ."<ref name=faith>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ProjectWittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt|title=Luther's Definition of Faith}}</ref> Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God"—a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=155|title=Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615015903/http://religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=155|archive-date=15 June 2010}}</ref> He explains his concept of "justification" in the ]:


<blockquote> <blockquote>
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (] 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (] 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us&nbsp;... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (] 13:31).<ref>Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in ''Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions''. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.</ref> The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (] 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (] 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law, or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us&nbsp;... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (] 13:31).<ref>Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in ''Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions''. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.</ref>
</blockquote> </blockquote>


===Breach with the papacy=== ===Start of the Reformation: 1516–1517===
{{Further|History of Protestantism|History of Lutheranism}}
] by ]]]
] ] shown in ''A Question to a Mintmaker'', a ] by ] of Augsburg, {{Circa|1530}}]]
In 1516, ], a ], was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money in order to rebuild ] in Rome.<ref>"]," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007</ref> Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by ], who, already deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute the considerable sum of ten thousand ]s<ref>At first, "the pope demanded twelve thousand ducats for the twelve apostles. Albert offered seven thousand ducats for the seven deadly sins. They compromised on ten thousand, presumably not for the Ten Commandments". Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther'' (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 75, </ref> toward the rebuilding of the basilica. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo&nbsp;X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices.


On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albrecht von Brandenburg, protesting against the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences",{{efn|name=title|{{langx|la|"Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum"}} – The first printings of the ''Theses'' use an ] rather than a title which summarizes the content. Luther usually called them "{{lang|de|meine Propositiones}}" (my propositions).{{sfn|Cummings|2002|p=32}}}} which came to be known as the '']''. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire."<ref name=HillerbrandIndulgences>Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.</ref> Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest ], build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"<ref name=HillerbrandIndulgences/>
] did not reply to Luther's letter containing the 95 Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome.<ref>Michael A. Mullett, ''Martin Luther'', London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5, 78; Oberman, Heiko, ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10313-1, 192–93.</ref> He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later noted, "the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St Peter's Church in Rome".<ref>Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.</ref>


Luther objected to a saying attributed to Tetzel that, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory (also attested as 'into heaven') springs."<ref>Thesis 55 of Tetzel's ''One Hundred and Six Theses''. These "Anti-theses" were a reply to Luther's ''Ninety-five Theses'' and were drawn up by Tetzel's friend and former professor, ]. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther's 27th Thesis) read: "For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be ''hindered by no interruption'', therefore he errs who says that the soul ''cannot fly out'' before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest." In ''The reformation in Germany'', ], 1914, Macmillan Company, p. 405. ''Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat''. In: ''D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti'', 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, ] & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (] edition: ], 2010, {{ISBN|978-1-142-40551-9}}). See also: {{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Johann Tetzel}}</ref> He insisted that, since ] was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences ] buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,<ref>Richard Marius, ''Luther'', London: Quartet, 1975, ISBN 0-7043-3192-6, 85.</ref> and he responded slowly, "with great care as is proper."<ref>Papal Bull '']'', 15 June 1520.</ref> Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which only served to harden the reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian ] drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The ] persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the ] was held.<ref>Mullett, 81–82.</ref> There, in October 1518, Luther informed the ] ] that he did not consider the papacy part of the biblical Church, and the hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than his writing the 95 Theses, Luther's confrontation of the church cast him as an enemy of the pope.<ref>Mullett, 82.</ref> Cajetan's original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but he lacked the means in Augsburg, where the Elector guaranteed Luther's security.<ref>Mullett, 83.</ref> Luther slipped out of the city at night, without leave from Cajetan.<ref>Oberman, 197.</ref>


]; the ] inscription above informs the reader that the original door was destroyed by a fire, and that in 1857, King ] ordered that a replacement be made.]]
In January 1519, at ] in Saxony, the papal ''nuncio'' ] adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector, and promised to remain silent if his opponents did.<ref>Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, ''Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther'', New York: Mentor, 1955, , 81.</ref> The theologian ], however, was determined to expose Luther's doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519 he staged a ] with Luther's colleague ] at ] and invited Luther to speak.<ref>Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.</ref> Luther's boldest assertion in the debate was that ] 16:18 does not confer on popes the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor ] were infallible.<ref>Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.</ref> For this, Eck branded Luther a new ], referring to the Czech reformer and heretic ] in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.<ref>G. R. Elton, ''Reformation Europe: 1517–1559'', London: Collins, 1963, , 177.</ref>
According to one account, Luther nailed his ''Ninety-five Theses'' to the door of ] in ] on 31 October 1517. Scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter, and Gerhard Prause contend that the story of the posting on the door, although it has become one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth.<ref name="Krämer">Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. "Luther" in ''Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden''. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.</ref><ref name=Ritter>Ritter, Gerhard. ''Luther'', Frankfurt 1985.</ref><ref name=Prause>Gerhard Prause "Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,"in ''Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht''. Düsseldorf, 1986.</ref><ref name=Marshall>Marshall, Peter ''1517: Martin Luther and the Invention of the Reformation'' (Oxford University Press, 2017) {{ISBN|978-0-19-968201-0}}</ref> The story is based on comments made by Luther's collaborator ], though it is thought that he was not in Wittenberg at the time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41aJOjMZ3nwC&pg=PT125 |title=Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide |first=Henrik |last= Bekker |page=125|publisher=Hunter Publishing, Inc |access-date=7 February 2012 |isbn= 978-1-58843-950-5|year=2010 }}</ref> According to ], on the other hand, it is true.<ref>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther'' (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 79, </ref>

The Latin ''Theses'' were printed in several locations in Germany in 1517. In January 1518 friends of Luther translated the ''Ninety-five Theses'' into German.<ref name=Brecht204>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–205.</ref> Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany. Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching ], ], and ] as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on ] and his ''Work on the Psalms''. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.<ref>Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Renaissance and Reformation Movements'', St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.</ref> Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: '']'', '']'', and '']''.

===Breach with the papacy===
]'s ''Bull against the errors of Martin Luther'', 1521, commonly known as '']'']]
Archbishop Albrecht did not reply to Luther's letter containing the ''Ninety-five Theses''. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome.<ref>Michael A. Mullett, ''Martin Luther'', London: ], 2004, {{ISBN|978-0-415-26168-5}}, 78; Oberman, Heiko, ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-300-10313-1}}, 192–193.</ref> He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his ]. As Luther later notes, "the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St. Peter's Church in Rome".<ref>Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.</ref>

Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,<ref>Richard Marius, ''Luther'', London: Quartet, 1975, {{ISBN|0-7043-3192-6}}, 85.</ref> and he responded slowly, "with great care as is proper."<ref>Papal Bull '']'', 15 June 1520.</ref> Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which served only to harden the reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian ] drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The ] persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the ] was held.<ref>Mullett, 81–82.</ref> Over a three-day period in October 1518 where he stayed at ], Luther defended himself under questioning by ] ]. The pope's right to issue indulgences was at the centre of the dispute between the two men.<ref name="Reformation500">{{cite web|url=http://reformation500.csl.edu/timeline/luther-meets-with-cajetan-at-augsburg/|title=Luther meets with Cajetan at Augsburg|publisher=Reformation 500 – Concordia Seminary, St. Louis|access-date=28 March 2016|date=11 January 2012|archive-date=19 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819111021/http://reformation500.csl.edu/timeline/luther-meets-with-cajetan-at-augsburg/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Ex-Classics">{{cite web|url= http://www.exclassics.com/foxe/foxe147.htm |title=The Acts and Monuments of the Church – Martin Luther |publisher=exclassics.com|access-date=28 March 2016}}</ref> The hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than writing his theses, Luther's confrontation with the church cast him as an enemy of the pope: "His Holiness abuses Scripture", retorted Luther. "I deny that he is above Scripture".<ref>Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther'' (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), Chapter V, p. 96, </ref><ref>Mullett, 82.</ref> Cajetan's original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but the legate desisted from doing so.<ref>Mullett, 83.</ref> With help from the ] ], Luther slipped out of the city at night, unbeknownst to Cajetan.<ref>Oberman, 197.</ref>

] (left)]]
In January 1519, at ] in Saxony, the papal nuncio ] adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector and promised to remain silent if his opponents did.<ref>Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, ''Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther'', New York: Mentor, 1955, {{OCLC|220064892}}, 81.</ref> The theologian ], however, was determined to expose Luther's doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519, he staged a ] with Luther's colleague ] at ] and invited Luther to speak.<ref>Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.</ref> Luther's boldest assertion in the debate was that popes do not have the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor ] were infallible.<ref>Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.</ref> For this, Eck branded Luther a new ], referring to the Czech reformer and heretic ] in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.<ref>G. R. Elton, ''Reformation Europe: 1517–1559'', London: Collins, 1963, {{OCLC|222872115}}, 177.</ref>


===Excommunication=== ===Excommunication===
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the ] (edict) '']'' that he risked ] unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. That autumn, ] proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. ], a papal ], attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of ''On the Freedom of a Christian'' in October, publicly set fire to the bull and ]s at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,<ref name="Hillerbrand463">Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) ''Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.</ref> an act he defended in ''Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned'' and ''Assertions Concerning All Articles''. As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by ] on 3 January 1521, in the bull '']''. On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the ] (edict) '']'' that he risked ] unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the '']'', within 60 days. That autumn, Eck proclaimed the bull in ] and other towns. Von Miltitz attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the pope a copy of ''On the Freedom of a Christian'' in October, publicly set fire to the bull and ]s in Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,<ref name="Hillerbrand463">Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) ''Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.</ref> an act he defended in ''Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned'' and ''Assertions Concerning All Articles''.

Luther was excommunicated by Pope {{nowrap|Leo X}} on 3 January 1521, in the bull '']''.<ref>{{cite book|title=From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition|first1=Bob|last1=Becking|first2=Alex|last2=Cannegieter|first3=Wilfred|last3=van er Poll|publisher=Routledge|page=91|year=2016|isbn=978-1-134-90386-3}}</ref> Although the ], Methodists and the Catholic Church's ] agreed (in 1999 and 2006, respectively) on a "common understanding of justification by God's grace through faith in Christ," the Catholic Church has never lifted the 1521 excommunication.<ref>Wooden, Cindy. "Methodists adapt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification." 24 July 2006</ref><ref>David Van Biema, "A Half-Millennium Rift," ''TIME'', 6 July 1998, 80.</ref><ref>Cindy Wooden, "Lutheran World Council OKs joint declaration on justification," ''The Pilot'', 19 June 1998, 20.</ref>


==Diet of Worms== ===Diet of Worms (1521)===
{{Main|Diet of Worms}} {{Main|Diet of Worms}}
] (1843–1915)]] ]]]
The enforcement of the ban on the 95 Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the ]. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in ], a town on the ]. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with ] presiding. Prince ], obtained a ] for Luther to and from the meeting. ], a statue of Luther surrounded by the figures of his lay protectors and earlier Church reformers, including ], ], and ]]]
The enforcement of the ban on the ''Ninety-five Theses'' fell to the secular authorities. On 17 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the ]. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in ], a town on the ]. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with ] presiding. Prince ], obtained a ] for Luther to and from the meeting.


Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the Empire as assistant of the ], presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his, and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author, but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day: Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the empire as assistant of the ], presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day:


<blockquote> <blockquote>
Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.<ref>Brecht, 1:460.</ref> Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted, and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.<ref>Brecht, 1:460.</ref>
</blockquote> </blockquote>


At the end of this speech, Luther raised his arm "in the traditional salute of a knight winning a bout." Michael Mullett considers this speech as a "world classic of epoch-making oratory."<ref name=mullettp25>Mullett (1986), p. 25</ref>
Luther is sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable, since they were inserted before "May God help me" only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings.<ref>Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.</ref>


Eck informed Luther that he was acting like a heretic, saying,
Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The Emperor presented the final draft of the ] on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an ], banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic."<ref>Bratcher, Dennis. "," in ''The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians''. Retrieved 13 July 2007.</ref> It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.
<blockquote>Martin, there is no one of the heresies which have torn the bosom of the church, which has not derived its origin from the various interpretation of the Scripture. The Bible itself is the arsenal whence each innovator has drawn his deceptive arguments. It was with Biblical texts that ] and ] maintained their doctrines. Arius, for instance, found the negation of the eternity of the Word—an eternity which you admit, in this verse of the New Testament—''Joseph knew not his wife till she had brought forth her first-born son''; and he said, in the same way that you say, that this passage enchained him. When the fathers of the ] condemned this proposition of Jan Hus—''The church of Jesus Christ is only the community of the elect'', they condemned an error; for the church, like a good mother, embraces within her arms all who bear the name of Christian, all who are called to enjoy the celestial beatitude.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/luther/lutherbyluther.html#secondnarrative|title=Life of Luther (Luther by Martin Luther)|first=Martin|last=Luther}}</ref></blockquote>


Luther refused to recant his writings. He is sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable since they were inserted before "May God help me" only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings.<ref>Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.</ref> However, Mullett suggests that given his nature, "we are free to believe that Luther would tend to select the more dramatic form of words."<ref name=mullettp25/>
==At Wartburg Castle==
], ].]]


Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The emperor presented the final draft of the ] on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an ], banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic."<ref>Bratcher, Dennis. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003172831/http://www.crivoice.org/creededictworms.html |date=3 October 2017 }}," in ''The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians''. Retrieved 13 July 2007.</ref> It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.
Luther's disappearance during his return trip was planned. ] had him intercepted on his way home by masked horsemen and escorted to the security of the ] at Eisenach.<ref>''Reformation Europe: 1517–1559,'' London: Fontana, 1963, 53; ], ''Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700,'' London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.</ref> During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as "my ]",<ref>Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in ''Luther's Works''. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. ], author of ], had been exiled on the island of Patmos.</ref> Luther translated the ] from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on ], whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,<ref>Brecht, 2:12–14.</ref> and a "Refutation of the Argument of Latomus," in which he expounded the principle of ] to ], an orthodox theologian from ].<ref>Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.</ref>


===Wartburg Castle (1521)===
In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favour is a sin.<ref>Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–62; Marty, 77–79.</ref> All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and ], which cannot be earned, alone can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."<ref name="sinsbestrong">Martin Luther, , August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.</ref>
] in ]]]
] room where Luther translated the ] into ]; an original first edition is kept in the case on the desk.]]
Luther's disappearance during his return to Wittenberg was planned. {{nowrap|Frederick III}} had him intercepted on his way home in the forest near Wittenberg by masked horsemen impersonating highway robbers. They escorted Luther to the security of the ] at ].<ref>''Reformation Europe: 1517–1559,'' London: Fontana, 1963, 53; ], ''Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700,'' London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.</ref> During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as "my ]",<ref>Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in ''Luther's Works''. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. ], author of ], had been exiled on the island of Patmos.</ref> Luther translated the ] from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on ], ], whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,<ref>Brecht, 2:12–14.</ref> and a ''Refutation of the Argument of Latomus'', in which he expounded the principle of justification to ], an orthodox theologian from ].<ref>Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.</ref> In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favor is a sin.<ref>Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–162; Marty, 77–79.</ref> All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and ] alone (which cannot be earned) can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."<ref name="sinsbestrong">Martin Luther, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928040119/http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/letsinsbe.txt |date=28 September 2007 }}, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.</ref>


In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practice. In ''On the Abrogation of the Private Mass'', he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation.<ref>Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.</ref> His essay ''On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It'' rejected compulsory ] and encouraged private confession and ], since "every Christian is a confessor."<ref>Brecht, 2:18–21.</ref> In November, Luther wrote ''The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows''. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.<ref>Marius, 163–164.</ref>
] into German. An original first edition of the translation is kept under the case on the desk.]]


] Jörg" in 1521]]
In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practices. In ''On the Abrogation of the Private Mass'', he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation.<ref>Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.</ref> His essay ''On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It'' rejected compulsory ] and encouraged private confession and ], since "every Christian is a confessor."<ref>Brecht, 2:18–21.</ref> In November, Luther wrote ''The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows''. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.<ref>Marius, 163–64.</ref>
Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the ex-Augustinian ], embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian friars against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote ''A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion''.<ref>Mullett, 135–136.</ref> Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called ], arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man,{{clarify|date=May 2018}} ], and Christ's imminent return.<ref>Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.</ref> When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.<ref>Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–165.</ref>


===Return to Wittenberg and Peasants' War: 1522–1525===
Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. ], supported by the ex-Augustinian ], embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian monks against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote ''A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion''.<ref>Mullett, 135–36.</ref> Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called ], arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man, ], and Christ'’s imminent return.<ref>Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.</ref> When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.<ref>Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–65.</ref>
{{See also|Radical Reformation|German Peasants' War}}
], Luther's residence in ]]]
Luther secretly returned to ] on 6 March 1522. He wrote to the Elector: "During my absence, Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word."<ref>Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823185716/http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/7_ch04.htm |date=23 August 2017 }}; Brecht, 2:57.</ref> For eight days in ], beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons". In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core ] such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.<ref>Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–169.</ref>


<blockquote>Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it." But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.<ref name="Schaff IV">Schaff, Philip, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823185716/http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/7_ch04.htm |date=23 August 2017 }}.</ref></blockquote>
==Return to Wittenberg==
{{See also|Radical Reformation}}
]
Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. "During my absence," he wrote to the Elector, "Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word."<ref>Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, ; Brecht, 2:57.</ref> For eight days in ], beginning on ''Invocavit'' Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons." In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core ] such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.<ref>Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–69.</ref>


The effect of Luther's intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin's return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth."<ref name="Schaff IV" />
<blockquote>
Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell, and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it." But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.<ref name="Schaff IV">Schaff, Philip, .</ref>
</blockquote>

The effect of Luther's intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin’s return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth."<ref name="Schaff IV" />


Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signalled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation.<ref>Marius, 169.</ref> After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he now faced a battle not only against the established Church but against radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.<ref>Mullett, 141–43.</ref> Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signaled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation.<ref>Marius, 169.</ref> After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he faced a battle against both the established Church and the radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.<ref>Mullett, 141–43.</ref>


]'' of peasants' demands, issued in 1525]]
==Peasants' War==
Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as ] and Zwickau prophet ] found support amongst poorer townspeople and peasants between 1521 and 1525. There had been ] on smaller scales since the 15th century.<ref>Michael Hughes, ''Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806'', London: Macmillan, 1992, {{ISBN|0-333-53774-2}}, 45.</ref> Luther's pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with "liberal" phraseology, led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general.<ref>A.G. Dickens, ''The German Nation and Martin Luther'', London: Edward Arnold, 1974, {{ISBN|0-7131-5700-3}}, 132–133. Dickens cites as an example of Luther's "liberal" phraseology: "Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent".</ref> Revolts broke out in ], ], and ] in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia, and Hipler and Lotzer in the south-west, the revolts turned into war.<ref>Hughes, 45–47.</ref>
{{Main|German Peasants' War}}
Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as Zwickau prophet ] and ] helped instigate the ] of 1524–25, during which many atrocities were committed, often in Luther's name. There had been ] by the peasantry on a smaller scale since the 15th century.<ref>Michael Hughes, ''Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806'', London: Macmillan, 1992, ISBN 0-333-53774-2, 45.</ref> Luther's pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with "liberal" phraseology, now led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general.<ref>A. G. Dickens, ''The German Nation and Martin Luther'', London: Edward Arnold, 1974, ISBN 0-7131-5700-3, 132–33. Dickens cites as an example of Luther's "liberal" phraseology: "Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent".</ref> Revolts broke out in ], ], and ] in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia and Michael Gaismair in Tyrol, the revolts turned into war.<ref>Hughes, 45–47.</ref>


Luther sympathised with some of the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the ] in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities.<ref>Hughes, 50.</ref> During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops’ palaces, and libraries. In '']'', written on his return to Wittenberg, he explained the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs: Luther sympathised with some of the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the ] in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities.<ref>Hughes, 50.</ref> During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops' palaces, and libraries. In '']'', written on his return to Wittenberg, he gave his interpretation of the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs:


<blockquote> <blockquote>
Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own ], do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 . They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.<ref>Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, ''Luther's Works'', 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.</ref> Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own ], do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 . They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.<ref>Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, ''Luther's Works'', 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.</ref>
</blockquote> </blockquote>


Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the ] at the ] on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer's execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.<ref>Hughes, 51.</ref> Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the ] movement and other religious movements, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.<ref>Andrew Pettegree, ''Europe in the Sixteenth Century'', Oxford: Blackwell, {{ISBN|0-631-20704-X}}, 102–103.</ref> In 1526 Luther wrote: "I, Martin Luther, have during the rebellion slain all the peasants, for it was I who ordered them to be struck dead."<ref>Erlangen Edition of ''Luther's Works'', Vol. 59, p. 284</ref>
Luther justified his opposition to the rebels on three grounds. First, in choosing violence over lawful submission to the secular government, they were ignoring Christ's counsel to "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's"; St. Paul had written in his epistle to the {{bibleverse||Romans|13:1-7|NKJV}} that all authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted. This reference from the Bible forms the foundation for the doctrine known as the ], or, in the German case, the divine right of the princes. Second, the violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering placed the peasants "outside the law of God and Empire," so they deserved "death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers." Lastly, Luther charged the rebels with blasphemy for calling themselves "Christian brethren" and committing their sinful acts under the banner of the Gospel.<ref>Mullett, 166.</ref>


===Marriage===
Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the ] at the ] on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer’s execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.<ref>Hughes, 51.</ref> Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the ] movement and other sects, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.<ref>Andrew Pettegree, ''Europe in the Sixteenth Century'', Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20704-X, 102–103.</ref>
], Luther's wife, by ]]]
]
Luther married ], one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen ] in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.<ref>Wilson, 232.</ref> "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage."<ref>Schaff, Philip, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823185716/http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/7_ch04.htm |date=23 August 2017 }}, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.</ref> At the time of their marriage, Katharina was 26 years old and Luther was 41 years old.


On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged, with ], ], Johannes Apel, ] and ] and his wife as witnesses.<ref name=Scheible147>{{cite book|last=Scheible|first=Heinz|title=Melanchthon. Eine Biographie|publisher=C.H.Beck|location=Munich|year=1997|isbn=978-3-406-42223-2|language=de|page=147}}</ref> On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.<ref name=Scheible147/> The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.<ref name=Scheible147/>
==Marriage==
], Luther's wife, by ], 1526]]
]
Martin Luther married ], one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen ] in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.<ref>Wilson, 232.</ref> "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage."<ref>Schaff, Philip, , rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.</ref> Katherina was 26 years old, Luther was 41 years old.


Some priests and former members of ] had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.<ref>Lohse, Bernhard, ''Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,'', translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, {{ISBN|0-567-09357-3}}, 32; Brecht, 2:196–197.</ref> He had long condemned ] on biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.<ref>Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.</ref> Luther had written to ] on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic."<ref>Schaff, Philip. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707101105/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc7.ii.v.ii.html |date=7 July 2017 }}, ''History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation''. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–181.</ref>
On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged with ], ], ], ] and ] and his wife as witnesses.<ref name=Scheible147>{{cite book|last=Scheible|first=Heinz|title=Melanchthon. Eine Biographie|publisher=C.H.Beck|location=Munich|year=1997|isbn=3406422233|language=German|page=147}}</ref> On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.<ref name=Scheible147/> The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out, and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.<ref name=Scheible147/>

Some priests and former monks had already married, including ] and ], but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.<ref>Lohse, Bernhard, ''Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,'', translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, ISBN 0-567-09357-3, 32; Brecht, 2:196–97.</ref> He had long condemned vows of ] on Biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.<ref>Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.</ref> Luther had written to ] on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic."<ref>Schaff, Philip. , ''History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation''. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–81.</ref>
Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.<ref>Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.</ref> Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.<ref>Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.</ref>


Luther and his wife moved into a former ], "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from the new elector ] (1525–32). They embarked on what appeared to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.<ref>Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.</ref> Between bearing six children, Hans - June 1526, Elizabeth - 10 December 1527 died within a few months, Magdalene - 1529 died in Luthers arms in 1542, Martin - 1531, Paul - January 1533, and Margaret - 1534, Katharina helped earn the couple a living by farming the land and taking in boarders.<ref>Oberman, 278–80; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.</ref> Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of ]."<ref>Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, ; Brecht, 2: 204.</ref> Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, "]," a wedding present from Elector ]. They embarked on what appears to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.<ref>Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.</ref> Katharina bore six children: Hans&nbsp;– June 1526; ]&nbsp;– 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; ]&nbsp;– 1529, who died in Luther's arms in 1542; Martin&nbsp;– 1531; ]&nbsp;– January 1533; and Margaret&nbsp;– 1534; and she helped the couple earn a living by farming and taking in boarders.<ref>Oberman, 278–280; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.</ref> Luther confided to ] on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of ]."<ref>Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707101105/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc7.ii.v.ii.html |date=7 July 2017 }}; Brecht, 2: 204.</ref>


==Organising the church== ===Organising the church: 1525–1529===
]
{{lutheranism}}
By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His Biblical ideal of congregations' choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.<ref>MacCulloch, 164.</ref> According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."<ref>Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.</ref> From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of ], and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two ]. By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His biblical ideal of congregations choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.<ref>MacCulloch, 164.</ref> According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."<ref>Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.</ref>


To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the ], acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, ], to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.<ref>Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.</ref> For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".<ref>Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.</ref> The elector authorised a ] of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.<ref>Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (''Notbischof'').</ref> At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the ''Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony'' (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification.<ref>Mullett, 186-87; Brecht, 2:264–65, 267.</ref> The ] reformer ] challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.<ref>Brecht, 2:264–65.</ref> The ''Instruction'' is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.<ref>Brecht, 2:268.</ref> From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of ], and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two ].<ref name="Schroeder2000">{{cite book|first=Steven|last=Schroeder|title=Between Freedom and Necessity: An Essay on the Place of Value|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfT6aQvkVfAC&pg=PA104|year=2000|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-1302-5|page=104}}</ref> To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the ], acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.<ref>Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.</ref> For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".<ref>Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.</ref>


The elector authorised a ] of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.<ref>Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (''Notbischof'').</ref> At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the ''Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony'' (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification.<ref>Mullett, 186–187; Brecht, 2:264–265, 267.</ref> The ] reformer ] challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.<ref>Brecht, 2:264–265.</ref> The ''Instruction'' is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.<ref>Brecht, 2:268.</ref>
In response to demands for a German ], Luther wrote a '']'', which he published in early 1526.<ref>Brecht, 2:251–54; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.</ref> He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians."<ref>Brecht, 2:255.</ref> Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice"; and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.<ref>Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, ''A History of Lutheranism'', Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.</ref> He retained the ] and ], while trappings such as the Mass ], altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.<ref>Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.</ref> Some reformers, including followers of ], considered Luther's service too papistic; and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic mass.<ref>Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–66.</ref> Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as of parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the ].<ref>Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–70.</ref> To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of the ].<ref>Brecht, 2:256–57.</ref> He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.<ref>Brecht, 2:258.</ref>


]
Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of ], which began in 1527.<ref>Brecht, 2:263.</ref> They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther wrote, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."<ref>Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the ''Small Catechism'', 1529; MacCulloch, 165.</ref>
In response to demands for a German ], Luther wrote a '']'', which he published in early 1526.<ref>Brecht, 2:251–254; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.</ref> He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians."<ref>Brecht, 2:255.</ref> Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice", and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.<ref>Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, ''A History of Lutheranism'', Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-8006-3472-1}}, 37.</ref> He retained the ] and ], while trappings such as the Mass ]s, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.<ref>Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.</ref> Some reformers, including followers of ], considered Luther's service too papistic, and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic Mass.<ref>Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–266.</ref> Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the ].<ref>Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–270.</ref> To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of catechism.<ref>Brecht, 2:256–57.</ref> He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.<ref>Brecht, 2:258.</ref> The former included the "]".<ref name=Birkholz>{{cite web |last1=Birkholz |first1=Mark |title=Luther's Flood Prayer |url=https://lutheranreformation.org/history/luthers-flood-prayer/ |website=Lutheran Reformation |publisher=] |access-date=7 October 2024 |date=3 January 2016}}</ref>
===Catechisms===
Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the ], a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the ], to be memorised by the people themselves.<ref>Marty, 123.</ref> The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the ], the ], the ], ], and the ].<ref>Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.</ref> Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be ], "the way monkeys do it", but understood.<ref>Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.</ref>


Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of the Electorate of Saxony, which began in 1527.<ref>Brecht, 2:263.</ref> They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther writes, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."<ref>Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the ''Small Catechism'', 1529; MacCulloch, 165.</ref>
The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the '']'' and the Catechism."<ref>Luther, Martin. ''Luther's Works''. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172-73; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.</ref> The ''Small Catechism'' has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.<ref>Brecht, 2:277, 280.</ref> It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.


===Catechisms===
Luther's ''Small Catechism'' proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the ''Larger Catechism'' was effective for pastors.<ref>See texts at </ref> Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, ] language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life. That is, Luther depicted the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. The Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies, a divine unity with separate personalities. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the ]) and the ], which are also part of the Lutheran catechical teaching.<ref>Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 2006 20(1): 1-25. Issn: 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation.'' Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)</ref>
]
Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the ], a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the ], to be memorised by the people.<ref>Marty, 123.</ref> The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the ], the ], ], ], and the ].<ref>Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.</ref> Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be ], "the way monkeys do it", but understood.<ref>Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.</ref>


The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the '']'' and the Catechism."<ref>Luther, Martin. ''Luther's Works''. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–173; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.</ref> The ''Small Catechism'' has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.<ref>Brecht, 2:277, 280.</ref> It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.
==Translation of the Bible==
]


Luther's ''Small Catechism'' proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the ''Large Catechism'' was effective for pastors.<ref>See texts at {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716175426/http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-hymn |date=16 July 2017 }}</ref> Using the German vernacular, they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, ] language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the ]s to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life.<ref name="James Arne Nestingen 1996">Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." '']'' 2006 20(1): 1–25. {{ISSN|0024-7499}}; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation.'' Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)</ref> That is, Luther depicts the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. Luther's treatment of the Apostles' Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the ]) and The Lord's Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechetical teaching.<ref name="James Arne Nestingen 1996" />

===Translation of the Old Testament: 1534–1535===
{{Main|Luther Bible}} {{Main|Luther Bible}}
]
Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.<ref>Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.</ref> Others had previously translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.<ref>Mullett, 148–150.</ref>
Two of the earlier translations were the Mentelin Bible (1456)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/18191/ |title=Mentelin Bible |newspaper=The Library of Congress |access-date=2 June 2018|year=1466 }}</ref> and the Koberger Bible (1484).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/18183/ |title=Koberger Bible |website=World Digital Library |access-date=2 June 2018|date=1483 }}</ref> There were as many as fourteen in High German, four in Low German, four in Dutch, and various other translations in other languages before the Bible of Luther.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=] |title=The Contested History of a Book: The German Bible of the Later Middle Ages and Reformation in Legend, Ideology, and Scholarship |last=Gow |first=Andrew C. |volume=9 |year=2009 |issn=1203-1542 |doi=10.5508/jhs.2009.v9.a13 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.<ref>Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.</ref> He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance."<ref>Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.</ref> Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it contributed a ] to the German language and literature.<ref>Marius, 162.</ref> Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by ] that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany.<ref>Lohse, 112–117; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.</ref> The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as the ], a precursor of the ].<ref>Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), ''Translation – Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-19-871200-6}}, 68.</ref>
Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.<ref>Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.</ref>
Others had translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.<ref>Mullett, 148–50.</ref> When he was criticised for inserting the word "alone" after "faith" in ] 3:28,<ref>Mullett, 148; Wilson, 185; Bainton, Mentor edition, 261. Luther inserted the word "alone" (''allein'') after the word "faith" in his translation of ], 3:28. The clause is rendered in the ] as "Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law".</ref> he replied in part: "he text itself and the meaning of St. Paul urgently require and demand it. For in that very passage he is dealing with the main point of Christian doctrine, namely, that we are justified by faith in Christ without any works of the Law . . . But when works are so completely cut away -- and that must mean that faith alone justifies -- whoever would speak plainly and clearly about this cutting away of works will have to say, 'Faith alone justifies us, and not works'." <ref> Lindberg, Carter. "The European Reformations: Sourcebook". Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2000. pg. 49. Original sourcebook excerpt taken from "Luther's Works". St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955-86. ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35. pgs. 182, 187-189, 195. </ref>


Luther did not include ],<ref name="Metzger1994">{{Cite book| edition = 2| publisher = Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft| isbn = 978-3-438-06010-5| last = Metzger| first = Bruce M.| title = A textual commentary on the Greek New Testament: a companion volume to the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament (fourth revised edition)| location = Stuttgart| date = 1994| pages = 647–649}}</ref> the ] in his translation, rejecting it as a forgery. It was inserted into the text by others after Luther's death.<ref>{{cite book |last= Criticus |first= (Rev. William Orme)|date= 1830|title= Memoir of The Controversy respecting the Three Heavenly Witnesses, I John V.7 |location= London |publisher= (1872, Boston, "a new edition, with notes and an appendix by Ezra Abbot") |page= 42|author-link= William Orme (minister)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= White|first= Andrew Dickson |date= 1896|title= A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, Vol. 2 |location= New York|publisher= Appleton|page= 304|author-link= Andrew Dickson White}}</ref>
Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.<ref>Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.</ref> He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance."<ref>Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.</ref>


===Hymnodist===
Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it made a significant contribution to the evolution of the German language and literature.<ref>Marius, 162.</ref> Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by ] that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany.<ref>Lohse, 112–17; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.</ref> The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as ]'s English Bible (1525 forward), a precursor of the ].<ref>Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), ''Translation—Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.</ref>
{{Main|List of hymns by Martin Luther}}
]"]]
{{listen
|type=music
|filename=Ein' Feste Burg.ogg
|title=Ein feste Burg sung in German
|description=The German text of "Ein feste Burg" ("A Mighty Fortress") sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody
}}
Luther was a prolific ], authoring hymns such as "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("]") and "]" ("From Heaven Above to Earth I Come").<ref>For a short collection see {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716175426/http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-hymn |date=16 July 2017 }}</ref> Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His tool of choice for this connection was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena.<ref name="Christopher Boyd Brown 2005">Christopher Boyd Brown, ''Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation''. (2005)</ref> He often accompanied the sung hymns with a lute, later recreated as the ] that became a ] of Germany in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=23 March 2014|title=Waldzither – Bibliography of the 19th century|publisher=Studia Instrumentorum|url=http://www.studia-instrumentorum.de/MUSEUM/zistern.htm|quote=Es ist eine unbedingte Notwendigkeit, dass der Deutsche zu seinen Liedern auch ein echt deutsches Begleitinstrument besitzt. Wie der Spanier seine Gitarre (fälschlich Laute genannt), der Italiener seine Mandoline, der Engländer das Banjo, der Russe die Balalaika usw. sein Nationalinstrument nennt, so sollte der Deutsche seine Laute, die Waldzither, welche schon von Dr. Martin Luther auf der Wartburg im Thüringer Walde (daher der Name Waldzither) gepflegt wurde, zu seinem Nationalinstrument machen. Liederheft von C.H. Böhm (Hamburg, March 1919)}}</ref>


Luther's hymns were frequently evoked by particular events in his life and the unfolding Reformation. This behavior started with his learning of the execution of ], the first individuals to be martyred by the Roman Catholic Church for Lutheran views, prompting Luther to write the hymn "]" ("A New Song We Raise"), which is generally known in English by John C. Messenger's translation by the title and first line "Flung to the Heedless Winds" and sung to the tune Ibstone composed in 1875 by Maria C. Tiddeman.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.hymntime.com/tch/htm/f/l/u/flungtot.htm |journal=Hymntime |title=Flung to the heedless winds |access-date=7 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014171540/http://www.hymntime.com/tch/htm/f/l/u/flungtot.htm |archive-date=14 October 2013 }}</ref>
==Hymns==
]'' (''Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott'')]]


Luther's 1524 creedal hymn "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}" ("We All Believe in One True God") is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the ''Small Catechism''. Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included "Wir glauben all" among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely used the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.<ref name="Christopher Boyd Brown 2005" />
Luther was a prolific hymn writer, authoring hymns such as "]."<ref>For a short collection see </ref> Luther opened the way for a bringing together of high art and folk music, of all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His device for this linking was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, the school, the home, and the public arena.<ref name="Christopher Boyd Brown 2005">Christopher Boyd Brown, ''Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation.'' (2005)</ref>


{{multiple image
Luther's 1524 creedal hymn "We All Believe in One True God" is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the ''].'' Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included ''Wir Glauben All'' among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as ] rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely use the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.<ref name="Christopher Boyd Brown 2005"/>
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Luther Vaterunser 001.jpg
| image2 = Luther Vaterunser 002.jpg
| footer = Autograph of "]", with the only notes extant in Luther's handwriting
}}
Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the ], "]", corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the ''Small Catechism''. The hymn functions both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.<ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." '']'' 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.</ref>


Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the ], "Vater Unser im Himmelreich," corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the ''Small Catechism,'' with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.<ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1998 12(1): 79-88, 89-98.</ref> Luther wrote "]" ("From depths of woe I cry to You") in 1523 as a hymnic version of ] and sent it as a sample to encourage his colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with ], this and seven other hymns were published in the ''Achtliederbuch'', the ]. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of "Aus tiefer Not" was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with ] hymnic version of ], Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.<ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." '']'' 1998 12(2): 160–169, 170–180.</ref>
{{listen|filename=Ein' Feste Burg.ogg|title=Ein' Feste Burg sung in German|description=The German text of ''Ein' Feste Burg'' (''A Mighty Fortress'') sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody.}}


Luther wrote "]" ("Oh God, look down from heaven"). "]" (Now come, Savior of the gentiles), based on '']'', became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for ]. He transformed ''A solus ortus cardine'' to "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}" ("We should now praise Christ") and '']'' to "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}" ("Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God").<ref>Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: ''Luther zwischen den Zeiten&nbsp;– Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung''; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; pp. 215–219 (in German).</ref> He wrote two hymns on the ], "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}" and "Mensch, willst du leben seliglich". His "]" ("Praise be to You, Jesus Christ") became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for ] "]", and adopted for Easter "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}" (Christ is risen), based on ]. "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}", a paraphrase of ], was intended for ], but became also a funeral hymn. He paraphrased the ] as "]" with a simplified form of the melody. It became known as the German Te Deum.
Luther wrote "Aus Tiefer Not Schrei ich zu Dir" (English trans: "From depths of woe I cry to you") in 1523 as a hymnic version of ] and sent it as a sample to encourage evangelical colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of "Aus Tiefer Not" was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of ], Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.<ref>Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." ''Lutheran Quarterly'' 1998 12(2): 160-169, 170-180.</ref>


Luther's 1540 hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan Kam" (English trans: "To Jordan came the Christ our Lord") reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the ''Small Catechism.'' Luther adopted a preexisting ] tune associated with a hymnic setting of ]'s prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including ], used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran ].<ref name="Christopher Boyd Brown 2005"/> Luther's 1541 hymn "{{lang|de|]|italic=unset}}" ("To Jordan came the Christ our Lord") reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the ''Small Catechism''. Luther adopted a preexisting ] tune associated with a hymnic setting of ]'s prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including ], used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran ].<ref name="Christopher Boyd Brown 2005" />


Luther's hymns were included in early Lutheran hymnals and spread the ideas of the Reformation. He supplied four of eight songs of the First Lutheran hymnal ''Achtliederbuch'', 18 of 26 songs of the '']'', and 24 of the 32 songs in the first choral hymnal with settings by Johann Walter, '']'', all published in 1524. Luther's hymns inspired composers to write music. ] included several verses as ]s in his ] and based ] entirely on them, namely ], as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) ], ], ], ], and ], later ], and in 1735 ].
==Marburg Colloquy and Eucharist controversy==

===On the soul after death===
] being raised by Jesus from the dead, painting by ], 1558]]
In contrast to the views of ]<ref>''Psychopannychia'' (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.</ref> and ],<ref>''Liber de Anima'' 1562</ref> throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian's soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death.<ref>D. Franz Pieper ''Christliche Dogmatik'', 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: "Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden .... Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen"; English translation: Francis Pieper, ''Christian Dogmatics'', 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: "These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God .... A sleep of the soul which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine."</ref> Accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the ].<ref>''Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils'', Eugene F.A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.</ref> This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: "It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace."<ref>Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25:7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: ''Luther's Works'', American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; "Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace."</ref> He also rejected the existence of ], which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bookofconcord.org/smalcald.php#part2.2.12|title=Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12|publisher=Bookofconcord.org|access-date=15 August 2012|archive-date=10 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010210703/http://bookofconcord.org/smalcald.php#part2.2.12|url-status=dead}}</ref> He affirmed the continuity of one's personal identity beyond death. In his ], he described the saints as currently residing "in their graves and in heaven."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bookofconcord.org/smalcald.php#part2.2.28|title=Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28|publisher=Bookofconcord.org|access-date=15 August 2012|archive-date=10 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010210703/http://bookofconcord.org/smalcald.php#part2.2.28|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Lutheran theologian ] observes that Luther's teaching about the state of the Christian's soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as ].<ref>Gerhard ''Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte'', § 293 ff. Pieper writes: "Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection" (''Christian Dogmatics'', 3:512, footnote 21).</ref> ] (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of ] on this issue.<ref>Article in the ''Berlinischer Zeitung'' 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann&nbsp;– 1838 p. 59 "Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen."</ref>

Luther's ''Commentary on Genesis'' contains a passage which concludes that "the soul does not sleep (''anima non sic dormit''), but wakes (''sed vigilat'') and experiences visions".<ref>Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 "Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homo enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia." (Commentary on Genesis&nbsp;– ''Enarrationes in Genesin'', XXV, 1535–1545)"</ref> ] argues that ] misread this and other passages from Luther,<ref>Blackburne ''A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state'' (1765) p. 121</ref> while ] points out that it actually refers to the soul of a man "in this life" (''homo enim in hac vita'') tired from his daily labour (''defatigus diurno labore'') who at night enters his bedchamber (''sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum'') and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.<ref>]. ''Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche'' p. 657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"</ref>

Henry Eyster Jacobs' English translation from 1898 reads:
:"Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for '''in this life''', man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder."<ref>Henry Eyster Jacobs ''Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546'' (1898). Emphasis added.</ref>

===Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy===
{{See also|The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics}} {{See also|The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics}}
]
]]]
In October 1529, ], convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the ], to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.<ref>Mullett, 194–195.</ref> Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the ], the ] of the Lord's Supper, an issue crucial to Luther.<ref>Brecht, 2:325–334; Mullett, 197.</ref> The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, ], and ], differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the ]: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (]:23–26).<ref>Wilson, 259.</ref> Luther insisted on the ] of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the ],<ref>'']'' 26, 442; ''Luther's Works'' 37, 299–300.</ref> while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.<ref>Oberman, 237.</ref>


Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus' ability to be in more than one place at a time. Luther stressed the ] of Jesus' human nature.<ref>Marty, 140–141; Lohse, 74–75.</ref> According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus' words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (] 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland."<ref>Quoted by Oberman, 237.</ref> On his table Luther wrote the words "''Hoc est corpus meum''" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.<ref>Brecht 2:329.</ref>
In October 1529, ] convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the ], to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.<ref>Mullett, 194–95.</ref> Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the ] — the ] of the Lord's Supper—an issue crucial to Luther.<ref>Brecht, 2:325–34; Mullett, 197.</ref>


Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the ], and for the formation of the ] the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as ], Philip of Hesse, and ]. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.<ref>Oberman, 238.</ref>
The theologians, including ], ], ], and ], differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the ]: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (]:23–26).<ref>Wilson, 259.</ref> Luther insisted on the ] of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the ],<ref>''Weimar Ausgabe'' 26, 442; ''Luther's Works'' 37, 299-300.</ref> while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.<ref>Oberman, 237.</ref> Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus's ability to be in more than one place at a time but Luther stressed his ].<ref>Marty, 140–41; Lohse, 74–75.</ref> According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus's words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (] 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland."<ref>Quoted by Oberman, 237.</ref> On his table Luther wrote the words "''Hoc est corpus meum''" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.<ref>Brecht 2:329.</ref>


===Epistemology of faith and reason===
Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the ], and for the formation of the ] the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as ], Philip of Hesse, and ]. The Calvinist Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.<ref>Oberman, 238.</ref> Luther found himself leading a ] within Protestantism rather than the movement as a whole.<ref>Marius, 209; Mullett, 198.</ref> Interpretations of the Eucharist differ among Protestants to this day.
Some scholars have asserted that Luther taught that faith and reason were antithetical in the sense that questions of faith could not be illuminated by reason. He wrote, "All the articles of our Christian faith, which God has revealed to us in His Word, are in presence of reason sheerly impossible, absurd, and false."<ref>Martin Luther, ''Werke, VIII''</ref> and " Reason in no way contributes to faith. For reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things."<ref>Martin Luther, ''Table Talk''.</ref> However, though seemingly contradictorily, he also wrote in the latter work that human reason "strives not against faith, when enlightened, but rather furthers and advances it",<ref>Martin Luther, "On Justification CCXCIV", ''Table Talk''</ref> bringing claims he was a ] into dispute. Contemporary Lutheran scholarship, however, has found a different reality in Luther. Luther rather seeks to separate ] in order to honor the separate spheres of knowledge that each applies to.


==On the mortality of the soul== ===On Islam===
{{Further|Protestantism and Islam}}
In contrast to the views of Calvin<ref>''Psychopannychia'' (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.</ref> and Melanchthon<ref>''Liber de Anima'' 1562</ref>, through his life Luther maintained the idea that the soul was unconscious in death: "so the soul after death enters its chamber and peace, and sleeping does not feel its sleep" (Commentary on Genesis - ''Enarrationes in Genesin'', 1535–1545), and from this Luther came also to dispute traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the ].<ref>''Sermons of Martin Luther: the house postils, Volume 2'' ed. Eugene F. A. Klug 1996 p240</ref> Luther's apparent teaching of "]" (German ''Seelenschlaf'') was a source of embarrassment to some later ], including ].<ref>Gerhard ''Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte''</ref><ref>"Concordia Theological Monthly" (CTM), ] Volume 38 1967 Page 423 "John Gerhard listed seven arguments or quotations from Luther against the charge that Luther had taught soul sleep"</ref> Among other apparently contradictory statements by Luther the statement "the soul does not sleep (''anima non sic dormit''), but wakes (''sed vigilat'') and experiences visions"<ref>Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5-6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p120 "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei"</ref> has been repeatedly cited to remove the offence of Luther's view,<ref>for example in ''A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state'' by ] p121 the misreading of this and other passages from Luther by John Jortin are discussed.</ref><ref>This has been incorrectly annotated by Harold A. Schewe with a bracketed: "(like a person on earth.). It is awake" in Western Conference Pastoral Conference, McIntosh, South Dakota, 3 October 1978</ref> but actually refers to the soul of a "man in this life (''homo enim in hac vita'') tired from his daily labour (''defatigus diurno labore'') who at night enters his bedchamber (''sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum'')" and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.<ref>Georg J. Fritschel (1867-1941). ''Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche'' p657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"</ref>
]
:''See further citations from Luther's Latin writings under ]''
At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, ] was ] with a vast ] army.<ref>Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.</ref> Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 ''Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses'', provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a ] sent by God to punish Christians, as agents of the biblical ] that would destroy the ], whom Luther believed to be the papacy and the Roman Church.<ref>Andrew Cunningham, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122074525/https://books.google.com/books?id=hLxDnAMaUgQC&pg=PA141 |date=22 November 2022 }}, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-521-46701-2}}, 141; Mullett, 239–240; Marty, 164.</ref> He consistently rejected the idea of a ], "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name".<ref>From '']'', 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, , Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-664-22323-0}}, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.</ref> On the other hand, in keeping with his ], Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.<ref>Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.</ref> In 1526, he argued in ''Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace'' that national defence is reason for a just war.<ref>Mullett, 238–239; Lohse, 59–61.</ref> By 1529, in '']'', he was actively urging Emperor Charles&nbsp;V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.<ref>Brecht, 2:364.</ref>
He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.<ref>Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–365.</ref> Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".<ref>Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.</ref>


In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the ].<ref>Brecht, 3:354.</ref> He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on ], which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk".<ref>Daniel Goffman, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122074511/https://books.google.com/books?id=3uJzjatjTL4C&pg=PA109 |date=22 November 2022 }}, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-521-45908-7}}, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.</ref> Though Luther saw the Muslim religion as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live."<ref>From ''On war against the Turk'', 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122074516/https://books.google.com/books?id=BjC7K1j_AT8C&pg=PA208 |date=22 November 2022 }}, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, {{ISBN|1-932688-07-2}}, 208.</ref> He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.<ref>Brecht, 3:355.</ref>
==On Islam==
{{See|Islam and Protestantism}}
At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, ] was ] with a vast ] army.<ref>Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.</ref> Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 ''Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses'', provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a ] sent to punish Christians by God, as agents of the Biblical ] that would destroy the ], whom Luther believed to be the papacy, and the Roman Church.<ref>Andrew Cunningham, , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,. 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–40; Marty, 164.</ref> He consistently rejected the idea of a ], "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name".<ref>From '']'', 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, , Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.</ref> On the other hand, in keeping with his ], Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.<ref>Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.</ref> In 1526, he argued in ''Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace'' that national defence is reason for a just war.<ref>Mullett, 238–39; Lohse, 59–61.</ref> By 1529, in '']'', he was actively urging Emperor ] and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.<ref>Brecht, 2:364.</ref>
He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.<ref>Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–65.</ref> Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".<ref>Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.</ref>


===Antinomian controversy===
In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the ].<ref>Brecht, 3:354.</ref> He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on the Islamic faith, which he called Mohammedanism or the Turk.<ref>Daniel Goffman, , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.</ref> Though Luther saw the Muslim faith as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: ''"Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live."''<ref>From ''On war against the Turk'', 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, , Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.</ref> He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.<ref>Brecht, 3:355.</ref>
], where ] and Luther preached]]
Early in 1537, ]—serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben—preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous ] theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations,'' ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. {{ISBN|978-0-9748529-6-6}}</ref> Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for ]s between 1538 and 1540.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations,'' ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 11–15. {{ISBN|978-0-9748529-6-6}}</ref> He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 ] to C. Güttel ''Against the Antinomians'',<ref>Cf. ''Luther's Works'' 47:107–119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord's Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112–113).</ref> and his book ''On the Councils and the Church'' from the same year.<ref>Cf. ''Luther's Works'' 41, 113–114, 143–144, 146–147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach ''de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti'', "about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit," but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).</ref>


In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal,'' 33–36.</ref> Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal'', 170–172</ref> Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians—thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church—does not eliminate the accusing law.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal'', 76, 105–107.</ref> Claiming that the law—in any form—should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal'', 140, 157.</ref>
==Augsburg Confession==
{{See|Augsburg Confession|Apology of the Augsburg Confession}}
] and ], 1531]]


Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments—when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law—positively teach how the Christian ought to live.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal'', 75, 104–105, 172–173.</ref> This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law."<ref>The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.</ref> For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her ]s on a daily basis.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal'', 110.</ref>
Shaken by the ], ] convened an ] at ] in 1530, aiming to unite the ] against the Turks.<ref>Hughes, 55.</ref> To achieve this, he needed first to resolve the religious controversies in his lands, "considering with love and kindness the views of everybody".<ref>Gritsch, 45.</ref> He asked for a statement of the evangelical case, and one was duly devised by Luther, Melanchthon, and their Wittenberg colleagues. Melanchthon drafted the document, known as the ], and travelled with the elector's party to Augsburg, where it was read to the emperor and diet on 25 June 1530.<ref>Mullett, 198–200; Elton, 148–49.</ref> Luther was left behind at the ] fortress in southern Saxony because he remained under the imperial ban and lacked a safe-conduct to attend the diet.<ref>Wilson, 265.</ref> His writings during his 165 days at Coburg, including the ''Exhortation to all Clergy Assembled at Augsburg'', show that, unlike Melanchthon, he was set against making concessions.<ref>Mullett, 201–203; Marius, 223.</ref>


The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of ], are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future ]-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal'', 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal,'', 43–44, 91–93.</ref> Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear ] overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.
Despite the Confession's avoidance of strident language or abuse of the pope, the diet rejected it on 22 September. The reformers were ordered to renounce heresy and submit to the control of the Catholic Church by the following April or face the imperial army.<ref>Mullett, 207; Wilson, 269.</ref> The decision confirmed Luther's belief that the mission had been futile. It prompted the Lutheran princes to form a military alliance, the ], which Luther cautiously supported on grounds of self-defence in his ''Warning to His Dear German People'' of 1531.<ref>Mullett, 208; Gritsch, 48–49; Marius, 244.</ref> The Augsburg Confession had become the statement of faith on which Lutherans were prepared to stand or fall. Though a modified version of Luther's position, it is regarded as the first Lutheran treatise.<ref>Mullett, 203–204.</ref>


===Bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse: 1539–1540===
==Anti-Antinomianism==
From December 1539, Luther became involved in the designs of ] to marry a lady-in-waiting of his wife, ]. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the ]. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the ] that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter because divorce was worse than ].<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206. For a more extensive list of quotes from Luther on the topic of polygamy, see page 11 and following of {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120194507/https://www.cuw.edu/academics/schools/arts-and-sciences/_assets/theological-journal/v3i1-Fall_2015.pdf |date=20 January 2019 }} Nathan R. Jastram, Concordia Theological Journal, Fall 2015/Spring 2016, Volume 3</ref> As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, ], with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. Philip's sister ] quickly made the scandal public, and Philip threatened to expose Luther's advice. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did.<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.</ref> Margarethe gave birth to nine children over a span of 17 years, giving Philip a total of 19 children. In the view of Luther's biographer ], "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable".<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.</ref> Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–215.</ref> The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.<ref>Oberman, Heiko, ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.</ref>
Early in 1537, ] (1494-1566) – serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben – preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's ], not God's moral law (the ]), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous ] theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but only belonged into city hall.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations,'' ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23-27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6</ref> Luther responded to these theses by a total of six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for ]s between 1538 and 1540.<ref>Cf. ibid., 11-15.</ref> He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel ''Against the Antinomians'',<ref>Cf. ''Luther's Works'' 47:107-119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord’s Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112-113).</ref> and his book ''On the Councils and the Church'' from the same year.<ref>Cf. ''Luther's Works'' 41, 113-114, 143-144, 146-147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach ''de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti'', “about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit,” but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).</ref>


===Anti-Jewish polemics and antisemitism: 1543–1544===
In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.<ref>Cf. Luther, ''Only the Decalogue Is Eternal,'' 33-36.</ref> Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation.<ref>Cf. ibid., 170-172</ref> Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians – thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church – does not eliminate the accusing law.<ref>Cf. ibid., 76, 105-107.</ref> Claiming that the law – in any form – should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.<ref>Cf. ibid., 140, 157.</ref>
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}
{{see also|Christianity and antisemitism}}
]'', written by Martin Luther in 1543]]
Luther wrote negatively about ] throughout his career.<ref name=":2">Michael, Robert. ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242.</ref> Though Luther rarely encountered Jews, his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived in a locality which had expelled Jews roughly 90 years earlier.<ref>Edwards, Mark. ''Luther's Last Battles''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.</ref> He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus.<ref>], 3:341–343; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.</ref> In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in ''That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew'' and also aimed to convert them to Christianity.<ref>Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.</ref> When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.<ref>Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," ''History Review'' (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.</ref>


Luther's major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise ''Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen'' ('']''), and ''Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi'' ('']''), both published in 1543, three years before his death.<ref>Brecht, 3:341–347.</ref> Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people", and referred to them with violent language.<ref>Luther, ''On the Jews and their Lies'', quoted in Michael, 112.</ref><ref>Luther, ''Vom Schem Hamphoras'', quoted in Michael, 113.</ref> Citing Deuteronomy 13, wherein ] commands the killing of idolaters and the burning of their cities and property as an offering to God, Luther called for a "''scharfe Barmherzigkeit''" ("sharp mercy") against the Jews "to see whether we might save at least a few from the glowing flames."<ref name=gritsch8687>Gritsch, Eric W. (2012). ''''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6676-9}}. pp. 86–87.</ref> Luther advocated setting ]s on fire, destroying Jewish ], forbidding ]s from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time".<ref name=":0">Luther, ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', ''Luthers Werke''. 47:268–271.</ref> In ]'s view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder.<ref>Luther, ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," ''Encounter'' 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–344.</ref> "God's anger with them is so intense," Luther concluded, "that gentle mercy will only tend to make them worse, while sharp mercy will reform them but little. Therefore, in any case, away with them!"<ref name=gritsch8687/>
On the other hand, Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments – when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law – also positively teach how the Christian ought to live.<ref>Cf. ibid., 75, 104-105, 172-173.</ref> This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law."<ref>The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the ] used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.</ref> For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her ]s on a daily basis.<ref>Cf. ibid., 110.</ref>


Luther launched a polemic against vagrants in his 1528 preface to '']'', saying that the Jews had contributed Hebrew words as a main basis of the '']'' ]. He warned in the admonitory preface Christians not to give them alms as it was, in his opinion, to forsake the truly poor.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dialects of the Yiddish Language: Winter Studies in Yiddish, Volume 2. Papers from the Second Annual Oxford Winter Symposium in Yiddish Language and Literature, 14–16 December 1986 |chapter=Chapter 9. Early Yiddish in Non-Jewish Books |publisher=] |year=1988 |isbn=978-0080365640 |last=Rosenfeld |first=Moshe N. |oclc=17727332 |editor-first=Dovid |editor-last=Katz |editor-link=Dovid Katz |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSyLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |access-date=22 February 2023 |via=Google Books |page=99 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Small Dictionaries and Curiosity: Lexicography and Fieldwork in Post-medieval Europe |chapter=Chapter 5. first curiosity-driven wordlists: Rotwelsch |publisher=] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0198785019 |last=Considine |first=John P. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/9269 |url-access=registration |oclc=955312844 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MmLODQAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198785019.001.0001 |access-date=22 February 2023 |via=Google Books |page=37 }}</ref>
The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of ], are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future ]-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.<ref>Cf. ibid., 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." See also ibid., 43-44, 91-93.</ref> Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear ] overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.


Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.<ref name="Michael:Josel/Strasbourg">Michael, 117.</ref> ], the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition."<ref>Quoted by Michael, 110.</ref> Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially but did so when a Lutheran pastor in ] used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.<ref name="Michael:Josel/Strasbourg" /> Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.<ref>Michael, 117–118.</ref>
In the 20th century, there have been attempts to show that the "third use of the law" was a typical "]" doctrine and that Luther himself never taught this,<ref>E.g., by Erlangen theologian ] (1885-1954), cf. ibid., 21.</ref> but in light of Luther's disputations against the antinomians and other texts, this position cannot be maintained.


], an ] rabbi, remarking about Luther's attitude toward Jews, put it thus: "Among all the Church Fathers and Reformers, there was no mouth more vile, no tongue that uttered more vulgar curses against the Children of Israel than this founder of the Reformation."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Singer |first1=Tovia |title=A Closer Look at the "Crucifixion Psalm" |url=https://outreachjudaism.org/crucifixion-psalm/ |website=Outreach Judaism |date=30 April 2014 |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref>
==Philip of Hesse controversy==
From December 1539, Luther became implicated in the ] of ], who wanted to marry one of his wife's ladies-in-waiting. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter.<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206.</ref> As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Sale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. However, Philip was unable to keep the marriage secret, and he threatened to make Luther's advice public. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did during the subsequent public controversy.<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.</ref> In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable".<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.</ref> Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.<ref>Brecht, Martin, ''Martin Luther'', tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–15.</ref> The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.<ref>Oberman, Heiko, ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.</ref>


==Anti-Judaism and antisemitism== === Final years, illness and death ===
]]]
{{Main|Luther and antisemitism}}
]]]
]'', written by Martin Luther in 1543]]
Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including ], ], fainting, ], and a ] in one eye.<ref name="pmid9019884">{{cite journal |author=Iversen OH |title=Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death |language=no |journal=] |volume=116 |issue=30 |pages=3643–3646 |year=1996 |pmid=9019884 }}</ref> From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. In 1536, he began to suffer from ], ], and an ear infection which ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of ].<ref>Edwards, 9.</ref>


His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude."<ref>Spitz, 354.</ref> In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the ] in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707161754/https://www.buergerstiftung-halle.de/bildung-im-voruebergehen/luther/ |date=7 July 2017 }} buergerstiftung-halle.de {{in lang|de}}</ref>
Luther wrote about the Jews throughout his career, though only a few of his works dealt with them directly.<ref>]. ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242.</ref> Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, but his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived within a local community that had expelled Jews some ninety years earlier.<ref>]. ''Luther's Last Battles''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.</ref> He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus, whereas Christians believed Jesus was the ].<ref>Brecht, 3:341–43; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.</ref> At the same time, Luther believed that all human beings who set themselves against God shared one and the same guilt.<ref>]. ''Martin Luther and the Jews''. London: , 1972, 9.</ref> As early as 1516, Luther wrote, "…any people are proud with marvelous stupidity when they call the Jews dogs, evildoers, or whatever they like, while they too, and equally, do not realize who or what they are in the sight of God".<ref>Luther, "Lectures on Romans", ''Luthers Werke''. 25:428.</ref> In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in ''That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew'', but only with the aim of converting them to Christianity.<ref>Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.</ref> When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.<ref>Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," ''History Review'' (2002) No. 42:1-2; Mullett, 246.</ref>


His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.<ref>Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, ''Luthers Werke'', Weimar 1914, 51:196–197.</ref> It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to ].<ref>]. ''From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews'', Vanguard Press, p. 220.</ref> James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians."<ref>Mackinnon, James. ''Luther and the Reformation''. Vol. IV, (New York): Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.</ref> Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies&nbsp;... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."<ref>Luther, Martin. ''Admonition against the Jews'', added to his final sermon, cited in ]. ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil'', New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's ''Admonition'' can be found in Wikisource. ]</ref>
Luther's other major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise ''Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen'' ('']''), and ''Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi'' (''On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ''), both published in 1543, three years before his death.<ref>Brecht, 3:341–47.</ref> Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people": he referred to them with violent, vile language.<ref>Luther, ''On the Jews and their Lies'', quoted in Michael, 112.</ref><ref>Luther, ''Vom Schem Hamphoras'', quoted in Michael, 113.</ref> Luther advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish ], forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "poisonous envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time".<ref>Luther, ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', ''Luthers Werke''. 47:268-271.</ref> In Robert Michael's view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder.<ref>Luther, ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," ''Encounter'' 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343-344.</ref> Luther's "recommendations" for how to treat the Jews was a clear reference to the "sharp mercy" of Deuteronomy 13, the punishments prescribed ''by Moses'' for those who led others to "false gods".<ref name="ESV">{{cite book|title=] |url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2013&version=ESV |chapter=] 13 |language=English Standard Version }}</ref>


Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.
Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.<ref name =Michael:Josel/Strasbourg>Michael, 117.</ref> ], the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition."<ref>Quoted by Michael, 110.</ref> Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially, but relented when a Lutheran pastor in ] used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.<ref name =Michael:Josel/Strasbourg>Michael, 117.</ref> Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.<ref>Michael, 117–18.</ref>
Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and he acquired the status of a prophet within Germany.<ref>Gritsch, 113–14; Michael, 117.</ref> According to the prevailing view among historians,<ref name=Wallman1>"The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant ] and modern racially oriented anti-Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century", ''Lutheran Quarterly'', n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72-97.</ref> his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,<ref>Berger, Ronald. ''Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach'' (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; ]. ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; ]. ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'', (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960).</ref> and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the National Socialists' attacks on Jews.<ref>]. ''The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi German 1933-1945'' (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.</ref> Reinhold Lewin writes that "whoever wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in the ] contained references to and quotations from Luther. ] wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.<ref>Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."</ref> The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of ''On the Jews and their Lies'' to ], editor of the Nazi newspaper '']'', on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically anti-Semitic tract ever published.<ref>]. , (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. .</ref> It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the ] and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by Dr. E.H. Schulz and Dr. R. Frercks.<ref>See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," ''History Review'' (2002) No. 42:1-2.</ref> On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the ], "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to ], Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after ], for which ], Professor of the History of the Church in the University of Oxford argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint."<ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch, ''Reformation:Europe's House Divided, 1490-1700''. New York:Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp.666-667.</ref> Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."<ref>Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), ''Die Deutchschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich'', p.265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, ''Hitler's Willing Executioners'' (Vintage, 1997)</ref> According to Professor Dick Geary, the Nazis won a larger share of the vote in Protestant than in Catholic areas of Germany in elections of 1928 to November 1932.<ref>''Who voted for the Nazis?(electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers Party'',History Today, October 1998, Vol.48, Issue 10, pages 8-14</ref>


The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8&nbsp;p.m., he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1&nbsp;a.m. on 18 February, he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.<ref name=Reeves60>Reeves, Michael. "The Unquenchable Flame". Nottingham: IVP, 2009, p. 60.</ref>
] on the Wittenberg Church, built 1300–1470.]]


An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45&nbsp;a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the ] in Wittenberg, in front of the pulpit.<ref>]. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–379.</ref> The funeral was held by his friends ] and Philipp Melanchthon.<ref name=MacKim19>{{cite book|last=McKim|first=Donald K.|title=The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|series=Cambridge companions to religion|isbn=978-0-521-01673-5|page=19}}</ref> A year later, troops of Luther's adversary Charles&nbsp;V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.<ref name=MacKim19/>
At the heart of scholars' debate about Luther's influence is whether it is ] to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the National Socialists. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Biographer ] points out that "There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."<ref>] 3:351.</ref> Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology.<ref>Wallmann, 72-97.</ref> ] agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already anti-Semites that they revived Luther's work.<ref>], ''The Fabricated Luther'', 17-20.</ref><ref name="SiemonNetto2">], "Luther and the Jews," <cite>Lutheran Witness</cite> 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.</ref> Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in ].<ref name=HillerbrandEB>Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."</ref> Similarly, ], noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever this tract was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial."<ref>Bainton, Roland: ''Here I Stand'', (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297</ref><ref>For similar views, see:
* Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," ''Lutheran Forum'' (Summer 2000):32;
* Brecht, ''Martin Luther'', 3:351;
* Edwards, Mark U. Jr. ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531-46''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
* Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", ''Christian History'', No. 3:39, 12.;
* Kittelson, James M., ''Luther the Reformer'', 274;
* Oberman, Heiko. ''The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation''. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
* Rupp, Gordon. ''Martin Luther'', 75;
* Siemon-Netto, Uwe. ''Lutheran Witness'', 19.<!--needs a proper citation--></ref>


A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German. The statement reads:
Other scholars argue that, even if his views were merely ], their violence lent a new element to the standard Christian suspicion of Judaism. Ronald Berger writes that Luther is credited with "Germanizing the Christian critique of Judaism and establishing anti-Semitism as a key element of German culture and national identity."<ref name=Berger28>Berger, Ronald. ''Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach'' (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.</ref> ] argues that he caused a "hysterical and demonizing mentality" about Jews to enter German thought and discourse, a mentality that might otherwise have been absent.<ref>]. ''Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner''. Princeton University Press, 1990. Cited in Berger, Ronald. ''Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach''. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002, 28.<!--we need the Rose page number--></ref>


<blockquote><poem># No one can understand ]'s '']'' unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil's '']'', unless he has been a farmer for five years.
Since the 1980s, Lutheran Church denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.<ref>''Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther’s negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment'', from a summary of </ref><ref>Hull, Timothy ''Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition'' (2005), p. 25</ref>
# No one can understand ] (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years.
# Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as ] and ], ], Christ and the apostles.


Do not assail this divine ]; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads.
==Final years and death==
]
Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including ], ], ], ], and a ] in one eye.<ref name="pmid9019884">{{cite journal |author=Iversen OH |title= |language=Norwegian |journal=Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. |volume=116 |issue=30 |pages=3643–46 |year=1996 |pmid=9019884 |doi=}}</ref> From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. The years of struggle with Rome, the antagonisms with and among his fellow reformers, and the scandal which ensued from the ] of the ] incident, in which Luther had played a leading role, all may have contributed. In 1536, he began to suffer from ], and ], and an ear infection ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of ].<ref>Edwards, 9.</ref>


We are beggars: this is true.<ref>Kellermann, James A. (translator) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004132238/http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/beggars.txt |date=4 October 2017 }}. 16 February 1546.</ref><ref>Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." {{interlanguage link|Heinrich Bornkamm|de}}, ''Luther's World of Thought'', tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.</ref></poem></blockquote>
His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude."<ref>Spitz, 354.</ref>


<gallery>
]
File:Luthers Sterbehaus Eisleben.jpg|], considered the site of Luther's death since 1726. However the building where Luther actually died (at Markt 56, now the site of Hotel Graf von Mansfeld) was torn down in 1570.<ref>''Dorfpredigten: Biblische Einsichten aus Deutschlands 'wildem Süden'. Ausgewählte Predigten aus den Jahren 1998 bis 2007'' Teil II 2002–2007 by Thomas O.H. Kaiser, p. 354</ref>
File:Luther death-hand mask.jpg|Casts of Luther's face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529060226/http://www.artdaily.com/index.asp?int_new=26979&int_sec=2 |date=29 May 2013 }} artdaily.com</ref>
File:Schlosskirche (Wittenberg).jpg|'']'' in Wittenberg, where Luther posted his ''Ninety-five Theses'', is also his gravesite.
File:Luthertombstoneunderaltar.jpg|Luther's tombstone beneath the pulpit in the ]
File:Luthergrab-WB.jpg|Close-up of the grave with inscription in Latin
</gallery>


== Posthumous influence within Nazism ==
His last sermon was delivered at ], his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.<ref>Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, ''Luthers Werke'', Weimar 1914, 51:196-197.</ref> It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to ].<ref>]. ''From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews'', Vanguard Press, p. 220.</ref> James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians."<ref>Mackinnon, James. ''Luther and the Reformation''. Vol. IV, (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.</ref> Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies&nbsp;... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."<ref>Luther, Martin. ''Admonition against the Jews'', added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. ''Luther: Man Between God and the Devil'', New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's ''Admonition'' can be found in Wikisource.]</ref>
] in ] after the ]]]
Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and within Germany he acquired the status of a prophet.<ref>Gritsch, 113–114; Michael, 117.</ref> According to the prevailing opinion among historians,<ref name=Wallman1 /> his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,<ref name=":1">Berger, Ronald. ''Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach'' (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; ]. ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; ]. ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'', (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).</ref> and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the Nazis' attacks on Jews.<ref name="Grunberger1971" /> Reinhold Lewin writes that anybody who "wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in ] contained references to and quotations from Luther. ] (albeit never a Lutheran, having been brought up Catholic) wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.<ref>Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."</ref> The city of ] presented a first edition of ''On the Jews and their Lies'' to ], editor of the Nazi newspaper '']'', on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically antisemitic tract ever published.<ref>]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710100514/http://www3.baylor.edu/American_Jewish/everythingthatusedtobehere/resources/PowerPoints/Christian%20Anti-Semitism%20%28part%202%29.ppt |date=10 July 2007 }}, (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. {{cite web|url=http://www3.baylor.edu/American_Jewish/everythingthatusedtobehere/resources/hh.htm |title=Hitler and the Holocaust|publisher=Baylor University|access-date=22 April 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422212116/http://www3.baylor.edu/American_Jewish/everythingthatusedtobehere/resources/hh.htm |archive-date=22 April 2006}}.</ref> It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the ] and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by E.H. Schulz and R. Frercks.<ref>See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," ''History Review'' (2002) No. 42:1–2.</ref>


On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the ], "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to ], Bishop ], a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after ], for which ], professor of the history of the church at the ] argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint."<ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch, ''Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700''. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.</ref> Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."<ref>Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), ''Die Deutschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich'', p. 265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, ''Hitler's Willing Executioners'' (Vintage, 1997)</ref>
Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.


{{Quote box|"There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."|author=]<ref>Brecht 3:351.</ref>|width=25%|align=left}}
The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8:00 p.m., he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 a.m. he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.
At the heart of scholarly debate about Luther's influence is whether it is ] to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. ] argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology.<ref>Wallmann, 72–97.</ref> ] agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already antisemites that they revived Luther's work.<ref>], ''The Fabricated Luther'', 17–20.</ref><ref name="SiemonNetto2">], "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.</ref> ] agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in ].<ref name=HillerbrandEB>Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."</ref> Similarly, ], noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial."<ref>Bainton, Roland: ''Here I Stand'', (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297</ref><ref>For similar views, see:
* Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," ''Lutheran Forum'' (Summer 2000):32;
* Brecht, ''Martin Luther'', 3:351;
* Edwards, Mark U. Jr. ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
* Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", ''Christian History'', No. 3:39, 12.;
* Kittelson, James M., ''Luther the Reformer'', 274;
* Oberman, Heiko. ''The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation''. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
* Rupp, Gordon. ''Martin Luther'', 75;
* Siemon-Netto, Uwe. ''Lutheran Witness'', 19.<!--needs a proper citation--></ref>
However, Christopher J. Probst, in his book ''Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany'' (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi era used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the antisemitic policies of the National Socialists.<ref>Christopher J. Probst, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311100051/http://www.ushmm.org/research/publications/academic-publications/full-list-of-academic-publications/demonizing-the-jews-luther-and-the-protestant-church-in-nazi-germany |date=11 March 2017 }}, Indiana University Press in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2012, {{ISBN|978-0-253-00100-9}}</ref> The pro-Nazi Christian group ] drew parallels between Martin Luther and the "Führer" ].<ref>"Der Deutsche Luthertag 1933 und die Deutschen Christen" by
Hansjörg Buss. In: ''Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte'' Vol. 26, No. 2</ref>


Some scholars, such as Mark U. Edwards in his book ''Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46'' (1983), suggest that since Luther's increasingly antisemitic views developed during the years his health deteriorated, it is possible they were at least partly the product of a state of mind. Edwards also comments that Luther often deliberately used "vulgarity and violence" for effect, both in his writings condemning the Jews and in diatribes against "Turks" (Muslims) and Catholics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theologian.org.uk/churchhistory/lutherandthejews.html#_ftnref67|title=Martin Luther and "The Jews" A Reappraisal|author=Dr. Christopher Probst|publisher=The Theologian|access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref>
]
An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg, beneath the pulpit.<ref>Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–79.</ref> The funeral was held by his friends ] and ].<ref name=MacKim19>{{cite book|last=McKim|first=Donald K.|title=The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|series=Cambridge companions to religion|isbn=0521016738|page=19}}</ref> A year later, troops of Luther's adversary ] entered the town, but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.<ref name=MacKim19/>


Since the 1980s, Lutheran denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=May 2022}} and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=May 2022}}<ref>''Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther's negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment'', from a summary of {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225041133/http://www.ctsfw.edu/bsmith-cts/etext/lcms/Synod/resolutions.pdf |date=25 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>Lull, Timothy ''Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition'' (2005), p. 25</ref> Strommen et al.'s 1970 survey of 4,745 North American Lutherans aged 15–65 found that, compared to the other minority groups under consideration, Lutherans were the least prejudiced toward Jews.<ref>See Merton P. Strommen et al., A Study of Generations (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing, 1972), p. 206. P. 208 also states "The clergy are less likely to indicate anti-Semitic or racially prejudiced attitudes ."</ref> Nevertheless, Professor Richard Geary, former professor of modern history at the ] and the author of ''Hitler and Nazism'', examined electoral trends in ] between 1928 and 1933 and notes that, based on his research, the Nazi Party received disproportionately more votes from Protestant than Catholic areas of Germany.<ref>Richard (Dick) Geary, "Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers' Party)", in '']'', 1 October 1998, Vol. 48, Issue 10, pp. 8–14</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/spenkuch/research/religion_nazis.pdf|title=Special Interests at the Ballot Box? Religion and the Electoral Success of the Nazis|access-date=25 March 2017|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418075104/https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/spenkuch/research/religion_nazis.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German.
<blockquote>


==Legacy and commemoration==
1. No one can understand Vergil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Vergil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years.
]
Luther made effective use of ]'s printing press to spread his views. He switched from Latin to German in his writing to appeal to a broader audience. Between 1500 and 1530, Luther's works represented one fifth of all materials printed in Germany.<ref>Wall Street Journal, "The Monk Who Shook the World", Richard J. Evans,
31 March 2017</ref>


In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck." He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Images from this period include the woodcuts by ] (1530) and ] and ] (1546).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Roper|first=Lyndal|author-link=Lyndal Roper|title=Martin Luther's Body: The 'Stout Doctor' and His Biographers|journal=American Historical Review|date=April 2010|volume=115|issue=2|pages=351–362|doi=10.1086/ahr.115.2.351|pmid=20509226|doi-access=free| issn = 0002-8762}}</ref>
2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years.


] in ], Germany]]
3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles.
Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the ] and in the ]. In the ]'s ] he is ] on 31 October.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=9 April 2021|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref> Luther is honored in various ways by Christian traditions coming out directly from the Protestant Reformation, i.e. Lutheranism, the ], and ]. Branches of Protestantism that emerged afterwards vary in their remembrance and veneration of Luther, ranging from a complete lack of a single mention of him to a commemoration almost comparable to the way Lutherans commemorate and remember his persona. There is no known condemnation of Luther by Protestants themselves.


] in ], U.S.]]
Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads.
Various sites both inside and outside Germany (supposedly) visited by Martin Luther throughout his lifetime commemorate it with local memorials. ] has two towns officially named after Luther, ] and ]. ] is sometimes called Mansfeld-Lutherstadt, although the state government has not decided to put the '']'' suffix in its official name.


] commemorates the publication of the ''Ninety-five Theses'' in 1517. It is a civic holiday in the German states of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Two further states (] and ]) are pending a vote on introducing it. Slovenia celebrates it because of the profound contribution of the Reformation to its culture. Austria allows Protestant children not to go to school that day, and Protestant workers have a right to leave work in order to participate in a church service. Switzerland celebrates the holiday on the first Sunday after 31 October. It is also celebrated elsewhere around the world.
We are beggars: this is true.<ref>Kellermann, James A. (translator) . 16 February 1546.</ref><ref>Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." Heinrich Bornkamm, ''Luther's World of Thought'', tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.</ref>
</blockquote>


==Luther and the swan==
Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the ] and a feast day in the ]; in the ] he is commemorated on October 31.
<gallery>
File:Strümpfelbach im Remstal - Kirche - Lutherbild.jpg|Luther with a swan (painting in the church at ], Weinstadt, Germany, by J. A. List)
File:WLM - andrevanb - amsterdam, ronde lutherse kerk (1).jpg|Swan weather vane, ], Amsterdam
File:Halberstadt St Martini Altar.jpg|Altar in St Martin's Church, ], Germany. Luther and the swan are toward the top on the right.
File:Fotothek df tg 0004142 Münze ^ Gedenkmünze ^ Schaumünze ^ Medaille ^ Schwan.jpg|Coin commemorating Luther (engraving by Georg Wilhelm Göbel, ], 1706)
</gallery>
Luther is often depicted with a swan as his ], and Lutheran churches often have a swan for a weather vane. This association with the swan arises out of a prophecy reportedly made by the earlier reformer Jan Hus and endorsed by Luther. In the ] (now Czech), Hus's name meant ]. In 1414, while imprisoned by the Council of Constance and anticipating his execution by burning for heresy, Hus prophesied, "Now they will roast a goose, but in a hundred years' time they'll hear a swan sing. They'd better listen to him." Luther published his ''Ninety-five Theses'' some 103 years later.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019013653/https://www.hamburger-reformation.de/hamburger-reformation/panorama-geschichten/luther-und-der-schwan |date=19 October 2019 }} hamburger-reformation.de, retrieved 19 October 2019</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706123240/https://lutheranpress.com/the-swan/ |date=6 July 2020 }} Lutheran Press, retrieved 6 July 2020</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706135913/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/early-music-history/article/lutheran-identity-of-josquins-missa-pange-lingua-renaissance-of-a-renaissance-mass/BB791A5089D9E675993F0AA00EC4E4B0 |date=6 July 2020 }} Early Music History, vol. 36, October 2017, pp. 193–249; CUP; retrieved 6 July 2020</ref>

==Works and editions==
{{main|Martin Luther bibliography}}
] of Luther's works]]
* The Erlangen Edition (''Erlangener Ausgabe'': "EA"), comprising the ''Exegetica opera latina''&nbsp;– Latin exegetical works of Luther.
* The ] (Weimarer Ausgabe) is the exhaustive, standard German edition of Luther's Latin and German works, indicated by the abbreviation "WA". This is continued into "WA Br" ''Weimarer Ausgabe, Briefwechsel'' (correspondence), "WA Tr" ''Weimarer Ausgabe, Tischreden'' (tabletalk) and "WA DB" ''Weimarer Ausgabe, Deutsche Bibel'' (German Bible).
* The American Edition (''Luther's Works'') is the most extensive English translation of Luther's writings, indicated either by the abbreviation "LW" or "AE". The first 55 volumes were published 1955–1986, and a twenty-volume extension (vols. 56–75) is planned of which volumes 58, 60, and 68 have appeared thus far.


==See also== ==See also==
{{portal|Biography|Evangelical Christianity|Holy Roman Empire}}
{{commons}}
* ]
{{Wikiquote}}
* ]
{{wikisource author}}
* ]
{{Portal|Saints}}
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* '']''
* ]
* '']''
* '']''


==External links== ==Notes==
{{notelist}}
*{{MutopiaComposer|LutherM}}

<!--{{clear}}Retain for sake of reflist that follows-->


==References== ==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book
|first = Martin
|last = Brecht
|title=Martin Luther
|author2=tr. James L. Schaaf
|publisher=Philadelphia: Fortress Press
|volume=1: His Road to Reformation, 1483–1521
|year=1985
|author-link=Martin Brecht
}}
* {{cite book
|first = Martin
|last = Brecht
|title=Martin Luther
|author2=tr. James L. Schaaf
|publisher=Philadelphia: Fortress Press
|volume=2: Shaping and Defining the Reformation, 1521–1532
|year=1994
}}
* {{cite book
|first = Martin
|last = Brecht
|title=Martin Luther
|author2=tr. James L. Schaaf
|publisher=Philadelphia: Fortress Press
|volume=3: The Preservation of the Church, 1532–1546
|year=1999
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Cummings
|first=Brian
|year=2002
|title=The Literary Culture of the Reformation: Grammar and Grace
|place=Oxford
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|url-access=subscription
|via=Oxford Scholarship Online
|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198187356.001.0001
|isbn=978-0-19-818735-6
|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198187356.001.0001/acprof-9780198187356
}}
* {{cite book
|first = Michael A.
|last = Mullett
|title=Martin Luther
|publisher=London: Routledge
|year=2004
|isbn=978-0-415-26168-5
}}
* {{cite book
|first = Michael A.
|last = Mullett
|title=Luther
|publisher=Methuen & Co (Lancashire Pamphlets)
|year=1986
|isbn=978-0-415-10932-1
}}
* {{cite book
|first = Derek
|last = Wilson
|title = Out of the Storm: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther
|publisher = London: Hutchinson
|year = 2007
|isbn = 978-0-09-180001-7
}}


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
For works by and about Luther, see ] or ] at Wikisource. For works by and about Luther, see ] or ] at Wikisource.
* Atkinson, James (1968). ''Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism'', in series, Pelican Book. Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books. 352 pp.
* ], ed. ''Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings.'' Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1961. .
* Bainton, Roland. ''Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther'' (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950),
* ], ed. ''Martin Luther: Basic Theological Writings.'' Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989. ISBN 0-8006-3680-5.
* Brecht, Martin. ''Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation 1483–1521'' (vol 1, 1985); ''Martin Luther 1521–1532: Shaping and Defining the Reformation'' (vol 2, 1994); ''Martin Luther The Preservation of the Church Vol 3 1532–1546'' (1999), a standard scholarly biography
* Luther, M. ''The Bondage of the Will.'' Eds. ] and ]. Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1957. .
* {{cite book |title=Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings|url=https://archive.org/details/martinluthersele00luth|url-access=registration|last=Dillenberger |first=John |author-link=John Dillenberger |year=1961 |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, NY|oclc=165808}}
* ''Luther's Works'', 55 vols. Eds. ] and ]. St Louis Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
* Erikson, Erik H. (1958). ''Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History''. New York: W.W. Norton.
* ]. (1928). ''Young Luther: The Intellectual and Religious Development of Martin Luther to 1518.'' New York: Macmillan.
* Fife, Robert Herndon. (1957). ''The Revolt of Martin Luther.'' New York NY: Columbia University Press.
* Friedenthal, Richard (1970). ''Luther, His Life and Times''. Trans. from the German by John Nowell. First American ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. viii, 566 p. ''N.B''.: Trans. of the author's ''Luther, sein Leben und seine Zeit''.
* {{cite book |title=Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings|last=Lull |first=Timothy |author-link=Timothy Lull |year=1989 |publisher=Fortress |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-0-8006-3680-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lull |first1=Timothy F. |last2=Nelson |first2=Derek R. |year=2015 |title=Resilient Reformer: The Life and Thought of Martin Luther |place=Minneapolis, MN |publisher=Fortress |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/40846 |url-access=subscription |via=] |isbn=978-1-4514-9415-0 }}
* Kolb, Robert; Dingel, Irene; Batka, Ľubomír (eds.): ''The Oxford Handbook of Martin Luther's Theology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-19-960470-8}}.
* Luther, M. ''The Bondage of the Will.'' Eds. ] and O.R. Johnson. Old Tappan, NJ: Revell, 1957. {{OCLC|22724565}}.
* Luther, Martin (1974). ''Selected Political Writings'', ed. and with an introd. by J.M. Porter. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. {{ISBN|0-8006-1079-2}}
* ''Luther's Works'', 55 vols. Eds. H.T. Lehman and ]. St Louis, Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
* Maritain, Jacques (1941). ''Three Reformers: Luther, Descartes, Rousseau''. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. N.B.: Reprint of the ed. published by Muhlenberg Press.
* Nettl, Paul (1948). ''Luther and Music'', trans. by Frida Best and Ralph Wood. New York: Russell & Russell, 1967, cop. 1948. vii, 174 p.
* ] (1917). ''Thirty-five Years of Luther Research''. Chicago: Wartburg Publishing House.
* Schalk, Carl F. (1988). ''Luther on Music: Paradigms of Praise''. Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House. {{ISBN|0-570-01337-2}}
* Stang, William (1883). ''The Life of Martin Luther''. Eighth ed. New York: Pustet & Co. ''N.B''.: This is a work of Roman Catholic polemical nature.

==External links==
{{Spoken Misplaced Pages|En-Martin_Luther.ogg|date=17 July 2011}}
{{Sister project links|auto=yes}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=155 | name=Martin Luther}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=(((subject:"Luther, Martin" OR subject:"Martin Luther" OR creator:"Luther, Martin" OR creator:"Martin Luther" OR creator:"Luther, M." OR title:"Martin Luther" OR description:"Luther, Martin" OR description:"Martin Luther") OR ("1483–1546" AND Luther)) AND (-mediatype:software) AND NOT ("Luther King" OR "Luther McCoy" OR "Jr." OR (1895 AND 1945) OR (1748 AND 1826) ) )}}
*
* {{Librivox author |id=1342}}
* {{PRDL|8}}
* {{MutopiaComposer|LutherM}}
*
* {{cite IEP |url-id=luther |title=Martin Luther}}
* Martin Luther Collection: Early works attributed to Martin Luther, (285 titles). From the

{{Martin Luther}} {{Martin Luther}}
{{Lutheran History}} {{Lutheran history}}
{{Lutheran hymnody}} {{Lutheran hymnody}}
{{History of Christianity|collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}


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{{EngvarB|date=August 2010}}

{{Persondata
|NAME = Luther, Martin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = German ] and priest
|DATE OF BIRTH = 10 November 1483
|PLACE OF BIRTH = ], Germany
|DATE OF DEATH = 18 February 1546
|PLACE OF DEATH = ], Germany
}}
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Latest revision as of 20:06, 22 December 2024

German priest, theologian and author (1483–1546) Not to be confused with Martin Luther King Jr. For other uses, see Martin Luther (disambiguation).

The ReverendMartin LutherOSA
Martin Luther, 1528
BornMartin Luder
10 November 1483
Eisleben, County of Mansfeld, Holy Roman Empire
Died18 February 1546(1546-02-18) (aged 62)
Eisleben, County of Mansfeld, Holy Roman Empire
EducationUniversity of Erfurt (Artium Baccalaureus, 1502; Artium Magister, 1505)
University of Wittenberg (Biblicus Baccalaureus in Bible, 1508; Sententiarius Baccalaureus in Sentences, 1509; Theologiæ Doctor in Bible, 1512)
Notable work
Title
Spouse Katharina von Bora ​(m. 1525)
Children
Theological work
EraRenaissance
Tradition or movement
Main interests
Notable ideas
Ordination history
History
Diaconal ordination
Ordained byJohannes (or Johann) Bonemilch von Laasphe, Auxiliary Bishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Mainz
Date27 February 1507
PlaceCathedral Church of St. Mary, Erfurt, Holy Roman Empire
Priestly ordination
Ordained byHieronymus (or Jerome) Schultz OPraem, Bishop of the Diocese of Brandenburg
Date3/4 April 1507
PlaceCathedral Church of St. Mary, Erfurt, Holy Roman Empire
Signature
Part of a series on
Lutheranism
Background
Doctrine and theology
Bible
Creeds
Book of Concord
  • Formula of Concord
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    Other relevant topics
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    Key figuresMissionaries

    Bible Translators

    Theologians

    Martin Luther OSA (/ˈluːθər/ LOO-thər; German: [ˈmaʁtiːn ˈlʊtɐ] ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, and his theological beliefs form the basis of Lutheranism. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in Western and Christian history.

    Luther was ordained to the priesthood in 1507. He came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, in particular the view on indulgences. Luther attempted to resolve these differences amicably, first proposing an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in Ninety-five Theses, which he authored in 1517. In 1520, Pope Leo X demanded that Luther renounce all of his writings, and when Luther refused to do so, excommunicated him in January 1521. Later that year, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V condemned Luther as an outlaw at the Diet of Worms. When Luther died in 1546, Pope Leo X's excommunication was still in effect.

    Luther taught that salvation and, consequently, eternal life are not earned by good deeds; rather, they are received only as the free gift of God's grace through the believer's faith in Jesus Christ. Luther's theology challenged the authority and office of the pope by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge, and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood. Luther's translation of the Bible into German from Latin made the Bible vastly more accessible to the laity, which had a tremendous impact on both the church and German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation, the Tyndale Bible. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches. His marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry.

    In two later works, Luther expressed anti-Judaistic views, calling for the expulsion of Jews and the burning of synagogues. These works also targeted Roman Catholics, Anabaptists, and nontrinitarian Christians. Based upon his teachings, despite the fact that Luther did not directly advocate the murdering of Jews, some historians contend that his rhetoric contributed to the development of antisemitism in Germany and the emergence, centuries later, of the Nazi Party.

    Early life and education

    Birth and early life

    Portraits of Luther's parents, Hans and Margarethe Luther, by Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1527
    In July 1505, Luther entered St. Augustine's Monastery in Erfurt
    Luther's residence at the University of Wittenberg, where he began teaching theology in 1508
    A 1520 engraving of Luther as a friar with a tonsure

    Martin Luther was born on 10 November 1483 to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther) and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) in Eisleben, County of Mansfeld, in the Holy Roman Empire. Luther was baptized the next morning on the feast day of Martin of Tours.

    In 1484, his family moved to Mansfeld, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council; in 1492, he was elected as a town councilor. The religious scholar Martin Marty describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means", contrary to Luther's enemies, who labeled her a whore and bath attendant.

    He had several brothers and sisters and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.

    Education

    Hans Luther, Martin's father, was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended the Brethren of the Common Life, a school operated by a lay group, and Eisenach in 1498. The three schools focused on the so-called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell.

    In 1501, at age 17, Martin entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at 4 a.m. for "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises." He received his master's degree in 1505.

    In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law was an uncertain profession. Luther instead sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel. He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers and to test everything himself by experience.

    Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying to Luther because it offered assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which Luther believed was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, Luther felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over Aristotle's emphasis on reason. For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, leading him to view scripture as increasingly important.

    On 2 July 1505, while Luther was returning to university on horseback following a trip home, a lightning bolt struck near him during a thunderstorm. He later told his father that he was terrified of death and divine judgment, and he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!" He came to view his cry for help as a vow that he could never break. He withdrew from the university, sold his books, and entered St. Augustine's Monastery in Erfurt on 17 July 1505. One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said. His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.

    Monastic life

    A posthumous portrait of Luther as an Augustinian friar

    Luther dedicated himself to the Augustinian order, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession. Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailer and hangman of my poor soul."

    Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. On 3 April 1507, Jerome Schultz, the Bishop of Brandenburg, ordained Luther in Erfurt Cathedral.

    The following year, in 1508, Luther began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg. He received two bachelor's degrees, one in biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509. On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology.

    Later life, ministry, and the Reformation

    University of Wittenberg

    On 21 October 1512, Luther was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, succeeding von Staupitz as chair of theology. He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.

    In 1515, he was made provincial vicar of Saxony and Thuringia, which required him to visit and oversee eleven monasteries in his province.

    Lectures on Psalms and justification by faith

    Main article: Sola fide
    Luther at Erfurt, an 1861 portrait by Joseph Noel Paton depicting Luther discovering the doctrine of sola fide (by faith alone)

    From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, and on the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of justification—God's act of declaring a sinner righteous—by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the Messiah. "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification", he writes, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness."

    Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.

    "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he writes. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ." Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God"—a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith. He explains his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:

    The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law, or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).

    Start of the Reformation: 1516–1517

    Further information: History of Protestantism and History of Lutheranism
    The Catholic sale of indulgences shown in A Question to a Mintmaker, a woodcut by Jörg Breu the Elder of Augsburg, c. 1530

    In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money in order to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht von Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, who, already deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute the considerable sum of ten thousand ducats toward the rebuilding of the basilica. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices.

    On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albrecht von Brandenburg, protesting against the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences", which came to be known as the Ninety-five Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire." Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"

    Luther objected to a saying attributed to Tetzel that, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory (also attested as 'into heaven') springs." He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.

    Luther's theses are engraved into the door of All Saints' Church, Wittenberg; the Latin inscription above informs the reader that the original door was destroyed by a fire, and that in 1857, King Frederick William IV of Prussia ordered that a replacement be made.

    According to one account, Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517. Scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter, and Gerhard Prause contend that the story of the posting on the door, although it has become one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth. The story is based on comments made by Luther's collaborator Philip Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was not in Wittenberg at the time. According to Roland Bainton, on the other hand, it is true.

    The Latin Theses were printed in several locations in Germany in 1517. In January 1518 friends of Luther translated the Ninety-five Theses into German. Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany. Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive. Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.

    Breach with the papacy

    Pope Leo X's Bull against the errors of Martin Luther, 1521, commonly known as Exsurge Domine

    Archbishop Albrecht did not reply to Luther's letter containing the Ninety-five Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome. He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later notes, "the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St. Peter's Church in Rome".

    Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics, and he responded slowly, "with great care as is proper." Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which served only to harden the reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held. Over a three-day period in October 1518 where he stayed at St. Anne's Priory, Luther defended himself under questioning by papal legate Cardinal Cajetan. The pope's right to issue indulgences was at the centre of the dispute between the two men. The hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than writing his theses, Luther's confrontation with the church cast him as an enemy of the pope: "His Holiness abuses Scripture", retorted Luther. "I deny that he is above Scripture". Cajetan's original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but the legate desisted from doing so. With help from the Carmelite friar Christoph Langenmantel, Luther slipped out of the city at night, unbeknownst to Cajetan.

    Luther (right) meeting Cardinal Cajetan (left)

    In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector and promised to remain silent if his opponents did. The theologian Johann Eck, however, was determined to expose Luther's doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519, he staged a disputation with Luther's colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and invited Luther to speak. Luther's boldest assertion in the debate was that popes do not have the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor church councils were infallible. For this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus, referring to the Czech reformer and heretic burned at the stake in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.

    Excommunication

    On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the Ninety-five Theses, within 60 days. That autumn, Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Von Miltitz attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals in Wittenberg on 10 December 1520, an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles.

    Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. Although the Lutheran World Federation, Methodists and the Catholic Church's Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity agreed (in 1999 and 2006, respectively) on a "common understanding of justification by God's grace through faith in Christ," the Catholic Church has never lifted the 1521 excommunication.

    Diet of Worms (1521)

    Main article: Diet of Worms
    Luther Before the Diet of Worms, an 1877 portrait by Anton von Werner
    Luther Monument in Worms, a statue of Luther surrounded by the figures of his lay protectors and earlier Church reformers, including John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, and Girolamo Savonarola

    The enforcement of the ban on the Ninety-five Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 17 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.

    Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day:

    Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted, and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.

    At the end of this speech, Luther raised his arm "in the traditional salute of a knight winning a bout." Michael Mullett considers this speech as a "world classic of epoch-making oratory."

    Eck informed Luther that he was acting like a heretic, saying,

    Martin, there is no one of the heresies which have torn the bosom of the church, which has not derived its origin from the various interpretation of the Scripture. The Bible itself is the arsenal whence each innovator has drawn his deceptive arguments. It was with Biblical texts that Pelagius and Arius maintained their doctrines. Arius, for instance, found the negation of the eternity of the Word—an eternity which you admit, in this verse of the New Testament—Joseph knew not his wife till she had brought forth her first-born son; and he said, in the same way that you say, that this passage enchained him. When the fathers of the Council of Constance condemned this proposition of Jan Hus—The church of Jesus Christ is only the community of the elect, they condemned an error; for the church, like a good mother, embraces within her arms all who bear the name of Christian, all who are called to enjoy the celestial beatitude.

    Luther refused to recant his writings. He is sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable since they were inserted before "May God help me" only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings. However, Mullett suggests that given his nature, "we are free to believe that Luther would tend to select the more dramatic form of words."

    Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The emperor presented the final draft of the Edict of Worms on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic." It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.

    Wartburg Castle (1521)

    Wartburg Castle in Eisenach
    The Wartburg room where Luther translated the New Testament into German; an original first edition is kept in the case on the desk.

    Luther's disappearance during his return to Wittenberg was planned. Frederick III had him intercepted on his way home in the forest near Wittenberg by masked horsemen impersonating highway robbers. They escorted Luther to the security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach. During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as "my Patmos", Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates, and a Refutation of the Argument of Latomus, in which he expounded the principle of justification to Jacobus Latomus, an orthodox theologian from Louvain. In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favor is a sin. All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and God's grace alone (which cannot be earned) can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."

    In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practice. In On the Abrogation of the Private Mass, he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation. His essay On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It rejected compulsory confession and encouraged private confession and absolution, since "every Christian is a confessor." In November, Luther wrote The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.

    Luther disguised as "Junker Jörg" in 1521

    Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian friars against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion. Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man, adult baptism, and Christ's imminent return. When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.

    Return to Wittenberg and Peasants' War: 1522–1525

    See also: Radical Reformation and German Peasants' War
    Lutherhaus, Luther's residence in Wittenberg

    Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. He wrote to the Elector: "During my absence, Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word." For eight days in Lent, beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons". In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.

    Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it." But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.

    The effect of Luther's intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin's return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth."

    Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signaled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation. After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he faced a battle against both the established Church and the radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.

    The Twelve Articles of peasants' demands, issued in 1525

    Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as Thomas Müntzer and Zwickau prophet Nicholas Storch found support amongst poorer townspeople and peasants between 1521 and 1525. There had been revolts by the peasantry on smaller scales since the 15th century. Luther's pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with "liberal" phraseology, led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general. Revolts broke out in Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia, and Hipler and Lotzer in the south-west, the revolts turned into war.

    Luther sympathised with some of the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the Twelve Articles in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities. During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops' palaces, and libraries. In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, written on his return to Wittenberg, he gave his interpretation of the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs:

    Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 . They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.

    Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer's execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close. Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the Anabaptist movement and other religious movements, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers. In 1526 Luther wrote: "I, Martin Luther, have during the rebellion slain all the peasants, for it was I who ordered them to be struck dead."

    Marriage

    A 1526 portrait of Katharina von Bora, Luther's wife, by Lucas Cranach the Elder
    Luther at his desk with family portraits

    Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels. "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage." At the time of their marriage, Katharina was 26 years old and Luther was 41 years old.

    On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged, with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Johannes Apel, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach the Elder and his wife as witnesses. On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen. The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.

    Some priests and former members of religious orders had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage. He had long condemned vows of celibacy on biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless. Luther had written to George Spalatin on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic." Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.

    Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from Elector John the Steadfast. They embarked on what appears to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short. Katharina bore six children: Hans – June 1526; Elisabeth – 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; Magdalene – 1529, who died in Luther's arms in 1542; Martin – 1531; Paul – January 1533; and Margaret – 1534; and she helped the couple earn a living by farming and taking in boarders. Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of Croesus."

    Organising the church: 1525–1529

    Church orders, Mecklenburg 1650

    By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His biblical ideal of congregations choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable. According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."

    From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of worship service, and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two catechisms. To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the Electorate of Saxony, acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome. For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".

    The elector authorised a visitation of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops. At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification. The Eisleben reformer Johannes Agricola challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works. The Instruction is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.

    Lutheran church liturgy and sacraments

    In response to demands for a German liturgy, Luther wrote a German Mass, which he published in early 1526. He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians." Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice", and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread. He retained the elevation of the host and chalice, while trappings such as the Mass vestments, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony. Some reformers, including followers of Huldrych Zwingli, considered Luther's service too papistic, and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic Mass. Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the Creed. To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of catechism. He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services. The former included the "flood prayer".

    Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of the Electorate of Saxony, which began in 1527. They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther writes, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."

    Catechisms

    A stained glass portrayal of Luther

    Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the Large Catechism, a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the Small Catechism, to be memorised by the people. The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, The Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper. Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be learned by rote, "the way monkeys do it", but understood.

    The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the Bondage of the Will and the Catechism." The Small Catechism has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching. It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.

    Luther's Small Catechism proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the Large Catechism was effective for pastors. Using the German vernacular, they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life. That is, Luther depicts the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. Luther's treatment of the Apostles' Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and The Lord's Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechetical teaching.

    Translation of the Old Testament: 1534–1535

    Main article: Luther Bible
    Luther's 1534 Bible

    Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life. Others had previously translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine. Two of the earlier translations were the Mentelin Bible (1456) and the Koberger Bible (1484). There were as many as fourteen in High German, four in Low German, four in Dutch, and various other translations in other languages before the Bible of Luther.

    Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans. He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance." Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it contributed a distinct flavor to the German language and literature. Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by Lucas Cranach that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany. The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as the Tyndale Bible, a precursor of the King James Bible.

    Luther did not include First Epistle of John, the Johannine Comma in his translation, rejecting it as a forgery. It was inserted into the text by others after Luther's death.

    Hymnodist

    Main article: List of hymns by Martin Luther
    An early printing of Luther's hymn "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott"
    Ein feste Burg sung in German The German text of "Ein feste Burg" ("A Mighty Fortress") sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody
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    Luther was a prolific hymnodist, authoring hymns such as "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God") and "Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her" ("From Heaven Above to Earth I Come"). Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His tool of choice for this connection was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena. He often accompanied the sung hymns with a lute, later recreated as the waldzither that became a national instrument of Germany in the 20th century.

    Luther's hymns were frequently evoked by particular events in his life and the unfolding Reformation. This behavior started with his learning of the execution of Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos, the first individuals to be martyred by the Roman Catholic Church for Lutheran views, prompting Luther to write the hymn "Ein neues Lied wir heben an" ("A New Song We Raise"), which is generally known in English by John C. Messenger's translation by the title and first line "Flung to the Heedless Winds" and sung to the tune Ibstone composed in 1875 by Maria C. Tiddeman.

    Luther's 1524 creedal hymn "Wir glauben all an einen Gott" ("We All Believe in One True God") is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the Small Catechism. Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included "Wir glauben all" among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely used the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.

    Autograph of "Vater unser im Himmelreich", with the only notes extant in Luther's handwriting

    Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, "Vater unser im Himmelreich", corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism. The hymn functions both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.

    Luther wrote "Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir" ("From depths of woe I cry to You") in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage his colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with Paul Speratus, this and seven other hymns were published in the Achtliederbuch, the first Lutheran hymnal. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of "Aus tiefer Not" was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.

    Luther wrote "Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein" ("Oh God, look down from heaven"). "Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland" (Now come, Savior of the gentiles), based on Veni redemptor gentium, became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for Advent. He transformed A solus ortus cardine to "Christum wir sollen loben schon" ("We should now praise Christ") and Veni Creator Spiritus to "Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist" ("Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God"). He wrote two hymns on the Ten Commandments, "Dies sind die heilgen Zehn Gebot" and "Mensch, willst du leben seliglich". His "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ" ("Praise be to You, Jesus Christ") became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for Pentecost "Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist", and adopted for Easter "Christ ist erstanden" (Christ is risen), based on Victimae paschali laudes. "Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin", a paraphrase of Nunc dimittis, was intended for Purification, but became also a funeral hymn. He paraphrased the Te Deum as "Herr Gott, dich loben wir" with a simplified form of the melody. It became known as the German Te Deum.

    Luther's 1541 hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam" ("To Jordan came the Christ our Lord") reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the Small Catechism. Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67's prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J.S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.

    Luther's hymns were included in early Lutheran hymnals and spread the ideas of the Reformation. He supplied four of eight songs of the First Lutheran hymnal Achtliederbuch, 18 of 26 songs of the Erfurt Enchiridion, and 24 of the 32 songs in the first choral hymnal with settings by Johann Walter, Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn, all published in 1524. Luther's hymns inspired composers to write music. Johann Sebastian Bach included several verses as chorales in his cantatas and based chorale cantatas entirely on them, namely Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, and Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, later Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80, and in 1735 Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14.

    On the soul after death

    Luther on the left with Lazarus being raised by Jesus from the dead, painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1558

    In contrast to the views of John Calvin and Philipp Melanchthon, throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian's soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death. Accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus. This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: "It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace." He also rejected the existence of purgatory, which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death. He affirmed the continuity of one's personal identity beyond death. In his Smalcald Articles, he described the saints as currently residing "in their graves and in heaven."

    The Lutheran theologian Franz Pieper observes that Luther's teaching about the state of the Christian's soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as Johann Gerhard. Lessing (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of Lutheran orthodoxy on this issue.

    Luther's Commentary on Genesis contains a passage which concludes that "the soul does not sleep (anima non sic dormit), but wakes (sed vigilat) and experiences visions". Francis Blackburne argues that John Jortin misread this and other passages from Luther, while Gottfried Fritschel points out that it actually refers to the soul of a man "in this life" (homo enim in hac vita) tired from his daily labour (defatigus diurno labore) who at night enters his bedchamber (sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum) and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.

    Henry Eyster Jacobs' English translation from 1898 reads:

    "Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for in this life, man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder."

    Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy

    See also: The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics
    The Marburg Colloquy, by August Noack

    In October 1529, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquy, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states. Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist, the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, an issue crucial to Luther. The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Corinthians 11:23–26). Luther insisted on the Real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the sacramental union, while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.

    Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus' ability to be in more than one place at a time. Luther stressed the omnipresence of Jesus' human nature. According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus' words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (John 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland." On his table Luther wrote the words "Hoc est corpus meum" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.

    Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.

    Epistemology of faith and reason

    Some scholars have asserted that Luther taught that faith and reason were antithetical in the sense that questions of faith could not be illuminated by reason. He wrote, "All the articles of our Christian faith, which God has revealed to us in His Word, are in presence of reason sheerly impossible, absurd, and false." and " Reason in no way contributes to faith. For reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things." However, though seemingly contradictorily, he also wrote in the latter work that human reason "strives not against faith, when enlightened, but rather furthers and advances it", bringing claims he was a fideist into dispute. Contemporary Lutheran scholarship, however, has found a different reality in Luther. Luther rather seeks to separate faith and reason in order to honor the separate spheres of knowledge that each applies to.

    On Islam

    Further information: Protestantism and Islam
    The 16th-century battle between the Turks and the Christians

    At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army. Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent by God to punish Christians, as agents of the biblical apocalypse that would destroy the Antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy and the Roman Church. He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name". On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks. In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war. By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks. He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance. Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".

    In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an. He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk". Though Luther saw the Muslim religion as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live." He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.

    Antinomian controversy

    Pulpit of St Andreas Church, Eisleben, where Johannes Agricola and Luther preached

    Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola—serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben—preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall. Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540. He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians, and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year.

    In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel. Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation. Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians—thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church—does not eliminate the accusing law. Claiming that the law—in any form—should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.

    Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments—when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law—positively teach how the Christian ought to live. This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law." For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her vocations on a daily basis.

    The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptism, are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future angel-like life in heaven in the midst of this life. Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear eschatological overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.

    Bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse: 1539–1540

    From December 1539, Luther became involved in the designs of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse to marry a lady-in-waiting of his wife, Christine of Saxony. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter because divorce was worse than bigamy. As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Saale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. Philip's sister Elisabeth quickly made the scandal public, and Philip threatened to expose Luther's advice. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did. Margarethe gave birth to nine children over a span of 17 years, giving Philip a total of 19 children. In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable". Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications. The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.

    Anti-Jewish polemics and antisemitism: 1543–1544

    Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism See also: Christianity and antisemitism
    The original title page of On the Jews and Their Lies, written by Martin Luther in 1543

    Luther wrote negatively about Jews throughout his career. Though Luther rarely encountered Jews, his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived in a locality which had expelled Jews roughly 90 years earlier. He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus. In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew and also aimed to convert them to Christianity. When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.

    Luther's major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ), both published in 1543, three years before his death. Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people", and referred to them with violent language. Citing Deuteronomy 13, wherein Moses commands the killing of idolaters and the burning of their cities and property as an offering to God, Luther called for a "scharfe Barmherzigkeit" ("sharp mercy") against the Jews "to see whether we might save at least a few from the glowing flames." Luther advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time". In Robert Michael's view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder. "God's anger with them is so intense," Luther concluded, "that gentle mercy will only tend to make them worse, while sharp mercy will reform them but little. Therefore, in any case, away with them!"

    Luther launched a polemic against vagrants in his 1528 preface to Liber Vagatorum, saying that the Jews had contributed Hebrew words as a main basis of the Rotwelsch cryptolect. He warned in the admonitory preface Christians not to give them alms as it was, in his opinion, to forsake the truly poor.

    Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia. Josel of Rosheim, the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition." Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially but did so when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews. Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.

    Tovia Singer, an Orthodox Jewish rabbi, remarking about Luther's attitude toward Jews, put it thus: "Among all the Church Fathers and Reformers, there was no mouth more vile, no tongue that uttered more vulgar curses against the Children of Israel than this founder of the Reformation."

    Final years, illness and death

    Luther on his deathbed, a portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder
    Luther's grave in Schlosskirche, Wittenberg

    Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière's disease, vertigo, fainting, tinnitus, and a cataract in one eye. From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, arthritis, and an ear infection which ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina.

    His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude." In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.

    His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death. It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to Léon Poliakov. James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians." Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies ... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."

    Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.

    The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8 p.m., he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1 a.m. on 18 February, he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.

    An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, in front of the pulpit. The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon. A year later, troops of Luther's adversary Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.

    A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German. The statement reads:

    1. No one can understand Virgil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years.
    2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years.
    3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles.


    Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads.

    We are beggars: this is true.

    • Martin Luther's Death House, considered the site of Luther's death since 1726. However the building where Luther actually died (at Markt 56, now the site of Hotel Graf von Mansfeld) was torn down in 1570. Martin Luther's Death House, considered the site of Luther's death since 1726. However the building where Luther actually died (at Markt 56, now the site of Hotel Graf von Mansfeld) was torn down in 1570.
    • Casts of Luther's face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle Casts of Luther's face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle
    • Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, where Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses, is also his gravesite. Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, where Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses, is also his gravesite.
    • Luther's tombstone beneath the pulpit in the Castle Church in Wittenberg Luther's tombstone beneath the pulpit in the Castle Church in Wittenberg
    • Close-up of the grave with inscription in Latin Close-up of the grave with inscription in Latin

    Posthumous influence within Nazism

    The statue outside the Frauenkirche in Dresden after the bombing of the city in World War II

    Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and within Germany he acquired the status of a prophet. According to the prevailing opinion among historians, his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany, and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the Nazis' attacks on Jews. Reinhold Lewin writes that anybody who "wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in Nazi Germany contained references to and quotations from Luther. Heinrich Himmler (albeit never a Lutheran, having been brought up Catholic) wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940. The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically antisemitic tract ever published. It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by E.H. Schulz and R. Frercks.

    On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after Kristallnacht, for which Diarmaid MacCulloch, professor of the history of the church at the University of Oxford argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint." Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."

    "There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."

    Martin Brecht

    At the heart of scholarly debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology. Uwe Siemon-Netto agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already antisemites that they revived Luther's work. Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history. Similarly, Roland Bainton, noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial." However, Christopher J. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi era used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the antisemitic policies of the National Socialists. The pro-Nazi Christian group Deutsche Christen drew parallels between Martin Luther and the "Führer" Adolf Hitler.

    Some scholars, such as Mark U. Edwards in his book Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46 (1983), suggest that since Luther's increasingly antisemitic views developed during the years his health deteriorated, it is possible they were at least partly the product of a state of mind. Edwards also comments that Luther often deliberately used "vulgarity and violence" for effect, both in his writings condemning the Jews and in diatribes against "Turks" (Muslims) and Catholics.

    Since the 1980s, Lutheran denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans. Strommen et al.'s 1970 survey of 4,745 North American Lutherans aged 15–65 found that, compared to the other minority groups under consideration, Lutherans were the least prejudiced toward Jews. Nevertheless, Professor Richard Geary, former professor of modern history at the University of Nottingham and the author of Hitler and Nazism, examined electoral trends in Weimar Germany between 1928 and 1933 and notes that, based on his research, the Nazi Party received disproportionately more votes from Protestant than Catholic areas of Germany.

    Legacy and commemoration

    Worldwide Protestantism in 2010

    Luther made effective use of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press to spread his views. He switched from Latin to German in his writing to appeal to a broader audience. Between 1500 and 1530, Luther's works represented one fifth of all materials printed in Germany.

    In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck." He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Images from this period include the woodcuts by Hans Brosamer (1530) and Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger (1546).

    Luther Monument in Eisenach, Germany

    Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints. In the Church of England's Calendar of Saints he is commemorated on 31 October. Luther is honored in various ways by Christian traditions coming out directly from the Protestant Reformation, i.e. Lutheranism, the Reformed tradition, and Anglicanism. Branches of Protestantism that emerged afterwards vary in their remembrance and veneration of Luther, ranging from a complete lack of a single mention of him to a commemoration almost comparable to the way Lutherans commemorate and remember his persona. There is no known condemnation of Luther by Protestants themselves.

    Martin Luther College in New Ulm, Minnesota, U.S.

    Various sites both inside and outside Germany (supposedly) visited by Martin Luther throughout his lifetime commemorate it with local memorials. Saxony-Anhalt has two towns officially named after Luther, Lutherstadt Eisleben and Lutherstadt Wittenberg. Mansfeld is sometimes called Mansfeld-Lutherstadt, although the state government has not decided to put the Lutherstadt suffix in its official name.

    Reformation Day commemorates the publication of the Ninety-five Theses in 1517. It is a civic holiday in the German states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. Two further states (Lower Saxony and Bremen) are pending a vote on introducing it. Slovenia celebrates it because of the profound contribution of the Reformation to its culture. Austria allows Protestant children not to go to school that day, and Protestant workers have a right to leave work in order to participate in a church service. Switzerland celebrates the holiday on the first Sunday after 31 October. It is also celebrated elsewhere around the world.

    Luther and the swan

    • Luther with a swan (painting in the church at Strümpfelbach im Remstal, Weinstadt, Germany, by J. A. List) Luther with a swan (painting in the church at Strümpfelbach im Remstal, Weinstadt, Germany, by J. A. List)
    • Swan weather vane, Round Lutheran Church, Amsterdam Swan weather vane, Round Lutheran Church, Amsterdam
    • Altar in St Martin's Church, Halberstadt, Germany. Luther and the swan are toward the top on the right. Altar in St Martin's Church, Halberstadt, Germany. Luther and the swan are toward the top on the right.
    • Coin commemorating Luther (engraving by Georg Wilhelm Göbel, Saxony, 1706) Coin commemorating Luther (engraving by Georg Wilhelm Göbel, Saxony, 1706)

    Luther is often depicted with a swan as his attribute, and Lutheran churches often have a swan for a weather vane. This association with the swan arises out of a prophecy reportedly made by the earlier reformer Jan Hus and endorsed by Luther. In the Bohemian language (now Czech), Hus's name meant "grey goose". In 1414, while imprisoned by the Council of Constance and anticipating his execution by burning for heresy, Hus prophesied, "Now they will roast a goose, but in a hundred years' time they'll hear a swan sing. They'd better listen to him." Luther published his Ninety-five Theses some 103 years later.

    Works and editions

    Main article: Martin Luther bibliography
    Various books of the Weimar Edition of Luther's works
    • The Erlangen Edition (Erlangener Ausgabe: "EA"), comprising the Exegetica opera latina – Latin exegetical works of Luther.
    • The Weimar Edition (Weimarer Ausgabe) is the exhaustive, standard German edition of Luther's Latin and German works, indicated by the abbreviation "WA". This is continued into "WA Br" Weimarer Ausgabe, Briefwechsel (correspondence), "WA Tr" Weimarer Ausgabe, Tischreden (tabletalk) and "WA DB" Weimarer Ausgabe, Deutsche Bibel (German Bible).
    • The American Edition (Luther's Works) is the most extensive English translation of Luther's writings, indicated either by the abbreviation "LW" or "AE". The first 55 volumes were published 1955–1986, and a twenty-volume extension (vols. 56–75) is planned of which volumes 58, 60, and 68 have appeared thus far.

    See also

    Notes

    1. Latin: "Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum" – The first printings of the Theses use an incipit rather than a title which summarizes the content. Luther usually called them "meine Propositiones" (my propositions).

    References

    1. "Luther" Archived 27 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
    2. Luther himself, however, believed that he had been born in 1484. Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
    3. Luther consistently referred to himself as a former monk. For example: "Thus formerly, when I was a monk, I used to hope that I would be able to pacify my conscience with the fastings, the praying, and the vigils with which I used to afflict my body in a way to excite pity. But the more I sweat, the less quiet and peace I felt; for the true light had been removed from my eyes." Martin Luther, Lectures on Genesis: Chapters 45–50, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 8 Luther's Works. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), 5:326.
    4. Hillerbrand, Hans J. (14 February 2024). "Martin Luther". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
    5. Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, (Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
    6. Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
    7. Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
    8. Tyndale's New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
    9. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
    10. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.
    11. Hendrix, Scott H. "The Controversial Luther" Archived 2 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN. Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. "The legacy of Martin Luther" Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003. In 1523, Luther wrote that Jesus Christ was born a Jew which discouraged mistreatment of the Jews and advocated their conversion by proving that the Old Testament could be shown to speak of Jesus Christ. However, as the Reformation grew, Luther began to lose hope in large-scale Jewish conversion to Christianity, and in the years his health deteriorated he grew more acerbic toward the Jews, writing against them with the kind of venom he had already unleashed on the Anabaptists, Zwingli, and the pope.
    12. Schaff, Philip: History of the Christian Church, Vol. VIII: Modern Christianity: The Swiss Reformation, William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, US, 1910, page 706.
    13. Martin Brecht, Martin Luther (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1985–1993), 3:336.
    14. Luther's letter to Rabbi Josel as cited by Gordon Rupp, Martin Luther and the Jews (London: The Council of Christians and Jews, 1972), 14. According to "Luther and the Jews". Archived from the original on 4 November 2005. Retrieved 21 March 2017., this paragraph is not available in the English edition of Luther's works.
    15. Sydow, Michael (1 December 1999). "Journal of Theology: Martin Luther, Reformation Theologian and Educator" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
    16. ^ "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented antisemitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century", Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.
    17. For similar views, see:
      • Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
      • Rose, Paul Lawrence. "Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner," (Princeton University Press, 1990), quoted in Berger, 28;
      • Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).
      • Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242.
      • Poliakov, Leon. History of Anti-Semitism: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews. (N.P.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 216.
      • Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1993, 2000), 8–9.
    18. ^ Grunberger, Richard. The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany 1933–1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
    19. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.
    20. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.
    21. "Martin Luther | Biography, Reformation, Works, & Facts". 17 May 2023.
    22. Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
    23. Rupp, Ernst Gordon. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
    24. Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.
    25. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
    26. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
    27. ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
    28. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.
    29. Brecht, Martin (1985). Google Books Archive of Martin Luther: His road to Reformation, 1483–1521 (By Martin Brecht). Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1414-1. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
    30. Schwiebert, E.G. Luther and His Times. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.
    31. Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.
    32. Schwiebert, Ernest G (March 1948). "The Reformation from a New Perspective". Church History. 17 (1): 16. doi:10.2307/3160546. JSTOR 3160546.
    33. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40–42.
    34. Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.
    35. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44–45.
    36. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.
    37. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:112–127.
    38. Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9.
    39. Hendrix, Scott H. (2015). Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-300-16669-9.
    40. Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.
    41. Bouman, Herbert J.A. "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly, 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.
    42. Dorman, Ted M., "Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther", Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
    43. "Luther's Definition of Faith".
    44. "Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence". Archived from the original on 15 June 2010.
    45. Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
    46. "Johann Tetzel," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007
    47. At first, "the pope demanded twelve thousand ducats for the twelve apostles. Albert offered seven thousand ducats for the seven deadly sins. They compromised on ten thousand, presumably not for the Ten Commandments". Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 75, online
    48. Cummings 2002, p. 32.
    49. ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
    50. Thesis 55 of Tetzel's One Hundred and Six Theses. These "Anti-theses" were a reply to Luther's Ninety-five Theses and were drawn up by Tetzel's friend and former professor, Konrad Wimpina. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther's 27th Thesis) read: "For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be hindered by no interruption, therefore he errs who says that the soul cannot fly out before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest." In The reformation in Germany, Henry Clay Vedder, 1914, Macmillan Company, p. 405. Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat. In: D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti, 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, Frankfurt am Main & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (Print on demand edition: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-142-40551-9). See also: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Johann Tetzel" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
    51. Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. "Luther" in Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.
    52. Ritter, Gerhard. Luther, Frankfurt 1985.
    53. Gerhard Prause "Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,"in Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht. Düsseldorf, 1986.
    54. Marshall, Peter 1517: Martin Luther and the Invention of the Reformation (Oxford University Press, 2017) ISBN 978-0-19-968201-0
    55. Bekker, Henrik (2010). Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide. Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-58843-950-5. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
    56. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), p. 79, online
    57. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–205.
    58. Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.
    59. Michael A. Mullett, Martin Luther, London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5, 78; Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10313-1, 192–193.
    60. Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.
    61. Richard Marius, Luther, London: Quartet, 1975, ISBN 0-7043-3192-6, 85.
    62. Papal Bull Exsurge Domine, 15 June 1520.
    63. Mullett, 81–82.
    64. "Luther meets with Cajetan at Augsburg". Reformation 500 – Concordia Seminary, St. Louis. 11 January 2012. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
    65. "The Acts and Monuments of the Church – Martin Luther". exclassics.com. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
    66. Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), Chapter V, p. 96, online
    67. Mullett, 82.
    68. Mullett, 83.
    69. Oberman, 197.
    70. Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, New York: Mentor, 1955, OCLC 220064892, 81.
    71. Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.
    72. Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.
    73. G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Collins, 1963, OCLC 222872115, 177.
    74. Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
    75. Becking, Bob; Cannegieter, Alex; van er Poll, Wilfred (2016). From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-134-90386-3.
    76. Wooden, Cindy. "Methodists adapt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification." 24 July 2006
    77. David Van Biema, "A Half-Millennium Rift," TIME, 6 July 1998, 80.
    78. Cindy Wooden, "Lutheran World Council OKs joint declaration on justification," The Pilot, 19 June 1998, 20.
    79. Brecht, 1:460.
    80. ^ Mullett (1986), p. 25
    81. Luther, Martin. "Life of Luther (Luther by Martin Luther)".
    82. Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.
    83. Bratcher, Dennis. "The Diet of Worms (1521) Archived 3 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine," in The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
    84. Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Fontana, 1963, 53; Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700, London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.
    85. Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in Luther's Works. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. John, author of Revelation, had been exiled on the island of Patmos.
    86. Brecht, 2:12–14.
    87. Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.
    88. Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–162; Marty, 77–79.
    89. Martin Luther, "Let Your Sins Be Strong," a Letter From Luther to Melanchthon Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.
    90. Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.
    91. Brecht, 2:18–21.
    92. Marius, 163–164.
    93. Mullett, 135–136.
    94. Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.
    95. Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–165.
    96. Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV Archived 23 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Brecht, 2:57.
    97. Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–169.
    98. ^ Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV Archived 23 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
    99. Marius, 169.
    100. Mullett, 141–43.
    101. Michael Hughes, Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806, London: Macmillan, 1992, ISBN 0-333-53774-2, 45.
    102. A.G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther, London: Edward Arnold, 1974, ISBN 0-7131-5700-3, 132–133. Dickens cites as an example of Luther's "liberal" phraseology: "Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent".
    103. Hughes, 45–47.
    104. Hughes, 50.
    105. Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, Luther's Works, 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.
    106. Hughes, 51.
    107. Andrew Pettegree, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20704-X, 102–103.
    108. Erlangen Edition of Luther's Works, Vol. 59, p. 284
    109. Wilson, 232.
    110. Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch V Archived 23 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
    111. ^ Scheible, Heinz (1997). Melanchthon. Eine Biographie (in German). Munich: C.H.Beck. p. 147. ISBN 978-3-406-42223-2.
    112. Lohse, Bernhard, Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,, translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, ISBN 0-567-09357-3, 32; Brecht, 2:196–197.
    113. Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.
    114. Schaff, Philip. "Luther's Marriage. 1525." Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–181.
    115. Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
    116. Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.
    117. Oberman, 278–280; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.
    118. Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, "Luther's Marriage. 1525." Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Brecht, 2: 204.
    119. MacCulloch, 164.
    120. Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.
    121. Schroeder, Steven (2000). Between Freedom and Necessity: An Essay on the Place of Value. Rodopi. p. 104. ISBN 978-90-420-1302-5.
    122. Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.
    123. Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.
    124. Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (Notbischof).
    125. Mullett, 186–187; Brecht, 2:264–265, 267.
    126. Brecht, 2:264–265.
    127. Brecht, 2:268.
    128. Brecht, 2:251–254; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.
    129. Brecht, 2:255.
    130. Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.
    131. Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.
    132. Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–266.
    133. Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–270.
    134. Brecht, 2:256–57.
    135. Brecht, 2:258.
    136. Birkholz, Mark (3 January 2016). "Luther's Flood Prayer". Lutheran Reformation. Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
    137. Brecht, 2:263.
    138. Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the Small Catechism, 1529; MacCulloch, 165.
    139. Marty, 123.
    140. Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
    141. Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.
    142. Luther, Martin. Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–173; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
    143. Brecht, 2:277, 280.
    144. See texts at English translation Archived 16 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
    145. ^ Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." Lutheran Quarterly 2006 20(1): 1–25. ISSN 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)
    146. Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.
    147. Mullett, 148–150.
    148. "Mentelin Bible". The Library of Congress. 1466. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
    149. "Koberger Bible". World Digital Library. 1483. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
    150. Gow, Andrew C. (2009). "The Contested History of a Book: The German Bible of the Later Middle Ages and Reformation in Legend, Ideology, and Scholarship". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 9. doi:10.5508/jhs.2009.v9.a13. ISSN 1203-1542.
    151. Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.
    152. Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.
    153. Marius, 162.
    154. Lohse, 112–117; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.
    155. Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), Translation – Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.
    156. Metzger, Bruce M. (1994). A textual commentary on the Greek New Testament: a companion volume to the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament (fourth revised edition) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. pp. 647–649. ISBN 978-3-438-06010-5.
    157. Criticus, (Rev. William Orme) (1830). Memoir of The Controversy respecting the Three Heavenly Witnesses, I John V.7. London: (1872, Boston, "a new edition, with notes and an appendix by Ezra Abbot"). p. 42.
    158. White, Andrew Dickson (1896). A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, Vol. 2. New York: Appleton. p. 304.
    159. For a short collection see online hymns Archived 16 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
    160. ^ Christopher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. (2005)
    161. "Waldzither – Bibliography of the 19th century". Studia Instrumentorum. Retrieved 23 March 2014. Es ist eine unbedingte Notwendigkeit, dass der Deutsche zu seinen Liedern auch ein echt deutsches Begleitinstrument besitzt. Wie der Spanier seine Gitarre (fälschlich Laute genannt), der Italiener seine Mandoline, der Engländer das Banjo, der Russe die Balalaika usw. sein Nationalinstrument nennt, so sollte der Deutsche seine Laute, die Waldzither, welche schon von Dr. Martin Luther auf der Wartburg im Thüringer Walde (daher der Name Waldzither) gepflegt wurde, zu seinem Nationalinstrument machen. Liederheft von C.H. Böhm (Hamburg, March 1919)
    162. "Flung to the heedless winds". Hymntime. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
    163. Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.
    164. Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(2): 160–169, 170–180.
    165. Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: Luther zwischen den Zeiten – Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; pp. 215–219 (in German).
    166. Psychopannychia (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.
    167. Liber de Anima 1562
    168. D. Franz Pieper Christliche Dogmatik, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: "Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden .... Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen"; English translation: Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: "These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God .... A sleep of the soul which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine."
    169. Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils, Eugene F.A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.
    170. Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25:7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: Luther's Works, American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; "Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace."
    171. "Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12". Bookofconcord.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
    172. "Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28". Bookofconcord.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
    173. Gerhard Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte, § 293 ff. Pieper writes: "Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection" (Christian Dogmatics, 3:512, footnote 21).
    174. Article in the Berlinischer Zeitung 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann – 1838 p. 59 "Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen."
    175. Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 "Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homo enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia." (Commentary on Genesis – Enarrationes in Genesin, XXV, 1535–1545)"
    176. Blackburne A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state (1765) p. 121
    177. Gottfried Fritschel. Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche p. 657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"
    178. Henry Eyster Jacobs Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546 (1898). Emphasis added.
    179. Mullett, 194–195.
    180. Brecht, 2:325–334; Mullett, 197.
    181. Wilson, 259.
    182. Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther's Works 37, 299–300.
    183. Oberman, 237.
    184. Marty, 140–141; Lohse, 74–75.
    185. Quoted by Oberman, 237.
    186. Brecht 2:329.
    187. Oberman, 238.
    188. Martin Luther, Werke, VIII
    189. Martin Luther, Table Talk.
    190. Martin Luther, "On Justification CCXCIV", Table Talk
    191. Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.
    192. Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–240; Marty, 164.
    193. From On War against the Turk, 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, The Ten Commandments: The Reciprocity of Faithfulness, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.
    194. Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.
    195. Mullett, 238–239; Lohse, 59–61.
    196. Brecht, 2:364.
    197. Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–365.
    198. Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.
    199. Brecht, 3:354.
    200. Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.
    201. From On war against the Turk, 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, Muslims and the Gospel Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.
    202. Brecht, 3:355.
    203. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
    204. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 11–15. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
    205. Cf. Luther's Works 47:107–119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord's Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112–113).
    206. Cf. Luther's Works 41, 113–114, 143–144, 146–147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti, "about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit," but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).
    207. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 33–36.
    208. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 170–172
    209. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 76, 105–107.
    210. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 140, 157.
    211. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 75, 104–105, 172–173.
    212. The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.
    213. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 110.
    214. Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal,, 43–44, 91–93.
    215. Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206. For a more extensive list of quotes from Luther on the topic of polygamy, see page 11 and following of Luther's Authentic Voice on Polygamy Archived 20 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine Nathan R. Jastram, Concordia Theological Journal, Fall 2015/Spring 2016, Volume 3
    216. Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.
    217. Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.
    218. Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–215.
    219. Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.
    220. Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242.
    221. Edwards, Mark. Luther's Last Battles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.
    222. Brecht, 3:341–343; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.
    223. Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.
    224. Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.
    225. Brecht, 3:341–347.
    226. Luther, On the Jews and their Lies, quoted in Michael, 112.
    227. Luther, Vom Schem Hamphoras, quoted in Michael, 113.
    228. ^ Gritsch, Eric W. (2012). Martin Luther's Anti-Semitism: Against His Better Judgment. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-6676-9. pp. 86–87.
    229. Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, Luthers Werke. 47:268–271.
    230. Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–344.
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    234. Quoted by Michael, 110.
    235. Michael, 117–118.
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    237. Iversen OH (1996). "Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death". Tidsskr. Nor. Legeforen. (in Norwegian). 116 (30): 3643–3646. PMID 9019884.
    238. Edwards, 9.
    239. Spitz, 354.
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    241. Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196–197.
    242. Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
    243. Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York): Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
    244. Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's Admonition can be found in Wikisource. s:Warning Against the Jews (1546)
    245. Reeves, Michael. "The Unquenchable Flame". Nottingham: IVP, 2009, p. 60.
    246. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–379.
    247. ^ McKim, Donald K. (2003). The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge companions to religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-01673-5.
    248. Kellermann, James A. (translator) "The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther" Archived 4 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. 16 February 1546.
    249. Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." Heinrich Bornkamm [de], Luther's World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
    250. Dorfpredigten: Biblische Einsichten aus Deutschlands 'wildem Süden'. Ausgewählte Predigten aus den Jahren 1998 bis 2007 Teil II 2002–2007 by Thomas O.H. Kaiser, p. 354
    251. Martin Luther's Death Mask on View at Museum in Halle, Germany Archived 29 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine artdaily.com
    252. Gritsch, 113–114; Michael, 117.
    253. Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960).
    254. Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."
    255. Ellis, Marc H. Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism" Archived 10 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine, (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. "Hitler and the Holocaust". Baylor University. Archived from the original on 22 April 2006. Retrieved 22 April 2006..
    256. See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2.
    257. Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.
    258. Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), Die Deutschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p. 265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997)
    259. Brecht 3:351.
    260. Wallmann, 72–97.
    261. Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17–20.
    262. Siemon-Netto, "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.
    263. Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."
    264. Bainton, Roland: Here I Stand, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297
    265. For similar views, see:
      • Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
      • Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
      • Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
      • Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", Christian History, No. 3:39, 12.;
      • Kittelson, James M., Luther the Reformer, 274;
      • Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
      • Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
      • Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
    266. Christopher J. Probst, Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany Archived 11 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Indiana University Press in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2012, ISBN 978-0-253-00100-9
    267. "Der Deutsche Luthertag 1933 und die Deutschen Christen" by Hansjörg Buss. In: Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte Vol. 26, No. 2
    268. Dr. Christopher Probst. "Martin Luther and "The Jews" A Reappraisal". The Theologian. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
    269. Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther's negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment, from a summary of Official Missouri Synod Doctrinal Statements Archived 25 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
    270. Lull, Timothy Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition (2005), p. 25
    271. See Merton P. Strommen et al., A Study of Generations (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing, 1972), p. 206. P. 208 also states "The clergy are less likely to indicate anti-Semitic or racially prejudiced attitudes ."
    272. Richard (Dick) Geary, "Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers' Party)", in History Today, 1 October 1998, Vol. 48, Issue 10, pp. 8–14
    273. "Special Interests at the Ballot Box? Religion and the Electoral Success of the Nazis" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
    274. Wall Street Journal, "The Monk Who Shook the World", Richard J. Evans, 31 March 2017
    275. Roper, Lyndal (April 2010). "Martin Luther's Body: The 'Stout Doctor' and His Biographers". American Historical Review. 115 (2): 351–362. doi:10.1086/ahr.115.2.351. ISSN 0002-8762. PMID 20509226.
    276. "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
    277. Luther und der Schwan Archived 19 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine hamburger-reformation.de, retrieved 19 October 2019
    278. The Swan Archived 6 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Lutheran Press, retrieved 6 July 2020
    279. The Lutheran Identity of Josquin's Missa Pange Lingua (reference note 94) Archived 6 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Early Music History, vol. 36, October 2017, pp. 193–249; CUP; retrieved 6 July 2020

    Sources

    Further reading

    For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources) or Luther's works at Wikisource.

    • Atkinson, James (1968). Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism, in series, Pelican Book. Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books. 352 pp.
    • Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950), online
    • Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation 1483–1521 (vol 1, 1985); Martin Luther 1521–1532: Shaping and Defining the Reformation (vol 2, 1994); Martin Luther The Preservation of the Church Vol 3 1532–1546 (1999), a standard scholarly biography excerpts
    • Dillenberger, John (1961). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 165808.
    • Erikson, Erik H. (1958). Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York: W.W. Norton.
    • Fife, Robert Herndon. (1928). Young Luther: The Intellectual and Religious Development of Martin Luther to 1518. New York: Macmillan.
    • Fife, Robert Herndon. (1957). The Revolt of Martin Luther. New York NY: Columbia University Press.
    • Friedenthal, Richard (1970). Luther, His Life and Times. Trans. from the German by John Nowell. First American ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. viii, 566 p. N.B.: Trans. of the author's Luther, sein Leben und seine Zeit.
    • Lull, Timothy (1989). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 978-0-8006-3680-7.
    • Lull, Timothy F.; Nelson, Derek R. (2015). Resilient Reformer: The Life and Thought of Martin Luther. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress. ISBN 978-1-4514-9415-0 – via Project MUSE.
    • Kolb, Robert; Dingel, Irene; Batka, Ľubomír (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Martin Luther's Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-960470-8.
    • Luther, M. The Bondage of the Will. Eds. J.I. Packer and O.R. Johnson. Old Tappan, NJ: Revell, 1957. OCLC 22724565.
    • Luther, Martin (1974). Selected Political Writings, ed. and with an introd. by J.M. Porter. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-1079-2
    • Luther's Works, 55 vols. Eds. H.T. Lehman and J. Pelikan. St Louis, Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
    • Maritain, Jacques (1941). Three Reformers: Luther, Descartes, Rousseau. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. N.B.: Reprint of the ed. published by Muhlenberg Press.
    • Nettl, Paul (1948). Luther and Music, trans. by Frida Best and Ralph Wood. New York: Russell & Russell, 1967, cop. 1948. vii, 174 p.
    • Reu, Johann Michael (1917). Thirty-five Years of Luther Research. Chicago: Wartburg Publishing House.
    • Schalk, Carl F. (1988). Luther on Music: Paradigms of Praise. Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House. ISBN 0-570-01337-2
    • Stang, William (1883). The Life of Martin Luther. Eighth ed. New York: Pustet & Co. N.B.: This is a work of Roman Catholic polemical nature.

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