| Revision as of 11:23, 29 December 2023 editJacktheBrown (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers76,507 edits Added italicsTags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 20:55, 22 December 2024 edit undoThunderforge (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users2,122 edits Wikifying debasementTags: Mobile edit Mobile app edit iOS app edit App section source | ||
| (26 intermediate revisions by 13 users not shown) | |||
| Line 2: | Line 2: | ||
| {{More citations needed|date=July 2015}} | {{More citations needed|date=July 2015}} | ||
| {{Use American English|date=June 2018}} | {{Use American English|date=June 2018}} | ||
| {{ |
{{Italic title}} | ||
| ] and ], struck at Ephesus in 41 BC. The coin commemorated the two men's defeat of Brutus and Cassius a year earlier as well as celebrating the new ].|360x360px]] | ] and ], struck at Ephesus in 41 BC. The coin commemorated the two men's defeat of Brutus and Cassius a year earlier as well as celebrating the new ].|360x360px]] | ||
| ], 73 AD ], 161 AD ], 194 AD ]; <br /> Second row (left to right): 199 AD ], 200 AD ], 219 AD ], 236 AD ]]] | ], 73 AD ], 161 AD ], 194 AD ]; <br /> Second row (left to right): 199 AD ], 200 AD ], 219 AD ], 236 AD ]]] | ||
| The '''''denarius''''' ({{IPA |
The '''''denarius''''' ({{IPA|la|deːˈnaːriʊs|lang}}; {{plural form}}: '''''dēnāriī''''', {{IPA|la|deːˈnaːriiː|lang}}) was the standard ] ] from its introduction in the ] {{circa|211 BC}}<ref>Crawford, Michael H. (1974). Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press, 2 Volumes. {{ISBN|0-521-07492-4}}</ref> to the reign of ] (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the '']''. It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the ] (293–313).<ref>{{cite book|author=David. L. Vagi|title=Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 BC–AD 480|volume=II|publisher=Coin World|location=Sydney, Ohio}}</ref>{{rp|87}} | ||
| The word ''dēnārius'' is derived from the ] ''dēnī'' "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 '']''.<ref group=note>Its value was increased to 16 assēs in the middle of the 2nd century BC.</ref> The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (''denaro''), Slovene (''denar''), Portuguese (''dinheiro''), and Spanish (''dinero''). Its name also survives in the ] currency. | The word ''dēnārius'' is derived from the ] ''dēnī'' "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 '']''.<ref group=note>Its value was increased to 16 assēs in the middle of the 2nd century BC.</ref> The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (''denaro''), Slovene (''denar''), Portuguese (''dinheiro''), and Spanish (''dinero''). Its name also survives in the ] currency. | ||
| Line 13: | Line 13: | ||
| ==History== | ==History== | ||
| ] in 64 AD, the Romans continuously debased their silver coins until, by the end of the 3rd century AD, hardly any silver was left.]] | ] in 64 AD, the Romans continuously debased their silver coins until, by the end of the 3rd century AD, hardly any silver was left.]] | ||
| A predecessor of the ''denarius'' was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the ],<ref>A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, William Smith, D.C.l., LL, D., John Murray, London 1875, pp. 393, 394.</ref> with an average weight of 6.81 ]s, or {{frac|1|48}} of a ]. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the ''denarius'' was a Greek-styled silver coin of ''didrachm'' weight, which was struck in ] and other Greek cities in southern Italy.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage|last=Metcalf|first=William E.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-937218-8|location=New York|pages=300}}</ref> These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or pay soldiers. | A predecessor of the ''denarius'' was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the ],<ref>A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, William Smith, D.C.l., LL, D., John Murray, London 1875, pp. 393, 394.</ref> with an average weight of 6.81 ]s, or {{frac|1|48}} of a ]. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the ''denarius'' was a Greek-styled silver coin of ''didrachm'' weight, which was struck in ] and other Greek cities in southern Italy.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage|last=Metcalf|first=William E.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-937218-8|location=New York|pages=300}}</ref> These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or to pay soldiers. | ||
| The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC.<ref>The Numismatic Circular, Volume 8–9, Spink & Son, 1899–1900 Piccadilly West, London.</ref> Classical historians have sometimes called these coins "heavy ''denarii''", but they are classified by modern numismatists as ], a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the '']'', or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or '']'' which was used as a reverse type for some early ''denarii'', was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.<ref>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. Oxford University Press, New York 1994.</ref><ref>As the Romans Did, Jo-Ann Shelton. Oxford University Press, New York 1998</ref><ref>Plutarch's Lives, Vol 2, John Langhorne, DD, William Langhorne, AM, London 1813.</ref> | The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC.<ref>The Numismatic Circular, Volume 8–9, Spink & Son, 1899–1900 Piccadilly West, London.</ref> Classical historians have sometimes called these coins "heavy ''denarii''", but they are classified by modern numismatists as ], a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the '']'', or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or '']'' which was used as a reverse type for some early ''denarii'', was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.<ref>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. Oxford University Press, New York 1994.</ref><ref>As the Romans Did, Jo-Ann Shelton. Oxford University Press, New York 1998</ref><ref>Plutarch's Lives, Vol 2, John Langhorne, DD, William Langhorne, AM, London 1813.</ref> | ||
| Line 19: | Line 19: | ||
| Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the ''denarius'' alongside a short-lived denomination called the '']''. The ''denarius'' contained an average 4.5 grams, or {{frac|1|72}} of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten ''asses'', hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the ] and the early Empire.<ref>The New Deal in Old Rome, HJ Haskell, Alfred K Knoff New York, 1939.</ref> | Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the ''denarius'' alongside a short-lived denomination called the '']''. The ''denarius'' contained an average 4.5 grams, or {{frac|1|72}} of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten ''asses'', hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the ] and the early Empire.<ref>The New Deal in Old Rome, HJ Haskell, Alfred K Knoff New York, 1939.</ref> | ||
| The ''denarius'' began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of ] (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of {{frac|1|84}} of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of ] (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to {{frac|1|96}} of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.<ref>Ancient coin collection 3Wayne G Sayles. pp. 21–22.</ref> | The ''denarius'' began to undergo slow ] toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of ] (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of {{frac|1|84}} of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of ] (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to {{frac|1|96}} of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.<ref>Ancient coin collection 3Wayne G Sayles. pp. 21–22.</ref> | ||
| The value at its introduction was 10 '']'', giving the ''denarius'' its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 ''asses'', to reflect the decrease in weight of the '']''. The ''denarius'' continued to be the main coin of the ] until it was replaced by the ] in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under ] between 270 and 275 AD, and in the first years of the reign of ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Melville-Jones |first=John R |chapter=Denarius |title=A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins |year=1990 |publisher=Seaby |isbn=1-85264-026-X }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/aurelian/t.html |title=Aurelian, Roman Imperial Coinage reference, Thumbnail Index |publisher=Wildwinds.com |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-date=20 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520123526/http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/aurelian/t.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/sear/s3272.html |title=Aurelian Æ Denarius. Rome mint. IMP AVRELIANVS AVG, laureate, draped & cuirassed bust right |publisher=Wildwinds.com |access-date=24 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612105049/http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/sear/s3272.html |archive-date=12 June 2006 }}</ref> | The value at its introduction was 10 '']'', giving the ''denarius'' its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 ''asses'', to reflect the decrease in weight of the '']''. The ''denarius'' continued to be the main coin of the ] until it was replaced by the ] in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under ] between 270 and 275 AD, and in the first years of the reign of ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Melville-Jones |first=John R |chapter=Denarius |title=A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins |year=1990 |publisher=Seaby |isbn=1-85264-026-X }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/aurelian/t.html |title=Aurelian, Roman Imperial Coinage reference, Thumbnail Index |publisher=Wildwinds.com |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-date=20 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520123526/http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/aurelian/t.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/sear/s3272.html |title=Aurelian Æ Denarius. Rome mint. IMP AVRELIANVS AVG, laureate, draped & cuirassed bust right |publisher=Wildwinds.com |access-date=24 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612105049/http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/sear/s3272.html |archive-date=12 June 2006 }}</ref> | ||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Debasement and evolution== | ==Debasement and evolution== | ||
| {| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| ⚫ | ! width=50|Year !! Event !! Weight !! width=65|Purity !! Notes<ref name=Harl>{{cite book|author=Kenneth W. Harl|title=Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&pg=PA94|date=12 July 1996|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5291-6|pages=94–5|access-date=9 June 2019|archive-date=4 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904145057/https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&pg=PA94|url-status=live}}.</ref> | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| ⚫ | | 267 BC || Predecessor || 6.81 g || ? || {{frac|1|48}} pound. Equals 10 ''assēs'', giving the ''denarius'' its name, which translates as "containing ten". The original copper coinage was weight-based, and was related to the Roman pound, the ''libra'', which was about 325 g. The basic copper coin, the ''as'', was to weigh 1 Roman pound. This was a large cast coin, and subdivisions of the ''as'' were used. The "pound" (''libra'', etc.) continued to be used as a currency unit, and survives e.g. in the British monetary system, which still uses the pound, abbreviated as £. | ||
| ⚫ | ! Year !! Event !! Weight !! Purity !! |
||
| |- | |||
| ⚫ | | 267 BC || Predecessor || 6.81 g || ? || {{frac|1|48}} pound. Equals 10 '' |
||
| |- | |- | ||
| | 211 BC || Introduction || 4.55 g || 95–98% || {{frac|1|72}} pound. ''Denarius'' first struck. According to Pliny, it was established that the ''denarius'' should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the ''quinarius'' for five pounds, and the ''sestertius'' for two-and-a-half. But when the ''as'' was reduced in weight to one ounce, the ''denarius'' became equivalent to 16 '' |
| 211 BC || Introduction || 4.55 g || 95–98% || {{frac|1|72}} pound. ''Denarius'' first struck. According to Pliny, it was established that the ''denarius'' should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the ''quinarius'' for five pounds, and the ''sestertius'' for two-and-a-half. But when the ''as'' was reduced in weight to one ounce, the ''denarius'' became equivalent to 16 ''assēs'', the ''quinarius'' to eight, and the ''sestertius'' to four; although they retained their original names. It also appears, from Pliny and other writers, that the ancient ''libra'' was equivalent to 84 ''denarii''. | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| Line 36: | Line 37: | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| | 141 BC || Debasement || 3.9 g || 95–98% || {{Frac|1|84}} pound. Retariffed to equal 16 '' |
| 141 BC || Debasement || 3.9 g || 95–98% || {{Frac|1|84}} pound. Retariffed to equal 16 ''assēs'' due to the decrease in weight of the ''as''. | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| Line 58: | Line 59: | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| | 274 || Double ''Denarius'' || 3.41 g || 5% || In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293. Aurelian struck a radiate ''aurelianianus'' of increased weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational{{clarify|date=July 2018}} ''denarii'' (sometimes called "common ''denarii''" or "''denarii communes''" by modern writers, although this phrase does not appear in any ancient text). The coin carried on the reverse the numerals XXI, or in Greek κα (both meaning 21 or 20:1). Some scholars believe that this shows that the coin was equal to 20 ''sestertii''{{clarify|date=July 2018}} (or 5 ''denarii''), but it is more likely that it was intended to guarantee that it contained {{frac|1|20}} or 5% of silver, and was thus slightly better than many of the coins in circulation. The ''aureus'' (minted at 50 or 60 to the Roman pound) was exchanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 ''denarii'', equivalent to 120 to 200 ''aurelianiani''. Rare fractions of billion{{clarify|date=July 2018}} ''denarii'', and of bronze ''sestertii'' and '' |
| 274 || Double ''Denarius'' || 3.41 g || 5% || In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293. Aurelian struck a radiate ''aurelianianus'' of increased weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational{{clarify|date=July 2018}} ''denarii'' (sometimes called "common ''denarii''" or "''denarii communes''" by modern writers, although this phrase does not appear in any ancient text). The coin carried on the reverse the numerals XXI, or in Greek κα (both meaning 21 or 20:1). Some scholars believe that this shows that the coin was equal to 20 ''sestertii''{{clarify|date=July 2018}} (or 5 ''denarii''), but it is more likely that it was intended to guarantee that it contained {{frac|1|20}} or 5% of silver, and was thus slightly better than many of the coins in circulation. The ''aureus'' (minted at 50 or 60 to the Roman pound) was exchanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 ''denarii'', equivalent to 120 to 200 ''aurelianiani''. Rare fractions of billion{{clarify|date=July 2018}} ''denarii'', and of bronze ''sestertii'' and ''assēs'', were also coined. At the same time, Aurelian reorganized the provincial mint at Alexandria, and he minted an improved Alexandrine ''tetradrachmon'' that might{{clarify|date=July 2018}} have been tariffed at par with the ''aurelianianus''. | ||
| The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the ''aurelianianus'' and halved its tariffing{{clarify|date=July 2018}} to 2.5 d.c. (hence{{clarify|date=July 2018}} coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the ''aurelianianus'' to the standard and tariffing{{clarify|date=July 2018}} of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293. | The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the ''aurelianianus'' and halved its tariffing{{clarify|date=July 2018}} to 2.5 d.c. (hence{{clarify|date=July 2018}} coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the ''aurelianianus'' to the standard and tariffing{{clarify|date=July 2018}} of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293. | ||
| Line 69: | Line 70: | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| | 790 || Penny || 1. |
| 790 || Penny || 1.76 g || 95–96% || Charlemagne new penny with smaller diameter but greater weight. Average weight of 1.7 g, but ideal theoretical{{clarify|date=July 2018}} mass of 1.76 g. Purity is from 95% to 96%. | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| | {{circa|1527}} || Penny||1. |
| {{circa|1527}} || Penny||1.58 g|| 99% || Tower pound of 5400 grains abolished and replaced by the Troy pound of 5760 grains. | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| Line 89: | Line 90: | ||
| | header = Marco Sergio Silo: 116–115 BC | | header = Marco Sergio Silo: 116–115 BC | ||
| | hbkg = #abcdef | | hbkg = #abcdef | ||
| | image =File:Sergia 1 54083.jpg | | image = File:Sergia 1 54083.jpg | ||
| | caption_left = Helmeted head of ] | | caption_left = Helmeted head of ] | ||
| | caption_right = Galloping ] holding a sword and a barbarian's head | | caption_right = Galloping ] holding a sword and a barbarian's head | ||
| Line 103: | Line 104: | ||
| ] ({{circa|83–82 BC}})]] | ] ({{circa|83–82 BC}})]] | ||
| 1 ] '']'' = 2 gold '']'' = 25 ] ''denarii'' = 50 silver ''quinarii'' = 100 ] '']'' = 200 bronze ] = 400 ] '']'' = 800 copper '']'' = 1,600 copper '']''{{When|date=July 2019}} | 1 ] '']'' = 2 gold '']'' = 25 ] ''denarii'' = 50 silver ''quinarii'' = 100 ] '']'' = 200 bronze ] = 400 ] '']'' = 800 copper '']ses'' = 1,600 copper '']''{{When|date=July 2019}} | ||
| It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 ''denarii'' per year (0.3 ''denarii'' per day). Under ], this was doubled to 225 ''denarii''/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adkins |first1=Lesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=Under+Julius+Caesar%2C+legionary+pay+doubled+to+225+denarii%2Fyear%2C+with+soldiers+having+to+pay+for+their+own+food+and+arms&pg=PA79 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2=Adkins |first2=Roy A. |last3=Adkins |first3=Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. |date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7482-2 |language=en |access-date=2022-04-14 |archive-date=2023-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904145101/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=Under+Julius+Caesar%2C+legionary+pay+doubled+to+225+denarii%2Fyear%2C+with+soldiers+having+to+pay+for+their+own+food+and+arms&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> while in the reign of Augustus a ] received at least 3,750 ''denarii'' per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 ''denarii''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adkins |first1=Lesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2=Adkins |first2=Roy A. |last3=Adkins |first3=Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. |date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7482-2 |pages=79 |language=en |access-date=2022-03-01 |archive-date=2023-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904145157/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC |url-status=live }}</ref> | It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 ''denarii'' per year (0.3 ''denarii'' per day). Under ], this was doubled to 225 ''denarii''/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adkins |first1=Lesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=Under+Julius+Caesar%2C+legionary+pay+doubled+to+225+denarii%2Fyear%2C+with+soldiers+having+to+pay+for+their+own+food+and+arms&pg=PA79 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2=Adkins |first2=Roy A. |last3=Adkins |first3=Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. |date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7482-2 |language=en |access-date=2022-04-14 |archive-date=2023-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904145101/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=Under+Julius+Caesar%2C+legionary+pay+doubled+to+225+denarii%2Fyear%2C+with+soldiers+having+to+pay+for+their+own+food+and+arms&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> while in the reign of Augustus a ] received at least 3,750 ''denarii'' per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 ''denarii''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adkins |first1=Lesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2=Adkins |first2=Roy A. |last3=Adkins |first3=Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. |date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7482-2 |pages=79 |language=en |access-date=2022-03-01 |archive-date=2023-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904145157/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| By the late ] and early ] ({{circa|27 BC}}), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 ''denarius''/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html |title = Buying Power of Ancient Coins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210071801/http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html |archive-date=10 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a {{frac|1|10}} ] ''denarius'' had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=XE: Convert XAG/USD. Silver to United States Dollar|url=https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=XAG&To=USD|access-date=2021-01-28|website= |
By the late ] and early ] ({{circa|27 BC}}), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 ''denarius''/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html |title = Buying Power of Ancient Coins |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210071801/http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html |archive-date=10 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a {{frac|1|10}} ] ''denarius'' had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=XE: Convert XAG/USD. Silver to United States Dollar|url=https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=XAG&To=USD|access-date=2021-01-28|website=xe.com|archive-date=2023-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904145104/https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=XAG&To=USD|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| At the height of the ] a ] ( |
At the height of the ] a '']'' (546 ml or about 2{{frac|1|4}} American cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one '']'' ({{frac|8}} of a ''denarius''); after Diocletian's ] was issued in 301 AD, the same item cost 8 debased common ''denarii'' – 6300% inflation. | ||
| Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the ''denarius''. Under the Roman Empire (after ]) the ''denarius'' contained approximately 50 ], 3.24 grams, or {{frac|1|10}} |
Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the ''denarius''. Under the Roman Empire (after ]) the ''denarius'' contained approximately 50 ], 3.24 grams, or 0.105 ozt (about {{frac|1|10}} ]). The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the ''denarius'' fell to under 60% purity by 200 AD, and plummeted to 5% purity by 300 AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |title=Roman Currency of the Principate |access-date=2015-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128174101/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm |archive-date=2015-11-28 }}</ref> By the reign of ], the ''antoninianus'' was a copper coin with a thin silver wash.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Katsari|first=Constantina|title=The Concept of Inflation in the Roman Empire|journal=Economic History|year=2002|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpeh/0204001.html|access-date=2006-12-06|archive-date=2018-07-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710164700/https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpeh/0204001.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| ==Influence==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | ==Influence==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | ||
| In the final years of the 1st century BC ], a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down ''denarii''.<ref name=jersey29>{{cite book |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |publisher=Shire Publications |pages=29–30 |isbn=0-7478-0325-0}}</ref> The coins of ], issued around ] around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various ''denarii'', such as those of ] and ].<ref name=Beanmeth341>{{cite thesis |last=Bean|first=Simon C|date=1994 |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Eppilus |pages=341–347|publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910214929/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-10 |url-status=live |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="jersey29"/> | In the final years of the 1st century BC ], a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down ''denarii''.<ref name=jersey29>{{cite book |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |publisher=Shire Publications |pages=29–30 |isbn=0-7478-0325-0}}</ref> The coins of ], issued around ] around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various ''denarii'', such as those of ] and ].<ref name=Beanmeth341>{{cite thesis |last=Bean|first=Simon C|date=1994 |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Eppilus |pages=341–347|publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910214929/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-10 |url-status=live |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="jersey29"/> | ||
| Even after the ''denarius'' was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The ]s who ] of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own ]. The lasting legacy of the ''denarius'' can be seen in the use of "d" as the abbreviation for the British ] until 1971.<ref>English Coinage 600–1900 by C.H.V. Sutherland 1973 {{ISBN|0-7134-0731-X}} p.10</ref> It also survived in ] as the name of a coin, the ]. The ''denarius'' also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the '']'' used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former ], ] and former ] was '']'', and it is still used in present-day ]. The ] currency '']'' is also derived from the Roman denarius. The ] word ''denaro'', the ] word ''dinero'', the ] word ''dinheiro'', and the ] word ''{{lang|sl|denar}}'', all meaning money, are also derived from Latin ''denarius''. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as ], with "d" referring to ''denarius'' and standing for penny. | Even after the ''denarius'' was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The ]s who ] of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own ]. The lasting legacy of the ''denarius'' can be seen in the use of "d" as the abbreviation for the British ] until 1971.<ref>English Coinage 600–1900 by C.H.V. Sutherland 1973 {{ISBN|0-7134-0731-X}} p.10</ref> It also survived in ] as the name of a coin, the ]. The ''denarius'' also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the '']'' used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former ], ] and former ] was '']'', and it is still used in present-day ]. The ] currency '']'' is also derived from the Roman ''denarius''. The ] word ''denaro'', the ] word ''dinero'', the ] word ''dinheiro'', and the ] word ''{{lang|sl|denar}}'', all meaning money, are also derived from Latin ''denarius''. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as ], with "d" referring to ''denarius'' and standing for penny. | ||
| ==Use in the Bible== | ==Use in the Bible== | ||
| Line 143: | Line 144: | ||
| ==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| {{Commons |
{{Commons}} | ||
| * | * | ||
| * | * (archived) | ||
| * | *. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930152912/http://coins.about.com/od/coinsglossary/g/denarius_define.htm |date=2011-09-30 }}. | ||
| *{{cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=JR|last2=Ponting|first2=M|last3=Butcher|first3=K|title=Mints not Mines: a macroscale investigation of Roman silver coinage|journal=Internet Archaeology|date=2023|issue=61|doi=10.11141/ia.61.10|doi-access=free|url=http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue61/10/}} | *{{cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=JR|last2=Ponting|first2=M|last3=Butcher|first3=K|title=Mints not Mines: a macroscale investigation of Roman silver coinage|journal=Internet Archaeology|date=2023|issue=61|doi=10.11141/ia.61.10|doi-access=free|url=http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue61/10/}} | ||
| {{Roman coinage}} | {{Roman coinage}} | ||
| Line 156: | Line 157: | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Latest revision as of 20:55, 22 December 2024
Ancient Roman coin | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Denarius" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Second row (left to right): 199 AD Caracalla, 200 AD Julia Domna, 219 AD Elagabalus, 236 AD Maximinus Thrax
The denarius (Latin: [deːˈnaːriʊs]; pl.: dēnāriī, Latin: [deːˈnaːriiː]) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War c. 211 BC to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the Tetrarchy (293–313).
The word dēnārius is derived from the Latin dēnī "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 assēs. The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (denaro), Slovene (denar), Portuguese (dinheiro), and Spanish (dinero). Its name also survives in the dinar currency.
Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), a numeral monogram that appeared on the obverse in the Republican period, denoting the 10 asses ("X") to 1 denarius ("I") conversion rate. However it can also be represented as X̶ (capital letter X with combining long stroke overlay).
History
A predecessor of the denarius was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War, with an average weight of 6.81 grams, or 1⁄48 of a Roman pound. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin of didrachm weight, which was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy. These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or to pay soldiers.
The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC. Classical historians have sometimes called these coins "heavy denarii", but they are classified by modern numismatists as quadrigati, a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the quadriga, or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or biga which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii, was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.
Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or 1⁄72 of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses, hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman Republic and the early Empire.
The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of 1⁄84 of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to 1⁄96 of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.
The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between 270 and 275 AD, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian.
Debasement and evolution
| Year | Event | Weight | Purity | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 267 BC | Predecessor | 6.81 g | ? | 1⁄48 pound. Equals 10 assēs, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". The original copper coinage was weight-based, and was related to the Roman pound, the libra, which was about 325 g. The basic copper coin, the as, was to weigh 1 Roman pound. This was a large cast coin, and subdivisions of the as were used. The "pound" (libra, etc.) continued to be used as a currency unit, and survives e.g. in the British monetary system, which still uses the pound, abbreviated as £. |
| 211 BC | Introduction | 4.55 g | 95–98% | 1⁄72 pound. Denarius first struck. According to Pliny, it was established that the denarius should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the quinarius for five pounds, and the sestertius for two-and-a-half. But when the as was reduced in weight to one ounce, the denarius became equivalent to 16 assēs, the quinarius to eight, and the sestertius to four; although they retained their original names. It also appears, from Pliny and other writers, that the ancient libra was equivalent to 84 denarii. |
| 200 BC | Debasement | 3.9 g | 95–98% | 1⁄84 pound. |
| 141 BC | Debasement | 3.9 g | 95–98% | 1⁄84 pound. Retariffed to equal 16 assēs due to the decrease in weight of the as. |
| 44 BC | Debasement | 3.9 g | 95–98% | Death of Julius Caesar, who set the denarius at 3.9 g. Legionary (professional soldier) pay was doubled to 225 denarii per year. |
| 14–37 AD | 3.9 g | 97.5–98% | Tiberius slightly improved the fineness as he gathered his infamous hoard of 675 million denarii. | |
| 64–68 | Debasement | 3.41 g | 93.5% | 1⁄96 pound. This more closely matched the Greek drachma. In 64 AD, Nero reduced the standard of the aureus to 45 to the Roman pound (7.2 g) and of the denarius to 96 to the Roman pound (3.30 g). He also lowered the denarius to 94.5% fine. Successive emperors lowered the fineness of the denarius; in 180 Commodus reduced its weight by one-eighth to 108 to the pound. |
| 85–107 | Debasement | 3.41 g | 93.5% | Reduction in silver content under Domitian |
| 148–161 | Debasement | 3.41 g | 83.5% | |
| 193–235 | Debasement | 3.41 g | 83.5% | Several emperors (193–235) steadily debased the denarius from a standard of 78.5% to 50% fine. In 212 Caracalla reduced the weight of the aureus from 45 to 50 to the Roman pound. They also coined the aes from a bronze alloy with a heavy lead admixture, and discontinued fractional denominations below the as. In 215 Caracalla introduced the antoninianus (5.1 g; 52% fine), a double denarius, containing 80% of the silver of two denarii. The coin invariably carried the radiate imperial portrait. Elagabalus demonetized the coin in 219, but the senatorial emperors Pupienus and Balbinus in 238 revived the antoninianus as the principal silver denomination which successive emperors reduced to a less intrinsically valuable billon coin (2.60 g; 2% fine). |
| 241 | Debasement | 3.41 g | 48% | |
| 274 | Double Denarius | 3.41 g | 5% | In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293. Aurelian struck a radiate aurelianianus of increased weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational denarii (sometimes called "common denarii" or "denarii communes" by modern writers, although this phrase does not appear in any ancient text). The coin carried on the reverse the numerals XXI, or in Greek κα (both meaning 21 or 20:1). Some scholars believe that this shows that the coin was equal to 20 sestertii (or 5 denarii), but it is more likely that it was intended to guarantee that it contained 1⁄20 or 5% of silver, and was thus slightly better than many of the coins in circulation. The aureus (minted at 50 or 60 to the Roman pound) was exchanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 denarii, equivalent to 120 to 200 aurelianiani. Rare fractions of billion denarii, and of bronze sestertii and assēs, were also coined. At the same time, Aurelian reorganized the provincial mint at Alexandria, and he minted an improved Alexandrine tetradrachmon that might have been tariffed at par with the aurelianianus.
The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the aurelianianus and halved its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. (hence coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the aurelianianus to the standard and tariffing of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293. |
| 755 | Novus denarius (new penny) | Pepin the Short (r. 751–768), the first king of the Carolingian dynasty and father of Charlemagne, minted the novus denarius ("new penny"): 240 pennies minted from one Carolingian pound. So a single coin contained 21 grains of silver. Around 755, Pepin's Carolingian Reform established the European monetary system, which can be expressed as: 1 pound = 20 shillings = 240 pennies. Originally the pound was a weight of silver rather than a coin, and from a pound of pure silver 240 pennies were struck. The Carolingian Reform restored the silver content of the penny that was already in circulation and was the direct descendant of the Roman denarius. The shilling was equivalent to the solidus, the money of account that prevailed in Europe before the Carolingian Reform; it originated from the Byzantine gold coin that was the foundation of the international monetary system for more than 500 years. Debts contracted before the Carolingian Reform were defined in solidi. For three centuries following the Carolingian Reform, the only coin minted in Europe was the silver penny. Shillings and pounds were units of account used for convenience to express large numbers of pence, not actual coins. The Carolingian Reform also reduced the number of mints, strengthened royal authority over the mints, and provided for uniform design of coins. All coins bore the ruler's name, initial, or title, signifying royal sanction of the quality of the coins. Charlemagne spread the Carolingian system throughout Western Europe. The Italian lira and the French livre were derived from the Latin word for pound. Until the French Revolution, the unit of account in France was the livre, which equalled 20 sols or sous, each of which in turn equalled 12 deniers. During the Revolution the franc replaced the livre, and Napoleon's conquest spread the franc to Switzerland and Belgium. The Italian unit of account remained the lira, and in Britain the pound-shilling-penny relationship survived until 1971. Even in England the pennies were eventually debased, leaving 240 pennies representing substantially less than a pound of silver, and the pound as a monetary unit became divorced from a pound weight of silver. After the breakup of the Carolingian Empire pennies debased much faster, particularly in Mediterranean Europe, and in 1172 Genoa began minting a silver coin equal to four pennies. Rome, Florence, and Venice followed with coins of denominations greater than a penny, and late in the 12th century Venice minted a silver coin equal to 24 pennies. By the mid-13th century Florence and Genoa were minting gold coins, effectively ending the reign of the silver penny (denier, denarius) as the only circulating coin in Europe. | ||
| 785 | Penny | Offa, king of Mercia, minted and introduced to England a penny of 22.5 grains of silver. The coin's designated value, however, was that of 24 troy grains of silver (one pennyweight, or 1⁄240 of a troy pound, or about 1.56 grams), with the difference being a premium attached by virtue of the minting into coins (seigniorage). The penny led to the term "penny weight". 240 actual pennies (22.5 grains; minus the 1.5 grain for the seigniorage) weighed only 5,400 troy grains, known as a Saxon pound and later known as the tower pound, a unit used only by mints. The tower pound was abolished in the 16th century. However, 240 pennyweights (24 grains) made one troy pound of silver in weight, and the monetary value of 240 pennies also became known as a "pound". The silver penny remained the primary unit of coinage for about 500 years. | ||
| 790 | Penny | 1.76 g | 95–96% | Charlemagne new penny with smaller diameter but greater weight. Average weight of 1.7 g, but ideal theoretical mass of 1.76 g. Purity is from 95% to 96%. |
| c. 1527 | Penny | 1.58 g | 99% | Tower pound of 5400 grains abolished and replaced by the Troy pound of 5760 grains. |
| 1158 | Penny | 92.5% | The purity of 92.5% silver (i.e. sterling silver) was instituted by Henry II in 1158 with the "Tealby Penny" — a hammered coin. | |
| 1500s | Penny | By the 16th century it contained about a third the silver content of a Troy pennyweight of 24 grains. | ||
| 1915 | Penny | The penny, now struck in bronze, was worth around one-sixth of its value during the Middle Ages. British government sources suggest that there has been an 8700% price inflation since 1914, or an average of 4.2% annually. |
Value, comparisons and silver content
| Marco Sergio Silo: 116–115 BC | |
|---|---|
| |
| Helmeted head of Roma | Galloping Equites holding a sword and a barbarian's head |
| Denarius: Sergio 1 | |
1 gold aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver quinarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper semisses = 1,600 copper quadrantes
It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 denarii per day). Under Julius Caesar, this was doubled to 225 denarii/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms, while in the reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 denarii per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 denarii.
By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (c. 27 BC), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 denarius/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms. Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a 1⁄10 troy ounce denarius had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.
At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546 ml or about 21⁄4 American cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one dupondius (1⁄8 of a denarius); after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices was issued in 301 AD, the same item cost 8 debased common denarii – 6300% inflation.
Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the denarius. Under the Roman Empire (after Nero) the denarius contained approximately 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or 0.105 ozt (about 1⁄10 troy ounce). The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the denarius fell to under 60% purity by 200 AD, and plummeted to 5% purity by 300 AD. By the reign of Gallienus, the antoninianus was a copper coin with a thin silver wash.
Influence
In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus, a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down denarii. The coins of Eppillus, issued around Calleva Atrebatum around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various denarii, such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius.
Even after the denarius was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The Arabs who conquered large parts of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own gold dinar. The lasting legacy of the denarius can be seen in the use of "d" as the abbreviation for the British penny until 1971. It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the dinar used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was dinar, and it is still used in present-day Serbia. The Macedonian currency denar is also derived from the Roman denarius. The Italian word denaro, the Spanish word dinero, the Portuguese word dinheiro, and the Slovene word denar, all meaning money, are also derived from Latin denarius. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as lsd, with "d" referring to denarius and standing for penny.
Use in the Bible
In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2, John 12:5). In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix ("quart") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius. Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times. Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation. Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6, the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages.
The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant & in Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as "tribute penny". It is commonly thought to be a denarius with the head of Tiberius.
See also
- Denarius of L. Censorinus – for the detailed description of a specific Roman denarius
- Dupondius
- French denier
- Gold Dinar
- Ides of March Coin
- Macedonian denar
- Sestertius
- Solidus (coin)
- Tribute penny
- Pay (Roman army)
Notes
- Its value was increased to 16 assēs in the middle of the 2nd century BC.
References
- Crawford, Michael H. (1974). Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press, 2 Volumes. ISBN 0-521-07492-4
- David. L. Vagi. Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 BC–AD 480. Vol. II. Sydney, Ohio: Coin World.
- A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, William Smith, D.C.l., LL, D., John Murray, London 1875, pp. 393, 394.
- Metcalf, William E. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-19-937218-8.
- The Numismatic Circular, Volume 8–9, Spink & Son, 1899–1900 Piccadilly West, London.
- Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. Oxford University Press, New York 1994.
- As the Romans Did, Jo-Ann Shelton. Oxford University Press, New York 1998
- Plutarch's Lives, Vol 2, John Langhorne, DD, William Langhorne, AM, London 1813.
- The New Deal in Old Rome, HJ Haskell, Alfred K Knoff New York, 1939.
- Ancient coin collection 3Wayne G Sayles. pp. 21–22.
- Melville-Jones, John R (1990). "Denarius". A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins. Seaby. ISBN 1-85264-026-X.
- "Aurelian, Roman Imperial Coinage reference, Thumbnail Index". Wildwinds.com. Archived from the original on 20 May 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2006.
- "Aurelian Æ Denarius. Rome mint. IMP AVRELIANVS AVG, laureate, draped & cuirassed bust right". Wildwinds.com. Archived from the original on 12 June 2006. Retrieved 24 August 2006.
- Kenneth W. Harl (12 July 1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. JHU Press. pp. 94–5. ISBN 978-0-8018-5291-6. Archived from the original on 4 September 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2019..
- Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A.; Adkins, Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. (2014-05-14). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7482-2. Archived from the original on 2023-09-04. Retrieved 2022-04-14.
- Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A.; Adkins, Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. (2014-05-14). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Infobase Publishing. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-8160-7482-2. Archived from the original on 2023-09-04. Retrieved 2022-03-01.
- "Buying Power of Ancient Coins". Archived from the original on 10 February 2013.
- "XE: Convert XAG/USD. Silver to United States Dollar". xe.com. Archived from the original on 2023-09-04. Retrieved 2021-01-28.
- "Roman Currency of the Principate". Archived from the original on 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2015-12-01.
- Katsari, Constantina (2002). "The Concept of Inflation in the Roman Empire". Economic History. Archived from the original on 2018-07-10. Retrieved 2006-12-06.
- ^ De Jersey, Philip (1996). Celtic Coinage in Britain. Shire Publications. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0-7478-0325-0.
- Bean, Simon C (1994). "The coinage of Eppilus" (PDF). The coinage of Atrebates and Regni (Ph.D.). University of Nottingham. pp. 341–347. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-09-10. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
- English Coinage 600–1900 by C.H.V. Sutherland 1973 ISBN 0-7134-0731-X p.10
- "Matthew 20:2 NIV – He agreed to pay them a denarius". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
- "Jn 12:5; NIV – "Why wasn't this perfume sold ..." Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 2023-09-04. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
- Revelation 6:6
- The New International Commentary on the New Testament, "The Book of Revelation", p. 155)
External links
- Denarius
- From Octavian to Augustus: Images Illustrating His Rise to Power (archived)
- Denarius – A Roman soldier's daily pay. Archived 2011-09-30 at the Wayback Machine.
- Wood, JR; Ponting, M; Butcher, K (2023). "Mints not Mines: a macroscale investigation of Roman silver coinage". Internet Archaeology (61). doi:10.11141/ia.61.10.
| Coinage of Ancient Rome | |
|---|---|
| Proto-currency |
|
| Republican era | |
| Early Empire |
|
| Diocletian era | |
| Late Empire |
|
| Notable series | |
| Currencies named dinar or similar | |
|---|---|
| Circulating | |
| Defunct | |
| As subunit | |
| See also |
|