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{{Short description|Country in North Africa}} | |||
{{about|the country}} | |||
{{pp- |
{{Other uses|Libya (disambiguation)}}{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} | ||
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} | |||
{{Infobox country | {{Infobox country | ||
| conventional_long_name = State of Libya{{ref label|unnote|a|}} | |||
|native_name = ليبيا<br><small>''Lībiyā''</small> {{Spaces|2}}<small>{{Ar icon}}</small> | |||
| |
| common_name = Libya | ||
| native_name = {{Unbulleted list|{{native name|ar|دولة ليبيا|italics=off}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{transliteration|ar| Dawlat Lībiyā}}}}}} | |||
|common_name = Libya | |||
|image_flag = | | image_flag = Flag of Libya.svg | ||
|image_coat = | | image_coat = Seal of the Government of National Unity (Libya).svg | ||
| |
| symbol = | ||
| symbol_type = ] | |||
|national_motto = | |||
| national_anthem = {{lang|ar|ليبيا، ليبيا، ليبيا}}<br />"]"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;" class="center">]</div> | |||
|national_anthem = | |||
| image_map = Libya (centered orthographic projection).svg | |||
|official_languages = ]{{Ref label|arabicnote|b|}} | |||
| |
| map_width = 220px | ||
| map_caption = Location of Libya (dark green) in northern ] | |||
|capital = ]{{Ref label|tripolinote|a|}} | |||
| image_map2 = | |||
|latd=32 |latm=52 |lats=15 |latNS=N |longd=13 |longm=11 |longs=5|longEW=E | |||
| |
| map2_width = 250px | ||
| capital = ]<ref name="CIA">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Libya |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya/ |encyclopedia=] |publisher=]|access-date=19 August 2024|date=7 August 2024|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109235257/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya|url-status=live}}</ref><!--"Libya is a recent construction, cemented into a single state by Italian occupiers in the 1930s. Tensions between the ] of Tripolitania in the west, Cyrenaica in the east, and Fezzan to the south are ever-present. To those is added Tripoli now being under the control of Libyan Dawn, with the newly elected government decamping to the city of Tobruk in Cyrenaica. Some in Cyrenaica think separation is the answer, noting that the region contains two-thirds of the oil of Libya, which holds the largest reserves in Africa. The government itself is determined to reconnect with the rest of the country, but it lacks the armed forces to take back Tripoli, making de-facto partition the present reality." --- even through the current NATO-backed government is in Tobruk, a partition may lead to new countries with the aforementioned roman names, so leave this as Tripoli--> | |||
|government_type = ]<br>(See below) | |||
<br /> {{Coord|32|52|N|13|11|E|type:city}} | |||
|area_rank = 17th | |||
| largest_city = capital | |||
|area_magnitude = 1 E12 | |||
| official_languages = ]{{ref label|arabicnote|b|}} | |||
|area_km2 = 1,759,541 | |||
| languages_type = Local vernacular | |||
|area_sq_mi = 679,359<!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| languages = ] | |||
|percent_water = Negligible surface water, reservoirs of water underground. | |||
| languages2_type = | |||
|population_estimate = 6,420,000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal |url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 |version=2008 revision |format=PDF |publisher=United Nations |author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division |year=2009 |accessdate=2009-03-12}}</ref> | |||
| languages2 = | |||
|population_estimate_year = 2010 | |||
| |
| ethnic_groups = {{Tree list}} | ||
* 92% ] | |||
|population_census_year = 2006 | |||
* 5% ] | |||
|population_estimate_rank = 105th | |||
* 3% Others | |||
|population_density_km2 = 3.6 | |||
{{Tree list/end}} | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 9.4<!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{Cite book |last=Yakan |first=Mohamad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |title=Almanac of African Peoples and Nations |date=2017-11-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-28930-6 |pages=62 |language=en |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501042016/https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|population_density_rank = 218th | |||
| |
| ethnic_groups_year = 1999 | ||
| religion = {{Tree list}} | |||
|GDP_PPP = $90.571 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2003&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=33&pr1.y=4&c=672&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Libya |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=2011-04-18}}</ref> | |||
* 96.6% ] (]) | |||
|GDP_PPP_rank = 70th | |||
* 2.7% ] | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $13,804<ref name=imf2/> | |||
* 0.7% others | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 63rd | |||
{{Tree list/end}} | |||
|GDP_nominal = $74.232 billion<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |
| religion_year = 2020 | ||
| religion_ref = <ref name="CIA" /> | |||
|GDP_nominal_year = 2010 | |||
| demonym = ] | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $11,314<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| government_type = ] republic under a ] | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 50th | |||
| leader_title1 = ] of the ] | |||
|HDI_year = 2010 | |||
| leader_name1 = ] | |||
|HDI = {{increase}}0.755<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2010 |year=2010 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=2010-11-05}}</ref> | |||
| leader_title2 = ] | |||
|HDI_rank = 53rd | |||
| leader_name2 = ] | |||
|HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">high</span> | |||
| leader_title3 = ] | |||
|sovereignty_type = ] | |||
| leader_name3 = ]{{efn|Disputed with ], head of the ], which is recognized by the ] as the acting Prime Minister of Libya.}} | |||
|established_event1 = Relinquished by ] | |||
| leader_title4 = ] | |||
|established_date1 = 10 February 1947 | |||
| leader_name4 = ] | |||
|established_event2 = From ] & ] under ] | |||
| legislature = ] | |||
|established_date2 = 24 December 1951 | |||
| sovereignty_type = ] | |||
|established_date2 = <br />24 December 1951 | |||
| |
| sovereignty_note = from ] | ||
| established_event1 = Independence declared | |||
|currency_code = LYD | |||
| established_date1 = 10 February 1947 | |||
|country_code = ly | |||
| established_event2 = ] | |||
|time_zone = ] | |||
| |
| established_date2 = 24 December 1951 | ||
| established_event3 = ] | |||
|time_zone_DST = | |||
| established_date3 = 1 September 1969 | |||
|utc_offset_DST = | |||
| established_event4 = ] | |||
|drives_on = right | |||
| |
| established_date4 = 2 March 1977 | ||
| |
| established_event5 = ] | ||
| |
| established_date5 = 17 February 2011 | ||
| established_event6 = ] | |||
a. {{note|tripolinote}} Though both governments disputing Libya agree that Tripoli is the capital, the headquarters of the ] is ]. | |||
| established_date6 = 19 March 2011 | |||
b. {{note|arabicnote}} ] and other varieties are the ]s, while ] is the ] ]. | |||
| established_event7 = ] | |||
c. {{note|popnote}} Includes 350,000 foreigners | |||
| established_date7 = 23 October 2020 | |||
| area_km2 = 1,759,541 | |||
| area_rank = 16th | |||
| area_sq_mi = 679,359 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| percent_water = | |||
| population_estimate = 7,361,263<ref name="CIA" /> | |||
| population_estimate_year = 2024 | |||
| population_estimate_rank = 103rd | |||
| population_density_km2 = 4.184 | |||
| population_density_sq_mi = 10.836 | |||
<!--Do not remove per ]-->| population_density_rank = 218th | |||
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $183.39 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.LY"/> | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_PPP_rank = 79th | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $26,928<ref name="IMFWEO.LY"/> | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 68th | |||
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $48.22 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.LY">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/LBY |title=IMF DataMapper, 2024 Edition. (Libya) |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_nominal_rank = 93rd | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $6,987 <ref name="IMFWEO.LY"/> | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 93rd | |||
| Gini = <!--number only--> | |||
| Gini_year = | |||
| Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| Gini_ref = | |||
| Gini_rank = | |||
| HDI = 0.746 | |||
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | |||
| HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| HDI_rank = 92nd | |||
| currency = ] | |||
| currency_code = LYD | |||
| time_zone = ] | |||
| utc_offset = +2 | |||
| drives_on = right | |||
| calling_code = ] | |||
| cctld = ]<br />ليبيا. | |||
| footnote_a = {{note|unnote}} United Nations note concerning official name: "Following the adoption by the General Assembly of resolution 66/1, the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations formally notified the United Nations of a Declaration by the National Transitional Council of 3 August changing the official name of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to 'Libya' and changing Libya's national flag." | |||
| footnote_b = {{note|arabicnote}} The ] is simply identified as "]" (], article 1). | |||
| footnote_c = {{note|indepnote}} The UK and France held a ] over Libya through the ]. | |||
| today = | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Infobox country | |||
|native_name = <big>الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الإشتراكية العظمى</big><br><small>''Al-Jamāhīriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Lībiyyah aš-Šaʿbiyyah al-Ištirākiyyah al-ʿUẓmā'' {{Spaces|2}}{{Ar icon}}</small> | |||
|conventional_long_name = Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | |||
|common_name = Libya | |||
|image_flag = Flag of the Libyan Jamahiriya 1977.svg | |||
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Libya.svg | |||
|symbol_type = Coat of arms | |||
|national_motto = | |||
|national_anthem = ]<br />''God is great'' | |||
|image_map = | |||
|map_caption = | |||
|government_type = ] | |||
|capital = ] | |||
|leader_title1 = ] | |||
|leader_name1 = ] | |||
|leader_title2 = ] | |||
|leader_name2 = ] | |||
|leader_title3 = ] | |||
|leader_name3 = ] | |||
}} | |||
{{Infobox country | |||
|native_name = الجمهورية الليبية<br><small>''al-Jumhūriyya al-Lībiyya''{{Spaces|2}}{{Ar icon}}</small> | |||
|conventional_long_name = Libyan Republic | |||
|common_name = Libya | |||
|image_flag = Flag of Libya (1951).svg | |||
|image_coat = National Transitional Council logo.png | |||
|national_motto = | |||
|national_anthem = | |||
|image_map = | |||
|map_caption = | |||
|capital = ] <small>(de jure)</small><br>] <small>(de facto)</small> | |||
|government_type = ] | |||
|leader_title1 = ] | |||
|leader_name1 = ] | |||
|leader_title2 = ] | |||
|leader_name2 = ] | |||
}} | |||
'''Libya''' ({{lang-ar|ليبيا}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|Lībiyā}}'') is a country in the ] region of ]. Bordered by the ] to the north, Libya faces ] to the east, ] to the south east, ] and ] to the south, and ] and ] to the west. | |||
'''Libya''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Libya.ogg|ˈ|l|ɪ|b|i|ə}} {{respell|LIB|ee|ə}}; {{langx|ar|ليبيا|Lībiyā}}, {{IPA|ar|liː.bi.jaː|pron}}}} officially the '''State of Libya''',{{efn|{{langx|ar|دولة ليبيا|Dawlat Lībiyā}} <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/member-states/index.html#gotoL |title=Member States |publisher=United Nations |access-date=13 February 2021 |quote=On 22 December 2017, the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations formally notified the United Nations that the government is changing the official name of Libya to 'State of Libya.' |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629041240/https://www.un.org/en/member-states/index.html#gotoL |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-5000500.htm |title=Publications Office – Interinstitutional style guide – Annex A5 – List of countries, territories and currencies |publisher=Europa (web portal) |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805170859/http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-5000500.htm |archive-date=5 August 2013 }}</ref><ref name="CIA" />}} is a country in the ] region of ]. It borders the ] to the north, ] to ], ] to ], ] to ], ] to ], ] to ], and ] to ], as well as maritime borders with ], ] and ] to the north. Libya comprises three historical regions: ], ], and ]. With an area of almost {{convert|700,000|sqmi|e6km2|abbr=unit|order=flip}}, it is the fourth-largest country in ] and the ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf |title=Demographic Yearbook (3) Pop., Rate of Pop. Increase, Surface Area & Density |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040712/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Libya claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of ].<ref name="CIA" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Libya-Algeria |url=https://sovereignlimits.com/boundaries/algeria-libya-land |access-date=1 April 2024 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928171603/https://sovereignlimits.com/boundaries/algeria-libya-land |url-status=live }}</ref> The country's official religion is ], with 96.6% of the Libyan population being ].<ref name="CIA" /> The official language of Libya is ], with vernacular ] being spoken most widely. The majority of Libya's population is ].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IOKAwAAQBAJ&pg=RA6-PA144 |title=Britannica Student Encyclopaedia |date=2014-05-01 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. |isbn=978-1-62513-172-0 |language=en}}</ref> The largest city and capital, ], is located in northwestern Libya and contains over a million of Libya's seven million people.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/libya/demographics_profile.html |title=Libya Demographics Profile 2014 |website=Indexmundi.com |date=30 June 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084546/http://www.indexmundi.com/libya/demographics_profile.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> | |||
As a result of the ], there are currently two entities claiming to be the official government of Libya.<ref>{{cite news |title=Council says it's Libya's sole representative |author=Rolla Scolari |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/council-says-its-libyas-sole-representative |newspaper=The National |date=6 Mar 2011 |accessdate=2011-03-07}}</ref> The ]-based government of ] refers to the Libyan state as the '''Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya'''.<ref>Geographical Names, , ''Geographic.org''. Retrieved February 27, 2011</ref><ref>Geographical Names, , ''Geographic.org''. Retrieved February 27, 2011</ref> It controls most of the western half of the country. The ]-based ] refers to the Libyan state as the '''Libyan Republic'''.<ref name="Ntclibya.org">{{cite web|url=http://ntclibya.org/english/ |title=The Libyan Republic - The Interim Transitional National Council |publisher=Ntclibya.org |date=2011-03-05 |accessdate=2011-03-10}}</ref><ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news |title=Libyan rebels vow fight, even without no-fly zone |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/10/us-libya-east-council-idUSTRE7293W120110310 |newspaper= Reuters |date=10 Mar 2011 |accessdate=11 March 2011}}</ref> It is led by ] and controls most of the eastern half of the country. | |||
Libya has been inhabited by ] since the late ] as descendants from ] and ] cultures.<ref>J. Desanges, "The proto-Berbers", pp. 236–245, especially p. 237, in ''General History of Africa, vol. II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa'' (UNESCO 1990).</ref> In classical antiquity, the ]ns established city-states and trading posts in western Libya, while several ] were established in the East. Parts of Libya were variously ruled by ], ]ns, ], and ] before the entire region becoming a part of the ]. Libya was an ]. After the ], the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the ] until the 7th century when ] brought ] to the region. From then on, centuries of ] shifted the demographic scope of Libya in favour of ]. In the 16th century, the ] and the ] occupied ] until ] rule ]. Libya was involved in the ] of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the ], which resulted in the ] occupation of Libya and the establishment of two colonies, ] and ] (1911–1934), later unified in the ] colony from 1934 to 1943. | |||
During ], Libya was an area of warfare in the ]. The ] then went into decline. Libya became independent as a ] in 1951. A ] ], initiated by a coalition led by Colonel ], overthrew ] and created a ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/1/newsid_3911000/3911587.stm|title=1969: Bloodless coup in Libya|date=1 September 1969|access-date=25 October 2018|archive-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720121138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/1/newsid_3911000/3911587.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Gaddafi was often described by critics as a ], and was one of the world's longest serving non-royal leaders, ruling for 42 years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kafala |first=Tarik |date=20 October 2011 |title=Gaddafi's quixotic and brutal rule |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12532929 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424085047/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12532929 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |publisher=]}}</ref> He ] until being overthrown and ] during the ], which was part of the wider ], with authority transferred to the ] then to the elected ]. Since 2011, Libya has been involved in a ], and by 2014, two rival authorities claimed to govern Libya,<ref name="rival">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-idUSKBN0GP0NZ20140826|publisher=Reuters|title=Rival second Libyan assembly chooses own PM as chaos spreads|date=25 August 2014|access-date=25 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120247/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/26/us-libya-security-idUSKBN0GP0NZ20140826|archive-date=26 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Chris Stephen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |title=Libyan parliament takes refuge in Greek car ferry |newspaper=] |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404142244/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |archive-date=4 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sunherald.com/2015/08/07/6355978/peace-talks-between-libyan-factions.html|title=Peace talks between Libyan factions to take place in Geneva|work=Sun Herald|date=7 August 2015|access-date=7 August 2015}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> which led to a ], with parts of Libya split between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments as well as various tribal and ] militias.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-benghazi-insight-idUSKCN0QB0FK20150806 |title=Libyan government offensive in Benghazi stalls as Islamists dig in|publisher=Reuters|date=6 August 2015|access-date=7 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150809065318/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/06/us-libya-security-benghazi-insight-idUSKCN0QB0FK20150806|archive-date=9 August 2015}}</ref> The two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire in 2020, and a ] took authority to plan for democratic elections, though political rivalries continue to delay this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/libyan-civil-war-two-warring-factions-sign-permanent-ceasefire-1983297|title=Libyan Civil War: Two warring factions sign 'permanent' ceasefire|date=24 October 2020|website=The Daily Star|access-date=5 March 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415014337/https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/libyan-civil-war-two-warring-factions-sign-permanent-ceasefire-1983297|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2022, the ] ceased recognising the ] and proclaimed an alternative government, the ] (GNS). Both governments have been functioning simultaneously since then, which has led to dual power in Libya. The international community continues to recognise the unity government as the legitimate government of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-11 |title=Libya — a tale of two governments, again |url=https://arab.news/yrqr2 |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> | |||
Libya is a developing country ranking 92nd by HDI,<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> the highest score in mainland Africa, and has the ] in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/2004/FileZ/XL/T33.HTM |title=World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1980–2004 |publisher=OPEC |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711143657/http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/2004/FileZ/XL/T33.HTM |archive-date=11 July 2012 }}</ref> Libya is a member of the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and ]. | |||
With an area of almost {{convert|1800000|km2|sqmi|-5}}, Libya is the fourth largest country in ] by area, and the 17th ].<ref>U.N. Demographic Yearbook, (2003), , ''United Nations Statistics Division''. Retrieved July 15, 2006.</ref> The capital, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 6.4 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are ], ], and ]. Libya has the ] and the fourth highest ] (]) per capita in Africa as of 2009, behind ], ] and ]. These are largely due to its large ] reserves and low population.<ref>Annual Statistical Bulletin, (2004), , ''O.P.E.C.''. Retrieved July 20, 2006.</ref><ref>World Economic Outlook Database, (April, 2006), , ''International Monetary Fund''. Retrieved July 15, 2006.</ref> Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world and the 17th-highest petroleum production. | |||
== |
== Etymology == | ||
{{anchor|Etymology}}<!-- linked -->{{further|Ancient Libya|Libu}} | |||
The name ''Libya'' ({{IPAc-en|En-us-Libya.ogg|ˈ|l|ɪ|b|i|ə}}; {{lang-ar|ليبيا}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|Līb(i)yā}}'' {{IPA-ar|ˈliːb(i)ja(ː)|IPA}} <small>{{Audio|Ar-Libya.ogg|listen}}</small>; ]: ''Lībya'' {{IPA-ar|ˈliːbjæ|IPA}} <small>{{Audio|Ar-ly-Libya.ogg|listen}}</small>, ]: ''{{lang|egy-Latn|R'bw}}'', ]: {{script|Phnx|𐤉𐤁𐤋}} ''lby'', {{lang-grc|Λιβύη}} ''Libúē'', {{lang-la|Libya}}) originally derives from the '']'' tribesmen{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} ({{lang-grc|Λίβυες}} ''Líbues'', {{lang-la|Libyes}}). The land of the Libu was {{lang|grc|Λιβύη}} (''Libúē'') and {{lang|grc|Λιβύᾱ}} (''Libúā'') in the ] and ] dialects respectively, entering Latin as ''Libya''. In ] the term had a broader meaning, encompassing all the continent that later (2nd century BC) came to be known as '']'', in antiquity assumed to make up one third of the world's landmass, besides Europe and Asia. | |||
], Libya]] | |||
During the Islamic Middle Ages, ] recorded that the Libu were known as the ''Lawata''.<ref>See ''e. g.'', the chapter "Les Loouatah" in René Basset, ''Le dialecte de Syouah'', Paris, Leroux, 1890 (p. 1–14). p. 3: "On voit que les Lebou figurent au premier rang des barbares qui menaçaient l'Egypte du côté de l'ouest ; c'est aussi dans les régions qu'ils occupaient que les auteurs arabes placent les ''Loouata'' dont le nom correspond aux ''Lebou'' des Egyptiens, aux ''Loubim'' de la Bible, aux ''Levathae'' ({{lang-el|Λευάθαι}} ''Leváthai'') de Procope et aux ''Ilaguaten'' de Corripus" ("We see that the ''Lebu'' are recorded in the first line among the ]s who threatened Egypt on the western side; in the very regions where they dwelled, the Arab authors place the ''Lawata'', whose name corresponds to the Egyptian ''Lebu'', to the ''Lubim'' of the Bible, to the ''Levathae'' of ] and to the ''Ilaguaten'' of ]").</ref> | |||
The origin of the name "Libya" first appeared in an inscription of ], written as '']'' in hieroglyphic. The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large confederacy of ancient east "Libyan" ], ] people(s) and tribes who lived around the lush regions of ] and ]. An army of 40,000 men<ref name="3.8 MERENPTAH (1236-1230 BC)">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Peter |title=HSC Ancient History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhs2_vi4Yc0C&q=King+meryey&pg=PA72 |year=2006 |publisher=Pascal Press |isbn=9781741251784 |access-date=26 May 2020 |archive-date=31 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531052740/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhs2_vi4Yc0C&q=King+meryey&pg=PA72 |url-status=live }}</ref> and a confederacy of tribes known as "Great Chiefs of the ]" were led by King ] who fought a war against ] ] in year 5 (1208 BCE). This conflict was mentioned in the ] in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a defeat for Meryey. According to the ], the military alliance comprised the ], the ], and the "Sea Peoples" known as the ], ], ], and the ]. | |||
The Great Karnak Inscription reads: | |||
The name ''Libya'' was resuscitated in 1903 by the Italian geographer Federico Minutilli,<ref name=be177>Bertarelli (1929), p. 177.</ref> who in 1903 used it as first in today's meaning in his work "Bibliografia della Libia", and later adopted by the Italian government in its "Regio Decreto di Annessione" (Royal Decree of Annexation) of the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica dating November 5, 1911.<ref name=be177/> | |||
{{Blockquote|"... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen — Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh. Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children — leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire."}} | |||
The name "Libya" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to ], the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania.<ref name="be177">"Bibliografia della Libia"; ], p. 177.</ref> | |||
Libya gained independence in 1951 as the ] ({{lang|ar|المملكة الليبية المتحدة}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah al-Muttaḥidah}}''), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ({{lang|ar|المملكة الليبية}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah}}''), literally "Libyan Kingdom", in 1963.<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (1987), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321121614/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) |date=21 March 2022 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved 14 July 2006.</ref> Following a coup d'état led by ] in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ({{lang|ar|الجمهورية العربية الليبية}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Jumhūriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah}}''). The official name was "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" from 1977 to 1986 ({{lang|ar|الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية}}), and "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya"<ref name="name">{{cite web |url=http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=9093369&fid=3769&c=libya |title=Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Libya |work=Geographical Names |access-date=1 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118153704/http://geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=9093369&fid=3769&c=libya |archive-date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> ({{lang|ar|الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=6485614&fid=3784&c=libya |title=الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية: Libya |work=Geographical Names |access-date=26 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724133149/http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=6485614&fid=3784&c=libya |archive-date=24 July 2014 }}</ref> ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Jamāhīriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ash-Sha'biyyah al-Ishtirākiyyah al-'Udmá}}'' <small>{{Audio|Al-Jamahiriyyah al-Arabiyyah al-Libiyyah ash-shabiyyah al-Ishtirakiyyah al-Udhma.ogg|listen}}</small>) from 1986 to 2011. | |||
Libya gained independence in 1951 as the ] (''al-Mamlaka al-Libiyya al-Muttahida''), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ({{lang-ar|'''المملكة الليبية'''}} (''al-Mamlaka al-Libiyya'') in 1963.<ref>{{cite web |author=ben cahoon |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Libya.htm |title=Libya |publisher=Worldstatesmen.org |date= |accessdate=2011-02-28}}</ref> Following a ] in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the ] ({{lang-ar|الجمهورية العربية الليبية}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-Ǧumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Lībiyyah}}''). | |||
The ], established in 2011, referred to the state as simply "Libya". The UN formally recognized the country as "Libya" in September 2011<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unterm.un.org |title=United Nations interoffice memorandum dated 16 September 2011 from Desmond Parker, Chief of Protocol, to Shaaban M. Shaaban, Under-Secretary-General for General Assembly and Conference Management, attaching memorandum from Stadler Trengove, Senior Legal Officer |publisher=] |date=16 September 2011 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122071953/http://unterm.un.org/ |archive-date=22 January 2013 }}</ref> based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the ] of 3 August 2011. In November 2011, the ] was altered to reflect the new country name "Libya" in English, ''"Libye (la)"'' in French.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-11_name_change_for_libya.pdf |access-date=13 December 2011 |date=8 November 2011 |title=ISO 3166-1 Newsletter VI-11: Name change for Libya |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117170551/http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-11_name_change_for_libya.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 }}</ref> | |||
In 1977 the title of the state was changed to the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ({{lang-ar|الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-Ǧamāhīriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Lībiyyah aš-Šaʿbiyyah al-Ištirākiyyah al-ʿUẓmā}}'' <small>{{Audio|Al-Jamahiriyyah al-Arabiyyah al-Libiyyah ash-shabiyyah al-Ishtirakiyyah al-Udhma.ogg|listen}}</small>). ] (''{{transl|ar|DIN|Ǧamāhīriyyah}}'') is an ] term generally translated as "state of the masses". The term, a ] coined by ], is intended to be a generic term describing a type of state: a "republic ruled by the masses" or "]". Within the ] and the ], Libya is known as the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/en/countries/menaregion/pages/lyindex.aspx |title=Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Homepage |publisher=Ohchr.org |date= |accessdate=2011-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/libyan-arab-jamahiriya |title=Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | Libyan Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org |date= |accessdate=2011-03-03}}</ref> | |||
In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations informed the United Nations that the country's official name was henceforth the "State of Libya"; "Libya" remained the official short form, and the country continued to be listed under "L" in alphabetical lists.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unterm.un.org/UNTERM/Display/Record/UNHQ/NA/fd428e58-b85e-4d39-81a8-896368359dd5 |access-date=5 January 2018 |title="State of Libya" in UNTERM (United Nations terminology database) |publisher=United Nations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105233707/https://unterm.un.org/UNTERM/Display/Record/UNHQ/NA/fd428e58-b85e-4d39-81a8-896368359dd5 |archive-date=5 January 2018 }}</ref> | |||
The ] established in 2011 refers to the state as the Libyan Republic<ref name="Ntclibya.org"/><ref name="reuters.com"/> ({{lang-ar|الجمهورية الليبية}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-Ǧumhūriyyah al-Lībiyyah}}''). | |||
==History== | == History == | ||
{{Main|History of Libya}} | {{Main|History of Libya}} | ||
=== |
=== Ancient Libya === | ||
{{main| |
{{main|Ancient Libya|Libu}} | ||
]]] | |||
] | |||
Tens of thousands of years ago, the ] desert, which now covers roughly 90% of Libya, was lush with green vegetation. It was home to lakes, forests, diverse wildlife and a temperate ] climate. Archaeological evidence indicates that the coastal plain of ] was inhabited by ] peoples from as early as 8000 BC. These peoples were perhaps drawn by the climate, which enabled their culture to grow; the Ancient Libyans were skilled in the ] of cattle and the cultivation of crops.<ref> | |||
Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 11, 2006.</ref> | |||
The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by ] peoples from as early as 8000 BC. The ] ancestors of the ] are assumed to have spread into the area by the ]. The earliest known name of such a tribe was the ], based in ]. The ]ns were the first to establish trading posts in Libya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html |title=The Histories', Book IV.42–43 |publisher=Fordham University |date=August 1998 |author=Halsall, Paul |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409023843/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html |archive-date=9 April 2013 }}</ref> By the 5th century BC, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, ], had extended its ] across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as ], came into being. | |||
] and carvings at ] and the mountainous region of ] are the best sources of information about prehistoric Libya, and the ] culture that settled there. The paintings reveal that the ], grassy plateaus and an abundance of wildlife such as giraffes, elephants and crocodiles. | |||
In 630 BC, the ] colonized the area around ] in Eastern Libya and founded the city of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) |title=Cyrenaica and the Greeks |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120922002705/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) |archive-date=22 September 2012 }}</ref> Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaLibya.htm |title=History of Libya |publisher=The History Files |date=20 October 2011 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128173621/http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaLibya.htm |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}</ref> The area was home to the renowned philosophy school of the ]. In 525 BC the ] army of ] overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. ] ended Persian rule in 331 BC and received tribute from Cyrenaica. Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the ]. | |||
Pockets of the Berber populations still remain in most of modern Libya. Dispersal in Africa from the Atlantic coast to the ] in Egypt seems to have followed, due to climatic changes which caused increasing ]. It is thought that the indigenous Libyan civilization of the ], based in ], originated from this time, or may have done so even earlier when the Sahara was still green. The ] were a Saharan people of Berber origin who used an elaborate underground irrigation system, and founded a kingdom in the Fezzan area of modern-day Libya. They were probably present as tribal people in the Fezzan by 1000 BC, and were a local power in the Sahara between 500 BC and 500 AD. By the time of contact with the ], the first of the Semitic civilisations to arrive in Libya from the East, the Lebu, Garamantes, Bebers and other tribes that lived in the Sahara were already well established. | |||
After the fall of ] the Romans did not immediately occupy ] (the region around Tripoli), but left it instead under control of the kings of ], until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection.<ref name="be202">], p. 202.</ref> ], the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as ]. As part of the ] province, Tripolitania was prosperous,<ref name="be202" /> and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of ], home to the ], was at its height.<ref name="be202" /> | |||
===Phoenician and Greek colonial era=== | |||
{{See|Ancient Libya|North Africa during Antiquity|Carthage|Phoenicians|Ancient Greece}} | |||
The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya, when the merchants of ] (in present-day ]) developed commercial relations with the ] and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.<ref>Herodotus, (c.430 BC), ''Fordham University, New York''. Retrieved July 18, 2006.</ref><ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 11, 2006.</ref> By the 5th century BCE, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, ], had extended its ] across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as ], came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (later Tripoli), Libdah (later ]) and ]. These cities were in an area that was later called ], or "Three Cities", from which Libya's modern capital Tripoli takes its name. | |||
On the Eastern side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor ].<ref name="be417">], p. 417.</ref> It was heavily devastated during the ]<ref name="ro364">{{cite book |ref=Rostovtzeff|last=Rostovtzeff|first=Michael|title=Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire|location=Oxford|year=1957|edition=2|publisher=Clarendon|page=364}}</ref> and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike.<ref>], lxviii. 32</ref> Although repopulated by ] with military colonies,<ref name="ro364" /> from then started its decline.<ref name="be417" /> Libya was early to convert to ] and was the home of ]; however, Libya was also home to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as ] and ]. | |||
In 630 BC, the ] colonized Eastern Libya and founded the city of ].<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 11, 2006.</ref> Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as ]: ] (later ]); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day ]); ] (later Arsinoe, present-day Tukrah); and ] (later Susah), the port of Cyrene. Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities). Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, and was famous for its medical school, learned academies, and architecture. The Greeks of the Pentapolis resisted encroachments by the ] from the East, as well as by the Carthaginians from the West, but in 525 BC the Persian army of ] overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. ] was greeted by the Greeks when he entered Cyrenaica in 331 BC, and Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the ]. Later, a federation of the Pentapolis was formed that was customarily ruled by a king drawn from the Ptolemaic royal house. | |||
=== Islamic Libya: 647–1556 === | |||
===Roman era=== | |||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica}} | ||
] in ] is the oldest mosque in the ].]] | |||
{{see|Ancient Libya|North Africa during Antiquity}} | |||
{{see|Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Praetorian prefecture of the East}} | |||
] at ]. Roman emperor Septimus Severus allowed the city to become one of the most prominent in Roman Africa.]] | |||
After the fall of ] the Romans did not occupy immediately ] (the region around Tripoli), but left it under control of the kings of ], until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection.<ref name=be202>Bertarelli (1929), p. 202.</ref> ], the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as ]. During the ] Tripolitania (still not formally annexed) and Cyrenaica sustained ] and ] against respectively ] and ].<ref name=be202/><ref name=be417>Bertarelli (1929), p. 417.</ref> The Romans completed the conquest of the region under Augustus, occupying northern ] ("Fasania") with ].<ref name=be382>Bertarelli (1929), p. 382.</ref> As part of the ] province, Tripolitania was prosperous,<ref name=be202/> and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of ], home to the ] dynasty, was at its height.<ref name=be202/> On the other side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the ]<ref name=be417/> but was heavily devastated during the ],<ref name=ro364>Rostovtzeff (1957), p. 364.</ref> and, although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies,<ref name=ro364/> from then started its decadence.<ref name=be417/> Anyway, for more than 400 years Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were part of a cosmopolitan state whose citizens shared a common language, legal system, and Roman identity. Roman ruins like those of Leptis Magna and ], extant in present-day Libya, attest to the vitality of the region, where populous cities and even smaller towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life—the forum, markets, public entertainments, and baths—found in every corner of the Roman Empire. Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa, but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek. Tripolitania was a major exporter of olive oil,<ref name=ro335>Rostovtzeff (1957), p. 335.</ref> as well as a centre for the trade of ivory and wild animals<ref name=ro335/> conveyed to the coast by the ], while Cyrenaica remained an important source of wines, drugs, and horses. The bulk of the population in the countryside consisted of Berber farmers, who in the west were thoroughly "romanized" in language and customs.<ref>Heuser, Stephen, (July 24, 2005), , ''The Boston Globe'.' Retrieved July 18, 2006.</ref> Until the tenth century the ] remained in use in some Tripolitanian areas, mainly near the Tunisian border.<ref>Tadeusz Lewicki, "Une langue romane oubliée de l'Afrique du Nord. Observations d'un arabisant", Rocznik Orient. XVII (1958), pp. 415–480.</ref> | |||
Under the command of ], the ] conquered ].<ref name="be278">], p. 278.</ref> In 647 an army led by ] took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively.<ref name="be278" /> The ] was conquered by ] in 663. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hourani, Albert|year=2002|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=978-0-571-21591-1|page=198}}</ref> | |||
The decline of the Roman Empire saw the classical cities fall into ruin, a process hastened by the ]' destructive sweep though North Africa in the 5th century. The region's prosperity had shrunk under Vandal domination, and the old Roman political and social order, disrupted by the Vandals, could not be restored. In outlying areas neglected by the Vandals, the inhabitants had sought the protection of tribal chieftains and, having grown accustomed to their autonomy, resisted reassimilation into the imperial system. | |||
For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the ] ] until the ] overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph ] appointed ] as his governor of ] in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the ] dynasty. By the 10th century, the Shiite ] controlled Western Libya, and ruled the entire region in 972 and appointed ] as governor.<ref name="be202" /> | |||
When the Empire returned (now as ]) as part of ]'s reconquests of the 6th century, efforts were made to strengthen the old cities, but it was only a last gasp before they collapsed into disuse. Cyrenaica, which had remained an outpost of the Byzantine Empire during the Vandal period, also took on the characteristics of an armed camp. Unpopular Byzantine governors imposed burdensome taxation to meet military costs, while the towns and public services—including the water system—were left to decay. Byzantine rule in Africa did prolong the Roman ideal of imperial unity there for another century and a half however, and prevented the ascendancy of the Berber nomads in the coastal region. By the beginning of the 7th century, Byzantine control over the region was weak, Berber rebellions were becoming more frequent, and there was little to oppose Muslim invasion. | |||
Ibn Ziri's Berber ] ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognized the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the ] and ] to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.<ref name="be202" /> | |||
===Arab Islamic rule 642–1551=== | |||
{{Main|History of Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica}} | |||
] in ] is the oldest mosque in the ].]] | |||
Tenuous ] control over Libya was restricted to a few poorly defended coastal strongholds, and as such, the ] horsemen who first crossed into the Pentapolis of Cyrenaica in September 642 AD encountered little resistance. Under the command of ], the armies of Islam conquered ], and renamed the ], ]. By 647, an army of 40,000 Arabs, led by ], the foster-brother of Caliph ], penetrated deep into Western Libya and took Tripoli from the Byzantines in 643. From Barqa, the ] (Libya's Southern region) was conquered by ] in 663 and Berber resistance was overcome. During the following centuries Libya came under the rule of several Islamic dynasties, under various levels of autonomy from ], ] and ] caliphates of the time. Arab rule was easily imposed in the coastal farming areas and on the towns, which prospered again under Arab patronage. Townsmen valued the security that permitted them to practice their commerce and trade in peace, while the ] farmers recognized their affinity with the Semitic Arabs to whom they looked to protect their lands. In Cyrenaica, ] adherents of the ] had welcomed the Muslim Arabs as liberators from Byzantine oppression. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule. | |||
Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the ] broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the ].<ref name="be203">], p. 203.</ref> For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among ], the ] rulers and insurgents of the ]. Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of the Tunisian ]<ref name="be203" /> independent from the Almohads. In the 14th century, the ] dynasty ruled Tripolitania before reverting to direct Hafsid control. By the 16th century, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the ]. | |||
For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the ] ] until the ]s overthrew the Ummayads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph ] appointed ] as his governor of ] in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the ] dynasty. The Aghlabids were amongst the most attentive Islamic rulers of Libya; they brought about a measure of order to the region, and restored Roman irrigation systems, which brought prosperity to the area from the agricultural surplus. By the end of the 9th century, the Shiite ] controlled Western Libya from their capital in ], before they ruled the entire region from their new capital of ] in 972 and appointed ] as governor. During Fatimid rule, Tripoli thrived on the trade in slaves and gold brought from the Sudan and on the sale of wool, leather, and salt shipped from its docks to Italy in exchange for wood and iron goods. Ibn Ziri's Berber ] ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of as many as 200,000 families from two Bedouin tribes, the ] and ] to North Africa—this act completely altered the fabric of Libyan cities, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.<ref name=be202/>] noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.<ref>"", Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell.</ref> | |||
After Abbasid control was weakened, Cyrenaica was under Egypt-based states such as the ], ], Ayyubids, and ] before Ottoman conquest in 1517. ] acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after ] rule. Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577. | |||
] was the first Norman King to rule Tripoli when he captured it in 1146.]] | |||
After the subsequent social unrest during Zirid rule, the coast of Libya was weakened and invaded by the Normans of Sicily.<ref name=be203>Bertarelli (1929), p. 203.</ref> It was not until 1174 that the ] Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush reconquered Tripoli from European rule with an army of Turks and Bedouins. Afterward, a viceroy from the ], Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of a Tunisian ]<ref name=be203/> independent from the Almohads. The Hafsids ruled Tripolitania for nearly 300 years, and established significant trade with the city-states of Europe. Hafsid rulers also encouraged art, literature, architecture and scholarship. ] was one of the most famous Islamic scholars to settle in Libya, and did so during this time. By the 16th century however, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire. After a successful invasion of Tripoli by ] in 1510,<ref name=be203/> and its handover to the ], the Ottoman admiral ] finally took control of Libya in 1551.<ref name=be203/> | |||
===Ottoman |
=== Ottoman Tripolitania: 1556–1911 === | ||
{{Main|Ottoman |
{{Main|Ottoman Tripolitania}} | ||
] in 1551 allowed the Ottomans to capture the city from the Knights of St. John.]] | ] in 1551 allowed the ] to capture the city from the ].]] | ||
After a successful invasion by the ] in the early 16th century, ] entrusted its defense to the Knights of St. John in Malta. Lured by the piracy that spread through the ] coastline, adventurers such as ] and his successors consolidated Ottoman control in the central Maghreb. The ] Turks conquered Tripoli in 1551 under the command of Sinan Pasha. In the next year his successor ] was named the ] of Tripoli and later ] in 1556. As Pasha, he adorned and built up Tripoli, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African coast.<ref>{{cite book |author=Naylor, Phillip Chiviges | |||
|title= North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present | |||
|publisher=University of Texas Press | |||
|year=2009 | |||
|pages=120–121 | |||
|isbn=0292719221, 9780292719224 | |||
|quote=One of the most famous corsairs was Turghut (Dragut) (?–1565), who was of Greek ancestry and a protégé of Khayr al-Din. ... While pasha, he built up Tripoli and adorned it, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African littoral.}} | |||
</ref> By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a '']'' appointed directly by the '']'' in ]. In the 1580s, the rulers of ] gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in ], a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.<ref name=be417/> | |||
After a successful invasion of Tripoli by ] in 1510,<ref name="be203" /> and its handover to the ], the ] admiral ] took control of Libya in 1551.<ref name="be203" /> His successor ] was named the ] of Tripoli and later ] in 1556. By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a '']'' appointed directly by the '']'' in ]/]. In the 1580s, the rulers of ] gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in ], a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.<ref name="be417" /> European ] and large numbers of enslaved Blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, ] enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of ], some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoppen |first1=Alison |title=The fortification of Malta by the Order of St. John, 1530–1798 |date=1979 |publisher=Scottish Academic Press |page=25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Robert C. Davis|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405722392|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2012|date=5 December 2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-71966-4}}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> | |||
In time, real power came to rest with the pasha’s corps of ], a self-governing military guild, and in time the pasha’s role was reduced to that of ceremonial head of state.<ref name=be203/> Mutinies and coups were frequent, and in 1611 the '']s'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania, some for only a few weeks, and at various times the dey was also pasha-regent. The regency governed by the dey was autonomous in internal affairs and, although dependent on the sultan for fresh recruits to the corps of janissaries, his government was left to pursue a virtually independent foreign policy as well. The two most important Deys were ] (r. 1631–49) and ] (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.<ref name=be204>Bertarelli (1929), p. 204.</ref> The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.<ref name=be204/> | |||
In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of ].<ref name="be203" /> In 1611 the '']s'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania. The two most important Deys were ] (r. 1631–49) and ] (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.<ref name="be204">], p. 204.</ref> The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.<ref name="be204" /> | |||
] | |||
Tripoli was the only city of size in Ottoman Libya (then known as Tripolitania ]) at the end of the 17th century and had a population of about 30,000. The bulk of its residents were ], as city-dwelling Arabs were then known. Several hundred Turks and renegades formed a governing elite, a large portion of which were '']s'' (lit. sons of servants—offspring of Turkish soldiers and Arab women); they identified with local interests and were respected by locals. Jews and ] were active as merchants and craftsmen and a small number of European traders also frequented the city. European ]s and large numbers of enslaved blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of ], some 6,300 people, sending them to Libya.<ref>"''''". Robert Davis (2004) ISBN 1-4039-4551-9.</ref> The most pronounced slavery activity involved the enslavement of black Africans who were brought via ] routes. Even though the ] was officially abolished in Tripoli in 1853, in practice it continued until the 1890s.<ref>Lisa Anderson, , International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3. (Aug., 1984), pp. 325–348.</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
]'' of the ] capturing Tripolitan Corsair during the First Barbary War, 1801]] | |||
Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such coup was led by Turkish officer ].<ref name=be204/> The ] ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, |
Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such coup was led by Turkish officer ].<ref name="be204" /> The ] ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century. Ahmed's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli. The ] occurred in those years. In 1793, Turkish officer ] deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. Hamet's brother ] (r. 1795–1832) re-established Tripolitania's independence. | ||
] engaging gunboats and fortifications in ], 1804]] | |||
In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the ]. By 1819, the various treaties of the ] had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons; though Yusuf abdicated in 1832 in favor of his son Ali II, civil war soon resulted. Ottoman Sultan ] sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, but instead deposed and exiled Ali II, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.<ref name=be205>Bertarelli (1929), p. 205.</ref> Anyway, order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Lybian under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.<ref name=be205/> | |||
In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the ] and the ]. By 1819, the various treaties of the ] had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons. Civil war soon resulted.<ref name="be205">], p. 205.</ref> | |||
Ottoman Sultan ] sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.<ref name="be205"/> Order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.<ref name="be205" /> The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce. | |||
The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and what seemed as greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. In general however, 19th century Ottoman rule was characterised by corruption, revolt and repression. The region of Libya in particular became a backwater province in a decaying empire that had been dubbed the "]". It would not be long before the ] and European colonial interests set their eyes on the marginal Turkish provinces of Libya. Reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion (], 1911–1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when ] simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.<ref>Country Profiles, (May 16, 2006), ''BBC News''. Retrieved July 18, 2006.</ref> | |||
=== Italian colonization and Allied occupation: 1911-1951 === | |||
===Italian colonial era and World War II 1911–1951=== | |||
{{Main|Italian Libya}} | {{Main|Italian Tripolitania|Italian Cyrenaica|Italian Libya}} | ||
{{see also|Italian colonization of Libya}} | |||
] during World War II. Beginning on 10 April 1941, the ] lasted for 240 days.]] | |||
] was |
] was a prominent leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against Italian colonization.]] | ||
From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as ]. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, ] and ], run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.<ref>, Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> | |||
After the ] (1911–1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm |title=Timeline: Libya |work=BBC News |date=29 January 2013 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023080030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm |archive-date=23 October 2011 }}</ref> From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as ]. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, ] and ], run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46562/Libya |title=Libya |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430102144/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya |archive-date=30 April 2013 }}</ref> | |||
In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of ], except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three provinces of ], ] and ]). Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later ]), Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two world wars. | |||
] estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through starvation in camps)."<ref>], ''The Modern Middle East.'' Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-21409-2, p. 26.</ref> Italian historian Gentile sets to about fifty thousands the number of victims of the repression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |title=Un patriota della Cirenaica |publisher=retedue.rsi.ch |date=2011-03-01 |accessdate=2011-03-24}}</ref> | |||
] rose to prominence as a ] against Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816010152/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445 |date=16 August 2012 }}, '']'' Africa, 1 November 2011</ref> His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. Another prominent resistance leader, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later ]), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the Libyan resistance until the outbreak of the ]. | |||
From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in ] but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the ] with the ], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.<ref>Hagos, Tecola W., (November 20, 2004), , ''Ethiopia Tecola Hagos''. Retrieved July 18, 2006.</ref> | |||
The so-called "]" by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309|title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing|last=Mann|first=Michael|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521538541|page=309|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=16 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416132840/https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309|url-status=live}}</ref> ] estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in ])."<ref>], ''The Modern Middle East''. Routledge, 2005, {{ISBN|0-415-21409-2}}, p. 26.</ref> | |||
===Independence and the Kingdom of Libya 1951–1969=== | |||
] in 1911]] | |||
{{main|Kingdom of Libya}} | |||
] | |||
On November 21, 1949, the ] passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the ], a constitutional and hereditary ] under King ], Libya's first and only monarch. | |||
In 1934, Italy combined ], ] and ] and adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt) for the unified colony, with Tripoli as its capital.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nanjira |first1=Daniel Don |title=African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy from Antiquity to the 21st Century |date=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-37982-6 |page=207 |language=en}}</ref> The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works. In particular, they greatly expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometres of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages. | |||
1951 also saw the enactment of the ]. The Libyan National Assembly drafted the Constitution and passed a resolution accepting it in a meeting held in the city of Benghazi on Sunday, 6th Muharram, ]s 1371: October 7, 1951. ], President of the National Assembly and the two Vice-Presidents of the National Assembly, ] and Abu Baker Ahmed Abu Baker executed and submitted the Constitution to ] following which it was published in the Official Gazette of Libya. | |||
In June 1940, ]. Libya became the setting for the hard-fought ] that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its ] in 1943. | |||
The enactment of the ] was significant in that it was the first piece of legislation to formally entrench the rights of Libyan citizens following the post-war creation of the Libyan nation state. Following on from the intense UN debates during which Idris had argued that the creation of a single Libyan state would be of benefit to the regions of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica, the Libyan government was keen to formulate a constitution which contained many of the entrenched rights common to European and North American nation states. Thus, not creating a secular state - Article 5 proclaims Islam the religion of the State - the Libyan Constitution did formally set out rights such as equality before the law as well as equal civil and political rights, equal opportunities, and an equal responsibility for public duties and obligations, "without distinction of religion, belief, race, language, wealth, kinship or political or social opinions" (Article 11). | |||
From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under ]. The British military ] the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the French ] the province of Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in ] but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the ] with the ], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tecola W. Hagos |url=http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm |title=Treaty Of Peace With Italy (1947), Evaluation And Conclusion |publisher=Ethiopia Tecola Hagos |date=20 November 2004 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207051037/http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm |archive-date= 7 December 2012 }}</ref> | |||
The discovery of significant ] in 1959 and the subsequent income from ] sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris. This discontent mounted with the rise of ] and ] throughout North Africa and the ], so while the continued presence of Americans, Italians and British in Libya aided in the increased levels of wealth and tourism following WWII, it was seen by some as a threat. | |||
=== Independent Kingdom: 1951–1969 === | |||
During this period, Britain was involved in extensive engineering projects in Libya and was also the country's biggest supplier of arms. The United States also maintained the large ] in Libya. | |||
{{main|Kingdom of Libya|}} | |||
] of Libya]] | |||
A national assembly crafted a constitution that established a ] and extended an offer for the throne to ], the ].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=The Kingdom of Libya is Established |work=History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/kingdom-libya-established |access-date=2024-07-05}}</ref> Sayyid Idris held the esteemed position as the leader of the influential ], which was founded by his grandfather in the preceding century as a response to Western influence in the ].<ref name=":5" /> This devout Islamic movement garnered significant support from the ] and became a major political force in Libya. During the declining years of the ], it effectively governed the Libyan interior.<ref name=":5" /> | |||
Born in an oasis in ] in 1890, Sayyid Idris assumed leadership of the Senussi at a young age. He spent a considerable period of exile in ] under Italian rule and returned to Libya after the ] were ousted in 1943.<ref name=":5" /> On December 24, 1951, as King Idris I, he addressed the nation via radio from ].<ref name=":5" /> On November 21, 1949, the ] passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=2021-03-15 |title=Libya country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13754897 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506173721/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13754897 |archive-date=6 May 2021 |access-date=2021-03-15 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. By December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the ], a constitutional and hereditary ] under King ].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Schiller |first=Jon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ-VAkIdiX0C&pg=PA161 |title=Internet View of the Arabic World |date=29 November 2009 |publisher=CreateSpace |isbn=9781439263266 |page=161 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320153024/https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ-VAkIdiX0C&pg=PA161 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
However, the new kingdom faced challenging prospects.<ref name=":5" /> It lacked significant industry and agricultural resources.<ref name=":5" /> The kingdom's primary exports consisted of hides, wool, horses, and ostrich feathers.<ref name=":5" /> Despite having one of the lowest income per capita figures globally, it also suffered from one of the highest illiteracy rates.<ref name=":5" /> King Idris I, already in his sixties, had no direct heir to succeed him.<ref name=":5" /> His cousin, whom he had married in 1932, reportedly experienced numerous miscarriages, and their son, born in 1953, tragically died shortly after birth.<ref name=":5" /> Crown Prince Rida, Idris's brother, was the designated heir, but the royal family was riddled with incessant disputes.<ref name=":5" /> King Idris's devout Muslim piety, which solidified his support among the ], clashed with the modernizing and urban intellectual currents in Libya.<ref name=":5" /> To address the rivalry between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, Benghazi and Tripoli alternated as the capital every two years. | |||
===Libya under Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi 1969–present=== | |||
{{main|History of Libya under Muammar al-Gaddafi}} | |||
{{anchor|Great Socialist People's Arab Jamahiriya}}{{anchor|Libyan Jamahiriya}}{{anchor|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} | |||
{{Cleanup section|date=February 2011}} | |||
On 1 September 1969, a small group of military officers led by the 27 year old army officer ] staged a ] against King Idris, launching the Libyan Revolution.<ref name=SalakLibya>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |title=Rediscovering Libya |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure}}</ref> Gaddafi has since then been referred to as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official Libyan press.<ref>US Department of State's Background Notes, (November 2005) , ''U.S. Dept. of State''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> | |||
The swift emergence of a large number of bureaucrats resulted in a costly royal government.<ref name=":5" /> The discovery of significant ] in 1959 and the subsequent income from ] sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state.<ref name=":4" /> Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> This discontent continued to mount with the rise of ] and ] throughout North Africa and the ].<ref name=":4" /> | |||
On the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad in 1973, Gaddafi delivered a "Five-Point Address".<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami"/> He announced the suspension of all existing laws and the implementation of ]. He said that the country would be purged of the "politically sick". A "people's militia" would "protect the revolution". There would be an administrative revolution, and a cultural revolution. | |||
=== Republic of Libya under Gaddafi: 1969–2011 === | |||
Gaddafi set up an extensive surveillance system. 10 to 20 percent of Libyans work in surveillance for the Revolutionary committees. The surveillance takes place in government, in factories, and in the education sector.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami">{{cite web|url=http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-qadhafi-unrepentant|title=Libya and the U.S.: Qadhafi Unrepentant|publisher=The Middle East Quarterly|author=Mohamed Eljahmi|year=2006}}</ref> Gaddafi executed dissidents publicly and the executions were often rebroadcast on state television channels.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Brian Lee Davis}}</ref> Gaddafi employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of critical refugees around the world. ] listed at least 25 assassinations between 1980 and 1987.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami" /><ref name="autogenerated758">The Middle East and North Africa 2003 (2002). Eur. p. 758</ref> | |||
{{Main|History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi}} | |||
On 1 September 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by ] launched a ], which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution.<ref name="SalakLibya">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |title=Rediscovering Libya |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923175457/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |archive-date=23 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Gaddafi was referred to as the "]" in government statements and the official Libyan press.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm |title=Libya – History |publisher=US Department of State's Background Notes |date=15 January 2013 |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604185313/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> He began dominating history and politics of Libya for the next four decades.<ref name=":6" /> Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong ] was ] from Libya alongside the smaller community of ].<ref name=":6" /> The day became a ] known as "]";<ref name=":6">Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books. p. 72</ref> it was later renamed the "Day of Friendship" because of improvement in ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zoubir |first1=Yahia H. |title=Libya and Europe: Economic Realism at the Rescue of the Qaddafi Authoritarian Regime |journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies |date=2009 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=401–415 |doi=10.1080/14782800903339354|s2cid=153625134 }}</ref> | |||
], leader of Libya (1969–2011)|left]] | |||
Libya's increase in prosperity was accompanied by increased internal political repression, and political dissent was made illegal under Law 75 of 1973.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Widespread surveillance of the population was carried out through Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees.<ref name="Gaddafiunrepentant">{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-Gaddafi-unrepentant|title=Libya and the U.S.: Gaddafi Unrepentant|journal=]|author=Eljahmi, Mohamed|year=2006|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110302065908/http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-Gaddafi-unrepentant|archive-date=2 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="GlobalEdge">{{cite web| url=http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/libya/history/| title=Libya: History| publisher=/globaledge.msu.edu (via ])| access-date=14 August 2011| url-status=live| archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110814125349/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/libya/history/| archive-date=14 August 2011| df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/africa/libya.html|title=Comparative Criminology – Libya|access-date=24 July 2011|publisher=Crime and Society|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807181001/http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/africa/libya.html|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> Gaddafi also wanted to ease the strict social restrictions imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the ] to encourage reform.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and wage parity.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of girls under the age of sixteen and making the woman's consent a necessary prerequisite for a marriage.<ref>Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books</ref> | |||
On 25 October 1975, a coup attempt was launched by a group of 20 military officers, mostly from the city of ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1wzPrqBI8kC&pg=PA69|title=La Libye révolutionnaire|last=Banégas|first=Richard|date=1 January 2012|publisher=KARTHALA Editions|isbn=9782811106720|page=69|language=fr|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320153024/https://books.google.com/books?id=n1wzPrqBI8kC&pg=PA69|archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> This resulted in the arrest and executions of the coup plotters.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA506|title=The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World|last=Krieger|first=Joel|date=2 August 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195117394|page=506|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629195326/http://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC|archive-date=29 June 2014}}</ref> In March 1977, Libya officially became the "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya".<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Gaddafi officially passed power to the ]s and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wynne-Jones|first=Jonathan|title=Libyan minister claims Gaddafi is powerless and the ceasefire is 'solid'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8393285/Libyan-minister-claims-Gaddafi-is-powerless-and-the-ceasefire-is-solid.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=22 October 2011|date=19 March 2011|location=London|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029122048/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8393285/Libyan-minister-claims-Gaddafi-is-powerless-and-the-ceasefire-is-solid.html|archive-date=29 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="GlobalEdge" /> The new ''jamahiriya'' (Arab for "republic") governance structure he established was officially referred to as "]".<ref>{{cite news|last=Robbins|first=James|title=Eyewitness: Dialogue in the desert|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6425873.stm|access-date=22 October 2011|date=7 March 2007|work=BBC News}}</ref> Gaddafi, in his vision of democratic government and ], published '']'' in 1975. His short book inscribed a representative mix of utopian socialism and Arab nationalism with a streak of ] supremacy.]In February 1977, Libya started delivering military supplies to ] and the ] in Chad.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> The ] began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an ].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Later that same year, Libya and ] fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the ].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Both nations agreed to a ] under the mediation of the Algerian president ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/lay/libya/flibyaegypt1977.htm |title=Egypt Libya War 1977 |publisher=Onwar.com |access-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085920/http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/lay/libya/flibyaegypt1977.htm |archive-date=24 March 2012 }}</ref> Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the country's support for ]'s ] in its ].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030301031212/http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |archive-date=1 March 2003 |title=A Rogue Returns |publisher=AIJAC |date=February 2003}}</ref> On 2 March 1977, Libya officially became Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.<ref>{{cite web |title=ICL - Libya - Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People |url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ly01000_.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201125/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ly01000_.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref> | |||
In 1977, Libya officially became the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab ]. Later that same year, Gaddafi ordered an artillery strike on ] in retaliation against Egyptian ] ]'s intent to sign a ] with ]. Sadat's forces triumphed easily in a four-day border war that came to be known as the ], leaving over 400 Libyans dead and Gaddafi's armored divisions in disarray. | |||
Libya adopted its plain green national flag on 19 November 1977.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> The country had the only plain-coloured flag in the world until 2011, when Libya adopted its current flag.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_afr_cou_by_gdp_per_cap_gdp_per_cap-african-countries-gdp-per-capita|title=African Countries by GDP Per Capita > GDP Per Capita (most recent) by Country|access-date=24 July 2011|website=nationmaster.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716042352/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_afr_cou_by_gdp_per_cap_gdp_per_cap-african-countries-gdp-per-capita|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> while the ] became the highest in Africa and greater than that of ].<ref name="dailynews">{{cite news|last=Azad |first=Sher |title=Gaddafi and the media |url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/10/22/fea02.asp |work=Daily News |location=Colombo |access-date=22 October 2011 |date=22 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025194842/http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/10/22/fea02.asp |archive-date=25 October 2011 }}</ref> This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe: Reason Wafavarova – Reverence for Hatred of Democracy |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210928.html |newspaper=The Herald |location=Harare |access-date=23 October 2011 |date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107010212/http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210928.html |archive-date=7 November 2011 }}</ref> The ] was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country.<ref name="dailynews" /> In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shimatsu|first=Yoichi|title=Villain or Hero? Desert Lion Perishes, Leaving West Explosive Legacy|url=http://newamericamedia.org/2011/10/villain-or-hero-desert-lion-perishes-leaving-the-west-explosive-legacy.php|publisher=]|access-date=23 October 2011|date=21 October 2011|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022231158/http://newamericamedia.org/2011/10/villain-or-hero-desert-lion-perishes-leaving-the-west-explosive-legacy.php|archive-date=22 October 2011}}</ref> Much of Libya's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |title=Endgame in Tripoli |date=24 February 2011 |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307152055/http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |archive-date=7 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Libya: the struggle for survival|author=Geoffrey Leslie Simons|author-link=Geoff Simons|page=281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=St. John |first=Ronald Bruce |title=Libyan terrorism: the case against Gaddafi |journal=Contemporary Review |date=1 December 1992 |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525194643/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801 |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> | |||
In February 1977, Libya started military supplies to ] and the ] in ]. The ] began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion. | |||
An ] led by then US president ] intended to kill Gaddafi failed in 1986.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Libya was finally put under sanctions by the United Nations after the ] of a commercial flight at ] in 1988 killed 270 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://terrorism.about.com/od/originshistory/p/PanAmBombing.htm |title=Pan Am Flight 103 Bombing – 1988 Lockerbie Bombing Led to Libyan Convictions |publisher=Terrorism.about.com |access-date=8 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402075740/http://terrorism.about.com/od/originshistory/p/PanAmBombing.htm |archive-date=2 April 2012 }}</ref> In the 1990s, the government's rule was threatened by militant Islamism and an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Gaddafi.<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"> | |||
Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the war against Tanzania, when Gaddafi tried to save his friend ]. | |||
* {{cite book |last=Martínez |first=Luis |title=The Libyan Paradox |publisher=] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-231-70021-4 |page=71}} | |||
Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions.<ref name="A Rogue Returns"/> | |||
* {{cite book |last=Cordesman |first=Anthony H. |title=A Tragedy of Arms – Military and Security Developments in the Maghreb |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-275-96936-3 |page=2}}</ref> The government responded with repressive measures.<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"/> Riots and Islamic activisim were crushed by ].<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"/> Nevertheless, ] between 1995 and 1998 was politically unstable, due to the tribal allegiances of the local troops.<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"/> In 2003, Gaddafi announced that all of his regime's ] were disassembled, and that Libya was transitioning toward ].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> | |||
=== First Libyan Civil War and the fall of Gaddafi: 2011 === | |||
The eastern parts of the country become impoverished under Gaddafi's economic theories.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18290470 |title=A civil war beckons |date=2011-03-03 |publisher=The Economist }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18239900 |title=The liberated east – Building a new Libya |date=2011-02-24 |publisher=The Economist }}</ref> | |||
{{Main|First Libyan Civil War|2011 military intervention in Libya}} | |||
]]] | |||
The first civil war came during the ] movements which overturned the rulers of ] and ]. Libya first experienced protests against Gaddafi's regime on 15 February 2011, with a full-scale revolt beginning on ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |title=Live Blog – Libya |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=23 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223072304/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |archive-date=23 February 2011 }}</ref> Libya's authoritarian regime led by Muammar Gaddafi put up much more of a resistance compared to the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia. While overthrowing the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia was a relatively quick process, Gaddafi's campaign posed significant stalls on the uprising in Libya.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=http://oskicat.berkeley.edu/record=b18588098~S1|title=The Arab awakening: America and the transformation of the Middle East|date=1 January 2011|publisher=Brookings Institution|isbn=9780815722267|editor-last=Pollack|editor-first=Kenneth M.|location=Washington, DC|access-date=20 November 2016|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005825/http://oskicat.berkeley.edu/record=b18588098~S1|url-status=live}}</ref> The first announcement of a competing political authority appeared online and declared the ] as an alternative government. One of Gaddafi's senior advisors responded by posting a tweet, wherein he resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=Democracy's Fourth Wave?: Digital Media and the Arab Spring|last=Hussain1 Howard2|first=Muzammil M.1Philip N.2|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-993697-7|location=New York|page=23}}</ref> By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. On 27 February 2011, the ] was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control. On 10 March 2011, the United States and many other nations recognised the council headed by ] as acting prime minister and as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people and withdrawing the recognition of Gaddafi's regime.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://ntclibya.com/InnerPage.aspx?SSID=6&ParentID=3&LangID=1 | title =The Council"International Recognition | publisher =National Transitional Council (Libya) | date =1 March 2011 | access-date =23 October 2011 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110926043358/http://www.ntclibya.com/InnerPage.aspx?SSID=6&ParentID=3&LangID=1 | archive-date =26 September 2011 | df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 |title=Libya: France recognises rebels as government |work=BBC News |date=10 March 2011 |access-date=23 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023041256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 |archive-date=23 October 2011 }}</ref> | |||
] | |||
Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in ] and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the ''de facto'' centre of the uprising.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html |title=Qaddafi Forces Batter Rebels in Strategic Refinery Town |work=The New York Times |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=9 March 2011 |first1=Kareem |last1=Fahim |first2=David D. |last2=Kirkpatrick |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506221756/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html |archive-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref> The town of ], {{convert|48|km}} from Tripoli, was bombarded by ] and army tanks and seized by ], "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict."<ref>The Independent, 9 March 2011 P.4</ref> Organizations of the United Nations, including ] ]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |title=Ban Ki-moon blasts Gaddafi; calls situation dangerous |work=Hindustan Times |location=New Delhi |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227021434/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |archive-date=27 February 2011 }}</ref> and the ], condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |title=Some backbone at the U.N. |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303053657/http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |archive-date=3 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |agency=Sofia News Agency |title=Libya Expelled from UN Human Rights Council |date=2 March 2011 |access-date=2 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511093052/http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed ],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/jan/28/hillary-clinton-undercut-on-libya-war-by-pentagon-/print/ |title=Exclusive: Secret tapes undermine Hillary Clinton on Libyan war |author=Jeffrey Scott Shapiro |author2=Kelly Riddell |work=The Washington Times |date=28 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217010203/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/jan/28/hillary-clinton-undercut-on-libya-war-by-pentagon-/print/ |archive-date=17 February 2015 }}</ref> with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia, China, India, Brazil and Germany. The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a ] and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya.<ref>{{cite press release |url= https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808 |title= Security Council authorizes 'all necessary measures' to protect civilians in Libya |publisher= United Nations |date= 17 March 2011 |access-date= 30 March 2011 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503184921/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808 |archive-date= 3 May 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> On 19 March, the first act of NATO allies to secure the no-fly zone began by destroying Libyan air defenses when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a ] mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.<ref name="libyrate1">{{cite news |author=Marcus, Jonathan |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |title=French military jets open fire in Libya |work=BBC News |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320125209/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |archive-date=20 March 2011 }}</ref> | |||
In the weeks that followed, US American forces were in the forefront of NATO operations against Libya. More than 8,000 US personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area. At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/may/22/nato-libya-data-journalism-operations-country/ |title=NATO operations in Libya |publisher=The Guardian, London, 22 May 2011 |access-date=25 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624233946/http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/may/22/nato-libya-data-journalism-operations-country |archive-date=24 June 2014 |date=22 May 2011 }}</ref> The US air offensive included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers, each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs, flying out of and returning to their base in Missouri in the continental United States.<ref>Tirpak, John {{cite web |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/magazinearchive/pages/2011/july%202011/0711libya.aspx |title=Bombers Over Libya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608065130/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2011/July%202011/0711libya.aspx |archive-date=8 June 2014 }} Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association, Vol. 94, No. 7, July 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2014</ref> The support provided by the NATO air forces contributed to the ultimate success of the revolution.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/02/11/the-hidden-story-of-airpower-in-libya-and-what-it-means-for-syria/ |title=The hidden story of airpower in Libya (and what it means for Syria) |magazine=Foreign Policy |date=11 February 2013 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065752/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/02/11/the-hidden-story-of-airpower-in-libya-and-what-it-means-for-syria/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> By 22 August 2011, ] had entered Tripoli and occupied ],<ref name="Richburg">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/libyan-rebels-converging-on-tripoli/2011/08/21/gIQAbF3RUJ_story.html |title=Gaddafi's rule crumbling as rebels enter heart of Tripoli |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Keith B. |last=Richburg |date=22 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123234819/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/libyan-rebels-converging-on-tripoli/2011/08/21/gIQAbF3RUJ_story.html |archive-date=23 January 2012 }}</ref> which they renamed Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed since 17 February 2011. On 20 October 2011, the last heavy fighting of the uprising came to an end in the city of ]. The ] was both the last decisive battle and the last one in general of the ] where Gaddafi was captured and killed by ]-backed forces on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last Gaddafi loyalist stronghold and his place of birth. The defeat of ] forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011, three days after the fall of Sirte. At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/9835879 |title=Libyan estimate: At least 30,000 died in the war |author=Laub, Karin |agency=Associated Press |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=8 September 2011 |access-date=25 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104210601/http://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/9835879 |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref> In addition, the ] estimated 50,000 wounded.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/oct/26/libya-war-saving-lives-catastrophic-failure|title=If the Libyan war was about saving lives, it was a catastrophic failure {{!}} Seumas Milne|last=Milne|first=Seumas|date=26 October 2011|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 November 2017|issn=0261-3077|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132158/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/oct/26/libya-war-saving-lives-catastrophic-failure|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> | |||
Much of the country’s income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world.<ref name="A Rogue Returns"/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |title=Endgame in Tripoli |date=2011-02-24 |publisher=The Economist}}</ref><ref name="Geoffrey">{{Cite book|title=Libya: the struggle for survival|author=Geoffrey Leslie Simons|page=281}}</ref><ref name="Ronald Bruce St. John"/> An airstrike failed to kill Gaddafi in 1986. Libya was finally put under United Nations sanctions after the ] of a commercial flight killed hundreds of travelers. | |||
=== Interwar period and the Second Libyan Civil War: 2011–2020 === | |||
Gaddafi assumed the honorific title of "King of Kings of Africa" in 2008 as part of his campaign for a ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7588033.stm |title=Gaddafi: Africa's 'king of kings'|agency=BBC News |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> By the early 2010s, in addition to attempting to assume a leadership role in the ], Libya was also viewed as having formed closer ties with ], one of its former colonial rulers, than any other country in the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,747745,00.html |agency=Der Spiegel |title=Kissing the Hand of the Dictator: What Libya's Troubles Mean for Its Italian Allies |first=Hans-Jürgen |last=Schlamp |date=25 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Aftermath of the First Libyan Civil War|Second Libyan Civil War}} | |||
], updated 11 June 2020: | |||
<br />] ] | |||
<br />] ] | |||
<br />] Petroleum Facilities Guard | |||
<br />] ] tribes | |||
<br />] Local forces ]] | |||
Following the defeat of loyalist forces, Libya was torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities and tribes, while the central government had been weak and unable to effectively exert its authority over the country. Competing militias pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24985595 | work=BBC News | title=Armed militias still on the streets in Libya | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230053135/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24985595 | archive-date=30 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 7 July 2012, Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since the end of the former regime. On 8 August, the ] officially handed power over to the wholly-elected ], which was then tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new ] to be approved in a general ].<ref name="Esam-8-Aug">{{cite news |url=https://www.boston.com/news/world/middle-east/2012/08/08/libya-transitional-rulers-hand-over-power/uMPkXd9vTSSHg589mU9ykJ/story.html |title=Libya's transitional rulers hand over power |author=Esam Mohamed |agency=] |date=8 August 2012 |work=] |access-date=8 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208121751/http://www.boston.com/news/world/middle-east/2012/08/08/libya-transitional-rulers-hand-over-power/uMPkXd9vTSSHg589mU9ykJ/story.html |archive-date=8 December 2012 }}</ref> On 25 August 2012, in what Reuters reported as "the most blatant sectarian attack" since the end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a ] mosque with graves in the centre of the Libyan capital ]. It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days.<ref>{{cite news |last=Zargoun |first=Taha |title=Fighters bulldoze Sufi mosque in central Tripoli |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-islamists-idUSBRE87O08Y20120825 |work=Reuters |date=25 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023061116/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/25/us-libya-islamists-idUSBRE87O08Y20120825 |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref> Numerous acts of vandalism and destruction of heritage were carried out by suspected Islamist militias, including the removal of the Nude Gazelle Statue and the destruction and desecration of World War II-era British grave sites near Benghazi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Libya's Italian-era gazelle statue disappears in Tripoli|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29898279|access-date=19 August 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828143907/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29898279|archive-date=28 August 2016|date=4 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/04/libya-war-graves-desecrated|title=British war graves in Libya desecrated by Islamist militants|first=Chris|last=Stephen|date=4 March 2012|website=The Guardian|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-date=13 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313014511/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/04/libya-war-graves-desecrated|url-status=live}}</ref> Many other cases of heritage vandalism were reported to be carried out by Islamist-related radical militias and mobs that either destroyed, robbed, or looted a number of historic sites. | |||
====2011 civil war and coalition intervention==== | |||
] | |||
{{Recentism|date=March 2011}} | |||
{{Main|2011 Libyan civil war|Anti-Gaddafi forces|National Transitional Council|2011 coalition intervention in Libya}} | |||
].]]On 11 September 2012, Islamist militants mounted an ],<ref>{{cite web|title=2012 Benghazi attacks {{!}} History, Facts, & Information {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/2012-Benghazi-attacks|access-date=2022-01-30|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=30 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130100319/https://www.britannica.com/event/2012-Benghazi-attacks|url-status=live}}</ref> killing the US ambassador to Libya, ], and three others. The incident generated outrage in the United States and Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/09/12/world/africa/libya-consulate-attack-scene/|publisher=CNN|title=4 hours of fire and chaos: How the Benghazi attack unfolded|date=12 September 2012|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221061213/http://www.cnn.com/2012/09/12/world/africa/libya-consulate-attack-scene/|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect ] was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |author=Grant, George |title=Congress dismisses Abushagur |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/congress-dismisses-abushagur |date=7 October 2012 |access-date=7 October 2012 |work=Libya Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806163230/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/congress-dismisses-abushagur/ |archive-date=6 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Zaptia, Sami |title=Abushagur announces a smaller emergency cabinet |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/abushagur-announces-a-smaller-emergency-cabinet |work=Libya Herald |date=7 October 2012 |access-date=7 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809042311/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/abushagur-announces-a-smaller-emergency-cabinet/ |archive-date=9 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Libyan Prime Minister Mustafa Abu Shagur to stand down |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19864136 |date=7 October 2012 |work=BBC News |access-date=7 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007180429/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19864136 |archive-date=7 October 2012 }}</ref> On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer ] as prime minister-designate.<ref>{{cite news |author=Grant, George |title=Ali Zidan elected prime minister |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/14/ali-zidan-elected-prime-minister/ |date=14 October 2012 |access-date=14 October 2012 |work=Libya Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929211229/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/14/ali-zidan-elected-prime-minister/ |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref> Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya congress approves new PM's proposed government |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-government-idUSBRE89U18O20121031 |work=Reuters |date=31 October 2012 |access-date=31 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103022542/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/31/us-libya-government-idUSBRE89U18O20121031 |archive-date=3 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Zapita, Sami |title=Zeidan government sworn in |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/11/14/zeidan-government-sworn-in/ |date=14 November 2012 |access-date=3 June 2013 |work=Libya Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806023849/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/11/14/zeidan-government-sworn-in/ |archive-date=6 August 2013 }}</ref> On 11 March 2014, after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue oil shipment,<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/world/middleeast/libya-oil-tanker.html|author=Kirkpatrick, David D |title=U.S. Navy SEALs Take Control of Diverted Oil Tanker |newspaper=The New York Times |date=17 March 2014 |access-date=17 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321041136/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/world/middleeast/libya-oil-tanker.html?_r=0 |archive-date=21 March 2014 }}</ref> Prime Minister Zeidan stepped down, and was replaced by Prime Minister ].<ref>{{cite news |date=12 March 2014 |title=Libya ex-PM Zeidan 'leaves country despite travel ban' |work=] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26541979 |access-date=16 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315025552/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26541979 |archive-date=15 March 2014 }}</ref> | |||
After popular movements overturned the rulers of ] and ], its immediate neighbours to the west and east, Libya experienced a full-scale revolt beginning in February 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |title=Live Blog - Libya | Al Jazeera Blogs |publisher=Blogs.aljazeera.net |date=2011-02-17 |accessdate=2011-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.libyafeb17.com/?cat=8 |title=News | Libya February 17th |publisher=Libyafeb17.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-23}}</ref> By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. In the early hours of 21 February 2011, ], oldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, spoke on Libyan television of his fears that the country would fragment and be replaced by "15 Islamic fundamentalist emirates" if the uprising engulfed the entire state. He warned that the country's economic wealth and recent prosperity was at risk, admitted that "mistakes had been made" in quelling recent protests and announced that a constitutional convention would begin on 23 February. Shortly after this speech, the Libyan Ambassador to India announced on BBC Radio 5 live that he had resigned in protest at the "massacre" of protesters. | |||
The ] began in May 2014 following fighting between rival parliaments with tribal militias and ]ist groups soon taking advantage of the power vacuum. Most notably, radical Islamist fighters seized ] in 2014 and ] in 2015 in the name of the ]. In February 2015, neighbouring Egypt ] against IS in support of the Tobruk government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/21/world/middleeast/militants-claiming-isis-ties-say-they-carried-out-libya-bombings.html|work=The New York Times|title=Ties to Islamic State Cited by Group in Libya Attacks|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|first=David|last=Kirkpatrick|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221014458/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/21/world/middleeast/militants-claiming-isis-ties-say-they-carried-out-libya-bombings.html?_r=0|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/02/20/islamic-state-libya/23728623/|work=USA Today|title=How strong is the Islamic State in Libya?|last=Dean|first=Laura|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222193744/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/02/20/islamic-state-libya/23728623/|archive-date=22 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11426019/Isil-loyalists-claim-responsibility-for-car-bombs-in-Libya-killing-at-least-40-people.html|title=Isil loyalists claim responsibility for car bombs in Libya, killing at least 40 people|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Louisa|last=Loveluck|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221050052/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11426019/Isil-loyalists-claim-responsibility-for-car-bombs-in-Libya-killing-at-least-40-people.html|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> In June 2014, ] to the ], a new legislative body intended to take over from the ]. The elections were marred by violence and low turnout, with voting stations closed in some areas.<ref name="Jawad">{{cite news|last=Jawad|first=Rana|date=26 June 2014|title=Libyan elections: Low turnout marks bid to end political crisis|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-28005801|publisher=BBC|access-date=22 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812093413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-28005801|archive-date=12 August 2014}}</ref> Secularists and liberals did well in the elections, to the consternation of Islamist lawmakers in the GNC, who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC, refusing to recognise the new House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/former-libyan-parliament-reconvenes-elects-islamist-premier|title=Former Libyan parliament reconvenes, elects Islamist premier|agency=Al Akhbar English|date=25 August 2014|access-date=25 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826121713/http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/former-libyan-parliament-reconvenes-elects-islamist-premier|archive-date=26 August 2014}}</ref> Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to ].<ref name="WPost Aug. 24">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-denies-intervening-in-libya/2014/08/24/88b364ee-2b7d-11e4-be9e-60cc44c01e7f_story.html|title=Libya's Islamist militias claim control of capital|newspaper=The Washington Post|agency=Associated Press|date=24 August 2014|access-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825135414/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-denies-intervening-in-libya/2014/08/24/88b364ee-2b7d-11e4-be9e-60cc44c01e7f_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="guardian-20140909">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |title=Libyan parliament takes refuge in Greek car ferry |author=Chris Stephen |newspaper=The Guardian |date=9 September 2014 |access-date=24 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916072346/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |archive-date=16 September 2014 }}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi appeared on Libyan state TV to deny rumors of his runaway voiced by the ]'s foreign minister, ], saying, "I want to show that I'm in Tripoli and not in Venezuela. Do not believe the (TV) channels belonging to stray dogs."<ref>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Ian |authorlink=http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/ianblack |title=Muammar Gaddafi Lashes Out as Power Slips Away |work=] |publisher=Guardian News and Media Ltd |date=21 February 2011 |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/21/libya-protests-bloodiest-yet-gaddafi |accessdate=2011-02-22 |location=London}}</ref> His government has also portrayed the recent rebellion as being engineered by Western elements and ], and has been suspected of manipulating the Libyan news media through planted reports in newspapers and television.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/24/world/middleeast/24iht-m24libya.html |agency=New York Times |title=One Libyan Battle Is Fought in Social and News Media |date=23 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-03-02 |work=The New York Times |first=Emad |last=Mekay}}</ref> Two ] colonels flew their ] jets to ] and defected, claiming they refused orders to bomb protesters.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hooper |first=John |authorlink=http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/johnhooper |last2=Black |first2=Ian |authorlink2=http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/ianblack |title=Libya Defectors: Pilots Told to Bomb Protestors Flee to Malta |work=] |publisher=Guardian News and Media Ltd |date=21 February 2011 |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/21/libya-pilots-flee-to-malta |accessdate=2011-02-21 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Carroll |first=Tom |title=Libya Revolution at Tipping Point as Gaddafi Jets Defect to Malta |publisher=Aquapour Global news Online |date=21 February 2011 |url=http://aquapour.com/libya-revolution-at-tipping-point-as-gaddafi-jets-defect-to-malta/556114/ |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> The ] of ] claims it cannot verify a single airstrike against protesters has taken place since the unrest began.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rt.com/news/airstrikes-libya-russian-military/ |title="Airstrikes in Libya did not take place" – Russian military — RT |publisher=Rt.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-03}}</ref> | |||
], the head of the ], one of the main factions in the ]]] | |||
In January 2015, meetings were held with the aim to find a peaceful agreement between the rival parties in Libya. The so-called Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal conflict. However, the GNC actually never participated, a sign that internal division not only affected the "Tobruk Camp", but also the "Tripoli Camp". Meanwhile, terrorism within Libya steadily increased, also affecting neighbouring countries. The ] in ] on 18 March 2015 was reportedly carried out by two Libyan-trained militants.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fanack|title=Terrorism Increases in Libya as Politicians Talk|url=https://chronicle.fanack.com/libya/history-past-to-present/terrorism-increases-in-libya/|website=Fanack.com|date=22 April 2015|access-date=13 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518082502/https://chronicle.fanack.com/libya/history-past-to-present/terrorism-increases-in-libya/|archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> During 2015 an extended series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations, as conducted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), Spanish diplomat ].<ref>{{cite web |author=Fadel Senna |url=https://news.yahoo.com/photos/bernardino-leon-special-representative-head-united-nations-support-photo-200131803.html |title=Bernardino Leon, Special Representative and Head of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya, delivers a speech during UN-brokered talks in Skhirat, Morocco, on August 28, 2015 | View photo – Yahoo News |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=2 September 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 }}{{dead link|date=July 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.libya-businessnews.com/2015/01/27/video-remarks-by-srsg-bernardino-leon-on-talks/ |title=Video: Remarks by SRSG Bernardino Leon on Talks |access-date=9 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122322/http://www.libya-businessnews.com/2015/01/27/video-remarks-by-srsg-bernardino-leon-on-talks/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |date=27 January 2015 }}</ref> UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in addition to the usual work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/LYProgramme.aspx |title=OHCHR in Libya |website=Ohchr.org |date=17 September 2012 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424053019/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/LYProgramme.aspx |archive-date=24 April 2016 }}</ref> In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations, which at that point had just achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out "a comprehensive framework... includ guiding principles... institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of a permanent constitution." | |||
Talks, negotiations and dialogue continued on during mid-2015 at various international locations, culminating at Skhirat in Morocco in early September.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/undpa/speeches-statements/15072015/libya |title=15 July 2015, Security Council briefing on the situation in Libya, Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Libya Bernardino Leon | Department of Political Affairs |publisher=United Nations |date=15 July 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023061451/http://www.un.org/undpa/speeches-statements/15072015/libya |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Miles |first=Tom |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-talks-idUSKCN0R428N20150905 |title=U.N. sees Libya talks entering final mile, eyes Sept. 20 deal |work=Reuters |date=4 September 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023060912/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/09/05/us-libya-security-talks-idUSKCN0R428N20150905 |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref> | |||
Also in 2015, as part of the ongoing support from the international community, the UN Human Rights Council requested a report about the Libyan situation<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/HRC/28/L.7/Rev.1 |title=United Nations Official Document |publisher=United Nations |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604074058/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A%2FHRC%2F28%2FL.7%2FRev.1 |archive-date=4 June 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15771&LangID=E |title=Human Rights Council adopts eight resolutions and closes twenty-eighth session |website=Ohchr.org |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424055015/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15771&LangID=E |archive-date=24 April 2016 }}</ref> and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ], established an investigative body (OIOL) to report on human rights and rebuilding the Libyan justice system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/OIOL.aspx |title=OHCHR Investigation on Libya |website=Ohchr.org |date=1 January 2014 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401234723/http://ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/OIOL.aspx |archive-date=1 April 2016 }}</ref> Chaos-ridden Libya emerged as a major transit point for ]. Between 2013 and 2018, nearly 700,000 migrants reached Italy by boat, many of them from Libya.<ref>{{cite news |title=African migrants fear for future as Italy struggles with surge in arrivals |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-migrants-africa/african-migrants-fear-for-future-as-italy-struggles-with-surge-in-arrivals-idUSKBN1A30QD |work=Reuters |date=18 July 2017 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402002627/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-migrants-africa/african-migrants-fear-for-future-as-italy-struggles-with-surge-in-arrivals-idUSKBN1A30QD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What will Italy's new government mean for migrants? |url=https://www.thelocal.it/20180521/what-will-italys-new-government-mean-for-migrants |newspaper=The Local Italy |date=21 May 2018 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401231010/https://www.thelocal.it/20180521/what-will-italys-new-government-mean-for-migrants |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2018 Libya's rival leaders agreed to hold parliamentary and presidential elections following a meeting in Paris.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/libya-rival-leaders-agree-hold-elections-december-180529082326218.html|title=Libya's rival leaders agree to hold elections in December|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=1 July 2018|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918003214/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/libya-rival-leaders-agree-hold-elections-december-180529082326218.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2019, ] launched ], in an offensive by the ] aimed to seize Western territories from the ] (GNA).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48000672|title=Clashes erupt south of Libyan capital|date=20 April 2019|access-date=20 April 2019|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526211007/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48000672|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2019, forces allied to Libya's UN-recognized Government of National Accord successfully captured Gharyan, a strategic town where military commander Khalifa Haftar and his fighters were based. According to a spokesman for GNA forces, Mustafa al-Mejii, dozens of LNA fighters under Haftar were killed, while at least 18 were taken prisoner.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thedefensepost.com/2019/06/27/libya-gna-forces-capture-gharyan-haftar-lna/|title=Libya government forces capture key town from Haftar's fighters|access-date=27 June 2019|work=The Defense Post|date=27 June 2019|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205614/https://www.thedefensepost.com/2019/06/27/libya-gna-forces-capture-gharyan-haftar-lna/|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2020, UN-backed government of ] commenced Operation Peace Storm. The government initiated the bid in response to the state of assaults carried by ] ]'s ]. "We are a legitimate, civilian government that respects its obligations to the international community, but is committed primarily to its people and has an obligation to protect its citizens," Sarraj said in line with his decision.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theunionjournal.com/sarraj-announces-launch-of-operation-peace-storm-in-response-to-haftar-attacks-middle-east-monitor/|title=Sarraj announces launch of Operation Peace Storm in response to Haftar attacks|access-date=27 March 2020|website=The Union Journal|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623112331/https://www.theunionjournal.com/sarraj-announces-launch-of-operation-peace-storm-in-response-to-haftar-attacks-middle-east-monitor/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 28 August 2020, the ''] Africa Eye'' and ''BBC Arabic Documentaries'' revealed that a drone operated by the ] (UAE) killed 26 young cadets at a military academy in ], on 4 January. Most of the cadets were teenagers and none of them were armed. The Chinese-made drone ] fired Blue Arrow 7 missile, which was operated from UAE-run Al-Khadim Libyan air base. In February, these drones stationed in Libya were moved to an air base near ] in the western Egyptian desert.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53917791|title=UAE implicated in lethal drone strike in Libya|work=BBC News|date=28 August 2020|access-date=28 August 2020|archive-date=11 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211090852/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53917791|url-status=live}}</ref> '']'' probed and discovered the blatant violation of ] arms embargo by the ] and ] on 7 October 2020. As per the reporting, both the nations sent large-scale military cargo planes to Libya in support of their respective parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/oct/07/turkey-and-uae-openly-flouting-un-arms-embargo-to-fuel-war-in-libya|title=Turkey and UAE openly flouting UN arms embargo to fuel war in Libya|access-date=7 October 2020|website=The Guardian|date=7 October 2020|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627094735/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/oct/07/turkey-and-uae-openly-flouting-un-arms-embargo-to-fuel-war-in-libya|url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 October 2020, ] was signed to end the war.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |last2=McDowall |first2=Angus |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Gareth |editor2-last=Maclean |editor2-first=William |title=Warring Libya rivals sign truce but tough political talks ahead |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ceasefire/warring-libya-rivals-sign-truce-but-tough-political-talks-ahead-idUSKBN2781BD?il=0 |access-date=21 April 2021 |work=] |date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203235018/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ceasefire/warring-libya-rivals-sign-truce-but-tough-political-talks-ahead-idUSKBN2781BD?il=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
As of early March 2011, much of Libya has tipped out of Gaddafi's control, coming under the aegis of a coalition of opposition forces, including soldiers who decided to support the rebels. Pro-Gaddafi forces have been able to militarily respond to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack on the strategic coastal towns of Ras Lanuf and Brega.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html?_r=1&hp |title="Qaddafi Forces Batter Rebels in Strategic Refinery Town" – NYTimes |publisher=New York Times |date=2011-03-09 |accessdate=2011-03-09 |first1=Kareem |last1=Fahim |first2=David D. |last2=Kirkpatrick}}</ref> The town of ], 30 miles from Tripoli, was bombarded by planes and tanks and seized by pro-Gaddafi troops, "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict."<ref>The Independent, 9 March 2011 P.4</ref> Eastern Libya, centered on the ] and vital port of ], is said to be firmly in the hands of the opposition, while Tripoli and its environs remain in dispute.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/02/2011228143136646521.html |agency=Al Jazeera English |date=28 February 2011 |title=Protesters march in Tripoli |accessdate=2011-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 | work=BBC News | title=Libya: France recognises rebels as government | date=10 March 2011}}</ref><ref>. Retrieved 10 March 2011</ref> | |||
=== Post-civil war years: 2020–present === | |||
However, in several public appearances, Gaddafi has threatened to destroy the protest movement, and ] and other agencies have reported his government is arming pro-Gaddafi militiamen to kill protesters and defectors against the regime in Tripoli.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/02/2011225165641323716.html |agency=Al Jazeera |title=Gaddafi vows to crush protesters |date=25 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref> Organs of the ], including ] ]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |title=Ban Ki-moon blasts Gaddafi; calls situation dangerous |agency=Hindustan Times |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref> and the ], have condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action urged by Libya's own delegation to the UN.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |title=Some backbone at the U.N. |agency=The Los Angeles Times |date=26 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |agency=Sofia News Agency |title=Libya Expelled from UN Human Rights Council |date=2 March 2011 |accessdate=2011-03-02}}</ref> The ] imposed ] against Libya,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2011/02/20112261461685557.html |title=US slaps sanctions on Libyan govt |agency=Al Jazeera |date=26 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref> followed shortly by ],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/australia-imposes-sanctions-on-libya-20110227-1b9k0.html |title=Australia imposes sanctions on Libya |agency=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=27 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> ]<ref>{{cite news |author=|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2011/02/27/harper-libya.html |title=Canada imposes additional Libyan sanctions - Politics - CBC News |publisher=Cbc.ca |date= 27 February 2011|accessdate=2011-02-28}}</ref> and the ], which also voted to refer Gaddafi and other government officials to the ] for investigation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/africa/news/article_1622265.php/UN-Security-Council-orders-sanctions-against-Libya-1st-Lead |agency=Monsters & Critics |date=27 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-27|title=UN Security Council orders sanctions against Libya}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41785849/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/ |title=U.N. Security Council slaps sanctions on Libya |date=26 February 2011 |agency=MSNBC |accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Libyan Crisis (2011–present)}} | |||
{{Expand section|date=December 2021}} | |||
In December 2021, the ] was scheduled, but was delayed to June 2022<ref>{{cite web|title=Why Libya's election got postponed: A quick guide|work=Al Jazeera|date=23 December 2021|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/23/why-libya-election-got-postponed|access-date=April 28, 2022|archive-date=28 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428143759/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/23/why-libya-election-got-postponed|url-status=live}}</ref> and later postponed further. | |||
] was appointed prime minister by the parliament in February 2022 to lead a transitional administration, but standing prime minister ] refused to hand over power as of April 2022. In protest against the Dbeibah government, tribal leaders from the desert town of ] shut down the ], Libya's largest oil field, on 18 April 2022. The shut down threatened to cause oil shortages domestically in Libya, and preclude the state-run National Oil Corp. from exploiting the high oil prices on the international market resulting from the ].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Magdy |first1=Samy |title=Libya's largest oil field closed as turmoil intensifies |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/libyas-largest-oil-field-closed-turmoil-intensifies-84146310 |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=] |date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419011048/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/libyas-largest-oil-field-closed-turmoil-intensifies-84146310 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2 July, the ] was burned down by protesters.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-07-02 |title=Libya protesters storm parliament building in Tobruk |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62018882 |access-date=2022-07-04 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704191615/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62018882 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
On 26 February 2011, the ] was established under the stewardship of ], Gaddafi's former justice minister, to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control. This marked the first serious effort to organize the broad-based opposition to the Gaddafi regime. While the council is presently based in Benghazi, it claims Tripoli as its capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lse.co.uk/FinanceNews.asp?ArticleCode=77c8l0riig2uluz&ArticleHeadline=Ex_Libyan_minister_forms_interim_govtreport |title=Ex Libyan minister forms interim govt-report |agency=LSE |date=26 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> ], a human rights lawyer, later assumed the role of spokesman for the council.<ref name="Ghoga">{{cite news |url=http://dailycaller.com/2011/02/27/libyan-rebels-say-they-dont-want-foreign-intervention/#ixzz1FC9U2sTZ |title=Libyan rebels say they don’t want foreign intervention |date=27 February 2011 |agency=The Daily Caller |first=Will |last=Rahn |accessdate=2011-03-01}}</ref> On 10 March 2011 , France became the first state to recognise the National Libyan Council as the country's legitimate government. | |||
On September 10, 2023, catastrophic floods due to ]s generated by ] devastated the port city of ], killing more than 5,900 and possibly as many as 24,000.<ref name="ALMONITOR">{{cite news|title=A year on, rebuilding Libya's flood-hit Derna plagued by politics|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/09/year-rebuilding-libyas-flood-hit-derna-plagued-politics|publisher=]|date=7 September 2024|access-date=8 September 2024}}</ref> The floods were the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history.<ref name="October 3 update">{{cite web |last1=Ndebele |first1=Lenin |title=A storm caused devastation in Libya, but politics may be its biggest problem in the aftermath |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/africa/news/a-storm-caused-devastation-in-libya-but-politics-may-be-its-biggest-problem-in-the-aftermath-20231003 |publisher=News24 |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004014657/https://www.news24.com/news24/africa/news/a-storm-caused-devastation-in-libya-but-politics-may-be-its-biggest-problem-in-the-aftermath-20231003 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
On 17 March 2011 the ] passed ] with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions. Resolution 1973 sanctioned the establishment a ] and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808|title=Security Council authorizes ‘all necessary measures’ to protect civilians in Libya|publisher=United Nations-DPI/NMD - UN News Service Section|date=March 17, 2011|accessdate=March 30, 2011}}</ref> | |||
In November 2024, the ] would instate a morality police to crack-down on "weird haircuts", enforce “modest” clothing, and require male guardians for women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Libyan Government reinstates morality police|url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/fears-religious-freedom-libya-proposes-new-morality-police|access-date=2024-11-12 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
Shortly afterwards, Libyan Foreign Minister Mussa Kussa stated that "Libya has decided an immediate ceasefire and an immediate halt to all military operations".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12787739 | work=BBC News | title=Libya: Pro-Gaddafi forces 'to observe ceasefire' | date=18 March 2011}}</ref> However, attacks against insurgent strongholds appear to have continued despite this claim. | |||
== Geography == | |||
On Saturday 19 March 2011, the first Allied act to secure the no-fly zone began when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a ] mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.<ref> BBC News 19 March 2011.</ref> Allied military action to enforce the ceasefire commenced the same day when a French aircraft opened fire and destroyed an enemy vehicle on the ground. French jets also destroyed five enemy tanks belonging to the Gaddafi regime.<ref name=libyrate1> BBC News 19 March 2011.</ref> | |||
{{Main|Geography of Libya|Wildlife of Libya}} | |||
The United States and United Kingdom launched attacks on over 20 "integrated air defense systems" using more than 110 ] during operations ] and ].<ref name=bbc>{{cite news|title=Coalition launches Libya attacks|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12796972|accessdate=20 March 2011|newspaper=BBC|date=19 March 2011}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
Libya extends over {{convert|1759540|km2|sqmi|0}}, making it the ]. Libya is bounded to the north by the ], the west by ] and ], the southwest by ], the south by ], the southeast by ], and the east by ]. Libya lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ]. | |||
==Geography== | |||
{{Main|Geography of Libya}} | |||
{{MapLibrary|Libya_sat.jpg|Libya}} | |||
] | |||
] area. Annual rainfall averages at between 400 and 600 millimetres (15.7 and 23.6 inches).<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 15, 2006.</ref>]] | |||
Libya extends over {{convert|1759540|km2|sqmi|0|lk=out}}, making it the ]. Libya is somewhat smaller than ] in land area, and roughly the size of the US state of ]. It is bound to the north by the ], the west by ] and ], the southwest by ], the south by ] and ] and to the east by ]. Libya lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ]. | |||
At {{convert|1770|km|mi|0}}, Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean.<ref> |
At {{convert|1770|km|mi|0}}, Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya Background|url=http://www.educationlibya.org/country_profile.htm|publisher=Education Libya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040426000721/http://www.educationlibya.org/country_profile.htm|archive-date=26 April 2004|date=30 March 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |title=Field Listings – Coastlines |work=The World Factbook |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716042040/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |archive-date=16 July 2017 }}</ref> The portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is often called the ]. The climate is mostly extremely dry and desertlike in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southtravels.com/africa/libya/weather.html |title=Weather and Climate in Libya |publisher=Southtravels.com |access-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605125808/http://www.southtravels.com/africa/libya/weather.html |archive-date=5 June 2013 }}</ref> | ||
Six ecoregions lie within Libya's borders: ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|display-authors=1|year=2017|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|pages=534–545|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|issn=0006-3568|last16=Hayes|first40=Jonathan|first43=Roeland|last43=Kindt|first42=Yara|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first41=Heinz|last41=Klöser|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last39=Ghazanfar|first38=Annette|last38=Patzelt|first37=Anthony G.|last37=Miller|first36=Othman A.|last44=Lillesø|last45=van Breugel|first35=José C.|last15=Barber|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|first49=Muhammad|first45=Paulo|last49=Saleem|first48=Khalaf F.|last48=Al-Shammari|first47=Maianna|last47=Voge|first46=Lars|last46=Graudal|last36=Llewellyn|last35=Brito|first16=Randy|last21=Price|last24=Suckling|first23=Don|last23=Weeden|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last22=Baillie|first21=Lori|first20=Wes|last25=Davis|last20=Sechrest|first19=Eileen|last19=Crist|first18=Vance|last18=Martin|first17=Cyril|last17=Kormos|first24=Kierán|first25=Crystal|first34=Lilian|first30=Peter|last34=Pintea|first33=Nadia|last33=de Souza|first32=Alexandra|last32=Tyukavina|first31=Svetlana|last31=Turubanova|last30=Potapov|last26=Sizer|first29=Tanya|last29=Birch|first28=David|last28=Thau|first15=Charles Victor|last27=Moore|first26=Nigel|first27=Rebecca|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden ] (known in Libya as the ''gibli''). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also ]s and ]. ] can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are ] and ]. | |||
Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden ] (known in Libya as the ''gibli''). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also ]s and ]. ] can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are ] and ].<ref name="WorldCulturalHeritage">{{cite web|title=Old Town of Ghadames (1986) Libyan Arab Jamahirya|url=http://heindorffhus.motivsamler.dk/worldheritage/frame-LibyaGhadames.htm|website=World Cultural Heritage|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810022226/http://heindorffhus.motivsamler.dk/worldheritage/frame-LibyaGhadames.htm|archive-date=10 August 2016 |date=20 July 2006}}</ref> Libya is one of the sunniest and driest countries in the world due to prevailing presence of desert environment.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} | |||
===Libyan Desert=== | |||
The ], which covers much of Libya, is one of the most arid places on earth.<ref name="SalakLibya" /> In places, decades may pass without ], and even in the ] rainfall seldom happens, once every 5–10 years. At ], as of 2006 the last recorded ] was in September 1998.<ref name="Libdesert">Zboray, András, , ''Fliegel Jezerniczky Expeditions''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> There is a large ], the ], just to the south of the northernmost scarp, with ] at its western extremity. The depression continues in a shallower form west, to the ] of ] and ]. | |||
Libya was a pioneer state in North Africa in species protection, with the creation in 1975 of the El Kouf protected area. The fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime favoured intense ]: "Before the fall of Gaddafi even hunting rifles were forbidden. But since 2011, poaching has been carried out with weapons of war and sophisticated vehicles in which one can find up to 200 gazelle heads killed by militiamen who hunt to pass the time. We are also witnessing the emergence of hunters with no connection to the tribes that traditionally practice hunting. They shoot everything they find, even during the breeding season. More than 500,000 birds are killed in this way each year, when protected areas have been seized by tribal chiefs who have appropriated them. The animals that used to live there have all disappeared, hunted when they are edible or released when they are not," explains zoologist Khaled Ettaieb.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://orientxxi.info/magazine/le-maghreb-prend-conscience-du-declin-de-sa-biodiversite,4034 |title=Le Maghreb prend conscience du déclin de sa biodiversité |date=4 August 2020 |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415011801/https://orientxxi.info/magazine/le-maghreb-prend-conscience-du-declin-de-sa-biodiversite,4034 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan desert can be extreme; on September 13, 1922 the town of ], which is located Southwest of ], recorded an air temperature of {{convert|57.8|°C|°F|lk=on}}, generally accepted as the highest recorded naturally occurring air temperature reached on Earth.<ref>Hottest Place, , ''Extreme Science''. Retrieved 02 March 2011.</ref> | |||
=== Libyan Desert === | |||
There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and ].<ref name="Libdesert" /> Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of ]s and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders. | |||
] | |||
] | |||
The ], which covers most of Libya, is one of the most arid and sun-baked places on earth.<ref name="SalakLibya" /> In places, decades may pass without seeing any rainfall at all, and even in the ] rainfall seldom happens, once every 5–10 years. At ], {{As of|2006|lc=y}} the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998.<ref name="Libdesert">{{cite web |url=http://www.fjexpeditions.com/frameset/florafauna.htm |author=András Zboray |title=Flora and Fauna of the Libyan Desert |publisher=Fliegel Jezerniczky Expeditions |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208062321/http://www.fjexpeditions.com/frameset/florafauna.htm |archive-date=8 December 2012 }}</ref> | |||
Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan Desert can be extreme; on 13 September 1922, the town of ], which is located southwest of ], recorded an air temperature of {{convert|58|°C|°F|1}}, considered to be a world record.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.extremescience.com/hottest.htm |title=How Hot is Hot? |publisher=Extreme Science |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202020747/http://www.extremescience.com/hottest.htm |archive-date=2 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Death_Valley">{{cite web|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |access-date=15 January 2013 |year=2012 |work=World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=Arizona State University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archive-date= 4 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name=El_Azizia>{{cite journal|last=El Fadli|first=KI|title=World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58 °C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|date=September 2012|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|volume=94|issue=2|page=199|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2013BAMS...94..199E|doi-access=free|issn=0003-0007 }}</ref> In September 2012, however, the world record figure of 58 °C was determined to be invalid by the ].<ref name="Death_Valley"/><ref name=El_Azizia/><ref>{{cite news |last=Westcott |first=Tom |title=Libya loses 'world's hottest place' record |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/09/15/libya-loses-worlds-hottest-place-record/ |work=Libya Herald |date=15 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820231702/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/09/15/libya-loses-worlds-hottest-place-record/ |archive-date=20 August 2013 }}</ref> | |||
Slightly further to the south are the ]s of ], Uweinat and Kissu. These ] mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the ]. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west.<ref name="Libdesert" /> The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive ] underneath much of the country. The water in this aquifer pre-dates the last ice ages and | |||
the Sahara desert itself.<ref>, ''NASA''. Retrieved March 24, 2007.</ref> The country is also home to the ], double impact craters found in the desert. | |||
<!-- Comment --> | |||
There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and ].<ref name="Libdesert" /> Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of ]s and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders. | |||
==Government and politics== | |||
{{Main|Politics of Libya}} | |||
Slightly further to the south are the ]s of Arkenu, Uweinat, and Kissu. These ] mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the ]. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west.<ref name="Libdesert" /> | |||
===Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya=== | |||
There are two branches of government in the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. The "revolutionary sector" comprises Revolutionary Leader Gaddafi, the Revolutionary Committees and the remaining members of the 12-person ], which was established in 1969.<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> The historical revolutionary leadership is not elected and cannot be voted out of office; they are in power by virtue of their involvement in the revolution. | |||
The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive ] underneath much of Libya. The water in the ] pre-dates the last ]s and the Sahara Desert itself.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_562.html |title=Fossil Water in Libya |publisher=NASA |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218110002/http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_562.html |archive-date=18 February 2013 }}</ref> This area also contains the ], which were once thought to be two impact craters.<ref name="CigoliniOthers2012a">Cigolini, C, C Laiolo, and M Rossetti (2012) ''Endogenous and nonimpact origin of the Arkenu circular structures (al-Kufrah basin-SE Libya)'' Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 47(11):1772–1788.</ref> | |||
The second sector, the ] sector, comprises Basic People's Congresses in each of the 1,500 urban wards, 32 Sha'biyat People's Congresses for the regions, and the National ]. These legislative bodies are represented by corresponding ] (Local People's Committees, Sha'biyat People's Committees and the National General People's Committee/Cabinet). | |||
== Politics == | |||
Every four years, the membership of the Basic People's Congresses elects their own leaders and the ] for the People's Committees, sometimes after many debates and a critical vote. The leadership of the Local People's Congress represents the local congress at the People's Congress of the next level. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the members of the National General People's Committee (the ]) at their annual meeting. | |||
{{Main|Politics of Libya}} | |||
]—headquarters of ]]] | |||
The government controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media. In cases involving a violation of "certain taboos", the private press, like ''The Tripoli Post'' has been censored,<ref name="mediacont">Special Report 2006, (May 2, 2006), , ''Committee to Protect Journalists''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> although articles that are critical of policies have been requested and intentionally published by the revolutionary leadership itself as a means of initiating reforms. | |||
] was the leader of Libya until ].]] | |||
The politics of Libya has been in a tumultuous state since the start of the ] and the NATO intervention related ] in 2011; the crisis resulted in the collapse of the ] and the ] of ], amidst the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|date=10 February 2021|title=Libya mired in chaos 10 years after Arab Spring|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210210-libya-mired-in-chaos-10-years-after-arab-spring|access-date=14 February 2022|work=]|archive-date=10 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210065147/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210210-libya-mired-in-chaos-10-years-after-arab-spring|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=19 October 2021|title=10 years since Kadhafi death, stability still eludes Libya|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211019-10-years-since-kadhafi-death-stability-still-eludes-libya|access-date=14 February 2022|work=]|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019034550/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211019-10-years-since-kadhafi-death-stability-still-eludes-libya|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=7 May 2021|title=Feature: Libyans struggling in poverty, chaos 10 years after NATO intervention|work=]|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-05/07/c_139928992.htm|access-date=14 February 2022|archive-date=14 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214012909/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-05/07/c_139928992.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The crisis was deepened by the ] in the ], resulting in the outbreak of the ] in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya's Second Civil War: How did it come to this?|url=http://www.conflict-news.com/libyas-second-civil-war-how-did-it-come-to-this/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320232806/http://www.conflict-news.com/libyas-second-civil-war-how-did-it-come-to-this/|archive-date=20 March 2015|access-date=22 March 2015|work=Conflict News}}{{cite web|author=National Post View|date=24 February 2015|title=National Post View: Stabilizing Libya may be the best way to keep Europe safe|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2015/02/24/national-post-view-stabilizing-libya-may-be-the-best-way-to-keep-europe-safe/|access-date=22 March 2015|work=National Post|archive-date=17 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317183803/http://news.nationalpost.com/2015/02/24/national-post-view-stabilizing-libya-may-be-the-best-way-to-keep-europe-safe/|url-status=live}}</ref> The control over the country is currently split between the ] (HoR) in ] and the ] (GNU) in ] and their respective supporters, as well as various ] and ] controlling different parts of the country.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Pelham|first=Nicolas|date=February 2015|title=Libya Against Itself|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2015/feb/19/libya-against-itself/|magazine=The New York Review of Books|access-date=18 February 2015|archive-date=14 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014045423/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2015/feb/19/libya-against-itself/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Fadel, L. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426075812/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2014/08/26/343444450/libyas-crisis-a-shattered-airport-two-parliaments-many-factions|date=2015-04-26}}</ref> | |||
The former legislature was the ], which had 200 seats.<ref name="cialegbr">{{cite web|title=Legislative Branch|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2101.html|work=The World Factbook|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021137/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2101.html|archive-date=11 October 2017}}</ref> The ], a largely unrecognised rival parliament based in the ''de jure'' capital of ], claims to be a legal continuation of the GNC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-parliaments-idUSKBN0GP18S20140825|work=Reuters|title=Libya's ex-parliament reconvenes, appoints Omar al-Hasi as PM|date=25 August 2014|access-date=4 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402112343/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/25/us-libya-security-parliaments-idUSKBN0GP18S20140825|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/28/egypt-reiterates-support-libyas-legitimate-institutions-amid-deepening-crisis/|work=Daily News Egypt|title=Egypt reiterates support for 'Libya's legitimate institutions' amid deepening crisis|date=28 December 2014|access-date=4 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408061506/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/28/egypt-reiterates-support-libyas-legitimate-institutions-amid-deepening-crisis/|archive-date=8 April 2015}}</ref> On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in ], the first free elections in almost 40 years.<ref name="rfi-elections" /> Around thirty women were elected to become members of parliament.<ref name="rfi-elections">{{cite web|title=Encouraging Libyan women to play a greater role in politics|url=http://www.english.rfi.fr/middle-east/20130204-encouraging-Libyan-women-play-greater-role-politics|publisher=Radio France Internationale|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501060424/http://www.english.rfi.fr/middle-east/20130204-encouraging-Libyan-women-play-greater-role-politics|archive-date=1 May 2013|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> Early results of the vote showed the ], led by former interim Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril, as front runner.<ref>{{cite news |author=Stephen, Chris |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/10/muslim-brotherhood-expectations-libyan-election |title=Muslim Brotherhood fell 'below expectations' in Libyan elections |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109195509/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/10/muslim-brotherhood-expectations-libyan-election |archive-date=9 November 2013 }}</ref> The ], affiliated to the ], has done less well than similar parties in Egypt and Tunisia.<ref name="econ-knack" /> It won 17 out of 80 seats that were contested by parties, but about 60 independents have since joined its caucus.<ref name="econ-knack">{{cite news |title=The knack of organisation |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21569418-muslim-brotherhood-looks-likely-make-further-gains-knack |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |date=12 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108062656/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21569418-muslim-brotherhood-looks-likely-make-further-gains-knack |archive-date=8 January 2018 }}</ref> As of January 2013, there was mounting public pressure on the National Congress to set up a drafting body to create a new constitution. Congress had not yet decided whether the members of the body would be elected or appointed.<ref>{{cite press release |title=In Libya, New Government Has Expressed Determination to Tackle Major Internal Problems, Including Precarious Security Situation, Security Council Told |date=29 January 2013 |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sc10902.doc.htm |publisher=United Nations |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212231408/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sc10902.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new ]. The new legislature allocates 30 seats for women, will have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allows Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office.<ref name="lh30march">{{cite news|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/03/30/congress-votes-to-replace-itself-with-new-house-of-representatives/|title=Congress votes to replace itself with new House of Representatives|work=Libya Herald|date=30 March 2014|access-date=1 April 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140331000000/http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/03/30/congress-votes-to-replace-itself-with-new-house-of-representatives/|archive-date=31 March 2014}}</ref> | |||
Libya is the most censored country in the Middle East and North Africa, according to the ].<ref>{{cite web | title=Freedom of the Press 2009 | url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf | work=| publisher=] | date= | accessdate=7 May 2009}}</ref> | |||
Following the 2012 elections, ] improved Libya's rating from Not Free to Partly Free, and now considers the country to be an electoral democracy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/libya|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203094555/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/libya|archive-date=3 February 2013|date=9 January 2013}}</ref> Gaddafi merged civil and ] courts in 1973. Civil courts now employ sharia judges who sit in regular ] and specialize in sharia appellate cases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/libya.htm |title=Libya |publisher=Law.emory.edu |access-date=18 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212203803/http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/libya.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 }}</ref> Laws regarding personal status are derived from Islamic law.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya Gender Equality Profile |url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Libya-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf |publisher=Unicef |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502222708/http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Libya-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> At a meeting of the ] on 2 December 2014, UN Special Representative ] described Libya as a non-state.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/12/03/Libya-has-moved-from-dictatorship-to-no-state-U-N-envoy.html|agency=Al Arabiya News|title=Libya moved from dictatorship to non-state: U.N. envoy|date=2 December 2014|access-date=4 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216202853/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/12/03/Libya-has-moved-from-dictatorship-to-no-state-U-N-envoy.html|archive-date=16 December 2014}}</ref> An agreement to form a ] was signed on 17 December 2015.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |author=Kingsley, Patrick |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/17/libyan-politicians-sign-un-peace-deal-unify-rival-governments |title=Libyan politicians sign UN peace deal to unify rival governments |newspaper=] |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217161008/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/17/libyan-politicians-sign-un-peace-deal-unify-rival-governments |archive-date=17 December 2015 }}</ref> Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member ] and a seventeen-member interim ] would be formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years.<ref name="theguardian.com" /> The ] would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the ], will be formed with members nominated by the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/views/news/middle-east/2015/12/25/Libyan-deal-on-course-but-who-is-on-board-.html |title=Libyan deal on course, but who is on board? |date=25 December 2015 |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128175153/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/views/news/middle-east/2015/12/25/Libyan-deal-on-course-but-who-is-on-board-.html |archive-date=28 January 2016 }}</ref> The formation of an interim unity government was announced on 5 February 2021, after its members were elected by the ] (LPDF).<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=UN-led Libya forum selects new interim government|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/5/libyas-factions-head-into-runoff-on-interim-government|access-date=2021-02-05|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220235724/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/5/libyas-factions-head-into-runoff-on-interim-government|url-status=live}}</ref> Seventy-four members of the LPDF cast ballots for four-member slates which would fill positions including the Prime Minister and the head of the Presidential Council.<ref name=":0" /> After no slates reached a 60% vote threshold, the two leading teams competed in a run-off election.<ref name=":0" /> ], a former ambassador to Greece, became head of the Presidential Council.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2021-02-05|title=Libya crisis: Vote to unite splintered nation|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55955228|access-date=2021-02-05|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415002202/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55955228|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] were banned by the 1972 Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71.<ref>Case Study: Libya, (2001), , ''Educational Module on Chemical & Biological Weapons Nonproliferation''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> According to the Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organisations (]) is allowed. However, because they are required to conform to the goals of the revolution, their numbers are small in comparison with those in neighbouring countries. ]s do not exist,<ref>Hodder, Kathryn, (2000), , ''Social Watch Africa''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> but numerous professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third pillar, along with the People's Congresses and Committees. These associations do not have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate. | |||
Meanwhile, the LPDF confirmed that ], a businessman, would be the transitional Prime Minister.<ref name=":1" /> All of the candidates who ran in this election, including the members of the winning slate, promised to appoint women to 30% of all senior government positions.<ref name=":1" /> The politicians elected to lead the interim government initially agreed not to stand in the national elections scheduled for 24 December 2021.<ref name=":1" /> However, Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh announced his candidature for president despite the ban in November 2021.<ref>{{cite web|title=Interim leader Abdul Hamid Dbeibah to run for Libyan presidency|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/22/interim-leader-dbeibah-to-run-for-libyan-elections|access-date=2021-12-19|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123000252/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/22/interim-leader-dbeibah-to-run-for-libyan-elections|url-status=live}}</ref> The Appeals Court in Tripoli rejected appeals for his disqualification, and allowed Dbeibeh back on the candidates' list, along with a number of other disqualified candidates, originally scheduled for December 24.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tripoli Appeals Court reinstates Dbeibah as presidential candidate {{!}} The Libya Observer|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/tripoli-appeals-court-reinstates-dbeibah-presidential-candidate|access-date=2021-12-19|website=www.libyaobserver.ly|language=en|archive-date=2 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202020058/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/tripoli-appeals-court-reinstates-dbeibah-presidential-candidate|url-status=dead}}</ref> Even more controversially, the court also reinstated ], a son of the former dictator, as a presidential candidate.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libyan court reinstates Saif Gaddafi as presidential candidate|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/2/libya-court-reinstates-gaddafis-son-as-presidential-candidate|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=24 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924121309/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/2/libya-court-reinstates-gaddafis-son-as-presidential-candidate|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi back in Libya presidential election race {{!}} The Libya Observer|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/saif-al-islam-gaddafi-back-libya-presidential-election-race|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.libyaobserver.ly|language=en|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206091010/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/saif-al-islam-gaddafi-back-libya-presidential-election-race|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 22 December 2021, Libya's Election Commission called for the postponement of the election until 24 January 2022.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-12-22|title=Libya elections: Delay called for in presidential poll|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59755677|access-date=2021-12-23|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702180744/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59755677|url-status=live}}</ref> Earlier, a parliamentary commission said it would be "impossible" to hold the election on 24 December 2021.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|date=2021-12-21|title=Fears of Libya violence as UN races to manage election postponement|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/21/fears-of-libya-violence-as-un-races-to-manage-election-postponement|access-date=2021-12-23|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404011702/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/21/fears-of-libya-violence-as-un-races-to-manage-election-postponement|url-status=live}}</ref> The UN called on Libya's interim leaders to "expeditiously address all legal and political obstacles to hold elections, including finalising the list of presidential candidates".<ref name="ReferenceA" /> However, at the last minute, the election was postponed indefinitely and the international community agreed to continue its support and recognition of the interim government headed by Mr Dbeibeh.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-12-26|title=UK's ambassador drawn into Libyan political crisis after elections called off|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/26/uk-accused-defending-corruption-libya-election-tweet|access-date=2021-12-28|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=24 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824120544/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/26/uk-accused-defending-corruption-libya-election-tweet|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-12-27|title=Libyan parliament delays next move amid election chaos|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/libyan-parliament-debates-election-chaos-2021-12-27/|access-date=2021-12-28|archive-date=3 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403234715/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/libyan-parliament-debates-election-chaos-2021-12-27/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to new election rules, a new prime minister has 21 days to form a cabinet that must be endorsed by the various governing bodies within Libya.<ref name=":1" /> After this cabinet is agreed upon, the unity government will replace all "parallel authorities" within Libya, including the Government of National Accord in Tripoli and the administration led by General Haftar.<ref name=":1" /> | |||
===Libyan Republic=== | |||
{{Main|National Transitional Council}} | |||
The ''Libyan Republic'' is the territory governed by the self-proclaimed ''Transitional National Council'' during the ]. On 5 March 2011 the council declared itself to be the "sole representative of all Libya". It is currently recognized by France,<ref>, New York Times, March 11, 2011</ref><ref>, BBC News</ref><ref>, Sydney Morning Herald</ref> Qatar,<ref>, The West Australian, March 29, 2011</ref><ref>, Focus News Agency, March 28, 2011</ref> Italy, and reportedly Portugal. It is also supported by several other Arab <ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/libyan-rebels-get-arab-league-boost-20110313-1bsgx.html | work=The Sydney Morning Herald | first=Karim | last=Talbi | title=Libyan rebels get Arab League boost | date=13 March 2011}}</ref> and European countries.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12711162 | work=BBC News | title=Libya: US and EU say Muammar Gaddafi must go | date=11 March 2011}}</ref> The council formed an interim government on 23 March 2011 with Mahmoud Jibril as prime minister.<ref>http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/2011322193944862310.html#</ref> | |||
==Foreign relations== | === Foreign relations === | ||
{{Main|Foreign relations of Libya}} | {{Main|Foreign relations of Libya}} | ||
Libya's foreign policies have fluctuated since 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, and was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day ]), of which it became a member in 1953.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) |title=Independent Libya |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120922002614/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) |archive-date=22 September 2012 }}</ref> The government was also friendly towards Western countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, ], ], ], and established full diplomatic relations with the ] in 1955.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zoubir|first=Yahia|year=2009|title=Libya and Europe: Economic Realism at the Rescue of the Qaddafi Authoritarian Regime|journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies|volume=17|issue=3|pages=401–415|doi=10.1080/14782800903339354|s2cid=153625134}}</ref> Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the ] or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered a conservative course at home.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get7.cgi?directory=Fall00/&filename=Abadi.htm |title=Pragmatism and Rhetoric in Libya's Policy Toward Israel |author=Abadi, Jacob |publisher=The Journal of Conflict Studies: Volume XX Number 1 Fall 2000, University of New Brunswick |year=2000 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330001903/http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get7.cgi?directory=Fall00%2F&filename=Abadi.htm |archive-date=30 March 2012 }}</ref> | |||
After the 1969 ], ] closed American and British bases and partly ] foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. Gaddafi was known for backing a number of leaders viewed as anathema to ] and ], including ] President ],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Idi Amin speaks: an annotated selection of his speeches|author1=Idi Amin |author2=Benoni Turyahikayo-Rugyema |year=1998|publisher=African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison |isbn=978-0-942615-38-8}}</ref> ] Emperor ],<ref name="stanik23">{{Cite book|title=El Dorado Canyon: Reagan's undeclared war with Qaddafi|author=Joseph T. Stanik|year=2003|publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-55750-983-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/eldoradocanyonre00stan}}</ref><ref name="leedavis16">{{Cite book |title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya |url=https://archive.org/details/qaddafiterrorism00davi |url-access=registration |author=Lee Davis, Brian |year=1990 |page=|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9780275933029 }}</ref> ] strongman ],<ref name="leedavis16" /> Liberian President ],<ref name="economistfall">{{cite news |url= http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9441341 |title= How the mighty are falling |access-date= 17 July 2007 |date= 5 July 2007 |newspaper= The Economist |location= London |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071012003829/http://economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9441341 |archive-date= 12 October 2007 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> and ] President ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alb-net.com/kcc/102699.htm |title=Gaddafi Given Yugoslavia's Top Medal By Milosevic |date=26 October 1999 |agency=Reuters |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515031023/http://www.alb-net.com/kcc/102699.htm |archive-date=15 May 2011 }}</ref> | |||
===Kingdom of Libya=== | |||
{{multiple image |total_width=450 |image1=Mutassim_Gadaffi_Hillary_Clinton.jpg |caption1=Libyan National Security Advisor ] and US Secretary of State ], April 2009 | |||
] | |||
|image2=Secretary Kerry, UK Foreign Secretary Hague Hold News Conference With Libyan Prime Minister Ziedan (11035773394).jpg |caption2=UK Foreign Secretary ] with Libyan Prime Minister ] and US Secretary of State ], November 2013}} | |||
Libya's foreign policies have fluctuated since 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, yet was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day ]), of which it became a member in 1953.<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> The government was also friendly towards Western countries such as the ], ], ], ], ], and established full diplomatic relations with the ] in 1955. | |||
Relations with the West were strained by a series of incidents for most of Gaddafi's rule,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/7967820/Yvonne-Fletcher-killer-may-be-brought-to-justice.html |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Gordon |last=Rayner |title=Yvonne Fletcher killer may be brought to justice |date=28 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831015645/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/7967820/Yvonne-Fletcher-killer-may-be-brought-to-justice.html |archive-date=31 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated183">{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Lee Davis, Brian |page=183}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Proclamation 4907 – Imports of Petroleum |publisher= US Office of the Federal Register |date= 10 March 1982 |url= http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/31082a.htm |author= President Ronald Reagan |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080306063835/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/31082a.htm |archive-date= 6 March 2008 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> including the killing of ] policewoman ], the ] of a ] nightclub frequented by US servicemen, and the bombing of ], which led to UN sanctions in the 1990s, though by the late 2000s, the United States and other Western powers had normalised relations with Libya.<ref name="SalakLibya" /> Gaddafi's decision to abandon the pursuit of ] after the ] saw ] ] overthrown and put on trial led to Libya being hailed as a success for Western ] initiatives in the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/3566545.stm |title=Blair hails new Libyan relations |work=BBC News |date=25 March 2004 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307231343/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/3566545.stm |archive-date=7 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Marcus |first=Jonathan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4774305.stm |title=Washington's Libyan fairy tale |work=BBC News |date=15 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116095214/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4774305.stm |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/23/opinion/why-libya-gave-up-on-the-bomb.html |title=Why Libya Gave Up on the Bomb |work=The New York Times |date=23 January 2004 |access-date=24 February 2011 |first=Flynt |last=Leverett |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401183534/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/23/opinion/why-libya-gave-up-on-the-bomb.html |archive-date=1 April 2011 }}</ref> In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their involvement in the ].<ref name="France 24 2010">{{cite web | title=Gaddafi warns Sudan secession would be dangerous for Africa | website=France 24 | date=10 Oct 2010 | url=https://www.france24.com/en/20101010-muammar-gaddafi-sudan-secession-danger-africa-libya | access-date=25 Jun 2021 | archive-date=28 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628090731/https://www.france24.com/en/20101010-muammar-gaddafi-sudan-secession-danger-africa-libya | url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Libya is included in the European Union's ] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Libyan authorities rejected European Union's plans aimed at stopping ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya rejects EU plans for migrant centers on its territory |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-libya/libya-rejects-eu-plans-for-migrant-centers-on-its-territory-idUSKBN1KA0X3 |work=Reuters |date=20 July 2018 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=29 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829212223/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-libya/libya-rejects-eu-plans-for-migrant-centers-on-its-territory-idUSKBN1KA0X3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Libyan authorities oppose EU migrant plans |url=https://euobserver.com/migration/136837 |work=EUobserver |date=8 February 2017 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205253/https://euobserver.com/migration/136837 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, Libya signed the UN ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the ] or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered an essentially conservative course at home.<ref>Abadi, Jacob (2000), , ''The Journal of Conflict Studies: Volume XX Number 1 Fall 2000, University of New Brunswick''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Military === | ||
{{main|Libyan Armed Forces}} {{Update|date=April 2016}} | |||
After the 1969 ], ] closed American and British bases and partly ] foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. | |||
Libya's ] was defeated in the ] and disbanded. The ] based ] who claim to be the legitimate government of Libya have attempted to reestablish a military known as the ]. Led by ], they control much of eastern Libya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/qa-libya-180909072236031.html|title=Q&A: What's next for Libya?|last=Allahoum|first=Ramy|date=9 September 2018|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=9 September 2018|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803092154/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/qa-libya-180909072236031.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2012, an estimated 35,000 personnel had joined its ranks.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news |title=In Libya, the Captors Have Become the Captive |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/magazine/in-libya-the-captors-have-become-the-captive.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=24 May 2012 |date=13 May 2012 |first=Robert F. |last=Worth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524082413/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/magazine/in-libya-the-captors-have-become-the-captive.html |archive-date=24 May 2012 }}</ref> The internationally recognised ] established in 2015 has ] that replaced the LNA, but it consists largely of undisciplined and disorganised militia groups. | |||
As of November 2012, it was deemed to be still in the embryonic stage of development.<ref>{{cite news |title=US-backed force in Libya face challenges |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/13/libya-middleeast |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=13 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227171955/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/13/libya-middleeast |archive-date=27 December 2016 }}</ref> President ] promised that empowering the army and police force is the government's biggest priority.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libyans lament their missing army |date=19 October 2012 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/2012101979848968.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124223045/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/2012101979848968.html |archive-date=24 January 2013 }}</ref> President el-Megarif also ordered that all of the country's militias must come under government authority or disband.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya orders 'illegitimate' militias to disband |url=https://news.yahoo.com/libya-orders-illegitimate-militias-disband-145952723.html |date=23 September 2012 |agency=Associated Press |author1=Mohamed, Esam |author2=Alfitory, Osama |publisher=Yahoo! News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305144339/http://news.yahoo.com/libya-orders-illegitimate-militias-disband-145952723.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> | |||
On 11 June 1972, Gaddafi announced that any Arab wishing to volunteer for Palestinian armed groups "can register his name at any Libyan embassy will be given adequate training for combat". He also promised financial support for attacks.<ref name="leedavis182">{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Brian Lee Davis|page=182}}</ref><ref>''Washington Post'' 12 June 1972</ref><ref>''The New York Times'' 12 June 1972</ref> | |||
Militias have so far refused to be integrated into a central security force.<ref name="hangover">{{cite news |title=The party and the hangover |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21572243-country-still-struggling-move-ahead-party-and-hangover |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |access-date=21 February 2013 |date=23 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222164235/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21572243-country-still-struggling-move-ahead-party-and-hangover |archive-date=22 February 2013 }}</ref> Many of these militias are disciplined, but the most powerful of them answer only to the executive councils of various Libyan cities.<ref name="hangover"/> These militias make up the so-called ], a parallel national force, which operates at the request, rather than at the order, of the defence ministry.<ref name="hangover"/> | |||
On 7 October 1972, Gaddafi praised the ], carried out by the ], and demanded Palestinian terrorist groups to carry out similar attacks.<ref name="leedavis182"/> | |||
=== Administrative divisions === | |||
Gaddafi created the ], a mercenary group associated with Arab supremacism. | |||
{{Main|Subdivisions of Libya|Districts of Libya|Baladiyat of Libya}} | |||
] | |||
Historically, the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), ] in the northwest, ] in the east, and ] in the southwest. It was the conquest by Italy in the ] that united them in a single political unit. | |||
Since 2007, Libya has been divided into 22 districts (]): | |||
He also played a key role in promoting oil ]es as a political weapon, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West to end support for Israel.<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, (2001–2005), , ''Bartleby Books''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> | |||
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In 2022, 18 provinces were declared by the Libyan Government of National Unity (): the eastern coast, Jabal Al-Akhdar, Al-Hizam, Benghazi, Al-Wahat, Al-Kufra, Al-Khaleej, Al-Margab, Tripoli, Al-Jafara, Al-Zawiya, West Coast, Gheryan, Zintan, Nalut, Sabha, Al-Wadi, and Murzuq Basin. | |||
In 1973 the ] intercepted the vessel ''Claudia'' in Irish territorial waters, which carried Soviet arms from Libya to the Provisional IRA.<ref>] Documentary: The Navy</ref><ref>Bowyer Bell, p. 398.</ref> | |||
In 1976 after a series of terror attacks by the ], Gaddafi announced that "the bombs which are convulsing Britain and breaking its spirit are the bombs of Libyan people. We have sent them to the Irish revolutionaries so that the British will pay the price for their past deeds".<ref name="leedavis182" /> | |||
=== Human rights === | |||
Gaddafi was a close supporter of Ugandan President ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Idi Amin speaks: an annotated selection of his speeches|author=Idi Amin, Benoni Turyahikayo-Rugyema|year=1998|isbn=0942615387}}</ref> Gaddafi was not alone – the ] armed Amin and ] ] agents came to build Amin's repression machinery.<ref name=libya1>{{Cite book|title=Africa since 1800|author=Roland Anthony Oliver, Anthony Atmore|page=272|isbn=0521419468}}</ref><ref name=ussr1>{{Cite book|title=Who influenced whom?|author=Dale C. Tatum|page=177|isbn=0761824448}}</ref><ref name=gdr1>Gareth M. Winrow: The foreign policy of the GDR in Africa, p. 141</ref> | |||
{{See also|Human rights in Libya}} | |||
Gaddafi shipped troops to fight against Tanzania on behalf of Idi Amin. About 600 Libyan soldiers lost their lives attempting to defend the collapsing presidency of Amin,<ref name="stanik23">{{Cite book|title=El Dorado Canyon: Reagan's undeclared war with Qaddafi|author=Joseph T. Stanik|year=2003|isbn=1557509832}}</ref> during which Amin's government killed hundreds of thousands of Ugandans. | |||
According to ] annual report 2016, journalists are still being targeted by the armed groups in Libya. The organization added that Libya ranked very low in the 2015 ], 154th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/libya|title=Libya|chapter=Libya: Events of 2015 |date=11 January 2016|publisher=Human Rights Watch|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216122230/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/libya|archive-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> For the 2021 Press Freedom Index its score dropped to 165th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=2021 World Press Freedom Index|url=https://rsf.org/en/index|publisher=]|access-date=28 April 2022 | archive-date=27 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427230843/https://rsf.org/en/ranking|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is illegal in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title=Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=16 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111064457/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |archive-date=11 November 2016 }}</ref> | |||
== Economy == | |||
Gaddafi aided ], the Emperor of the ].<ref name="stanik23"/><ref name="leedavis16">{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya|author=Brian Lee Davis|year=1990|page=16}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Economy of Libya}} | |||
] | |||
The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the ], which account for over half of GDP and 97% of exports.<ref name=star-oil /> Libya holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa and is an important contributor to the global supply of light, ].<ref name=eia-libya>{{cite web|title=Libya – Analysis|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=LY|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209221421/http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=LY|archive-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> During 2010, when oil averaged at $80 a barrel, oil production accounted for 54% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PETR.RT.ZS?locations=LY|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130151035/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PETR.RT.ZS?locations=LY|url-status=dead|title=Oil rents (% of GDP) - Libya | Data|archivedate=30 January 2018|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Apart from petroleum, the other natural resources are natural gas and ].<ref name=opec-libya/> The ] estimated Libya's real GDP growth at 122% in 2012 and 16.7% in 2013, after a 60% plunge in 2011.<ref name="star-oil">{{cite news |title=Oil production boosts Libya economy, instability hampers reconstruction |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Middle-East/2012/Oct-20/192086-oil-production-boosts-libya-economy-instability-hampers-reconstruction.ashx |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=20 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209165315/http://dailystar.com.lb/Business/Middle-East/2012/Oct-20/192086-oil-production-boosts-libya-economy-instability-hampers-reconstruction.ashx |archive-date=9 February 2013 }}</ref> | |||
The ] defines Libya as an 'Upper Middle Income Economy', along with only seven other African countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income |title=Upper Middle Income Economies |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524215837/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20421402~pagePK%3A64133150~piPK%3A64133175~theSitePK%3A239419%2C00.html |archive-date=24 May 2008 }}</ref> Substantial revenues from the energy sector, coupled with a small population, give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa.<ref name=opec-libya/> This allowed the ] state to provide an extensive level of ], particularly in the fields of housing and education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/E.1990.5.Add.26.En?OpenDocument |title=Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Report |publisher=] |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914071759/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/E.1990.5.Add.26.En?OpenDocument |archive-date=14 September 2013 }}</ref> | |||
Together with Moscow and Fidel Castro, Gaddafi supported Soviet protege ],<ref name="leedavis16"/> who was later convicted for a ] that killed thousands at least. | |||
] off the Libyan coast]] | |||
In October 1981 Egypt's President ] was assassinated. Gaddafi applauded the murder and remarked that it was a punishment.<ref>{{Cite book |title=El Dorado Canyon: Reagan's undeclared war with Qaddafi |author=Joseph T. Stanik |isbn=1557509832}}</ref> | |||
Libya faces many structural problems including a lack of institutions, weak governance, and chronic ].<ref name=imf-survey>{{cite web |title=Libya on Recovery Path but Faces Long Rebuilding Effort |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/car041612a.htm |publisher=] |year=2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205112847/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/CAR041612A.htm |archive-date=5 February 2013 }}</ref> The economy displays a lack of economic diversification and significant reliance on immigrant labour.<ref name=ilo-libya/> Libya has traditionally relied on unsustainably high levels of public sector hiring to create employment.<ref name=african-outlook/> In the mid-2000s, the government employed about 70% of all national employees.<ref name=ilo-libya>{{cite web |title=Libya |url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/afpro/cairo/countries/libya.htm |publisher=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224044414/http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/afpro/cairo/countries/libya.htm |archive-date=24 December 2012 }}</ref> | |||
Unemployment rose from 8% in 2008 to 21% in 2009, according to the census figures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE52106820090302 |title=Libya's Jobless Rate at 20.7 Percent |agency=Reuters Africa |date=2 March 2009 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020102458/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE52106820090302 |archive-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref> According to an ] report, based on data from 2010, unemployment for women stands at 18% while for the figure for men is 21%, making Libya the only Arab country where there are more unemployed men than women.<ref>{{cite web|title=More men unemployed than women in Libya: report|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/18/201511.html|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=18 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502214611/http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/18/201511.html|archive-date=2 May 2012|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> Libya has high levels of social inequality, high rates of youth unemployment and regional economic disparities.<ref name=african-outlook>{{cite web |title=Libya |url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/libya/ |publisher=African Economic Outlook |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326041650/http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/libya/ |archive-date=26 March 2013 }}</ref> Water supply is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf |title=Safe Drinking Water |publisher=WHO/UNIADF Joint Monitoring Programme |year=2000 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040550/http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> | |||
Neighboring Arab countries and the United States became concerned of Gaddafi's policies, and they made a deal to increase in military credits and training.<ref>El-Warfally, Mahmoud, (1988), "Imagery and Ideaology in U.S. Policy Toward Libya pp. 155–174.</ref> | |||
] in ], southeast Libya, 2008]] | |||
In April 1984, Libyan refugees in London protested against execution of two dissidents. Libyan diplomats shot at 11 people and killed ]. The incident led to the breaking off of ] between the United Kingdom and Libya for over a decade.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/7967820/Yvonne-Fletcher-killer-may-be-brought-to-justice.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | first=Gordon | last=Rayner | title=Yvonne Fletcher killer may be brought to justice | date=28 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Libya, which includes ] and ]. These routes have further contributed in the economic development of Libya. | |||
Libya imports up to 90% of its cereal consumption requirements, and imports of wheat in 2012/13 was estimated at 1 million tonnes.<ref name="fao giews"/> The 2012 wheat production was estimated at 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="fao giews"/> The government hopes to increase food production to 800,000 tonnes of cereals by 2020.<ref name="fao giews"/> However, natural and environmental conditions limit Libya's agricultural production potential.<ref name="fao giews">{{cite web|title=Country Brief on Libya|url=http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=LBY|publisher=FAO Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111081055/http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=LBY|archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Before 1958, agriculture was the country's main source of revenue, making up about 30% of GDP. With the discovery of oil in 1958, the size of the agriculture sector declined rapidly, comprising less than 5% GDP by 2005.<ref name=voa-olive>{{cite web|title=Olive Oil – Libya's Other Oil Economy|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/olive_oil_libyas_other_oil_economy/1120507.html|publisher=VOA News|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806102942/http://www.voanews.com/content/olive_oil_libyas_other_oil_economy/1120507.html|archive-date=6 August 2012|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi asserted in June 1984 that he wanted his agents to assassinate dissident refugees even when they were on pilgrimage in the holy city of ]. In August 1984, one Libyan plot in Mecca was thwarted by Saudi Arabian police.<ref name="autogenerated183">{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Brian Lee Davis|page=183}}</ref> | |||
The country joined ] in 1962.<ref name=opec-libya>{{cite web|title=Libya facts and figures|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/166.htm|publisher=OPEC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519225427/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/166.htm|archive-date=19 May 2014}}</ref> Libya is not a ] member, but negotiations for its accession started in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya – Trade|url=http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/countries/libya/|publisher=European Commission|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213194016/http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/countries/libya/|archive-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its ] was higher than some developed countries.<ref>''Philips' Modern School Atlas'', 1987, 1983 GNP per capita figures are quoted in a list.</ref> | |||
After December 1985 ], which killed 19 and wounded around 140, Gaddafi indicated that he would continue to support the Red Army Faction, the Red Brigades, and the Irish Republican Army as long as European countries support anti-Gaddafi Libyans.<ref name="Ronald Bruce St. John">{{Cite journal|last=St. John|first=Ronald Bruce|title=Libyan terrorism: the case against Gaddafi|journal=Contemporary Review|date=1 December 1992|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801}}</ref> | |||
The Foreign Minister of Libya also called the massacres "heroic acts".<ref name=Seale245>]. ''Abu Nidal: A Gun for Hire''. Hutchinson, 1992, p. 245.</ref> | |||
].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727073822/http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2011/06/11/libya |date=27 July 2011 }}, Glenn Greenwald. Salon. 11 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011</ref>]] | |||
In 1986 Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Brian Lee Davis|page=186}}</ref> | |||
In the early 2000s officials of the Jamahiriya era carried out economic reforms to reintegrate Libya into the global economy.<ref name="CIA" /> ] were lifted in September 2003, and Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Other steps have included applying for membership of the ], reducing ], and announcing plans for ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3929727.stm|publisher=BBC|date=27 July 2004|title=WTO go-ahead for Libya talks|access-date=21 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617000545/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3929727.stm|archive-date=17 June 2013}}</ref> | |||
Authorities privatized more than 100 government owned companies after 2003 in industries including oil refining, tourism and real estate, of which 29 were 100% foreign owned.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohn |first=Carolyn |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE56N02L20090724 |title=Libya expects nearly $2 bln in new FDI |agency=Reuters Africa |date=24 July 2009 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020102503/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE56N02L20090724 |archive-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref> Many international oil companies returned to the country, including oil giants ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shell returns to Libya with gas exploration pact|url=http://www.oilandgasnewsworldwide.com/News.asp?Article=16404|publisher=Oil & Gas News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050513162749/http://www.oilandgasnewsworldwide.com/News.asp?Article=16404|archive-date=13 May 2005|date= 9–15 May 2005}}</ref> After sanctions were lifted there was a gradual increase of air traffic, and by 2005 there were 1.5 million yearly air travellers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jawad |first=Rana |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5030998.stm |title=Libyan aviation ready for take-off |work=BBC News |date=31 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410012030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5030998.stm |archive-date=10 April 2013 }}</ref> Libya had long been a notoriously difficult country for Western tourists to visit due to stringent visa requirements.<ref>{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Bangs |author2=Ammar Mabrouk Eltaye |title=Libya sees thriving tourism industry ahead |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5210117 |access-date=10 October 2007 |archive-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924003329/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5210117 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi claimed the ] as his territorial water and his navy was involved in a conflict from January to March 1986. | |||
In 2007, ], the second-eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, was involved in a ] project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which sought to bring tourism to ] and to preserve ] ruins in the area.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Green Resort Is Planned to Preserve Ruins and Coastal Waters|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/16/science/16liby.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=16 October 2007|first=Elisabeth|last=Rosenthal|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227172005/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/16/science/16liby.html|archive-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> In August 2011, it was estimated that it would take at least 10 years to rebuild Libya's infrastructure. Even before the 2011 war, Libya's infrastructure was in a poor state due to "utter neglect" by Gaddafi's administration, according to the NTC.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14684547 |title=Libyan sovereign wealth fund 'missing $2.9bn' |work=BBC News |date=26 August 2011 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118232128/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14684547 |archive-date=18 January 2013 }}</ref> By October 2012, the economy had recovered from the 2011 conflict, with oil production returning to near normal levels.<ref name="star-oil" /> Oil production was more than 1.6 million barrels per day before the war. By October 2012, the average oil production has surpassed 1.4 million bpd.<ref name="star-oil" /> The resumption of production was made possible due to the quick return of major Western companies, like ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="star-oil" /> In 2016, an announcement from the company said the company aims 900,000 barrel per day in the next year. Oil production has fallen from 1.6 million barrel per day to 900,000 in four years of war.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/libya-militias-battle-for-control-of-oil-ports|title=As The Power Struggle Endures, Libya Eyes 900,000 Bpd Oil Output|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209041257/http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/libya-militias-battle-for-control-of-oil-ports|archive-date=9 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents ], killing three people and injuring 229 people who were spending the evening there. Gaddafi's plan was intercepted by Western intelligence. More detailed information was retrieved years later when ] archives were investigated by the reunited Germany. Libyan agents who had carried out the operation from the Libyan embassy in East Germany were prosecuted by reunited Germany in the 1990s.<ref>. BBC on 13 November 2001.</ref> | |||
The ] is the world's largest ] project.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx |date=24 September 2015 }}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> The project utilizes a pipeline system that pumps ] from the ] from down south in Libya to cities in the populous Libyan northern Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi. The water provides 70% of all freshwater used in Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world|title=The Eighth Wonder of the World?|author=Moutaz Ali|year=2017|website=Quantara.de|access-date=18 July 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world|url-status=live}}</ref> During the second Libyan civil war, lasting from 2014 to 2020, the water infrastructure suffered neglect and occasional breakdowns.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718185516/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-water-insight-idUSKCN1TX0KQ |date=18 July 2021 }}. ''Reuters''. 2 July 2019.</ref> By 2017, 60% of the Libyan population were ]. Since then, 1.3 million people are waiting for emergency humanitarian aid, out of a total population of 7.1 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lvsl.fr/les-sequelles-de-lintervention-de-lotan-en-libye/ |title=Libye : Les terribles séquelles de l'intervention de l'OTAN |date=11 November 2019 |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421200502/https://lvsl.fr/les-sequelles-de-lintervention-de-lotan-en-libye/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Germany and the United States learned that the bombing in West Berlin had been ordered from Tripoli. On 14 April 1986, the United States carried out ] against Gaddafi and members of his regime. Air defenses, three army bases, and two airfields in ] and ] were bombed. The surgical strikes failed to kill Gaddafi but he lost a few dozen military officers.<ref name="SalakLibya" /><ref>Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya. Brian Lee Davis</ref> | |||
In March 2024, Libya is actively promoting business development and encouraging both domestic and foreign investment. This strategic initiative is aimed at securing long-term economic stability and prosperity for Libya by diversifying its economic foundation. Embracing green industries like renewable energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture, and eco-tourism holds the potential to generate fresh employment prospects across a spectrum of sectors, thereby addressing unemployment challenges, particularly among the youth demographic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Expert in Design a green investment framework for Libya (H/F) |url=https://expertise-france.gestmax.fr/10947/1/expert-in-design-a-green-investment-framework-for-libya-h-f |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=expertise-france.gestmax.fr |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327063526/https://expertise-france.gestmax.fr/10947/1/expert-in-design-a-green-investment-framework-for-libya-h-f |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi announced that he had won a spectacular military victory over the United States and the country was officially renamed the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah".<ref name="autogenerated183" /> However, his speech appeared devoid passion and even the "victory" celebrations appeared unusual. Criticism of Gaddafi by ordinary Libyan citizens became more bold, such as defacing of Gaddafi posters.<ref name="autogenerated183" /> The raids against Gaddafi had brought the regime to its the weakest point in 17 years.<ref name="autogenerated183" /> | |||
== Demographics == | |||
Many Western European countries took action against Libyan terror and other activities following years. | |||
{{Main|Demographics of Libya}} | |||
] and ]}} {{legend|#FF951E|]}} {{legend|#D66DFF|]}} {{legend|#B6FF70|]}} {{legend|#c8c8c8|Uninhabited}}]] | |||
Libya is a large country with a relatively small population concentrated very narrowly along the coast.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zakaria|first=Fareed|title=Gadhafi's brutal regime can't survive|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/02/25/zakaria.libya.gadhafi/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=25 February 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203055526/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/02/25/zakaria.libya.gadhafi/index.html|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> Its population density is about {{convert|50|pd/sqkm}} in the two northern regions of ] and ], but falls to less than {{convert|1|pd/sqkm}} elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live along the coast in less than 10% of the area. | |||
About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the three largest cities, ], ] and ]. Libya has a population of about {{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Libya}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} million,{{UN_Population|ref}} 27.7% of whom are under the age of 15.<ref name="spooks">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya/ |title=Libya |work=The World Factbook |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109235257/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1984 the population was 3.6 million, an increase from the 1.54 million reported in 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/libya/ |title=Libya |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826090114/http://countrystudies.us/libya/ |archive-date=26 August 2013 }}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi fueled a number of Islamist and communist terrorist groups in the Philippines. The country still struggles with their murders and kidnappings.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami" /><ref name="A Rogue Returns"/><ref name="Geoffrey" /><ref name="Ronald Bruce St. John"/><ref>{{cite web |author=Niksch, Larry |title=Abu Sayyaf: Target of Philippine-U.S. Anti-Terrorism Cooperation |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |date=25 January 2002 |work=CRS Report for Congress |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31265.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
The population of Libya is primarily of ] ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population of Libya |url=https://fanack.com/libya/population/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226184215/https://fanack.com/libya/population/ |archive-date=2021-02-26 |access-date=2019-06-27 |website=Fanack.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Arabs comprise 92% of the population, while ] comprise 5%, though other estimates put this percentage at 10%, representing approximately 600,000 people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yakan |first=Mohamad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |title=Almanac of African Peoples and Nations |date=2017-11-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-28930-6 |language=en |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501042016/https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zurutuza |first=Karlos |title=Berbers fear ethnic conflict |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/1/6/libyas-berbers-fear-ethnic-conflict |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129190339/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/1/6/libyas-berbers-fear-ethnic-conflict |url-status=live }}</ref> Among the Berber groups are the minority Berber populations of ] and the ]. Southern Libya, primarily ], ], ], ] and ], is also inhabited by two other ethnic groups; the ] and ]. Libya is one of the world's most ] countries. There are about 140 tribes and ]s in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,747234,00.html |title=Uprising in Libya: 'Survival Hinges on Tribal Solidarity' |newspaper=Der Spiegel |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524035601/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,747234,00.html |archive-date=24 May 2012 |date=23 February 2011 }}</ref> Also living in Libya are an estimated 750,000 Egyptian workers, down from more than 2 million prior to the overthrow of ] in 2011.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Nadia |date=2015-02-20 |title=Why Egyptians are risking their lives to work in Libya |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/20/egyptians-risk-lives-work-libya |access-date=2023-07-14 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi fueled paramilitaries in the Oceania. He attempted to radicalized New Zealand's Maoris.<ref name="A Rogue Returns"/> In Australia he financed trade unions and some politicians. In May 1987, Australia deported diplomats and broke off relations with Libya because of the activities in the Oceania.<ref name="autogenerated758"/><ref name="A Rogue Returns">{{cite web |url=http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |title=A Rogue Returns |publisher=AIJAC |date=February 2003}}</ref> | |||
Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of whom live in ] and other independent housing units, with modes of housing depending on their income and wealth. Although the Arab Libyans traditionally lived nomadic ] lifestyles in tents, they have predominately settled in towns and cities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncrss.com/report3.doc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030403191008/http://www.ncrss.com/report3.doc |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 April 2003 |title=The Family and the work of women, A study in the Libyan Society |author=Al-Hawaat, Ali |publisher=National Center for Research and Scientific Studies of Libya |access-date=5 February 2013 }}</ref> | |||
In late 1987 French authorities stopped a merchant vessel, the ''MV Eksund'', which was delivering a 150 ton Libyan arms shipment to European terrorist groups. | |||
Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in industry and ], and a small percentage is in agriculture. | |||
In 1991, two Libyan ]s were indicted by prosecutors in the United States and United Kingdom for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of ]. Six other Libyans were put on trial in absentia for the 1989 bombing of ] over ] and ]. The ] demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of ] on March 31, 1992, imposing ] on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993.<ref>(2003), , Global Policy Forum. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> | |||
According to the UNHCR, there were around 8,000 registered refugees, 5,500 unregistered refugees, and 7,000 asylum seekers of various origins in Libya in January 2013. Additionally, 47,000 Libyan nationals were internally displaced and 46,570 were internally displaced returnees.<ref>{{cite web|title=UNHCR Global Appeal 2013 Update|url=http://www.unhcr.org/50a9f82616.html|publisher=UNHCR|access-date=16 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107084239/http://www.unhcr.org/50a9f82616.html|archive-date=7 November 2014}}</ref> | |||
Gaddafi trained and supported ], who was indicted by the ] for war crimes and ] committed during the conflict in Sierra Leone.<ref name="economistfall">{{cite news |url= http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9441341 |title= How the mighty are falling | accessdate= 17 July 2007 | date= 5 July 2007 |work=The Economist}}</ref> | |||
=== Health === | |||
Libya had close ties with ]'s regime. Gaddafi aligned himself with the Orthodox Serbs against Bosnia's Muslims and Kosovo's Albanians. Gaddafi supported Milošević even when Milošević was charged with ].<ref name="belgrade-tripoli">{{cite news |publisher=Radio Free Europe |title=Qaddafi's Serbian TV Interview Result Of Close Belgrade-Tripoli Ties |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/article/2323834.html |date=28 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Qaddafi's Yugoslav friends |date=25 February 2010 |publisher=The Economist |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2011/02/libyas_balkan_connections}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.alb-net.com/kcc/102699.htm |title=Gaddafi Given Yugoslavia's Top Medal By Milosevic |date=26 October 1999 |publisher=Reuters }}</ref> | |||
{{main|Health in Libya}} | |||
In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.88% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 18.71 physicians and 66.95 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Health|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=8|publisher=SESRIC|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023065839/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=8|archive-date=23 October 2014|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> The life expectancy at birth was 74.95 years in 2011, or 72.44 years for males and 77.59 years for females.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demography|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=7|publisher=SESRIC|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023065748/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=7|archive-date=23 October 2014|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
In 2023, the Libyan health ministry announced the launch of the National Strategy for Primary Healthcare 2023–2028 to improve services provided by group clinics and health centres. A unique health number allotted to each citizen will facilitate access to medical records. Before Storm Daniel, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs estimated that around 60,000 people were in need of humanitarian aid in Derna and environs. Since the storm many of the hospitals and primary health facilities in Derna and eastern Libya have been rendered partially or completely nonfunctional.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/rebuilding-libyas-health-care-system |title=Rebuilding Libya's health system |date=7 November 2023 |access-date=2 May 2024 |archive-date=2 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502122641/https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/rebuilding-libyas-health-care-system |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In 1999, less than a decade after the sanctions were put in place, Libya began to make dramatic policy changes in regard to the Western world, including turning over the Lockerbie suspects for trial. This diplomatic breakthrough followed years of negotiation, including a visit by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to Libya in December 1998, and personal appeals by Nelson Mandela. Eventually UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook persuaded the Americans to accept a trial of the suspects in the Netherlands under Scottish law, with the UN Security Council agreeing to suspend sanctions as soon as the suspects arrived in the Netherlands for trial.<ref name="SalakLibya" /> | |||
=== Education === | |||
Following the fall of ]'s regime in 2003, Gaddafi decided to abandon his ] programmes and pay almost 3 billion US dollars in compensation to the families of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772.<ref>Marcus, Jonathan, (May 15, 2006), , ''BBC News''. Retrieved July 15, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/23/opinion/why-libya-gave-up-on-the-bomb.html |title=Why Libya Gave Up on the Bomb |publisher=New York Times |date=2004-01-23 |accessdate=2011-02-24 |first=Flynt |last=Leverett}}</ref> The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step toward Libya rejoining the international community.<ref>U.K. Politics, (March 25, 2004), , ''BBC news''. Retrieved July 15, 2006.</ref> Since 2003 the country has made efforts to normalize its ties with the ] and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation, rather than force, when there is goodwill on both sides. By 2004 ] had lifted the economic sanctions and official relations resumed with the United States. Libya opened a liaison office in ], and the United States opened an office in ]. In January 2004, Congressman ] led the first official Congressional delegation visit to Libya.<ref>Information obtained from Libyan Embassy in Washington, D.C. (Feb. 2009).</ref> | |||
{{Main|Education in Libya}} | |||
]'s first campus, founded by royal decree in 1955]] | |||
Libya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the ].<ref name="Libedu">{{cite web |url=http://www.wes.org/eWENR/04July/Practical.htm |title=Education in Libya |author=Clark, Nick |publisher=World Education News and Reviews, Volume 17, Issue 4 |date=July 2004 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208081721/http://www.wes.org/ewenr/04July/Practical.htm |archive-date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> Basic education in Libya is free for all citizens,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0070) |title=Education of Libya |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921235353/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0070) |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> and is compulsory up to the ]. The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 89.2%.<ref name=unescolit>{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183908/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref> | |||
After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university – the ] – was established in Benghazi by royal decree.<ref name="Libedu2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Libya.htm |title=Country Higher Education Profiles – Libya |author=El-Hawat, Ali |publisher=International Network for Higher Education in Africa |date=8 January 2013 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605042417/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Libya.htm |archive-date= 5 June 2010 }}</ref> In the 1975–76 academic year the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. {{As of|2004}}, this number has increased to more than 200,000, with another 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector.<ref name="Libedu" /> The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education. | |||
Libya has supported Sudan's President ] despite charges of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/03/30/2529298.htm |title=Gaddafi slams ICC as 'new form of world terrorism' |date=30 April 2009 |publisher=ABC}}</ref> | |||
Since 1975 the number of public universities has grown from two to twelve and since their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes has grown to 84.{{Clarify|pre-text=?|date=October 2012}}<ref name="Libedu" /> Since 2007 some new private universities such as the ] have been established. Although before 2011 a small number of private institutions were given accreditation, the majority of Libya's higher education has always been financed by the public budget. In 1998 the budget allocation for education represented 38.2% of Libya's national budget.<ref name="Libedu2" /> | |||
The release, in 2007, of ], who had been held since 1999, charged with conspiring to deliberately infect over 400 children with HIV, was seen as marking a new stage in Libyan-Western relations. | |||
In 2024, the Ministry of Education announced the launch of the Full-Day School Project in which 12 schools in different parts of the country will have longer school days. The project aims to provide 800 hours of instruction per year to 3,300 elementary school students.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://libyaobserver.ly/education/libya-launches-full-day-school-project-first-time#google_vignette |title=Libya Launches Full Day School |access-date=2 May 2024 |archive-date=2 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502121104/https://libyaobserver.ly/education/libya-launches-full-day-school-project-first-time#google_vignette |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The United States removed Gaddafi's regime, after 27 years, from its list of states sponsoring terrorism.<ref>Lipton, Eric, April 2008, "Libya Seeks Exemption for Its Debt to Victims" New York Times.</ref> | |||
=== Ethnicity === | |||
On October 16, 2007, Libya was elected to serve on the ] for two years starting in January 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7047627.stm |title=Libya secures UN council posting |work=BBC News |date=October 16, 2007 |accessdate=2007-10-17}}</ref> In February 2009, Gaddafi was selected to be chairman of the ] for one year. | |||
The original inhabitants of Libya belonged predominantly to ] ethnic groups; however, the long series of foreign invasions and migrations – particularly by ] – had a profound and lasting ethnic, linguistic, and cultural influence on Libyan demographics. Centuries of large-scale ] since the 7th century shifted the demographics of Libya in favour of Arabs. Some ] settled in Libya during the rule of the ]. | |||
Most of Libya's inhabitants are ],<ref name=":2" /> with many tracing their ancestry to Bedouin Arab tribes like ] and ], plus Turkish and Berber minorities. The ] are often called "]" and are concentrated in and around villages and towns.<ref>{{Cite news |year=2012 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46542/Climate#toc46545 |title=Libya |newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122084039/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46542/Climate#toc46545 |archive-date=22 November 2012 }}</ref> There are some ethnic minorities, such as the Berber ] and the Black African ].<ref name="Dupree 1958 loc=33-44">{{Cite journal |last=Dupree|first=Louis|year=1958|title=The Non-Arab Ethnic Groups of Libya|journal=Middle East Journal|volume=12|issue=1|pages=33–44 }}</ref> | |||
In 2009 the United Kingdom and Libya signed a prisoner-exchange agreement and then Libya requested the transfer of the convicted Lockerbie bomber, who finally returned home in August 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/819291.stm |title=Libya country profile |publisher=BBC News |date= |accessdate=2011-02-23}}</ref> | |||
] ] with Libyan National Security Adviser ] in 2009]] | |||
Most ], at their height numbering over half a million, left after Italian Libya's independence in 1947. More repatriated in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi, but a few hundred returned in the 2000s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46562/Italian-colonization |title=Libya – Italian colonization |encyclopedia=Britannica |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805072530/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46562/Italian-colonization |archive-date=5 August 2011 }}</ref> | |||
As of October 25, 2009, ] visa requests were being denied and Canadian travelers were told they were not welcome in Libya, in an apparent reprisal for Canada's near tongue-lashing{{Vague|date=July 2010}} of Gaddafi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/716020--canadians-not-welcome-in-libya-gadhafi?bn=1 |title=Canadians not welcome in Libya: Gadhafi |work=Toronto Star News Network |date=October 26, 2009 |accessdate=2009-10-25}}</ref> Specifically, Harper's government was planning to publicly criticize Gadhafi for praising the convicted Lockerbie bomber.<ref>{{cite news|last=Padwell|first=Terry|title=Libya slaps visa ban on Canada|url=http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/716129--libya-slaps-visa-ban-on-canada|work=thestar.com|publisher=Toronto Star|accessdate=18 March 2011|date=26 October 2009}}</ref> | |||
=== Foreign labour === | |||
Libyan-Swiss relations strongly suffered after the arrest of ] for beating up his domestic servants in ] in 2008. In response, Gaddafi removed all his money held in Swiss banks and asked the United Nations to vote to abolish ] as a sovereign nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Current-Affairs/Security-Watch/Detail/?dom=1&groupot593=4888CAA0-B3DB-1461-98B9-E20E7B9C13D4&ots591=4888CAA0-B3DB-1461-98B9-E20E7B9C13D4&lng=en&v33=106353&fecvid=33&fecvnodeid=106353&id=105551 |title=Libya Urged To Free Swiss Nationals |work=International Relations and Security Network |accessdate=2009-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1210936/Now-Colonel-Gaddafi-wants-abolish-Switzerland-Dictator-files-bizarre-motion-U-N.html |title=Now Colonel Gaddafi wants to 'abolish' Switzerland: Dictator files bizarre motion with the U.N. |publisher=The Daily Mail | location=London |first=Ian |last=Sparks |date=3 September 2009}}</ref> | |||
As of 2023 the IOM estimates that approximately 10% of Libya's population (upwards of 700,000 people) constituted foreign labour.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya — Migrant Report 46 (January - February 2023)|url=https://dtm.iom.int/reports/libya-migrant-report-46-january-february-2023|website=IOM|date=21 Nov 2023|access-date=21 Nov 2023|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121145223/https://dtm.iom.int/reports/libya-migrant-report-46-january-february-2023|archive-date=21 November 2023}}</ref> Prior to the 2011 revolution, official and unofficial figures of migrant labour ranged from 25% to 40% of the population (between 1.5 and 2.4 million people). Historically, Libya hosted millions of low- and high-skilled Egyptian migrants, in particular.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tsourapas|first1=Gerasimos|title=The Politics of Egyptian Migration to Libya|url=http://www.merip.org/mero/mero031715|website=Middle East Research and Information Project|date=17 March 2015|access-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111193445/http://www.merip.org/mero/mero031715|archive-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> | |||
It is difficult to estimate the total number of immigrants in Libya because the census figures, official counts and typically more accurate unofficial estimates all differ. In the 2006 census, around 359,540 foreign nationals were resident in Libya out of a population of over 5.5 million (6.35% of the population). Almost half of these were Egyptians, followed by Sudanese and Palestinian immigrants.<ref name="EU migrant policy Centre">{{cite web |url=http://www.migrationpolicycentre.eu/docs/fact_sheets/Factsheet%20Libya.pdf |title=Migration Facts Libya |website=Migrationpolicycentre.eu |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040540/http://www.migrationpolicycentre.eu/docs/fact_sheets/Factsheet%20Libya.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> | |||
Libya still provides bounties for heads of refugees who have criticized Gaddafi, including 1 million dollars for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2004/mar/28/politics.libya |title=Gadaffi still hunts 'stray dogs' in UK |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=28 March 2004 |first=Martin |last=Bright}}</ref> | |||
During the 2011 revolution, 768,362 immigrants fled Libya as calculated by the ], around 13% of the population at the time, although many more stayed on in the country.<ref name="EU migrant policy Centre"/><ref>{{cite journal|first=Julien|last=Brachet|title=Policing the Desert: The IOM in Libya Beyond War and Peace|journal=Antipode|volume=48|number=2|year=2016|pages=272–292|doi=10.1111/anti.12176|bibcode=2016Antip..48..272B |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3452351}}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | |||
If consular records prior to the revolution are used to estimate the immigrant population, as many as 2 million Egyptian migrants were recorded by the Egyptian embassy in Tripoli in 2009, followed by 87,200 Tunisians, and 68,200 Moroccans by their respective embassies. Turkey recorded the evacuation of 25,000 workers during the 2011 uprising.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-17/top-turkish-ministers-meet-un-backed-libya-government-in-Tripoli |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811184451/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-17/top-turkish-ministers-meet-un-backed-libya-government-in-tripoli |archive-date=11 August 2020 |title=Top Turkish Ministers Meet UN Backed Libyan Government |work=Bloomberg |first1=Mohammed |last1=Abdusamee |first2=Selcan |last2=Hacaoglu |date=17 June 2020}}</ref> The number of Asian migrants before the revolution were just over 100,000 (60,000 Bangladeshis, 20,000 Filipinos, 18,000 Indians, 10,000 Pakistanis, as well as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and other workers).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3685 |title=Libya, Tunisia: Migrants – Migration News | Migration Dialogue |website=Migration.ucdavis.edu |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305132553/https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3685 |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.libyaherald.com/2021/01/30/20000-filipino-workers-in-libya-126-infected-and-6-died-of-coronavirus-demand-for-delayed-salaries/ |title=Libya Herald, Updated: 2,000 Filipino workers in Libya, 126 infected and 6 died of Coronavirus |website=libyaherald.com |date=30 January 2021 |access-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005452/https://www.libyaherald.com/2021/01/30/20000-filipino-workers-in-libya-126-infected-and-6-died-of-coronavirus-demand-for-delayed-salaries/ }}</ref> This would put the immigrant population at almost 40% before the revolution and is a figure more consistent with government estimates in 2004 which put the regular and irregular migrant numbers at 1.35 to 1.8 million (25–33% of the population at the time).<ref name="EU migrant policy Centre"/> | |||
===Cooperation with Italy=== | |||
On August 30, 2008, Gaddafi and ] ] ] signed a historic cooperation treaty in ].<ref name=treaty>{{cite web |url=http://www.senato.it/parlam/leggi/09007l.htm|title={{Italian}} Ratifica ed esecuzione del Trattato di amicizia, partenariato e cooperazione tra la Repubblica italiana e la Grande Giamahiria araba libica popolare socialista, fatto a Bengasi il 30 agosto 2008 |publisher=] |date=2009-02-06 |accessdate=2009-06-10}}</ref><ref name=ansa>{{cite news |url=http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |publisher=] |title=Gaddafi to Rome for historic visit |date=2009-06-10 |accessdate=2009-06-10}}{{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=2335 |title=Berlusconi in Benghazi, Unwelcome by Son of Omar Al-Mukhtar |publisher=The Tripoli Post |date=2008-08-30 |accessdate=2009-06-10}}</ref> Under its terms, Italy will pay $5 billion to Libya as compensation for its former ]. In exchange, Libya will take measures to combat ] coming from its shores and boost investments in Italian companies.<ref name=ansa /><ref name=rep>{{cite news |publisher=] |url=http://www.repubblica.it/2008/05/sezioni/esteri/libia-italia/accordo-firmato/accordo-firmato.html |title=Italia-Libia, firmato l'accordo |date=2008-08-30 |accessdate=2009-06-10}}</ref> The treaty was ratified by Italy on February 6, 2009,<ref name="treaty" /> and by Libya on March 2, during a visit to ] by Berlusconi.<ref name=ansa /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alarabonline.org/english/display.asp?fname=2009%5C03%5C03-02%5Czbusinessz%5C988.htm&dismode=x&ts=02/03/2009%2004:42:49%20ã |title=Libya agrees pact with Italy to boost investment |publisher=Alarab Online |date=2009-03-02 |accessdate=2009-06-10}}</ref> In June Gaddafi made his first visit to ], where he met Prime Minister Berlusconi, ] ], ] ], and ] ], among others.<ref name=ansa /> The ] and ] opposed the visit,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.partitodemocratico.it/dettaglio/81290/gheddafi_a_roma_tra_le_polemiche |title=Gheddafi a Roma, tra le polemiche |publisher=] |date=2009-06-10 |accessdate=2009-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/200906articoli/44496girata.asp |title=Gheddafi protetto dalle Amazzoni |publisher=]|date=2009-10-06 |accessdate=2011-03-08}}</ref> and many protests were staged throughout Italy by human rights organizations and the ].<ref>{{dead link|date=February 2011}}</ref> Gaddafi also took part in the ] in ] in July 2009 as ].<ref name=ansa /> | |||
Libya's native population of Arabs-Berbers as well as Arab migrants of various nationalities collectively make up 97% of the population {{As of|2014|lc=y}}. | |||
Since 2008, Italy is Libya's principal commercial partner. Numerous commercial agreements have been signed in the oil, infrastructural and financial sectors between both countries. Italy gets a quarter of its ] from Libya.<ref>"". Bloomberg. February 23, 2011</ref> | |||
=== Languages === | |||
On 4 April 2011, Italy formally switched its diplomatic recognition of the Libyan government from the ]-based ] to the ]-based ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110404/local/italy-recognises-benghazi-based-council-as-only-libyan-representative|agency=Times of Malta|date=4 April 2011|accessdate=4 April 2011|title=Italy recognises Libyan opposition council}}</ref> | |||
{{main|Languages of Libya}} | |||
According to the ], the official language of Libya is Arabic.<ref name="CIA" /> The local ] variety is spoken alongside ]. Various ] are also spoken, including ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Cfbly">{{cite web|title=Libya|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya/|publisher=CIA|access-date=16 December 2014|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109235257/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya|url-status=live}}</ref> The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh (] or Tamazight) language to be official in the cities and districts inhabited by the Berbers in Libya.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Tamazight declared official language in Amazigh-peopled districts|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/life/tamazight-declared-official-language-amazigh-peopled-districts|magazine=Life|access-date=22 February 2017|date=22 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317034711/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/life/tamazight-declared-official-language-amazigh-peopled-districts|archive-date=17 March 2017}}</ref><!--"The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh (Berber or Tamazight) language as an official language in the cities and districts inhabited by the Amazigh in Libya." --> | |||
In addition, ] is widely understood in the major cities,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Importance Of English As A Foreign Language In Libya |url=https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Importance-Of-English-As-A-Foreign/F3Q8JJGAZHBWW |access-date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005502/https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Importance-Of-English-As-A-Foreign/F3Q8JJGAZHBWW |url-status=live }}</ref> while the former colonial language of ] is also used in commerce and by the remaining Italian population.<ref name="Cfbly"/> | |||
== |
=== Religion === | ||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Religion in Libya}} | ||
According to the ]’s annual ] report for 2007, Libya’s ] regime continued to have a poor record in the area of human rights.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100601.htm |title=United States, Congress US Department Of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. November 23, 2008 |publisher=State.gov |date=2008-03-11 |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref> Some of the numerous and serious abuses on the part of the government include poor prison conditions, arbitrary arrest and prisoners held incommunicado, and ]s held for many years without charge or trial. The judiciary is controlled by the government, and there is no right to a fair public trial. Libyans do not have the right to change their government. ], ], ], ], and ] are restricted. Independent human rights organizations are prohibited. Ethnic and tribal minorities suffer discrimination, and the state continues to restrict the ] of foreign jobs. | |||
], close to the Tunisian and Algerian border]] | |||
In 2005 ] rated both ] and ] in Libya as "7" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pdf/Charts2006.pdf|title=Freedom in the World 2006|publisher=]|date=2005-12-16|accessdate=2006-07-27|format=PDF}}<br />See also ], ]</ref> | |||
About 97% of the population in Libya are ], most of whom belong to the ].<ref name="spooks"/><ref name="Chivvis-2014">{{cite book |last1=Chivvis |first1=Christopher S. |last2=Martini |first2=Jeffrey |title=Libya After Qaddafi: Lessons and Implications for the Future |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PUAkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |access-date=30 December 2018 |date=18 March 2014 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-8489-7 |page=49 |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205252/https://books.google.com/books?id=PUAkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |url-status=live }}</ref> Small numbers of ] Muslims live in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/minority-muslim-groups |title=Minority Muslim Groups |publisher=Islamopedia Online |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415030122/http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/minority-muslim-groups |archive-date=15 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/01/16/pakistani-ahmedis-held/ |title=Pakistani Ahmedis Held |newspaper=] |location=Tripoli |date=16 January 2013 |access-date=5 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531182432/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/01/16/pakistani-ahmedis-held/ |archive-date=31 May 2014 }}</ref> | |||
Before the 1930s, the ] Sunni Sufi movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its ''zawaaya'' (lodges) were found in ] and ], but Senussi influence was strongest in ]. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose.<ref name="senussi">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0065) |title=The Sanusis |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921235348/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0065) |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> This Islamic movement was eventually destroyed by the ]. Gaddafi asserted that he was a devout Muslim, and his government was taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytising on behalf of Islam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0066) |title=Islam in Revolutionary Libya |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921235348/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0066) |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> | |||
In May, 2010, Libya was elected by the UN General Assembly to a three-year term on the UN's Human Rights Council.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://liveshots.blogs.foxnews.com/2010/05/13/libya-wins-seat-on-un-human-rights-council/|title=Libya Wins Seat on UN Human Rights Council|publisher=foxnews.com|date=2010-05-13|accessdate=2011-03-20}}</ref> It was suspended from the Human Rights Council in March, 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/ga11050.doc.htm/|title=General Assembly Suspends Libya from Human Rights Council|publisher=www.un.org|date=2011-03-01|accessdate=2011-03-20}}</ref> | |||
The ] 2004 noted that "bishops, priests and nuns wear religious dress freely in public and report virtually no discrimination," while also "enjoying good relations with the Government". The report also indicated that members of minority religions said "they do not face harassment by authorities or the Muslim majority on the basis of their religious practices". The ] does not list Libya as a country where there is "persecution or severe discrimination against Christians".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/45f1476611.html |title=Libya: Situation of Muslims who have converted to Christianity; treatment by society and the authorities |publisher=refworld |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=15 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915170317/https://www.refworld.org/docid/45f1476611.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the ], ultra-conservative strains of Islam have reasserted themselves in places. ] in eastern Libya, historically a hotbed of ]ist thought, came under the control of militants aligned with the ] in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/derna-islamic-state-emirate-egypt-s-borders|agency=Egypt Independent|title=Derna: An Islamic State emirate on Egypt's borders|date=15 October 2014|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221072405/http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/derna-islamic-state-emirate-egypt-s-borders|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> Jihadist elements have also spread to ] and ], among other areas, as a result of the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/islamic-state-gained-strength-in-libya-by-co-opting-local-jihadists-1424217492|title=Islamic State Gained Strength in Libya by Co-Opting Local Jihadists|date=17 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|work=The Wall Street Journal|first1=Benoît|last1=Faucon|first2=Matt|last2=Bradley|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221032623/http://www.wsj.com/articles/islamic-state-gained-strength-in-libya-by-co-opting-local-jihadists-1424217492|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/al-qaeda-islamic-police-patrol-libyan-city-contested-isis-302961|work=Newsweek|title=Al-Qaeda 'Islamic Police' on Patrol in Libyan City Contested With ISIS|date=29 January 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|first=Jack|last=Moore|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220011433/http://www.newsweek.com/al-qaeda-islamic-police-patrol-libyan-city-contested-isis-302961|archive-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> | |||
Libya's human rights record was put in the spotlight in February 2011, due to the government's violent response to ], which killed hundreds of demonstrators.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41658587/ns/world_news-mideast/n_africa/|title=Death toll mounts in Libya protests|publisher=MSNBC.com|date=2011-02-19|accessdate=2011-03-18}}</ref> | |||
Prior to independence, Libya was home to more than 140,000 Christians (mostly of ] and Maltese ancestry). Many Christian settlers left to Italy or Malta after the independence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greenberg|first1=Udi|last2= A. Foster|first2=Elizabeth|title=Decolonization and the Remaking of Christianity|year=2023|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Pennsylvania|isbn=9781512824971|pages=105}}</ref> Small foreign communities of Christians remained. ], the predominant Christian church of Egypt, is the ]. There are about 60,000 Egyptian ]s in Libya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/christian-communities |title=Christian Communities |publisher=Islamopedia Online |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326235402/http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/christian-communities |archive-date=26 March 2016 }}</ref> There are three Coptic Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, one in Benghazi, and one in Misurata. | |||
==Administrative divisions and cities== | |||
{{Main|Subdivisions of Libya|Districts of Libya}} | |||
{{See also|List of cities in Libya}} | |||
The Coptic Church has grown in recent years in Libya, due to the growing immigration of ] to Libya. There are an estimated 40,000 ]s in Libya who are served by two bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in ] (serving the ] community). There is also a small ] community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli which is part of the ]. People have been arrested on suspicion of being ], as proselytising is illegal.<ref>{{cite news|title=Foreigners held in Libya on suspicion of proselytising|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21488976|work=BBC News|date=16 February 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217024228/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21488976|archive-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> Christians have also faced the threat of violence from radical Islamists in some parts of the country, with a well-publicised video released by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in February 2015 depicting the mass beheading of Christian Copts.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/02/17/386986424/isis-beheadings-in-libya-devastate-an-egyptian-village|publisher=NPR|date=17 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|title=ISIS Beheadings in Libya Devastate An Egyptian Village|first=Leila|last=Fadel|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219160959/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/02/17/386986424/isis-beheadings-in-libya-devastate-an-egyptian-village|archive-date=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/20/egyptians-captured-libya-isis-christians-families-campaign-cairo|work=The Guardian|title='We want our sons back': fears grow for Egyptians missing in Libya|first=Jared|last=Malsin|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220165250/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/20/egyptians-captured-libya-isis-christians-families-campaign-cairo|archive-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> Libya was ranked fourth on ]' 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opendoorsuk.org/persecution/world-watch-list/libya/ |title=Serving Persecuted Christians Worldwide - Libya - Open Doors UK & Ireland |publisher=Opendoorsuk.org |date= |accessdate=2022-06-24 |archive-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624143521/https://www.opendoorsuk.org/persecution/world-watch-list/libya/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Historically the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), ] in the northwest, ] in the east, and ] in the southwest. It was the conquest by Italy in the ] that united them in a single political unit. Under the Italians Libya, in 1934, was divided into four provinces and one territory (in the south): Tripoli, Misrata, Benghazi, ], and the Territory of the Libyan Sahara.<ref>Pan, Chia-Lin (1949) "The Population of Libya" ''Population Studies,'' 3(1): pp. 100–125, p. 104</ref> | |||
Libya was once the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews.html |title=History of the Jewish Community in Libya |publisher=University of California at Berkeley |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425114822/http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews.html |archive-date=25 April 2013 }}</ref> In 1942, the Italian Fascist authorities set up forced labour camps south of Tripoli for the Jews, including ] (about 3,000 Jews), ], Jeren, and Tigrinna. In Giado some 500 Jews died of weakness, hunger, and disease. In 1942, Jews who were not in the concentration camps were heavily restricted in their economic activity and all men between 18 and 45 years were drafted for forced labour. In August 1942, Jews from Tripolitania were interned in a concentration camp at Sidi Azaz. In the three years after November 1945, more than 140 Jews were murdered, and hundreds more wounded, in a series of ]s.<ref name="harris">{{cite book|last=Harris|first=David A.|title=In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, 1979–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/intrenches00davi_0|url-access=registration|date=2000|publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc.|isbn=978-0-88125-693-2|pages=–150}}</ref> By 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country. Upon Libyan independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated. | |||
After independence, Libya was divided into three governorates ('']'')<ref> from Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Retrieved 14 February 2009.</ref> and then in 1963 into ten governorates.<ref> WHKMLA: Historical Atlas, Libya</ref><ref>Nyrop, Richard F. (1973) "Table 10: Governorates and Districts of Libya 1972" "Area Handbook for Libya" (2<sup>nd</sup> ed.) United States Department of the Army, Washington, DC, p. 159 </ref> The governorates were legally abolished in February 1975, and nine "control bureaus" were set up to deal directly with the nine areas, respectively: education, health, housing, social services, labor, agricultural services, communications, financial services, and economy, each under their own ministry.<ref name="Zeidan-2"> from Federal Research Division, Library of Congress</ref> However, the courts and some other agencies continued to operate as if the governorate structure were still in place.<ref name="Zeidan-2"/> In 1983 Libya was split into forty-six districts ('']''), then in 1987 into twenty-five.<ref>See ]</ref><ref> from Perry-Castañeda Library, University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 14 February 2009.</ref><ref>Lahmeyer, Jan, (November 26, 2004), , University Library, ''Universiteit Utrecht'', from WebArchive, dated 27 June 2003</ref> In 1995, Libya was divided into thirteen districts ('']''),<ref name="statoids">{{cite web|url=http://statoids.com/uly.html |title=Municipalities of Libya |publisher=Statoids.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref> in 1998 into twenty-six districts, and in 2001 into thirty-two districts.<ref>Jamahiriya News Agency, (July 19, 2004), ''Mathaba News''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> These were then further rearranged into twenty-two districts in 2007: | |||
=== Largest cities === | |||
] | |||
{{Largest cities of Libya|class=info}} | |||
] | |||
== Culture == | |||
<!--- Land area estimates below are sourced from the link targets where they appear in the infoboxes. Note km2 figures are all multiples of 5. ---> | |||
{{Main|Culture of Libya}} | |||
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right" | |||
{{Further|Music of Libya|Libyan literature}} | |||
|- | |||
]]] | |||
! Arabic | |||
]]] | |||
! Transliteration | |||
] decorations in ] 2008]] | |||
! Pop (2006)<ref name="gai.gov.ly">. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</ref> | |||
Many Arabic speaking Libyans consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community. This was strengthened by the spread of Pan-Arabism in the mid-20th century, and their reach to power in Libya where they instituted Arabic as the only official language of the state. Under Gaddafi's rule, the teaching and even use of indigenous ] was strictly forbidden.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16289543|title=After Gaddafi, Libya's Amazigh demand recognition|date=23 December 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220232407/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16289543|archive-date=20 December 2016|work=BBC News|last1=Lane|first1=Edwin}}</ref> In addition to banning foreign languages previously taught in academic institutions, leaving entire generations of Libyans with limitations in their comprehension of the English language. Both the spoken Arabic dialects and Berber, still retain words from Italian, that were acquired before and during the '']'' period. | |||
! Land area (km<sup>2</sup>) | |||
! Number<br />{{Smaller|(on map)}} | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| البطنان || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 159,536 || |83,860 || 1 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| درنة || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 163,351 || |19,630 || 2 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| الجبل الاخضر || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 206,180 || |7,800 || 3 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| المرج || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 185,848 || |10,000 || 4 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| بنغازي || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 670,797 || |43,535 || 5 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| الواحات || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 177,047 || | || 6 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| الكفرة || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 50,104 || |483,510 || 7 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| سرت || style="text-align:center;"| ]/]||align="right"| 141,378 || |77,660 || 8 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| مرزق || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 78,621 || |349,790 || 22 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| سبها || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 134,162 || |15,330 || 19 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| وادي الحياة || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 76,858 || |31,890 || 20 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| مصراتة || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 550,938 || | || 9 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| المرقب || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 432,202 || | || 10 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| طرابلس || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 1,065,405 || | || 11 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| الجفارة || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 453,198 || |1,940 || 12 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| الزاوية || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 290,993 || |2,890 || 13 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| النقاط الخمس || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 287,662 || |5,250 ||14 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|الجبل الغربي || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 304,159 || | || 15 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| نالوت || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 93,224 || | || 16 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| غات || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 23,518 || |72,700 || 21 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| الجفرة || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 52,342 || |117,410 || 17 | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| وادي الشاطئ || style="text-align:center;"| ] ||align="right"| 78,532 || |97,160 || 18 | |||
|} | |||
Libyans have a heritage in the traditions of the previously nomadic ] Arabic speakers and sedentary ] tribes. Most Libyans associate themselves with a particular family name originating from tribal or conquest based heritage.{{cn|date=December 2024}} | |||
Libyan districts are further subdivided into ] which act as ]s or ]s. | |||
Reflecting the "nature of giving" ({{langx|ar|الاحسان}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Ihsan}}'', ]: ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴽⴰⴼ Anakkaf ), amongst the Libyan people as well as the sense of hospitality, recently the state of Libya made it to the top 20 on the world giving index in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cafamerica.org/wgi-2013/ |title=CAF America- a global grantmaking organization |access-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715111213/http://www.cafamerica.org/wgi-2013/ |archive-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> According to CAF, in a typical month, almost three-quarters (72%) of all Libyans helped somebody they did not know – the third highest level across all 135 countries surveyed. | |||
The below table shows the ten largest cities in the country (some may be considered neighborhoods of larger cities). | |||
There are few theatres or art galleries due to the decades of cultural repression under the Gaddafi regime and lack of infrastructure development under the regime of dictatorship.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya looking at economic diversification|url=http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/nta94862.htm|publisher=Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001209232200/http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/nta94862.htm|archive-date=9 December 2000|date=17 September 1999}}</ref> For many years there have been no public theatres, and only very few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of ] is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bangkokcompanies.com/Dance/libya_dance_schools.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515193437/http://www.bangkokcompanies.com/Dance/libya_dance_schools.htm|archive-date=15 May 2007 |title=Libyan Dance Schools in Libya, Dancewear Suppliers, Dancing Organizations, Libyan National Commission for UNESCO, M. A. Oraieth |publisher=Bangkokcompanies.com |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! No. | |||
!City | |||
! Population<br/>(2006)<ref name="gai.gov.ly"/> | |||
|- | |||
|1 | |||
|] | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| 1,065,405 | |||
|- | |||
|2 | |||
|] | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| 670,797 | |||
|- | |||
|3 | |||
|] | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| 550,938 | |||
|- | |||
|4 | |||
|] | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| 290,993 | |||
|- | |||
|5 | |||
|] | |||
| style="text-align:center;"| 206,180 | |||
|} | |||
A large number of ] stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics and cultural phenomena. A number of TV stations air various styles of traditional Libyan music.{{Clarify|pre-text=?|date=August 2012}} ] and dance are popular in ] and the south. Libyan television broadcasts air programs mostly in Arabic though usually have time slots for English and French programs.{{Clarify|pre-text=?|date=August 2012}} A 1996 analysis by the ] found Libya's media was the most tightly controlled in the Arab world during the country's dictatorship.<ref name="mediacont">{{cite web |url=http://www.cpj.org/censored/ |title=North Korea Tops CPJ list of '10 Most Censored Countries |publisher=] |year=1996 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708231639/http://www.cpj.org/censored |archive-date=8 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012}} hundreds of TV stations have begun to air due to the collapse of censorship from the old regime and the initiation of "free media". | |||
==Economy== | |||
{{Update section|date=February 2011}} | |||
{{Main|Economy of Libya}} | |||
] Oil Bouri DP4 in the ] is the biggest platform in the Mediterranean sea.]] | |||
] in ], southeast Cyrenaica. Oil wealth has enabled Libya to pursue projects such as agriculture development and the ] in the Sahara desert.]] | |||
] | |||
The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the ] sector, which constitute practically all ] earnings and about one-quarter of ] (]). The discovery of the oil and ] reserves in the country in 1959 led to the transformation of Libya's economy from a poor country to (then) Africa's richest. The ] defines Libya as an 'Upper Middle Income Economy', along with only seven other African countries.<ref>, ''World Bank''. Retrieved November 25, 2009.</ref> In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its ] was higher than that of developed countries such as ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>''Philips' Modern School Atlas'', 1987, 1983 GNP per capita figures are quoted in a list.</ref> | |||
Many Libyans frequent the country's beach and they also visit Libya's archaeological sites—especially ], which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Donkin |first=Mike |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4708179.stm |title=Libya's tourist treasures |work=BBC News |date=23 July 2005 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410014022/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4708179.stm |archive-date=10 April 2013 }}</ref> The most common form of public transport between cities is the bus, though many people travel by automobile. There are no railway services in Libya, but these are planned for construction in the near future (see ]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.libyanexpress.com/libya-and-russia-viewing-resumption-of-railway-projects/|title=Libya and Russia viewing resumption of railway projects|date=1 October 2018|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205311/https://www.libyanexpress.com/libya-and-russia-viewing-resumption-of-railway-projects/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Today, high oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest GDPs per capita in Africa and have allowed the Libyan state to provide an extensive level of ], particularly in the fields of housing and education.<ref>United Nations Economic & Social Council, (February 16, 1996), , ''Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> Many problems still beset Libya's economy however; ] is the highest in the region at 21%, according to the latest census figures.<ref>(March 2, 2009), , Reuters Africa. Retrieved March 2, 2009.</ref> | |||
Libya's capital, ], has many museums and archives. These include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The ] located in the capital near the coast and right in the city centre, built in consultation with ], may be the country's most famous.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000857/085703eo.pdf#85688 |title=Museum Architecture: beyond the <> and ... beyond |author=Bouchenaki, Mounir |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502230451/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000857/085703eo.pdf#85688 |archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> | |||
Compared to its neighbors, Libya enjoys a low level of both ] ]. Libyan officials in the past six years have carried out economic reforms as part of a broader campaign to reintegrate the country into the global capitalist economy.<ref name="spooks">The World Factbook, (2006), , ''CIA World Factbook''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> This effort picked up steam after ] were lifted in September 2003, and as Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programmes to build weapons of mass destruction.<ref>W.M.D., (2003), , ''Global Security Report''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> | |||
=== Cuisine === | |||
Libya has begun some market-oriented reforms. Initial steps have included applying for membership of the ], reducing ], and announcing plans for ].<ref>Reuters, (July 28, 2004), , ''Trade Law Centre for Southern Africa''. Retrieved July 16, 2006.</ref> Authorities have privatised more than 100 government owned companies since 2003 in industries including oil refining, tourism and real estate, of which 29 are 100% foreign owned.<ref>(July 24, 2009) ''Reuters Africa''. Retrieved July 27, 2009.</ref> The non-oil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of ]s, ], ] and ]. | |||
{{main|Libyan cuisine}} | |||
], a communal bread dish]] | |||
Libyan cuisine is a mixture of the different ], Bedouin and traditional Arab culinary influences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Enjoy a taste of Libya's traditional dishes {{!}} The Libya Observer|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/culture/enjoy-taste-libya%E2%80%99s-traditional-dishes|access-date=2021-05-25|website=www.libyaobserver.ly|language=en|archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612055238/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/culture/enjoy-taste-libya%E2%80%99s-traditional-dishes|url-status=live}}</ref> Pasta is the staple food in the Western side of Libya, whereas rice is generally the staple food in the east. | |||
Common Libyan foods include several variations of red (tomato) sauce based pasta dishes (similar to the Italian ] dish); rice, usually served with lamb or chicken (typically stewed, fried, grilled, or boiled in-sauce); and ], which is steam cooked whilst held over boiling red (tomato) sauce and meat (sometimes also containing courgettes/zucchini and chickpeas), which is typically served along with cucumber slices, lettuce and olives. | |||
Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food.<ref name="spooks" /> Water is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000.<ref>(2001), , WHO/UNIADF Joint Monitoring Programme. Retrieved October 8, 2006.</ref> The ] project is tapping into vast underground ] of fresh water discovered during the quest for oil, and is intended to improve the country's agricultural output. | |||
], a dish made from barley flour and served with red tomato sauce, is customarily eaten communally, with several people sharing the same dish, usually by hand. This dish is commonly served at traditional weddings or festivities. ] is a sweet version of Bazeen, made from white flour and served with a mix of honey, ghee or butter. Another popular way to serve Asida is with ] (fresh date syrup) and olive oil. ] is animal tripe stitched and stuffed with rice and vegetables cooked in tomato based soup or steamed. ] is a red tomato sauce-based soup, usually served with small grains of pasta.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fabricant |first=Florence |date=2006-01-04 |title=In Libya, for Starters, It's the Soup |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/04/dining/arts/in-libya-for-starters-its-the-soup.html |access-date=2022-10-13 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013121422/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/04/dining/arts/in-libya-for-starters-its-the-soup.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Under the previous Prime Minister, ], and current Prime Minister ], Libya is undergoing a business boom. Many government-run industries are being ]. Many international oil companies have returned to the country, including oil giants ] and ].<ref>Volume: 23, No. 27, (2006), , ''Oil & Gas Worldwide News''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> | |||
A very common snack eaten by Libyans is known as ''khubs bi' tun'', literally meaning "bread with tuna fish", usually served as a baked baguette or pita bread stuffed with tuna fish that has been mixed with ] (chili sauce) and olive oil. Many snack vendors prepare these sandwiches and they can be found all over Libya. Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and ].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Due to severe lack of infrastructure, many under-developed areas and small towns do not have restaurants and instead food stores may be the only source to obtain food products. Alcohol consumption is illegal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Alcohol poisoning kills 51 in Libya |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-21747409 |access-date=6 April 2023 |work=] |date=11 March 2013 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409061149/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-21747409 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Tourism is on the rise, bringing increased demand for hotel accommodation and for capacity at airports such as ]. A multi-million dollar renovation of Libyan airports has recently{{when|date=January 2011}} been approved by the government to help meet such demands.<ref>Jawad, Rana, (May 31, 2006), , BBC News. Retrieved July 22, 2006.</ref> At present 130,000 people visit the country annually; the Libyan government hopes to increase this figure to 10,000,000 tourists. However there is little evidence to suggest the current administration is taking active steps to meet this figure. Libya has long been a notoriously difficult country for western tourists to visit due to stringent visa requirements. Since the 2011 protests there has been revived hope that an open society will encourage the return of tourists.<ref>{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Bangs |coauthors=Ammar Mabrouk Eltaye |title=Libya sees thriving tourism industry ahead |date= |publisher=MSNBC |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5210117 |work= |pages= |accessdate=2007-10-10 |language=}}</ref> ], the second-eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, is involved in a ] project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which seeks to bring tourism to Cyrene and to preserve Greek ruins in the area.<ref>, '']''.</ref> | |||
There are four main ingredients of traditional Libyan food: ]s (and ]), ], grains and milk.<ref name="Libyan Food">{{cite web |url=http://www.temehu.com/Libyan-food.htm |title=Libyan Food |publisher=Temehu Tourism Services |date=24 June 2010 |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806045021/http://www.temehu.com/Libyan-food.htm |archive-date=6 August 2011 }}</ref> Grains are roasted, ground, sieved and used for making bread, cakes, soups and bazeen. Dates are harvested, dried and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup or slightly fried and eaten with ] and milk. After eating, Libyans often drink black tea. This is normally repeated a second time (for the second glass of tea), and in the third round of tea, it is served with roasted peanuts or roasted ]s known as ''shay bi'l-luz'' (mixed with the tea in the same glass).<ref name="Libyan Food" /> | |||
==Demographics== | |||
{{Main|Demographics of Libya}} | |||
] said in 2011 that "The unusual thing about Libya is that it's a very large country with a very small population, but the population is actually concentrated very narrowly along the coast."<ref>]. "." '']''. 25 February 2011. Retrieved on 25 February 2011.</ref> Population density is about 50 persons per km² (130/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of ] and ], but falls to less than one person per km² (2.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the three largest cities, ] , ] and ].<ref>] News]</ref> Libya has a population of about 6.5 million, around half of whom are under the age of 15. In 1984 the population reached 3.6 million and was growing at about 4% a year, one of the highest rates in the world. The 1984 population total was an increase from the 1.54 million reported in 1964.<ref>"". ].</ref> | |||
] | |||
=== Sport === | |||
Native Libyans are primarily ]; Arabized Berbers and ]s; ethnic "pure" ]s, mainly tribal desert "]s"; and ].<ref>{{cite web | title = Military: Libya: Tribes | publisher = ] | date = 21 February 2011 | url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/libya/tribes.htm | accessdate = 23 February 2011}}</ref> Small ], and ] tribal groups in southern Libya are ]ic or seminomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other ]n nations, including North Africans (primarily ]ians), and Sub-]n Africans.<ref>. AllBusiness.com. November 1, 2000.</ref> In 2011, there were also an estimated 60,000 Bangladeshis, 30,000 Chinese and 30,000 Filipinos in Libya.<ref>"". BBC News. February 24, 2011</ref> Libya is home to a large illegal population which numbers more than one million, mostly ] and ]ns.<ref>. ]. January 23, 2008.</ref> Libya has a small Italian minority. Previously, there was a visible presence of ] settlers, but many left after independence in 1947 and many more left in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi.<ref>. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> | |||
] is the most popular sport in Libya. The country hosted the ] and almost qualified for the ]. The ] almost won the 1982 AFCON; they lost to ] on penalties 7–6. In 2014, Libya won the African Nations Championship after beating Ghana in the finals. Although the national team has never won a major competition or qualified for a World Cup, there is still lots of passion for the sport and the quality of football is improving.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya – Political process|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Libya|access-date=2020-10-05|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=28 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128052452/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/279574/Housing|url-status=live}}</ref> It also participated in many Summer Olympics, such as the ], the ] and more. | |||
Horse racing is also a popular sport in Libya. It is a tradition of many special occasions and holidays.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sports in Libya|url=https://fanack.com/libya/society-media-culture/culture/sports/|access-date=2020-10-05|website=Fanack.com|language=en-US|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919215523/https://fanack.com/libya/society-media-culture/culture/sports/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The main language spoken in Libya is ] (]) by 80% of the Libyans, and ] is also the official language; the ] spoken by 20% (i.e. Berber and Tuareg languages), which do not have official status, are spoken by Libyan Berbers and Tuaregs in the south beside Arabic language.<ref>Anderson, Lisa, (2006), , ''MSN Encarta'', Accessed July 17, 2006. 2009-10-31.</ref> Berber speakers live above all in the ] region (]), the town of ] on the coast, and the city-oases of ], ] and ]. In addition, Tuaregs speak ], the only known Northern ] language, also ] is spoken in ] in Qatroun village and Koffra city. ] and ] are sometimes spoken in the big cities, although Italian speakers are mainly among the older generation. | |||
== See also == | |||
There are about 140 tribes and ]s in Libya.<ref>"". ''Spiegel Online''. February 23, 2011</ref> Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of which live in ] and other independent housing units, with precise modes of housing depending on their income and wealth. Although the Libyan Arabs traditionally lived nomadic lifestyles in tents, they have now settled in various towns and cities.<ref>Al-Hawaat, Dr. Ali, (1994), ''National Center for Research and Scientific Studies of Libya''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in ] and ], and a small percentage is in ]. | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
== Notes == | |||
According to the ''World Refugee Survey 2008'', published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Libya hosted a population of ]s and asylum seekers numbering approximately 16,000 in 2007. Of this group, approximately 9,000 persons were from the Former ], 3,200 from ], 2,500 from ] and 1,100 from ].<ref name = "World Refugee Survey 2008"/> Libya reportedly deported thousands of illegal entrants in 2007 without giving them the opportunity to apply for asylum. Refugees faced discrimination from Libyan officials when moving in the country and seeking employment.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2008">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008|publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants|date=2008-06-19|url=http://www.refugees.org/survey}}</ref> | |||
{{Reflist|group=n}} | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
== |
== References == | ||
{{reflist}} | |||
{{Main|Education in Libya}} | |||
Libya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the ].<ref name="Libedu">Clark, Nick, (July 2004), , ''World Education News and Reviews, Volume 17, Issue 4''. Retrieved July 22, 2006.</ref> Basic education in Libya is free for all citizens,<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 22, 2006.</ref> and compulsory to ]. The literacy rate is the highest in North Africa; over 82% of the population can read and write.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medregion.mepi.state.gov/libya.html |title=About Libya |accessdate=2007-10-10 |year=2003 |work=Office of the Middle East Partnership Initiative |publisher=United States Department of State }}</ref> | |||
]'s first campus, founded by royal decree in 1955]] | |||
== Bibliography == | |||
After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university, the ], was established in Benghazi by royal decree.<ref name="Libedu2">El-Hawat, Ali, (2000), , ''International Network for Higher Education in Africa". Retrieved July 22, 2006.</ref> In academic year 1975/76 the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. As of 2004, this number has increased to more than 200,000, with an extra 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector.<ref name="Libedu" /> The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education. | |||
{{CIA World Factbook}}<br />{{StateDept}} | |||
== External links == | |||
Since 1975 the number of universities has grown from two to nine and after their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes currently stands at 84 (with 12 public universities).<ref name="Libedu" /> Libya's higher education is mostly financed by the public budget, although a small number of private institutions has been given accreditation lately. In 1998 the budget allocated for education represented 38.2% of the national budget.<ref name="Libedu2" /> | |||
{{Library resources box}} | |||
* from ] | |||
The main universities in Libya are: | |||
* – Official Libya Information Portal | |||
* ] (Tripoli) | |||
* – official website of Government of National Unity of Libya | |||
* ] (Benghazi) | |||
* – official website of Bureau of Statistics and Census | |||
* ] (Al Bayda) | |||
* {{Wikiatlas}} | |||
* {{Osmrelation-inline|192758}} | |||
The main technology institutions are: | |||
* ] Also known as The College of Computer Technology (Tripoli) | |||
* The Higher Institute of Electronics (Tripoli) | |||
===Religion=== | |||
{{Main|Religion in Libya}} | |||
{{Bar box | |||
|title=] | |||
|titlebar=#ddd | |||
|left1=religion | |||
|right1=percent | |||
|float=right | |||
|bars= | |||
{{Bar percent|]|green|96.7}} | |||
{{Bar percent|]|blue|1.5}} | |||
{{Bar percent|Other|black|1}} | |||
}} | |||
], close to the Tunisian and Algerian border. About 97% of Libyans are followers of Islam.]] | |||
By far the predominant religion in Libya is ] with 97% of the population associating with the faith.<ref>Religious adherents by location, ''Adherents.com''. Retrieved July 15, 2006.</ref> The vast majority of Libyan Muslims adhere to ], which provides both a spiritual guide for individuals and a keystone for government policy, but a minority (between 5 and 10%) adhere to ] (a branch of ]), above all in the Jebel Nefusa and the town of Zuwarah, west of Tripoli. | |||
Before the 1930s, the ] Movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its ''zawaaya'' (lodges) were found in ] and ], but Senussi influence was strongest in ]. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose.<ref name="senussi">Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1989), , ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 22, 2006.</ref> | |||
This Islamic movement, which was eventually destroyed by both ] and later the Gaddafi government,<ref name="senussi"/> was very conservative and somewhat different from the Islam that exists in Libya today. Gaddafi asserts that he is a devout Muslim, and his government is taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam.<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1989), , ''US Library of Congress''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> A Libyan form of ] is also common in parts of the country.<ref>Libya - Religion, (July 8, 2006), ''Arabic News''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> | |||
Other than the overwhelming majority of Sunni Muslims, there are also small foreign communities of ]. ], which is the Christian Church of Egypt, is the ]. There are over 60,000 Egyptian ]s in Libya, as they comprise over 1% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tore Kjeilen |url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm |title=Looklex Encyclopedia: 1% of Libya's population (6.1 million) adhere to the Coptic Orthodox faith |publisher=I-cias.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-02}}</ref><ref> ''Jewish Virtual Library''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> There are an estimated 40,000 ] in Libya who are served by two Bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the ] community) and one in ] (serving the ] community). There is also a small ] community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli; it is part of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. | |||
Libya was until recent times the home of one of the oldest ]ish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC.<ref>The World Jewish Congress, , ''University of California at Berkeley''. Retrieved July 16, 2006.</ref> In 1942 the Italian Fascist authorities set up forced labour camps south of Tripoli for the Jews, including Giado (about 3,000 Jews) and Gharyan, Jeren, and Tigrinna. In Giado some 500 Jews died of weakness, hunger, and disease. In 1942, Jews who were not in the concentration camps were heavily restricted in their economic activity and all men between 18 and 45 years were drafted for forced labour. In August 1942, Jews from Tripolitania were interned in a concentration camp at Sidi Azaz. In the three years after November 1945, more than 140 Jews were murdered, and hundreds more wounded, in a series of ]s.<ref name="harris">Harris, David A. (2001), "In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist", 1979–1999, pp. 149–150</ref> By 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country. Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated. | |||
<!-- | |||
After the ] in 1956, all but about 100 Jews were forced to flee. This sentence contradicts sourced factes from "History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya#Six-Day_War" article-->(''See ].'') | |||
==Culture== | |||
{{Main|Culture of Libya}} | |||
{{See|Music of Libya|Libyan literature}} | |||
]. Libya has a number of World Heritage Sites from the ancient Greek and Roman eras, which are popular tourist destinations.]] | |||
], Libya's second-largest city. With the longest ] ] among African nations, Libya's mostly unspoilt beaches are a social gathering place.]] | |||
Libya is culturally similar to its neighboring ]. Libyans consider themselves very much a part of a wider Arab community. The Libyan state tends to strengthen this feeling by considering Arabic as the only official language, and forbidding the teaching and even the use of the Berber language. Libyan Arabs have a heritage in the traditions of the nomadic ] and associate themselves with a particular Bedouin tribe. | |||
Libya boasts few theatres or art galleries.<ref>News and Trends: Africa, (September 17, 1999), ''Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref><ref>About Libya, , ''Discover Libya Travel''. Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> For many years there have been no public theatres, and only a few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of ] is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad. | |||
The main output of Libyan television is devoted to showing various styles of traditional Libyan music. ] and dance are popular in ] and the south. Libyan television programmes are mostly in Arabic with a 30-minute news broadcast each evening in English and French. The government maintains strict control over all media outlets. A new analysis by the ] has found Libya’s media the most tightly controlled in the Arab world.<ref name="mediacont" /> To combat this, the government plans to introduce private media, an initiative intended to update the country's media.<ref>(January 30, 2006), , ''Middle East Times''. Retrieved July 21, 2006.</ref> | |||
Many Libyans frequent the country's beach and they also visit Libya's archaeological sites—especially ], which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world.<ref>Donkin, Mike, (July 23, 2005), , ''BBC News''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> | |||
The nation's capital, ], boasts many museums and archives; these include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The ], built in consultation with ], may be the country's most famous.<ref>Bouchenaki, Mounir, (1989), , ''UNESCO, Museum Architecture: beyond the <<temple>> and ... beyond''. Retrieved July 19, 2006.</ref> | |||
===Contemporary travel=== | |||
The most common form of public transport between cities is the bus, but many people travel by automobile.<ref name="libyafacts2">Looklex.com. . Retrieved on August 26, 2008.</ref> There are no railway services in Libya.<ref name="libyafacts2"/> | |||
===Libyan cuisine=== | |||
{{importance-section|date=November 2010}} | |||
Libyan cuisine is generally simple, and is very similar to Sahara cuisine.<ref name="libyafacts3">Looklex.com. Retrieved on August 26, 2008.</ref> In many undeveloped areas and small towns, restaurants may be nonexistent, and food stores may be the only source to obtain food products.<ref name="libyafacts3"/> Some common Libyan foods include ], ], which is a type of unsweetened cake, and ], which is soup.<ref name="libyafacts3"/> Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and ].<ref name="libyafacts3"/> Alcohol consumption is illegal in the entire country.<ref name="libyafacts">Looklex.com. </ref> | |||
There are four main ingredients of traditional Libyan food: ]s (and ]), palm ]s, ]s and milk.<ref name="Libyan Food">Temehu.com. </ref> Grains are roasted, ground, sieved and used for making bread, cakes, soups and ]. Dates are harvested, dried and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup or slightly fried and eaten with ] and milk. After eating, Libyans often drink black tea. This is normally repeated a second time (for the second glass of tea), and in the third round the tea is served with roasted ]s or roasted ]s (mixed with the tea in the same glass).<ref name="Libyan Food"/> | |||
==See also== | |||
{{Portal box|Libya|Africa}} | |||
{{Main|Outline of Libya|Index of Libya-related articles}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
==References== | |||
*{{cite book |last=Brady|first=Adrienne|publisher=Melrose Books |title=Libya – Kiss The Hand You Cannot Sever|isbn=1906050600 |edition=1|year=2008}} | |||
*{{cite book |title=Libya|first=Anthony|last=Ham|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|year=2002|isbn= 0-86442-699-2}} | |||
*{{cite book |title=Libya Handbook|first=James|last=Azema|publisher=Footprint Handbooks|year=2001|isbn= 1-900949-77-6}} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Harris|first=David A.|year=2001|title=In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, 1979–1999|publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc.|isbn=0-88125-693-5}} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Wright|first=John L.|title=Nations of the Modern World: Libya|publisher=Ernest Benn Ltd|year=1969}} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Rostovtzeff|first=Michael|title=Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire|location=Oxford|year=1957|edition=2|publisher=Clarendon}} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Bertarelli |first=L.V. |title=Guida d'Italia, Vol. XVII |publisher=Consociazione Turistica Italiana|location=Milano |year=1929|language=Italian}} | |||
{{CIA World Factbook}}<br /> | |||
{{StateDept}} | |||
==External links== | |||
{{Sister project links}} | |||
*{{CIA World Factbook link|ly|Libya}} | |||
*{{GovPubs|Libya}} | |||
*{{Dmoz|Regional/Africa/Libya}} | |||
*{{Wikiatlas|Libya}} | |||
*{{Wikitravel}} | |||
{{Libya topics}} | {{Libya topics}} | ||
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Revision as of 02:03, 23 December 2024
Country in North Africa For other uses, see Libya (disambiguation).
State of Libya
| |
---|---|
Flag Seal | |
Anthem: ليبيا، ليبيا، ليبيا "Libya, Libya, Libya" | |
Location of Libya (dark green) in northern Africa | |
Capitaland largest city | Tripoli
32°52′N 13°11′E / 32.867°N 13.183°E / 32.867; 13.183 |
Official languages | Arabic |
Local vernacular | Libyan Arabic |
Ethnic groups (1999) | |
Religion (2020) |
|
Demonym(s) | Libyan |
Government | Unitary republic under a provisional government |
• Chairman of the Presidential Council | Mohamed al-Menfi |
• Vice Chairman of the Presidential Council | Musa Al-Koni |
• Prime Minister | Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh |
• Speaker of the House of Representatives | Aguila Saleh Issa |
Legislature | House of Representatives |
Independence from Italy | |
• Independence declared | 10 February 1947 |
• Kingdom established | 24 December 1951 |
• Coup d'état by Muammar Gaddafi | 1 September 1969 |
• Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | 2 March 1977 |
• First Libyan Civil War | 17 February 2011 |
• NATO invasion of Libya | 19 March 2011 |
• End of Second Libyan Civil War | 23 October 2020 |
Area | |
• Total | 1,759,541 km (679,363 sq mi) (16th) |
Population | |
• 2024 estimate | 7,361,263 (103rd) |
• Density | 4.184/km (10.8/sq mi) (218th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $183.39 billion (79th) |
• Per capita | $26,928 (68th) |
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $48.22 billion (93rd) |
• Per capita | $6,987 (93rd) |
HDI (2022) | 0.746 high (92nd) |
Currency | Libyan dinar (LYD) |
Time zone | UTC+2 (EET) |
Drives on | Right |
Calling code | +218 |
ISO 3166 code | LY |
Internet TLD | .ly ليبيا. |
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Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest, as well as maritime borders with Greece, Italy and Malta to the north. Libya comprises three historical regions: Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica. With an area of almost 1.8 million km (700,000 sq mi), it is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and the 16th-largest in the world. Libya claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of Ghat. The country's official religion is Islam, with 96.6% of the Libyan population being Sunni Muslims. The official language of Libya is Arabic, with vernacular Libyan Arabic being spoken most widely. The majority of Libya's population is Arab. The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in northwestern Libya and contains over a million of Libya's seven million people.
Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age as descendants from Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians established city-states and trading posts in western Libya, while several Greek cities were established in the East. Parts of Libya were variously ruled by Carthaginians, Numidians, Persians, and Greeks before the entire region becoming a part of the Roman Empire. Libya was an early centre of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century when invasions brought Islam to the region. From then on, centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb shifted the demographic scope of Libya in favour of Arabs. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the Italo-Turkish War, which resulted in the Italian occupation of Libya and the establishment of two colonies, Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica (1911–1934), later unified in the Italian Libya colony from 1934 to 1943.
During World War II, Libya was an area of warfare in the North African Campaign. The Italian population then went into decline. Libya became independent as a kingdom in 1951. A bloodless military coup in 1969, initiated by a coalition led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, overthrew King Idris I and created a republic. Gaddafi was often described by critics as a dictator, and was one of the world's longest serving non-royal leaders, ruling for 42 years. He ruled until being overthrown and killed during the 2011 Libyan Civil War, which was part of the wider Arab Spring, with authority transferred to the National Transitional Council then to the elected General National Congress. Since 2011, Libya has been involved in a political and humanitarian crisis, and by 2014, two rival authorities claimed to govern Libya, which led to a second civil war, with parts of Libya split between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments as well as various tribal and Islamist militias. The two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire in 2020, and a unity government took authority to plan for democratic elections, though political rivalries continue to delay this. In March 2022, the House of Representatives ceased recognising the Government of National Unity and proclaimed an alternative government, the Government of National Stability (GNS). Both governments have been functioning simultaneously since then, which has led to dual power in Libya. The international community continues to recognise the unity government as the legitimate government of the country.
Libya is a developing country ranking 92nd by HDI, the highest score in mainland Africa, and has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves in the world. Libya is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and OPEC.
Etymology
Further information: Ancient Libya and LibuThe origin of the name "Libya" first appeared in an inscription of Ramesses II, written as rbw in hieroglyphic. The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large confederacy of ancient east "Libyan" Berbers, North African people(s) and tribes who lived around the lush regions of Cyrenaica and Marmarica. An army of 40,000 men and a confederacy of tribes known as "Great Chiefs of the Libu" were led by King Meryey who fought a war against pharaoh Merneptah in year 5 (1208 BCE). This conflict was mentioned in the Great Karnak Inscription in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a defeat for Meryey. According to the Great Karnak Inscription, the military alliance comprised the Meshwesh, the Lukka, and the "Sea Peoples" known as the Ekwesh, Teresh, Shekelesh, and the Sherden.
The Great Karnak Inscription reads:
"... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen — Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh. Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children — leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire."
The name "Libya" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania.
Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom (المملكة الليبية المتحدة al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah al-Muttaḥidah), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya (المملكة الليبية al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah), literally "Libyan Kingdom", in 1963. Following a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية الليبية al-Jumhūriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah). The official name was "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" from 1977 to 1986 (الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية), and "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" (الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى, al-Jamāhīriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ash-Sha'biyyah al-Ishtirākiyyah al-'Udmá listen) from 1986 to 2011.
The National Transitional Council, established in 2011, referred to the state as simply "Libya". The UN formally recognized the country as "Libya" in September 2011 based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration of 3 August 2011. In November 2011, the ISO 3166-1 was altered to reflect the new country name "Libya" in English, "Libye (la)" in French.
In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations informed the United Nations that the country's official name was henceforth the "State of Libya"; "Libya" remained the official short form, and the country continued to be listed under "L" in alphabetical lists.
History
Main article: History of LibyaAncient Libya
Main articles: Ancient Libya and LibuThe coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BC. The Afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age. The earliest known name of such a tribe was the Garamantes, based in Germa. The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya. By the 5th century BC, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being.
In 630 BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the area around Barca in Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene. Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica. The area was home to the renowned philosophy school of the Cyrenaics. In 525 BC the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. Alexander the Great ended Persian rule in 331 BC and received tribute from Cyrenaica. Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.
After the fall of Carthage the Romans did not immediately occupy Tripolitania (the region around Tripoli), but left it instead under control of the kings of Numidia, until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection. Ptolemy Apion, the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as a Roman province. As part of the Africa Nova province, Tripolitania was prosperous, and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of Leptis Magna, home to the Severan dynasty, was at its height.
On the Eastern side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor Claudius. It was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike. Although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies, from then started its decline. Libya was early to convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I; however, Libya was also home to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as Arianism and Donatism.
Islamic Libya: 647–1556
Main article: Islamic Tripolitania and CyrenaicaUnder the command of Amr ibn al-As, the Rashidun army conquered Cyrenaica. In 647 an army led by Abdullah ibn Saad took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively. The Fezzan was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule.
For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus until the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty. By the 10th century, the Shiite Fatimids controlled Western Libya, and ruled the entire region in 972 and appointed Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor.
Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognized the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.
Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily. For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among Ayyubids, the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya. Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of the Tunisian Hafsid Kingdom independent from the Almohads. In the 14th century, the Banu Thabit dynasty ruled Tripolitania before reverting to direct Hafsid control. By the 16th century, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire.
After Abbasid control was weakened, Cyrenaica was under Egypt-based states such as the Tulunids, Ikhshidids, Ayyubids, and Mamluks before Ottoman conquest in 1517. Fezzan acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after Kanem rule. Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577.
Ottoman Tripolitania: 1556–1911
Main article: Ottoman TripolitaniaAfter a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510, and its handover to the Knights of St. John, the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha took control of Libya in 1551. His successor Turgut Reis was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556. By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed directly by the sultan in Constantinople/Istanbul. In the 1580s, the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica, a bey was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli. European slaves and large numbers of enslaved Blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya.
In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of janissaries. In 1611 the deys staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of deys effectively ruled Tripolitania. The two most important Deys were Mehmed Saqizli (r. 1631–49) and Osman Saqizli (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region. The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.
Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such coup was led by Turkish officer Ahmed Karamanli. The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century. Ahmed's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli. The 1793–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years. In 1793, Turkish officer Ali Pasha deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. Hamet's brother Yusuf (r. 1795–1832) re-established Tripolitania's independence.
In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War. By 1819, the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons. Civil war soon resulted.
Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania. Order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce.
Italian colonization and Allied occupation: 1911-1951
Main articles: Italian Tripolitania, Italian Cyrenaica, and Italian Libya See also: Italian colonization of LibyaAfter the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.
Omar Mukhtar rose to prominence as a resistance leader against Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. Another prominent resistance leader, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the Libyan resistance until the outbreak of the Second World War.
The so-called "pacification of Libya" by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000. Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in Italian concentration camps in Libya)."
In 1934, Italy combined Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan and adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt) for the unified colony, with Tripoli as its capital. The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works. In particular, they greatly expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometres of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages.
In June 1940, Italy entered World War II. Libya became the setting for the hard-fought North African Campaign that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its German ally in 1943.
From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation. The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the French administered the province of Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.
Independent Kingdom: 1951–1969
Main article: Kingdom of LibyaA national assembly crafted a constitution that established a monarchy and extended an offer for the throne to Sayyid Idris, the Emir of Cyrenaica. Sayyid Idris held the esteemed position as the leader of the influential Senussi religious brotherhood, which was founded by his grandfather in the preceding century as a response to Western influence in the Arab world. This devout Islamic movement garnered significant support from the desert Bedouin and became a major political force in Libya. During the declining years of the Ottoman Empire, it effectively governed the Libyan interior. Born in an oasis in Cyrenaica in 1890, Sayyid Idris assumed leadership of the Senussi at a young age. He spent a considerable period of exile in Egypt under Italian rule and returned to Libya after the Axis powers were ousted in 1943. On December 24, 1951, as King Idris I, he addressed the nation via radio from Benghazi. On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. By December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris.
However, the new kingdom faced challenging prospects. It lacked significant industry and agricultural resources. The kingdom's primary exports consisted of hides, wool, horses, and ostrich feathers. Despite having one of the lowest income per capita figures globally, it also suffered from one of the highest illiteracy rates. King Idris I, already in his sixties, had no direct heir to succeed him. His cousin, whom he had married in 1932, reportedly experienced numerous miscarriages, and their son, born in 1953, tragically died shortly after birth. Crown Prince Rida, Idris's brother, was the designated heir, but the royal family was riddled with incessant disputes. King Idris's devout Muslim piety, which solidified his support among the Bedouin population, clashed with the modernizing and urban intellectual currents in Libya. To address the rivalry between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, Benghazi and Tripoli alternated as the capital every two years.
The swift emergence of a large number of bureaucrats resulted in a costly royal government. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East.
Republic of Libya under Gaddafi: 1969–2011
Main article: History of Libya under Muammar GaddafiOn 1 September 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by Muammar Gaddafi launched a coup d'état against King Idris, which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution. Gaddafi was referred to as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official Libyan press. He began dominating history and politics of Libya for the next four decades. Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong Italian community was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller community of Italian Libyan Jews. The day became a national holiday known as "Day of Revenge"; it was later renamed the "Day of Friendship" because of improvement in Italy–Libya relations.
Libya's increase in prosperity was accompanied by increased internal political repression, and political dissent was made illegal under Law 75 of 1973. Widespread surveillance of the population was carried out through Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees. Gaddafi also wanted to ease the strict social restrictions imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform. In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and wage parity. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of girls under the age of sixteen and making the woman's consent a necessary prerequisite for a marriage.
On 25 October 1975, a coup attempt was launched by a group of 20 military officers, mostly from the city of Misrata. This resulted in the arrest and executions of the coup plotters. In March 1977, Libya officially became the "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People's Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead. The new jamahiriya (Arab for "republic") governance structure he established was officially referred to as "direct democracy". Gaddafi, in his vision of democratic government and political philosophy, published The Green Book in 1975. His short book inscribed a representative mix of utopian socialism and Arab nationalism with a streak of Bedouin supremacy.
In February 1977, Libya started delivering military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People's Armed Forces in Chad. The Chadian–Libyan War began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion. Later that same year, Libya and Egypt fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the Egyptian–Libyan War. Both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumédiène. Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the country's support for Idi Amin's Uganda in its war against Tanzania. Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions. On 2 March 1977, Libya officially became Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
Libya adopted its plain green national flag on 19 November 1977. The country had the only plain-coloured flag in the world until 2011, when Libya adopted its current flag. From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa, while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia. This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya debt-free. The Great Manmade River was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country. In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs. Much of Libya's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world.
An American airstrike led by then US president Ronald Reagan intended to kill Gaddafi failed in 1986. Libya was finally put under sanctions by the United Nations after the bombing of a commercial flight at Lockerbie in 1988 killed 270 people. In the 1990s, the government's rule was threatened by militant Islamism and an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Gaddafi. The government responded with repressive measures. Riots and Islamic activisim were crushed by Revolutionary Guard Corps. Nevertheless, Cyrenaica between 1995 and 1998 was politically unstable, due to the tribal allegiances of the local troops. In 2003, Gaddafi announced that all of his regime's weapons of mass destruction were disassembled, and that Libya was transitioning toward nuclear power.
First Libyan Civil War and the fall of Gaddafi: 2011
Main articles: First Libyan Civil War and 2011 military intervention in LibyaThe first civil war came during the Arab Spring movements which overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt. Libya first experienced protests against Gaddafi's regime on 15 February 2011, with a full-scale revolt beginning on 17 February. Libya's authoritarian regime led by Muammar Gaddafi put up much more of a resistance compared to the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia. While overthrowing the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia was a relatively quick process, Gaddafi's campaign posed significant stalls on the uprising in Libya. The first announcement of a competing political authority appeared online and declared the Interim Transitional National Council as an alternative government. One of Gaddafi's senior advisors responded by posting a tweet, wherein he resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee. By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. On 27 February 2011, the National Transitional Council was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control. On 10 March 2011, the United States and many other nations recognised the council headed by Mahmoud Jibril as acting prime minister and as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people and withdrawing the recognition of Gaddafi's regime.
Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the de facto centre of the uprising. The town of Zawiya, 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Tripoli, was bombarded by air force planes and army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops, "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict." Organizations of the United Nations, including United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations Human Rights Council, condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action. On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973, with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia, China, India, Brazil and Germany. The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a no-fly zone and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya. On 19 March, the first act of NATO allies to secure the no-fly zone began by destroying Libyan air defenses when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a reconnaissance mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.
In the weeks that followed, US American forces were in the forefront of NATO operations against Libya. More than 8,000 US personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area. At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in Brega. The US air offensive included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers, each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs, flying out of and returning to their base in Missouri in the continental United States. The support provided by the NATO air forces contributed to the ultimate success of the revolution. By 22 August 2011, rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square, which they renamed Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed since 17 February 2011. On 20 October 2011, the last heavy fighting of the uprising came to an end in the city of Sirte. The Battle of Sirte was both the last decisive battle and the last one in general of the First Libyan Civil War where Gaddafi was captured and killed by NATO-backed forces on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last Gaddafi loyalist stronghold and his place of birth. The defeat of loyalist forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011, three days after the fall of Sirte. At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war. In addition, the National Transitional Council estimated 50,000 wounded.
Interwar period and the Second Libyan Civil War: 2011–2020
Main articles: Aftermath of the First Libyan Civil War and Second Libyan Civil WarFollowing the defeat of loyalist forces, Libya was torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities and tribes, while the central government had been weak and unable to effectively exert its authority over the country. Competing militias pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents. On 7 July 2012, Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since the end of the former regime. On 8 August, the National Transitional Council officially handed power over to the wholly-elected General National Congress, which was then tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general referendum. On 25 August 2012, in what Reuters reported as "the most blatant sectarian attack" since the end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a Sufi mosque with graves in the centre of the Libyan capital Tripoli. It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days. Numerous acts of vandalism and destruction of heritage were carried out by suspected Islamist militias, including the removal of the Nude Gazelle Statue and the destruction and desecration of World War II-era British grave sites near Benghazi. Many other cases of heritage vandalism were reported to be carried out by Islamist-related radical militias and mobs that either destroyed, robbed, or looted a number of historic sites.
On 11 September 2012, Islamist militants mounted an attack on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, killing the US ambassador to Libya, J. Christopher Stevens, and three others. The incident generated outrage in the United States and Libya. On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet. On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer Ali Zeidan as prime minister-designate. Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC. On 11 March 2014, after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue oil shipment, Prime Minister Zeidan stepped down, and was replaced by Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani.
The Second Civil War began in May 2014 following fighting between rival parliaments with tribal militias and jihadist groups soon taking advantage of the power vacuum. Most notably, radical Islamist fighters seized Derna in 2014 and Sirte in 2015 in the name of the Islamic State. In February 2015, neighbouring Egypt launched airstrikes against IS in support of the Tobruk government. In June 2014, elections were held to the House of Representatives, a new legislative body intended to take over from the General National Congress. The elections were marred by violence and low turnout, with voting stations closed in some areas. Secularists and liberals did well in the elections, to the consternation of Islamist lawmakers in the GNC, who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC, refusing to recognise the new House of Representatives. Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to Tobruk.
In January 2015, meetings were held with the aim to find a peaceful agreement between the rival parties in Libya. The so-called Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal conflict. However, the GNC actually never participated, a sign that internal division not only affected the "Tobruk Camp", but also the "Tripoli Camp". Meanwhile, terrorism within Libya steadily increased, also affecting neighbouring countries. The terrorist attack against the Bardo Museum in Tunisia on 18 March 2015 was reportedly carried out by two Libyan-trained militants. During 2015 an extended series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations, as conducted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), Spanish diplomat Bernardino León. UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in addition to the usual work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL). In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations, which at that point had just achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out "a comprehensive framework... includ guiding principles... institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of a permanent constitution." Talks, negotiations and dialogue continued on during mid-2015 at various international locations, culminating at Skhirat in Morocco in early September.
Also in 2015, as part of the ongoing support from the international community, the UN Human Rights Council requested a report about the Libyan situation and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein, established an investigative body (OIOL) to report on human rights and rebuilding the Libyan justice system. Chaos-ridden Libya emerged as a major transit point for people trying to reach Europe. Between 2013 and 2018, nearly 700,000 migrants reached Italy by boat, many of them from Libya. In May 2018 Libya's rival leaders agreed to hold parliamentary and presidential elections following a meeting in Paris. In April 2019, Khalifa Haftar launched Operation Flood of Dignity, in an offensive by the Libyan National Army aimed to seize Western territories from the Government of National Accord (GNA). In June 2019, forces allied to Libya's UN-recognized Government of National Accord successfully captured Gharyan, a strategic town where military commander Khalifa Haftar and his fighters were based. According to a spokesman for GNA forces, Mustafa al-Mejii, dozens of LNA fighters under Haftar were killed, while at least 18 were taken prisoner. In March 2020, UN-backed government of Fayez Al-Sarraj commenced Operation Peace Storm. The government initiated the bid in response to the state of assaults carried by Field Marshal Haftar's LNA. "We are a legitimate, civilian government that respects its obligations to the international community, but is committed primarily to its people and has an obligation to protect its citizens," Sarraj said in line with his decision. On 28 August 2020, the BBC Africa Eye and BBC Arabic Documentaries revealed that a drone operated by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) killed 26 young cadets at a military academy in Tripoli, on 4 January. Most of the cadets were teenagers and none of them were armed. The Chinese-made drone Wing Loong II fired Blue Arrow 7 missile, which was operated from UAE-run Al-Khadim Libyan air base. In February, these drones stationed in Libya were moved to an air base near Siwa in the western Egyptian desert. The Guardian probed and discovered the blatant violation of UN arms embargo by the UAE and Turkey on 7 October 2020. As per the reporting, both the nations sent large-scale military cargo planes to Libya in support of their respective parties. On 23 October 2020, a permanent ceasefire was signed to end the war.
Post-civil war years: 2020–present
Main article: Libyan Crisis (2011–present)This section needs expansion. You can help by making an edit requestadding to it . (December 2021) |
In December 2021, the country's first presidential election was scheduled, but was delayed to June 2022 and later postponed further.
Fathi Bashagha was appointed prime minister by the parliament in February 2022 to lead a transitional administration, but standing prime minister Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh refused to hand over power as of April 2022. In protest against the Dbeibah government, tribal leaders from the desert town of Ubari shut down the El Sharara oil field, Libya's largest oil field, on 18 April 2022. The shut down threatened to cause oil shortages domestically in Libya, and preclude the state-run National Oil Corp. from exploiting the high oil prices on the international market resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine. On 2 July, the House of Representatives was burned down by protesters.
On September 10, 2023, catastrophic floods due to dam failures generated by Storm Daniel devastated the port city of Derna, killing more than 5,900 and possibly as many as 24,000. The floods were the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history.
In November 2024, the Government of National Unity would instate a morality police to crack-down on "weird haircuts", enforce “modest” clothing, and require male guardians for women.
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Libya and Wildlife of LibyaLibya extends over 1,759,540 square kilometres (679,362 sq mi), making it the 16th-largest nation in the world by size. Libya is bounded to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, the west by Tunisia and Algeria, the southwest by Niger, the south by Chad, the southeast by Sudan, and the east by Egypt. Libya lies between latitudes 19° and 34°N, and longitudes 9° and 26°E.
At 1,770 kilometres (1,100 mi), Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean. The portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is often called the Libyan Sea. The climate is mostly extremely dry and desertlike in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate.
Six ecoregions lie within Libya's borders: Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, Mediterranean woodlands and forests, North Saharan steppe and woodlands, Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands.
Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden sirocco (known in Libya as the gibli). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also dust storms and sandstorms. Oases can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are Ghadames and Kufra. Libya is one of the sunniest and driest countries in the world due to prevailing presence of desert environment.
Libya was a pioneer state in North Africa in species protection, with the creation in 1975 of the El Kouf protected area. The fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime favoured intense poaching: "Before the fall of Gaddafi even hunting rifles were forbidden. But since 2011, poaching has been carried out with weapons of war and sophisticated vehicles in which one can find up to 200 gazelle heads killed by militiamen who hunt to pass the time. We are also witnessing the emergence of hunters with no connection to the tribes that traditionally practice hunting. They shoot everything they find, even during the breeding season. More than 500,000 birds are killed in this way each year, when protected areas have been seized by tribal chiefs who have appropriated them. The animals that used to live there have all disappeared, hunted when they are edible or released when they are not," explains zoologist Khaled Ettaieb.
Libyan Desert
The Libyan Desert, which covers most of Libya, is one of the most arid and sun-baked places on earth. In places, decades may pass without seeing any rainfall at all, and even in the highlands rainfall seldom happens, once every 5–10 years. At Uweinat, as of 2006 the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998.
Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan Desert can be extreme; on 13 September 1922, the town of 'Aziziya, which is located southwest of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of 58 °C (136.4 °F), considered to be a world record. In September 2012, however, the world record figure of 58 °C was determined to be invalid by the World Meteorological Organization.
There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and Kufra. Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders.
Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat, and Kissu. These granite mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Aïr Mountains. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west.
The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive aquifer underneath much of Libya. The water in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System pre-dates the last Ice ages and the Sahara Desert itself. This area also contains the Arkenu structures, which were once thought to be two impact craters.
Politics
Main article: Politics of LibyaThe politics of Libya has been in a tumultuous state since the start of the Arab Spring and the NATO intervention related Libyan Crisis in 2011; the crisis resulted in the collapse of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and the killing of Muammar Gaddafi, amidst the First Civil War and the foreign military intervention. The crisis was deepened by the factional violence in the aftermath of the First Civil War, resulting in the outbreak of the Second Civil War in 2014. The control over the country is currently split between the House of Representatives (HoR) in Tobruk and the Government of National Unity (GNU) in Tripoli and their respective supporters, as well as various jihadist groups and tribal elements controlling different parts of the country.
The former legislature was the General National Congress, which had 200 seats. The General National Congress (2014), a largely unrecognised rival parliament based in the de jure capital of Tripoli, claims to be a legal continuation of the GNC. On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in parliamentary elections, the first free elections in almost 40 years. Around thirty women were elected to become members of parliament. Early results of the vote showed the National Forces Alliance, led by former interim Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril, as front runner. The Justice and Construction Party, affiliated to the Muslim Brotherhood, has done less well than similar parties in Egypt and Tunisia. It won 17 out of 80 seats that were contested by parties, but about 60 independents have since joined its caucus. As of January 2013, there was mounting public pressure on the National Congress to set up a drafting body to create a new constitution. Congress had not yet decided whether the members of the body would be elected or appointed. On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives. The new legislature allocates 30 seats for women, will have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allows Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office.
Following the 2012 elections, Freedom House improved Libya's rating from Not Free to Partly Free, and now considers the country to be an electoral democracy. Gaddafi merged civil and sharia courts in 1973. Civil courts now employ sharia judges who sit in regular courts of appeal and specialize in sharia appellate cases. Laws regarding personal status are derived from Islamic law. At a meeting of the European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs on 2 December 2014, UN Special Representative Bernardino León described Libya as a non-state. An agreement to form a national unity government was signed on 17 December 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord would be formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years. The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the State Council, will be formed with members nominated by the General National Congress (2014). The formation of an interim unity government was announced on 5 February 2021, after its members were elected by the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum (LPDF). Seventy-four members of the LPDF cast ballots for four-member slates which would fill positions including the Prime Minister and the head of the Presidential Council. After no slates reached a 60% vote threshold, the two leading teams competed in a run-off election. Mohamed al-Menfi, a former ambassador to Greece, became head of the Presidential Council.
Meanwhile, the LPDF confirmed that Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh, a businessman, would be the transitional Prime Minister. All of the candidates who ran in this election, including the members of the winning slate, promised to appoint women to 30% of all senior government positions. The politicians elected to lead the interim government initially agreed not to stand in the national elections scheduled for 24 December 2021. However, Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh announced his candidature for president despite the ban in November 2021. The Appeals Court in Tripoli rejected appeals for his disqualification, and allowed Dbeibeh back on the candidates' list, along with a number of other disqualified candidates, originally scheduled for December 24. Even more controversially, the court also reinstated Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, a son of the former dictator, as a presidential candidate. On 22 December 2021, Libya's Election Commission called for the postponement of the election until 24 January 2022. Earlier, a parliamentary commission said it would be "impossible" to hold the election on 24 December 2021. The UN called on Libya's interim leaders to "expeditiously address all legal and political obstacles to hold elections, including finalising the list of presidential candidates". However, at the last minute, the election was postponed indefinitely and the international community agreed to continue its support and recognition of the interim government headed by Mr Dbeibeh. According to new election rules, a new prime minister has 21 days to form a cabinet that must be endorsed by the various governing bodies within Libya. After this cabinet is agreed upon, the unity government will replace all "parallel authorities" within Libya, including the Government of National Accord in Tripoli and the administration led by General Haftar.
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of LibyaLibya's foreign policies have fluctuated since 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, and was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day Arab League), of which it became a member in 1953. The government was also friendly towards Western countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, France, Italy, Greece, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955. Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered a conservative course at home.
After the 1969 coup, Muammar Gaddafi closed American and British bases and partly nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. Gaddafi was known for backing a number of leaders viewed as anathema to Westernization and political liberalism, including Ugandan President Idi Amin, Central African Emperor Jean-Bédel Bokassa, Ethiopian strongman Haile Mariam Mengistu, Liberian President Charles Taylor, and Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević.
Libyan National Security Advisor Mutassim Gaddafi and US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, April 2009UK Foreign Secretary William Hague with Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan and US Secretary of State John Kerry, November 2013Relations with the West were strained by a series of incidents for most of Gaddafi's rule, including the killing of London policewoman Yvonne Fletcher, the bombing of a West Berlin nightclub frequented by US servicemen, and the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, which led to UN sanctions in the 1990s, though by the late 2000s, the United States and other Western powers had normalised relations with Libya. Gaddafi's decision to abandon the pursuit of weapons of mass destruction after the Iraq War saw Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein overthrown and put on trial led to Libya being hailed as a success for Western soft power initiatives in the War on Terror. In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their involvement in the trans-Saharan slave trade.
Libya is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Libyan authorities rejected European Union's plans aimed at stopping migration from Libya. In 2017, Libya signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
Military
Main article: Libyan Armed ForcesThis article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2016) |
Libya's previous national army was defeated in the Libyan Civil War and disbanded. The Tobruk based House of Representatives who claim to be the legitimate government of Libya have attempted to reestablish a military known as the Libyan National Army. Led by Khalifa Haftar, they control much of eastern Libya. In May 2012, an estimated 35,000 personnel had joined its ranks. The internationally recognised Government of National Accord established in 2015 has its own army that replaced the LNA, but it consists largely of undisciplined and disorganised militia groups.
As of November 2012, it was deemed to be still in the embryonic stage of development. President Mohammed el-Megarif promised that empowering the army and police force is the government's biggest priority. President el-Megarif also ordered that all of the country's militias must come under government authority or disband.
Militias have so far refused to be integrated into a central security force. Many of these militias are disciplined, but the most powerful of them answer only to the executive councils of various Libyan cities. These militias make up the so-called Libyan Shield, a parallel national force, which operates at the request, rather than at the order, of the defence ministry.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Subdivisions of Libya, Districts of Libya, and Baladiyat of LibyaHistorically, the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), Tripolitania in the northwest, Barka (Cyrenaica) in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest. It was the conquest by Italy in the Italo-Turkish War that united them in a single political unit.
Since 2007, Libya has been divided into 22 districts (Shabiyat):
- Nuqat al Khams
- Zawiya
- Jafara
- Tripoli
- Murqub
- Misrata
- Sirte
- Benghazi
- Marj
- Jabal al Akhdar
- Derna
- Tobruk
- Nalut
- Jabal al Gharbi
- Wadi al Shatii
- Jufra
- Al Wahat
- Ghat
- Wadi al Hayaa
- Sabha
- Murzuq
- Kufra
In 2022, 18 provinces were declared by the Libyan Government of National Unity (Libyan Observer): the eastern coast, Jabal Al-Akhdar, Al-Hizam, Benghazi, Al-Wahat, Al-Kufra, Al-Khaleej, Al-Margab, Tripoli, Al-Jafara, Al-Zawiya, West Coast, Gheryan, Zintan, Nalut, Sabha, Al-Wadi, and Murzuq Basin.
Human rights
See also: Human rights in LibyaAccording to Human Rights Watch annual report 2016, journalists are still being targeted by the armed groups in Libya. The organization added that Libya ranked very low in the 2015 Press Freedom Index, 154th out of 180 countries. For the 2021 Press Freedom Index its score dropped to 165th out of 180 countries. Homosexuality is illegal in Libya.
Economy
Main article: Economy of LibyaThe Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which account for over half of GDP and 97% of exports. Libya holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa and is an important contributor to the global supply of light, sweet crude. During 2010, when oil averaged at $80 a barrel, oil production accounted for 54% of GDP. Apart from petroleum, the other natural resources are natural gas and gypsum. The International Monetary Fund estimated Libya's real GDP growth at 122% in 2012 and 16.7% in 2013, after a 60% plunge in 2011.
The World Bank defines Libya as an 'Upper Middle Income Economy', along with only seven other African countries. Substantial revenues from the energy sector, coupled with a small population, give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa. This allowed the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya state to provide an extensive level of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and education.
Libya faces many structural problems including a lack of institutions, weak governance, and chronic structural unemployment. The economy displays a lack of economic diversification and significant reliance on immigrant labour. Libya has traditionally relied on unsustainably high levels of public sector hiring to create employment. In the mid-2000s, the government employed about 70% of all national employees.
Unemployment rose from 8% in 2008 to 21% in 2009, according to the census figures. According to an Arab League report, based on data from 2010, unemployment for women stands at 18% while for the figure for men is 21%, making Libya the only Arab country where there are more unemployed men than women. Libya has high levels of social inequality, high rates of youth unemployment and regional economic disparities. Water supply is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000.
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Libya, which includes Cairo-Dakar Highway and Tripoli-Cape Town Highway. These routes have further contributed in the economic development of Libya.
Libya imports up to 90% of its cereal consumption requirements, and imports of wheat in 2012/13 was estimated at 1 million tonnes. The 2012 wheat production was estimated at 200,000 tonnes. The government hopes to increase food production to 800,000 tonnes of cereals by 2020. However, natural and environmental conditions limit Libya's agricultural production potential. Before 1958, agriculture was the country's main source of revenue, making up about 30% of GDP. With the discovery of oil in 1958, the size of the agriculture sector declined rapidly, comprising less than 5% GDP by 2005.
The country joined OPEC in 1962. Libya is not a WTO member, but negotiations for its accession started in 2004. In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its GDP per capita was higher than some developed countries.
In the early 2000s officials of the Jamahiriya era carried out economic reforms to reintegrate Libya into the global economy. UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003, and Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction. Other steps have included applying for membership of the World Trade Organization, reducing subsidies, and announcing plans for privatization.
Authorities privatized more than 100 government owned companies after 2003 in industries including oil refining, tourism and real estate, of which 29 were 100% foreign owned. Many international oil companies returned to the country, including oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil. After sanctions were lifted there was a gradual increase of air traffic, and by 2005 there were 1.5 million yearly air travellers. Libya had long been a notoriously difficult country for Western tourists to visit due to stringent visa requirements.
In 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, the second-eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, was involved in a green development project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which sought to bring tourism to Cyrene and to preserve Greek ruins in the area. In August 2011, it was estimated that it would take at least 10 years to rebuild Libya's infrastructure. Even before the 2011 war, Libya's infrastructure was in a poor state due to "utter neglect" by Gaddafi's administration, according to the NTC. By October 2012, the economy had recovered from the 2011 conflict, with oil production returning to near normal levels. Oil production was more than 1.6 million barrels per day before the war. By October 2012, the average oil production has surpassed 1.4 million bpd. The resumption of production was made possible due to the quick return of major Western companies, like TotalEnergies, Eni, Repsol, Wintershall and Occidental. In 2016, an announcement from the company said the company aims 900,000 barrel per day in the next year. Oil production has fallen from 1.6 million barrel per day to 900,000 in four years of war.
The Great Man-Made River is the world's largest irrigation project. The project utilizes a pipeline system that pumps fossil water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System from down south in Libya to cities in the populous Libyan northern Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi. The water provides 70% of all freshwater used in Libya. During the second Libyan civil war, lasting from 2014 to 2020, the water infrastructure suffered neglect and occasional breakdowns. By 2017, 60% of the Libyan population were malnourished. Since then, 1.3 million people are waiting for emergency humanitarian aid, out of a total population of 7.1 million.
In March 2024, Libya is actively promoting business development and encouraging both domestic and foreign investment. This strategic initiative is aimed at securing long-term economic stability and prosperity for Libya by diversifying its economic foundation. Embracing green industries like renewable energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture, and eco-tourism holds the potential to generate fresh employment prospects across a spectrum of sectors, thereby addressing unemployment challenges, particularly among the youth demographic.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of LibyaLibya is a large country with a relatively small population concentrated very narrowly along the coast. Its population density is about 50 inhabitants per square kilometre (130/sq mi) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than 1 inhabitant per square kilometre (2.6/sq mi) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live along the coast in less than 10% of the area.
About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the three largest cities, Tripoli, Benghazi and Misrata. Libya has a population of about 6.7 million, 27.7% of whom are under the age of 15. In 1984 the population was 3.6 million, an increase from the 1.54 million reported in 1964.
The population of Libya is primarily of Arab ancestry. Arabs comprise 92% of the population, while Berbers comprise 5%, though other estimates put this percentage at 10%, representing approximately 600,000 people. Among the Berber groups are the minority Berber populations of Zuwarah and the Nafusa Mountains. Southern Libya, primarily Sebha, Kufra, Ghat, Ghadamis and Murzuk, is also inhabited by two other ethnic groups; the Tuareg and Toubou. Libya is one of the world's most tribal countries. There are about 140 tribes and clans in Libya. Also living in Libya are an estimated 750,000 Egyptian workers, down from more than 2 million prior to the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi in 2011.
Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of whom live in apartment blocks and other independent housing units, with modes of housing depending on their income and wealth. Although the Arab Libyans traditionally lived nomadic Bedouin lifestyles in tents, they have predominately settled in towns and cities.
Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in industry and services, and a small percentage is in agriculture.
According to the UNHCR, there were around 8,000 registered refugees, 5,500 unregistered refugees, and 7,000 asylum seekers of various origins in Libya in January 2013. Additionally, 47,000 Libyan nationals were internally displaced and 46,570 were internally displaced returnees.
Health
Main article: Health in LibyaIn 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.88% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 18.71 physicians and 66.95 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. The life expectancy at birth was 74.95 years in 2011, or 72.44 years for males and 77.59 years for females.
In 2023, the Libyan health ministry announced the launch of the National Strategy for Primary Healthcare 2023–2028 to improve services provided by group clinics and health centres. A unique health number allotted to each citizen will facilitate access to medical records. Before Storm Daniel, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs estimated that around 60,000 people were in need of humanitarian aid in Derna and environs. Since the storm many of the hospitals and primary health facilities in Derna and eastern Libya have been rendered partially or completely nonfunctional.
Education
Main article: Education in LibyaLibya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the tertiary level. Basic education in Libya is free for all citizens, and is compulsory up to the secondary level. The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 89.2%.
After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university – the University of Libya – was established in Benghazi by royal decree. In the 1975–76 academic year the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. As of 2004, this number has increased to more than 200,000, with another 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector. The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education.
Since 1975 the number of public universities has grown from two to twelve and since their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes has grown to 84. Since 2007 some new private universities such as the Libyan International Medical University have been established. Although before 2011 a small number of private institutions were given accreditation, the majority of Libya's higher education has always been financed by the public budget. In 1998 the budget allocation for education represented 38.2% of Libya's national budget.
In 2024, the Ministry of Education announced the launch of the Full-Day School Project in which 12 schools in different parts of the country will have longer school days. The project aims to provide 800 hours of instruction per year to 3,300 elementary school students.
Ethnicity
The original inhabitants of Libya belonged predominantly to Berber ethnic groups; however, the long series of foreign invasions and migrations – particularly by Arabs – had a profound and lasting ethnic, linguistic, and cultural influence on Libyan demographics. Centuries of large-scale Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographics of Libya in favour of Arabs. Some Turks settled in Libya during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
Most of Libya's inhabitants are Arab, with many tracing their ancestry to Bedouin Arab tribes like Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal, plus Turkish and Berber minorities. The Turkish minority are often called "Kouloughlis" and are concentrated in and around villages and towns. There are some ethnic minorities, such as the Berber Tuareg and the Black African Tebou.
Most Italian settlers, at their height numbering over half a million, left after Italian Libya's independence in 1947. More repatriated in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi, but a few hundred returned in the 2000s.
Foreign labour
As of 2023 the IOM estimates that approximately 10% of Libya's population (upwards of 700,000 people) constituted foreign labour. Prior to the 2011 revolution, official and unofficial figures of migrant labour ranged from 25% to 40% of the population (between 1.5 and 2.4 million people). Historically, Libya hosted millions of low- and high-skilled Egyptian migrants, in particular.
It is difficult to estimate the total number of immigrants in Libya because the census figures, official counts and typically more accurate unofficial estimates all differ. In the 2006 census, around 359,540 foreign nationals were resident in Libya out of a population of over 5.5 million (6.35% of the population). Almost half of these were Egyptians, followed by Sudanese and Palestinian immigrants. During the 2011 revolution, 768,362 immigrants fled Libya as calculated by the IOM, around 13% of the population at the time, although many more stayed on in the country.
If consular records prior to the revolution are used to estimate the immigrant population, as many as 2 million Egyptian migrants were recorded by the Egyptian embassy in Tripoli in 2009, followed by 87,200 Tunisians, and 68,200 Moroccans by their respective embassies. Turkey recorded the evacuation of 25,000 workers during the 2011 uprising. The number of Asian migrants before the revolution were just over 100,000 (60,000 Bangladeshis, 20,000 Filipinos, 18,000 Indians, 10,000 Pakistanis, as well as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and other workers). This would put the immigrant population at almost 40% before the revolution and is a figure more consistent with government estimates in 2004 which put the regular and irregular migrant numbers at 1.35 to 1.8 million (25–33% of the population at the time).
Libya's native population of Arabs-Berbers as well as Arab migrants of various nationalities collectively make up 97% of the population as of 2014.
Languages
Main article: Languages of LibyaAccording to the CIA, the official language of Libya is Arabic. The local Libyan Arabic variety is spoken alongside Modern Standard Arabic. Various Berber languages are also spoken, including Tamasheq, Ghadamis, Nafusi, Suknah and Awjilah. The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh (Berber or Tamazight) language to be official in the cities and districts inhabited by the Berbers in Libya. In addition, English is widely understood in the major cities, while the former colonial language of Italian is also used in commerce and by the remaining Italian population.
Religion
Main article: Religion in LibyaAbout 97% of the population in Libya are Muslims, most of whom belong to the Sunni branch. Small numbers of Ibadi Muslims live in the country.
Before the 1930s, the Senussi Sunni Sufi movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaaya (lodges) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Senussi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose. This Islamic movement was eventually destroyed by the Italian invasion. Gaddafi asserted that he was a devout Muslim, and his government was taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytising on behalf of Islam.
The International Religious Freedom Report 2004 noted that "bishops, priests and nuns wear religious dress freely in public and report virtually no discrimination," while also "enjoying good relations with the Government". The report also indicated that members of minority religions said "they do not face harassment by authorities or the Muslim majority on the basis of their religious practices". The International Christian Concern does not list Libya as a country where there is "persecution or severe discrimination against Christians". Since the fall of Gaddafi, ultra-conservative strains of Islam have reasserted themselves in places. Derna in eastern Libya, historically a hotbed of jihadist thought, came under the control of militants aligned with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in 2014. Jihadist elements have also spread to Sirte and Benghazi, among other areas, as a result of the Second Libyan Civil War.
Prior to independence, Libya was home to more than 140,000 Christians (mostly of Italian and Maltese ancestry). Many Christian settlers left to Italy or Malta after the independence. Small foreign communities of Christians remained. Coptic Orthodox Christianity, the predominant Christian church of Egypt, is the largest and most historic Christian denomination in Libya. There are about 60,000 Egyptian Copts in Libya. There are three Coptic Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, one in Benghazi, and one in Misurata.
The Coptic Church has grown in recent years in Libya, due to the growing immigration of Egyptian Copts to Libya. There are an estimated 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in Benghazi (serving the Maltese community). There is also a small Anglican community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli which is part of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. People have been arrested on suspicion of being Christian missionaries, as proselytising is illegal. Christians have also faced the threat of violence from radical Islamists in some parts of the country, with a well-publicised video released by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in February 2015 depicting the mass beheading of Christian Copts. Libya was ranked fourth on Open Doors' 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.
Libya was once the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC. In 1942, the Italian Fascist authorities set up forced labour camps south of Tripoli for the Jews, including Giado (about 3,000 Jews), Gharyan, Jeren, and Tigrinna. In Giado some 500 Jews died of weakness, hunger, and disease. In 1942, Jews who were not in the concentration camps were heavily restricted in their economic activity and all men between 18 and 45 years were drafted for forced labour. In August 1942, Jews from Tripolitania were interned in a concentration camp at Sidi Azaz. In the three years after November 1945, more than 140 Jews were murdered, and hundreds more wounded, in a series of pogroms. By 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country. Upon Libyan independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated.
Largest cities
Largest cities or towns in Libya | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | District | Pop. | ||||||
Tripoli Benghazi |
1 | Tripoli | Tripoli | 1,250,000 | Misrata Beida | ||||
2 | Benghazi | Benghazi | 700,000 | ||||||
3 | Misrata | Misurata | 350,000 | ||||||
4 | Beida | Jebel el-Akhdar | 250,000 | ||||||
5 | Khoms | Murqub | 201,000 | ||||||
6 | Zawiya | Zawiya | 200,000 | ||||||
7 | Ajdabiya | Al Wahat | 134,000 | ||||||
8 | Sebha | Sebha | 130,000 | ||||||
9 | Sirte | Sirte | 128,000 | ||||||
10 | Tobruk | Butnan | 120,000 |
Culture
Main article: Culture of Libya Further information: Music of Libya and Libyan literatureMany Arabic speaking Libyans consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community. This was strengthened by the spread of Pan-Arabism in the mid-20th century, and their reach to power in Libya where they instituted Arabic as the only official language of the state. Under Gaddafi's rule, the teaching and even use of indigenous Berber language was strictly forbidden. In addition to banning foreign languages previously taught in academic institutions, leaving entire generations of Libyans with limitations in their comprehension of the English language. Both the spoken Arabic dialects and Berber, still retain words from Italian, that were acquired before and during the Libia Italiana period.
Libyans have a heritage in the traditions of the previously nomadic Bedouin Arabic speakers and sedentary Berber tribes. Most Libyans associate themselves with a particular family name originating from tribal or conquest based heritage.
Reflecting the "nature of giving" (Arabic: الاحسان Ihsan, Berber languages: ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴽⴰⴼ Anakkaf ), amongst the Libyan people as well as the sense of hospitality, recently the state of Libya made it to the top 20 on the world giving index in 2013. According to CAF, in a typical month, almost three-quarters (72%) of all Libyans helped somebody they did not know – the third highest level across all 135 countries surveyed.
There are few theatres or art galleries due to the decades of cultural repression under the Gaddafi regime and lack of infrastructure development under the regime of dictatorship. For many years there have been no public theatres, and only very few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad.
A large number of Libyan television stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics and cultural phenomena. A number of TV stations air various styles of traditional Libyan music. Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south. Libyan television broadcasts air programs mostly in Arabic though usually have time slots for English and French programs. A 1996 analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists found Libya's media was the most tightly controlled in the Arab world during the country's dictatorship. As of 2012 hundreds of TV stations have begun to air due to the collapse of censorship from the old regime and the initiation of "free media".
Many Libyans frequent the country's beach and they also visit Libya's archaeological sites—especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world. The most common form of public transport between cities is the bus, though many people travel by automobile. There are no railway services in Libya, but these are planned for construction in the near future (see rail transport in Libya).
Libya's capital, Tripoli, has many museums and archives. These include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Red Castle Museum located in the capital near the coast and right in the city centre, built in consultation with UNESCO, may be the country's most famous.
Cuisine
Main article: Libyan cuisineLibyan cuisine is a mixture of the different Italian, Bedouin and traditional Arab culinary influences. Pasta is the staple food in the Western side of Libya, whereas rice is generally the staple food in the east.
Common Libyan foods include several variations of red (tomato) sauce based pasta dishes (similar to the Italian Sugo all'arrabbiata dish); rice, usually served with lamb or chicken (typically stewed, fried, grilled, or boiled in-sauce); and couscous, which is steam cooked whilst held over boiling red (tomato) sauce and meat (sometimes also containing courgettes/zucchini and chickpeas), which is typically served along with cucumber slices, lettuce and olives.
Bazeen, a dish made from barley flour and served with red tomato sauce, is customarily eaten communally, with several people sharing the same dish, usually by hand. This dish is commonly served at traditional weddings or festivities. Asida is a sweet version of Bazeen, made from white flour and served with a mix of honey, ghee or butter. Another popular way to serve Asida is with rub (fresh date syrup) and olive oil. Usban is animal tripe stitched and stuffed with rice and vegetables cooked in tomato based soup or steamed. Shurba is a red tomato sauce-based soup, usually served with small grains of pasta.
A very common snack eaten by Libyans is known as khubs bi' tun, literally meaning "bread with tuna fish", usually served as a baked baguette or pita bread stuffed with tuna fish that has been mixed with harissa (chili sauce) and olive oil. Many snack vendors prepare these sandwiches and they can be found all over Libya. Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and macaroni. Due to severe lack of infrastructure, many under-developed areas and small towns do not have restaurants and instead food stores may be the only source to obtain food products. Alcohol consumption is illegal.
There are four main ingredients of traditional Libyan food: olives (and olive oil), dates, grains and milk. Grains are roasted, ground, sieved and used for making bread, cakes, soups and bazeen. Dates are harvested, dried and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup or slightly fried and eaten with bsisa and milk. After eating, Libyans often drink black tea. This is normally repeated a second time (for the second glass of tea), and in the third round of tea, it is served with roasted peanuts or roasted almonds known as shay bi'l-luz (mixed with the tea in the same glass).
Sport
Football is the most popular sport in Libya. The country hosted the 1982 African Cup of Nations and almost qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup. The national team almost won the 1982 AFCON; they lost to Ghana on penalties 7–6. In 2014, Libya won the African Nations Championship after beating Ghana in the finals. Although the national team has never won a major competition or qualified for a World Cup, there is still lots of passion for the sport and the quality of football is improving. It also participated in many Summer Olympics, such as the 2016 Summer Olympics, the 2008 Summer Olympics and more.
Horse racing is also a popular sport in Libya. It is a tradition of many special occasions and holidays.
See also
Notes
- Disputed with Osama Hammad, head of the Government of National Stability, which is recognized by the House of Representatives as the acting Prime Minister of Libya.
- /ˈlɪbiə/ LIB-ee-ə; Arabic: ليبيا, romanized: Lībiyā, pronounced [liː.bi.jaː]
- Arabic: دولة ليبيا, romanized: Dawlat Lībiyā
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Bibliography
This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
This article incorporates public domain material from U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets. United States Department of State.
External links
Library resources aboutLibya
- Key Development Forecasts for Libya from International Futures
- Information Portal – Official Libya Information Portal
- Government – official website of Government of National Unity of Libya
- Statistics and Census – official website of Bureau of Statistics and Census
- Wikimedia Atlas of Libya
- Geographic data related to Libya at OpenStreetMap
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Categories:- Libya
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