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{{Short description|Country in North America}} | |||
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} | |||
{{Other uses}} | |||
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{{Featured article}} | |||
{{Use Canadian English|date=July 2015}} | |||
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024}} | |||
{{Infobox country | |||
| conventional_long_name = Canada<!--Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to "Dominion of Canada", please read the Talk Page Archive.--> | |||
| image_flag = Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg | |||
| alt_flag = A vertical triband design (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre. | |||
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Canada.svg | |||
| symbol_type = ] | |||
| alt_coat = At the top there is a rendition of St. Edward's Crown, with the crest of a crowned gold lion standing on a twisted wreath of red and white silk and holding a maple leaf in its right paw underneath. The lion is standing on top of a helm, which is above the escutcheon, ribbon, motto, and compartment. There is a supporter on either side of the escutcheon and ribbon; an English lion on the left and a Scottish unicorn on the right. | |||
| national_motto = {{lang|la|]}} (])<br />"From Sea to Sea" | |||
| national_anthem = "]"{{parabr}}{{center|]}} | |||
| royal_anthem = "]"<ref>{{cite web |title=Royal Anthem |date=August 11, 2017 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/royal-symbols-titles/royal-anthem.html |publisher=Government of Canada |archive-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20201206190257/https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/royal-symbols-titles/royal-anthem.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
{{parabr}}{{center|]}} | |||
| image_map = CAN orthographic.svg | |||
| map_width = 220px | |||
| alt_map = A projection of North America with Canada highlighted in green | |||
| capital = ] | |||
| coordinates = {{Coord|45|24|N|75|40|W|type:city(1,000,000)_region:CA-ON}} | |||
| largest_city = ] | |||
| official_languages = {{hlist|]|]}} | |||
| demonym = ] | |||
| government_type = {{nowrap|] ]}} ] | |||
| leader_title1 = ] | |||
| leader_name1 = ] | |||
| leader_title2 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
| leader_name2 = ] | |||
| leader_title3 = ] | |||
| leader_name3 = ] | |||
| legislature = ] | |||
| upper_house = ] | |||
| lower_house = ] | |||
| sovereignty_type = Independence | |||
| sovereignty_note = from the ] | |||
| established_event1 = ] | |||
| established_date1 = July 1, 1867 | |||
| established_event2 = '']'' | |||
| established_date2 = December 11, 1931 | |||
| established_event3 = ] | |||
| established_date3 = April 17, 1982 | |||
| area_km2 = {{formatnum:9984670}} | |||
| area_label = Total area | |||
| area_rank = 2nd | |||
| area_sq_mi = {{formatnum:3854085}}<!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| percent_water = 11.76 (2015)<ref>{{cite web |title=Surface water and surface water change |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER# |access-date=October 11, 2020 |publisher=] |archive-date=December 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209191004/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| area_label2 = Total land area | |||
| area_data2 = {{convert|9093507|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} | |||
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{formatnum:41465298}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 25, 2024 |title=Population estimates, quarterly |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925184234/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 |archive-date=September 25, 2024 |access-date=September 25, 2024 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> | |||
| population_estimate_year = 2024 Q4 | |||
| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{formatnum:36991981}}<ref>{{cite web |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&DGUIDList=2021A000011124&GENDERList=1&STATISTICList=1&HEADERList=0&SearchText=Canada |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209165904/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&DGUIDList=2021A000011124&GENDERList=1&STATISTICList=1&HEADERList=0&SearchText=Canada |archive-date=February 9, 2022}}</ref> | |||
| population_census_year = ] | |||
| population_estimate_rank = 36th | |||
| population_density_km2 = 4.2 | |||
| population_density_sq_mi = 10.9<!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| population_density_rank = 236th | |||
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.582 trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CA">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Canada) |publisher=] |website=www.imf.org |date=October 25, 2024 |access-date=November 11, 2024}}</ref> | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_PPP_rank = 16th | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $62,766<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" /> | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 30th | |||
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.215{{nbsp}}trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" /> | |||
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_nominal_rank = 9th | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $53,834<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" /> | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 19th | |||
| Gini = 29.2 <!--number only--> | |||
| Gini_year = 2024 | |||
| Gini_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/income-inequality/indicator/english_459aa7f1-en |title=Income inequality |publisher=OECD |doi=10.1787/459aa7f1-en}}</ref> | |||
| HDI = 0.935 <!--number only--> | |||
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | |||
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady --> | |||
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2023/24 |language=en |publisher=] |date=March 13, 2024 |access-date=March 13, 2024|archive-date=March 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| HDI_rank = 18th | |||
| currency = ] ($) | |||
| currency_code = CAD | |||
| utc_offset = −3.5 to −8 | |||
| utc_offset_DST = −2.5 to −7 | |||
| cctld = ] | |||
}} | |||
<!---Overly detailed information such as listing examples, statistics or naming individuals should be reserved for the body of the article.---> | |||
'''Canada'''<!--Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to "Dominion of Canada", please read the Talk Page Archive.--> is a country in North America. Its ] extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's ], with the ]. Its ] is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both ] and ] regions. With a ] of just over 41{{nbsp}}million people, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in ] and large areas of the country being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is ] and ] are ], ], and ]. | |||
Before you edit this article to change the name of the ] to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else, please read the Talk Page. This issue has been discussed at great length there, and the evidence provided indicates that the country's *legal* name is "Canada", not anything else. If you believe you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the Talk Page, and until the consensus changes before making the edit. Thank you! | |||
] have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, ] and ] expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of ], France ] of ] in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three ]n colonies through ], Canada was formed as a ] ] of four provinces. This began an ] resulting in the ], and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the '']'', and culminating in the '']'', which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the ]. | |||
Please use Canadian spelling. | |||
Canada is a ] and a ] in the ]. The country's ] is the ], who holds office by virtue of their ability to ] of the elected ] and is appointed by the ], representing the ], the ceremonial ]. The country is a ] and is ] (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is ] of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ] and ] nations, the product of ]. Canada's long and complex ] has had a significant impact on ], ], and ]. | |||
Notice: This overview article is already too long and should serve only as an introduction for Canada. To keep this overview article concise, please consider adding information instead to one of the many "main" articles about Canada linked from this article, e.g. ], ], etc. Thank you. | |||
A ], Canada has a ] and its advanced economy ranks among the ], relying chiefly upon ] and well-developed ]. Recognized as a ], Canada's strong support for ] and ] has been closely related to ] of ] and ]. Canada is part of ]. | |||
--> | |||
{{dablink|For other uses of "Canada" or "Canadian", see ] and ].}} | |||
{{featured article}} | |||
{{Infobox Country or territory | |||
|native_name = Canada | |||
|common_name = Canada | |||
|image_flag = Flag_of_Canada.svg | |||
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Canada.svg | |||
|national_motto = {{lang|la|''A Mari Usque Ad Mare''}}{{spaces|2}}<small>(])<br/>"From Sea to Sea"</small> | |||
|national_anthem = "]" | |||
|royal_anthem = "]" | |||
|image_map = Location Canada.svg | |||
|capital = ] | |||
|latd=45 |latm=24 |latNS=N |longd=75 |longm=40 |longEW=W | |||
|largest_city = ] | |||
|demonym = Canadian | |||
|official_languages = ], ] | |||
|regional_languages = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
|government_type = {{nowrap|]}} <small>{{nowrap|(])}} | |||
|leader_title1 = ] | |||
|leader_name1 = ] | |||
|leader_title2 = ] | |||
|leader_name2 = ] | |||
|leader_title3 = ] | |||
|leader_name3 = ] | |||
|sovereignty_type = ] | |||
|established_event1 = ] | |||
|established_date1 = ] ] | |||
|established_event2 = ] | |||
|established_date2 = ] ] | |||
|established_event3 = ] | |||
|established_date3 = ] ] | |||
|area_km2 = 9,984,670 | |||
|area_sq_mi = 3,854,085 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
|area_rank = 2nd | |||
|area_magnitude = 1 E12 | |||
|percent_water = 8.92 (891,163 km²) | |||
|population_estimate = {{formatnum:{{#expr: 32976026 + 326544/365 * {{Age in days|month1=7|day1=1|year1=2007}} round -2}} }}<ref>{{cite web | author= Statistics Canada|publisher= |title= Canada's population estimates 2007-09-27 |accessdate=2007-09-27 |url=http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/070927/d070927a.htm}}</ref> | |||
|population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}} | |||
|population_estimate_rank = 36th | |||
|population_census = 31,612,897 | |||
|population_census_year = 2006 | |||
|population_density_km2 = 3.2 | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 8.3 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
|population_density_rank = 219th | |||
|GDP_PPP_year = 2006 | |||
|GDP_PPP = $1.165 trillion | |||
|GDP_PPP_rank = 11th | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $35,600 | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 10th | |||
|GDP_nominal = $1.089 trillion | |||
|GDP_nominal_rank = 8th | |||
|GDP_nominal_year = 2006 | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $32,614 | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 16th | |||
|HDI_year = 2006 | |||
|HDI = {{decrease}} 0.950 | |||
|HDI_rank = 6th | |||
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> | |||
|currency = ] ($) | |||
|currency_code = CAD | |||
|time_zone = | |||
|utc_offset = -3.5 to -8 | |||
|time_zone_DST = | |||
|utc_offset_DST = -2.5 to -7 | |||
|cctld = ] | |||
|calling_code = 1 | |||
|footnotes = <big>''']'''</big> | |||
}} | |||
==Etymology== | |||
'''Canada''' (]: /]/) is a ] occupying most of northern ], extending from the ] in the east to the ] in the west and northward into the ]. It is the ] by total area,<ref name="cia_factbook">{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |title=The World Factbook: Canada |date=] |accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> and shares ] with the ] to the south and northwest. | |||
<!--Linked--> | |||
{{Main|Name of Canada}}<!--Please see the talk page before editing this to specify which languages produced the word Canada. There are differences of opinion, which may be best discussed at Name of Canada--> | |||
The lands have been inhabited for millennia by ]. Beginning in the late 15th century, ] and ] expeditions explored and later settled the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of ] in 1763 after the ]. In 1867, with the union of three ]n colonies through ], Canada became a federal ].<ref>{{cite web| title = Territorial evolution| work = Atals of Canada | publisher = Natural Resources Canada | url =http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/anniversary_maps/terr_evol | format = html | accessdate = 2007-10-09| quote = In 1867, the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are united in a federal state, the Dominion of Canada.... }}</ref> A gradual process of independence from the ] moved Canada towards statehood and culminated in the ], severing the last vestiges of dependence on the British parliament. | |||
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of ''Canada'', the name is now accepted as coming from the ] word {{lang|lre|kanata}}, meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Olson |first1=James Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109 |title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism |last2=Shadle |first2=Robert |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-313-26257-9 |page=109}}</ref> In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day ] region used the word to direct French explorer ] to the village of ].<ref name="Rayburn2001">{{Cite book |last=Rayburn |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14 |title=Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8020-8293-0 |pages=14–22}}</ref> Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to ] (the chief at Stadacona);<ref name="Rayburn2001" /> by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the ] as ''Canada''.<ref name="Rayburn2001" /> | |||
A ]<ref>{{cite web| last = Hillmer| first = Norman | authorlink =| coauthors = W. David MacIntyre | title = Commonwealth| work = Canadian Encyclopedia | publisher = Historica Project | url =http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001798 | format = html | accessdate = 2007-10-09| quote = With CONFEDERATION in 1867, Canada became the first federation in the British Empire ... }}</ref> now comprising ], Canada is a ] and a ] with ] as its head of state. It is a ] and ] country, with both ] and ] as official languages at the federal level. ], Canada maintains a diversified economy that is heavily reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade—particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a ]. | |||
From the 16th to the early 18th century, '']'' referred to the part of ] that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofca0000unse_q5r1 |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |page=1048 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Following the British ], this area was known as the British ] from 1763 to 1791.<ref name="f014">{{cite web | title=Province of Quebec 1763-91 | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=May 14, 2020 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/province-of-quebec-1763-91 | access-date=October 1, 2024}}</ref> In 1791, the area became two British colonies called ] and ]. These two colonies were collectively named ] until their union as the British ] in 1841.<ref>{{cite web |year=1841 |title=An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |publisher=J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble |page=20}}</ref> | |||
== Etymology == | |||
{{main|Canada's name}}<!--Please see the talk page before editing or reverting this to specify which (of several) languages produced the word Canada. There are differences of opinion, which may be best discussed at the main article Canada's name--> | |||
]]] | |||
Upon ], ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the ] and the word '']'' was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Toole |first=Roger |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGHgLlxfh7wC&pg=PA137 |title=Holy Nations and Global Identities: Civil Religion, Nationalism, and Globalisation |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17828-1 |editor-last=Hvithamar |editor-first=Annika |page=137 |chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context |editor-last2=Warburg |editor-first2=Margit |editor-last3=Jacobsen |editor-first3=Brian Arly}}</ref> By the 1950s, the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
The name ''Canada'' comes from a ] word meaning "village" or "settlement." In 1535, inhabitants of the present-day ] region used the word to direct explorer ] toward the village of ].<ref>{{cite book | first = Bruce G. |last = Trigger | coauthors = Pendergast, James F. | year = 1978 |chapter=Saint-Lawrence Iroquoians | title = Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15 | location= Washington |publisher= Smithsonian Institution | pages= pp. 357–361 | id = OCLC 58762737}}</ref> Cartier used the word 'Canada' to refer to not only that village, but the entire area subject to ], Chief at Stadacona. By 1545, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12356/12356-h/12356-h.htm | title = Relation originale de Jacques Cartier | publisher = Tross (1863 edition) | author = Jacques Cartier | date = 1545 | accessdate = 2007-02-23}}</ref> | |||
| {{Cite book |last=Morra |first=Irene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b9OLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |title=The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-85772-867-8 |page=49}} | |||
| {{cite book | last=McIntyre | first=D. | title=British Decolonization, 1946–1997: When, Why and How did the British Empire Fall? | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=British History in Perspective | year=1998 | isbn=978-1-349-26922-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5FKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 | page=108}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
The '']'', which brought the ] fully under Canadian control, referred only to ''Canada''. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to ].<ref name="buckner">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA37 |title=Canada and the British Empire |publisher=] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1 |editor-last=Buckner |editor-first=Philip |pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125}}</ref> | |||
The French colony of ] referred to the part of ] along the ] and the northern shores of the ]. Later, it was split into two British colonies, called ] and ] until their union as the British ] in 1841. Upon ] in 1867, the name ''Canada'' was adopted for the entire country, and was frequently referred to as the ''] of Canada'' until the 1950s. As Canada asserted its political autonomy from ], the federal government increasingly simply used ''Canada'' on legal state documents and treaties. The ] refers only to "Canada" and, as such, it is currently the only legal (and bilingual) name. This was reflected in 1982 with the renaming of the national holiday from ] to ]. | |||
== |
==History== | ||
{{ |
{{Main|History of Canada}} | ||
{{Further|Timeline of Canadian history|Historiography of Canada}} | |||
] was Canada's most important industry until the 1800s]] | |||
Aboriginal and Inuit tradition holds that the ] inhabited parts of Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological studies support a human presence in northern ] from 26,500 years ago, and in southern ] from 9,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Cinq-Mars | first = J. | year = 2001 | title = On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia | journal = The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome | url = http://www.cq.rm.cnr.it/elephants2001/pdf/424_428.pdf | accessdate = 2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Wright, J.V |publisher= Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |url=http://www.civilization.ca/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.html |title=A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> ] when the ] settled briefly at ] circa AD 1000. The next Europeans to explore Canada's Atlantic coast included ] in 1497 for ] <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= |title = John Cabot = |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018457/John-Cabot}}</ref> and ] in 1534 for ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia= World book Encyclopedia |title= Cartier, Jacques |accessdate=2007-09-01 |publisher= World Book, Inc.|id= ISBN 071660101X }}</ref>; seasonal ] whalers and fishermen would subsequently exploit the region between the ] and ] for over a century <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= 2007 |title = Basques |encyclopedia= The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher= Historica | url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000550}}</ref>. | |||
===Indigenous peoples=== | |||
French explorer ] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at ] in 1605 and ] in 1608. These would become respectively the capitals of Acadia and Canada. Among ] of ], '']'' extensively settled the ] valley, ] settled the present-day ], while ] and ] explored the ], ] and the ] to ]. The ] broke out over control of the ]. | |||
The ] are generally hypothesized to have migrated from ] by way of the ] and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{Cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Thomas D. |title=The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory |publisher=Basic Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7867-2543-4 |page=61}} | |||
| {{Cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |title=World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-34244-1 |page=124}} | |||
}}</ref> The ] archeological sites at ] and ] are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rawat |first=Rajiv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |title=Circumpolar Health Atlas |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4426-4456-4 |page=58}}</ref> The ] included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{Cite book |last=Hayes |first=Derek |title=Canada: An Illustrated History |publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55365-259-5 |pages=7, 13}} | |||
| {{Cite book |last=Macklem |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |title=Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8020-4195-1 |page=170}} | |||
}}</ref> Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sonneborn |first=Liz |title=Chronology of American Indian History |date=January 2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-6770-1 |pages=2–12}}</ref> ] include the ], ], and ],<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012">{{Cite book |last1=Graber |first1=Christoph Beat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |title=International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues |last2=Kuprecht |first2=Karolina |last3=Lai |first3=Jessica C. |author-link3=Jessica Lai |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-85793-831-2 |page=366}}</ref> the last being of ] who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012" />] (First Nations, Inuit, Métis) by census division, according to the ]<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022 u867">{{cite web |title=Census Program Data Viewer dashboard |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 9, 2022 |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/cpdv-vdpr/index-eng.cfm |access-date=February 3, 2024|archive-date=January 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125123112/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/cpdv-vdpr/index-eng.cfm |url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
The ] at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying">{{Cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Donna M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |title=Dying and Death in Canada |last2=Northcott |first2=Herbert C |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-873-4 |pages=25–27}}</ref> and two million,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thornton |first=Russell |title=A population history of North America |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-49666-7 |editor-last=Haines |editor-first=Michael R |pages=13, 380 |chapter=Population history of Native North Americans |editor-last2=Steckel |editor-first2=Richard Hall}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=C. Vivian |title=Indians in Contemporary Society |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-16-080388-8 |editor-last=Bailey |editor-first=Garrick Alan |series=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=2 |page=285 |chapter=Native Populations of Canada |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285}}</ref> As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Ingeborg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |title=A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7735-1774-5 |page=442}}</ref> The decline is attributed to several causes, including the ], to which they had no natural immunity,<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
The ] established fishing outposts in ] around 1610 and ] the ] to the south. A series of four ] erupted between 1689 and 1763. Mainland ] came under British rule with the ] (1713); the ] ceded Canada and most of ] to ] following the ]. <!--(The western portion, ], was ceded to Spain, briefly.)--> | |||
| {{cite journal | last1=Collen | first1=Evelyn Jane | last2=Johar | first2=Angad Singh | last3=Teixeira | first3=João C. | last4=Llamas | first4=Bastien | title=The immunogenetic impact of European colonization in the Americas | journal=Frontiers in Genetics | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=13 | date=2022-08-05 | issn=1664-8021 | doi=10.3389/fgene.2022.918227 | doi-access=free | pages=1–8| pmid=35991555 | pmc=9388791 }} | |||
| {{Cite book |last=True Peters |first=Stephanie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |title=Smallpox in the New World |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1 |page=39}} | |||
}}</ref> conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{Cite book |last1=Laidlaw |first1=Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |title=Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World |last2=Lester |first2=Alan |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-137-45236-8 |page=150}} | |||
| {{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Arthur J. |url=https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 |title=I Have Lived Here Since The World Began |publisher=Key Porter Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55263-633-6 |page=}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
Although not without conflict, ]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of ], particularly for their role in assisting European ] and ] in their explorations of the continent during the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34}}</ref> These early European interactions with First Nations would change from ] to the ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
]'' on the ] at ] in 1759, part of the ].]]The ] carved the ] out of ] and annexed ] to ]. It also restricted the language and religious rights of ]. In 1769, St. John's Island (now ]) became a separate colony. To avert conflict in Quebec, the ] of 1774 expanded Quebec's territory to the ] and ], and re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec; it angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, helping to fuel the ].<ref>{{cite web | author= |publisher= |title= Wars on Our Soil, earliest times to 1885 |accessdate=2006-08-21 |url=http://www.civilization.ca/cwm/gallery1/revolution2_e.html}}</ref> The ] recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the ] to the ]. Approximately 50,000 ] fled the ] to Canada.<ref name="moore">{{cite book |first= Christopher |last=Moore |year=1994 |title=The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |location= Toronto |id=ISBN 0-7710-6093-9}}</ref> ] was split from ] as part of a reorganization Loyalist settlements in the ]. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in ], the ] divided the province into French-speaking ] and English-speaking ], granting each their own elected Legislative Assembly. | |||
| {{cite book |last=Williams |first=L. |title=Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-47233-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |page=51}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Turner |first=N.J. |title=Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-2280-0317-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |page=14}} | |||
}}</ref> From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |publisher=UBC Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28}}</ref> ] reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |author=Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada |title=Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1, Origins to 1939: The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Volume I |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7gWQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |date=January 1, 2016 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-9818-8 |pages=3–7}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Lux |first=M.K. |title=Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s |publisher=University of Toronto Press |series=G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4426-1386-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9gQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |page=7}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Kirmayer |first1=Laurence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |last2=Guthrie |first2=Gail Valaskakis |publisher=UBC Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2 |page=9}} | |||
}}</ref> A period of redress began with the formation of a ] by the ] in 2008.<ref name="trc">{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action |url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615202024/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |archive-date=June 15, 2015 |publisher=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |page=5}}</ref> This included acknowledgment of ],<ref name="TRCSummary">{{cite web |title=Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada |url=https://nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf |website=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |publisher=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada |access-date=January 6, 2019 |date=May 31, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706170855/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf |archive-date=July 6, 2016}}</ref> ],<ref name="trc" /> and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of ].<ref name="Ministère de la Justice 2017">{{cite web |title=Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples |website=Ministère de la Justice |date=July 14, 2017 |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html |archive-date=June 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610052703/https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
===European colonization=== | |||
Canada was a major front in the ] between the United States and British Empire. Its defence contributed to a sense of unity among British North Americans. Large-scale immigration to Canada began in 1815 from Britain and Ireland. The ] would also surpass the ] in importance in the early 1800s. | |||
] by 1750. Possessions of ] (pink), ] (blue), and ] (orange); California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated.<ref name="Chapman p.">{{cite AV media |last=Chapman |first=Frederick T. |title=European Claims in North America in 1750 |jstor=community.15128627 |url=https://jstor.org/stable/community.15128627 |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref>]] | |||
It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was ] explorer ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wallace |first=Birgitta |date=October 12, 2018 |title=Leif Eriksson |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413193628/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson |url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Johansen |first1=Bruce E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA727 |title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History |last2=Pritzker |first2=Barry M. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-818-7 |pages=727–728}} | |||
}}</ref> In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at ] on the northern tip of ].<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site |encyclopedia=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82 |year=2009 |pages=27, 82 |isbn=978-0-313-02189-3 |last2=Lightfoot |first2=Kent |last3=McManamon |first3=Francis |last4=Milner |first4=George |first1=Linda S. |last1=Cordell}}</ref> No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer ] explored and claimed Canada's ] in the name of ].<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p19">{{Cite book |last1=Blake |first1=Raymond B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4kwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada |last2=Keshen |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Knowles |first3=Norman J. |last4=Messamore |first4=Barbara J. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4426-3553-1 |page=19}}</ref> In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the ] where, on July 24, he planted a {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on}} cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cartier |first1=Jacques |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart |title=The Voyages of Jacques Cartier |last2=Biggar |first2=Henry Percival |last3=Cook |first3=Ramsay |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-8020-6000-6 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the ] and ] establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kerr |first=Donald Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itsTLSnw8qgC&pg=PA47 |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8020-2495-4 |page=47}}</ref> In general, early settlements during the ] appear to have been ] due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0 |page=84}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Wynn |first=Graeme |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA49 |title=Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-437-0 |page=49}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
In 1583, Sir ], by the ] of Queen ], founded ], as the first North American ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=George A |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209 |title=Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries |date=October 1, 2007 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-55081-225-1 |page=209}}</ref> In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at ] along the Saint Lawrence.<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008" /> French explorer ] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at ] (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kelley |first1=Ninette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27 |title=The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy |last2=Trebilcock |first2=Michael J. |date=September 30, 2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7 |page=27}}</ref> Among the ] of New France, '']'' extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and ] settled the present-day ], while fur traders and ] explored the ], ], and the ] to ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=LaMar |first=Howard Roberts |url=https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355 |title=The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West |publisher=] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-690-00008-5 |page= |author-link=Howard R. Lamar}}</ref> The ] broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394 |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |last2=Arnold |first2=James |last3=Wiener |first3=Roberta |date=September 30, 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-697-8 |page=394}}</ref> | |||
The desire for ] resulted in the aborted ]. ] would subsequently recommend responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.<ref name="ce_durhamreport">{{cite web |author=David Mills |publisher= Historica Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002473 |title=Durham Report |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> The ] merged ] into a ]. French and English Canadians worked together in the Assembly to reinstate French rights. ] was established for all British North American provinces by 1849. | |||
The English established additional settlements in ] in 1610 along with settlements in the ] to the south.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
The signing of the ] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the ], extending the border westward along the ], and paving the way for British colonies on ] and in ]. Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions to claim ] and the ] region. The Canadian population grew rapidly because of high birth rates; British immigration was offset by emigration to the United States, especially by French Canadians moving to ]. | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Buckner |first1=Phillip Alfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5AHjGRigpYC&pg=PA55 |title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History |last2=Reid |first2=John G. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8020-6977-1 |pages=55–56}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Hornsby |first=Stephen J |title=British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58465-427-8 |pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}} | |||
}}</ref> A series of ] erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nolan |first=Cathal J |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA160 |title=Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-313-33046-9 |page=160}}</ref> Mainland ] came under British rule with the 1713 ] and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Allaire |first=Gratien |date=May 2007 |title=From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=185 |pages=25–52 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.024 |issn=0165-2516}}</ref> | |||
===British North America=== | |||
]]]Following several constitutional conferences, the ] brought about ] creating "one Dominion under the name of ]" on July 1, 1867 with four provinces: ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book | last=Farthing |first= John |title= Freedom Wears a Crown |location= Toronto |publisher=Kingswood House |date=1957 |id = ASIN B0007JC4G2}}</ref> Canada assumed control of ] and the ] to form the ], where ] grievances ignited the ] and the creation of the province of ] in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had ] in 1866) and the colony of ] joined Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively. | |||
]'s '']'' (1771) dramatizes ]'s death during the ] at ].<ref name="National Gallery of Canada n963">{{cite web |title=The Death of General Wolfe |website=National Gallery of Canada |url=https://www.gallery.ca/collection/artwork/the-death-of-general-wolfe-0 |access-date=July 23, 2023 |archive-date=July 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726125332/https://www.gallery.ca/collection/artwork/the-death-of-general-wolfe-0 | url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
The ] established First Nation treaty rights, created the ] out of New France, and annexed ] to Nova Scotia.<ref name="buckner" /> St John's Island (now ]) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hicks |first=Bruce M |date=March 2010 |title=Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation |journal=] |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=87–117 |doi=10.3828/bjcs.2010.5}}</ref> To avert conflict in ], the British Parliament passed the ] 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=John Castell |url=https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk |title=Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, its Material Progress and its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists |publisher=Linscott Publishing Company |year=1898 |page=}}</ref> More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nellis |first=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331 |title=An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4426-0403-2 |page=331}}</ref> It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and ] there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stuart |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fdx4AV1kgCsC&pg=PA101 |title=The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience |last2=Savage |first2=Allan M. |publisher=WestBow Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4497-2084-1 |pages=101–102}}</ref> The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the ].<ref name="buckner" /> | |||
] ]'s ] established a ] of ] to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries. To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways (most notably the ]), opened the prairies to settlement with the ], and established the ] to assert its authority over this territory. In 1898, after the ] in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government decided to create the ] territory as a separate territory in the region to better control the situation. Under ] ] ], continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and ] and ] became provinces in 1905. | |||
After the successful American War of Independence, the ] recognized the independence of the newly formed ] and set the terms of peace, ceding ]n territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Leahy |first1=Todd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49 |title=Native American Movements |last2=Wilson |first2=Raymond |date=September 30, 2009 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8108-6892-2 |page=49}}</ref> The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of ], the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. ] was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of ], as Canada's first city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newman |first=Peter C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |title=Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada |date=2016 |publisher=Touchstone |isbn=978-1-4516-8615-9 |page=117 |author-link=Peter C. Newman}}</ref> To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the ] divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later ]) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later ]), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McNairn |first=Jeffrey L |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24 |title=The capacity to judge |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-4360-3 |page=24}}</ref> | |||
] in 1917.]] | |||
] heroine ] warning British commander ] of an ]<ref name="Collection Search 2023 k800">{{cite web |title=Meeting Between Laura Secord and Lieut. Fitzgibbon, June 1813 |website=Collection Search |date=July 13, 2023 |url=https://recherche-collection-search.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/home/record?app=fonandcol&IdNumber=2837234 |archive-date=October 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009191745/https://recherche-collection-search.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/home/record?app=fonandcol&IdNumber=2837234 | url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
Canada automatically entered the ] in 1914 with Britain's declaration of war, sending volunteers to the Western Front. The ] erupted when ] Prime Minister ] brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the ] independently of Britain; in 1931 the ] affirmed Canada's independence. | |||
The Canadas were the main front in the ] between the United States and the ]. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Trevor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVGDUAP3LjAC&pg=PA97 |title=Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach |last2=Friesen |first2=John W. |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-55130-371-0 |pages=97–99}}</ref> Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over {{formatnum:960000}} arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Richard Colebrook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21 |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8020-3447-2 |page=21 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> New arrivals included refugees escaping the ] as well as ]-speaking Scots displaced by the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=John A. |year=1936 |title=The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences |url=http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |url-status=live |pages=43–57 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707141525/http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |archive-date=July 7, 2014 |journal=CCHA Report}}</ref> Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.<ref name="dying" /> | |||
The ] brought economic hardship to all of Canada. In response, the ] (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan presaged a welfare state as pioneered by ] in the 1940s and 1950s. Canada ] independently during ] under Liberal Prime Minister ], three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939<ref name="stacey">{{cite book | last = Stacey |first= C.P.| authorlink =C.P. Stacey | title=History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War | publisher = Queen's Printer | year= 1948}}</ref>. Canadian troops played important roles in the ], the failed 1941 ] in France, the ], the ] during the liberation of the ] in 1944. The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military ]<!--This is not a misspelling. Follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel--> for Canada, Britain, China and the Soviet Union. Despite another ] in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world.<ref name="stacey"/>. | |||
The desire for ] resulted in the abortive ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Read |first=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99 |title=Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7735-8406-8 |page=99}}</ref> The ] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name="buckner" /> The ] merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Romney |first=Paul |date=Spring 1989 |title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture |journal=Law and History Review |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=121–174 |doi=10.2307/743779 |jstor=743779 }}</ref> The signing of the ] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the ], extending the border westward along the ]. This paved the way for British colonies on ] and in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Evenden |first1=Leonard J |title=Geographical Snapshots of North America |last2=Turbeville |first2=Daniel E |publisher=Guilford Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-89862-030-6 |editor-last=Janelle |editor-first=Donald G |page= |chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52}}</ref> The Anglo-Russian ] established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US ] of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Farr |first1=DML |last2=Block |first2=Niko |date=August 9, 2016 |title=The Alaska Boundary Dispute |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215092859/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute/ |archive-date=December 15, 2017 |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia}}</ref> | |||
In 1949, ] joined Confederation as Canada's 10th province. Post-war prosperity and economic expansion ignited a ] and attracted immigration from war-ravaged European countries.<ref>{{cite web | author= Harold Troper |publisher= Ontario Institute for Studies in Education |url=http://ceris.metropolis.net/Virtual%20Library/Demographics/troper1/troper1.html |title=History of Immigration to Toronto Since the Second World War: From Toronto 'the Good' to Toronto 'the World in a City' |date=2000-03 |accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref> | |||
===Confederation and expansion=== | |||
] underwent profound social and economic changes during the ] of the 1960s. ] ] began pressing for greater provincial autonomy. The ] ] first came to power in 1976. A ] on ] in ] was rejected by a solid majority of the population, and a second referendum in ] was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.<ref name="dickinson">{{cite book |first= John Alexander |last=Dickinson |coauthors=Young, Brian |year=2003 |title=A Short History of Quebec |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |edition=3rd edition |location= Montreal |id=ISBN 0-7735-2450-9}}</ref> In 1997, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled ]; Quebec's sovereignty movement has continued nonetheless.<ref name="dickinson" /> | |||
] since Confederation in 1867<ref name="Natural Resources Canada 2016 m242">{{cite web |title=Territorial Evolution |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |date=September 12, 2016 |url=https://atlas.gc.ca/ette/en/index.html |archive-date=September 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902165955/https://atlas.gc.ca/ette/en/index.html | url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
Following three constitutional conferences, the '']'' officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: ], Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
] signing the ].]] | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Dijkink |first1=Gertjan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226 |title=The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World |last2=Knippenberg |first2=Hans |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-5629-188-4 |page=226}} | |||
Under successive ] governments of ] and ], a new ] emerged. Canada adopted its current ] in 1965. In response to a more assertive ] ], the federal government became ] with the ] of 1969. Non-discriminatory ] were introduced in 1967 and 1976, and official ] in 1971; waves of non-European immigration have changed the face of the country. ] programs such as ], the ], and ] were initiated in the 1960s and consolidated in the 1970s; provincial governments, particularly Quebec, fought these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, Prime Minister ] pushed through the ] of the constitution from Britain, enshrining a ] based on ] in the ]. | |||
| {{cite book |last=Bothwell |first=Robert |title=History of Canada Since 1867 |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-87013-399-2 |pages=31, 207–310}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada assumed control of ] and the ] to form the ], where the Métis' grievances ignited the ] and the creation of the province of ] in July 1870.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bumsted |first=JM |title=The Red River Rebellion |publisher=Watson & Dwyer |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-920486-23-8}}</ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which ] in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/railway-history |title=Railway History in Canada |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |access-date=March 15, 2021 |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429164701/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/railway-history |url-status=live}}</ref> while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.<ref name="canatlas">{{cite web |title=Building a nation |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060303140806/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archive-date=March 3, 2006 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |website=Canadian Atlas |publisher=]}}</ref> In 1898, during the ] in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. ] and ] became provinces in 1905.<ref name="canatlas" /> Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denison |first=Merrill |title=The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story |date=1955 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited |page=8}}</ref> | |||
To open ] and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the ]), passed the '']'' to regulate settlement and established the ] to assert authority over the territory.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The ] (or Auto Pact) in 1965 and the ] of 1987 were defining moments in integrating the two economies. ] continued to worry about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations became omnipresent.<ref name="granatstein">{{cite book |first= J.L. |last=Granatstein |year=1997 |title=Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism |publisher=HarperCollins |location= Toronto |id=ISBN 0-00-638541-9}}</ref> However, Canadians take special pride in their ] and their commitment to multiculturalism.<ref name="bickerton">{{cite book |author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds). |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=Broadview Press |edition=4th edition |location=Orchard Park, NY |id=ISBN 1-55111-595-6 |year=2004}}</ref> | |||
| {{cite web |year=2008 |title=Sir John A. Macdonald |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614221958/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Library and Archives Canada}} | |||
| {{cite web |last=Cook |first=Terry |year=2000 |title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614222015/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |website=The Archivist |publisher=Library and Archives Canada}} | |||
}}</ref> This ] and ] resulted in the displacement of many ] to "]s",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hele |first=Karl S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhLaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT248 |title=The Nature of Empires and the Empires of Nature: Indigenous Peoples and the Great Lakes Environment |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-55458-422-2 |page=248}}</ref> clearing the way for ethnic European ]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gagnon |first=Erica |title=Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914 |url=https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-the-west-immigration-to-the-prairies-from-1867-to-1914 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |publisher=Canadian Museum of Immigration |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128194403/https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-the-west-immigration-to-the-prairies-from-1867-to-1914 |url-status=live}}</ref> This caused the collapse of the ] and the introduction of European ] dominating the land.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Armitage |first1=Derek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z68_-biGhU8C&pg=PA183 |title=Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance |last2=Plummer |first2=Ryan |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-642-12194-4 |pages=183–184}}</ref> The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daschuk |first=James William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxwwZmSSOssC&pg=PA99 |title=Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life |publisher=University of Regina Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-88977-296-0 |pages=99–104}}</ref> The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=David John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLoeDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 |title=From Treaties to Reserves: The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta, 1870–1905 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7735-4595-3 |pages=258–259}}</ref> During this time, Canada introduced the '']'' extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Robert J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6zNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT186 |title=Canadian Government and Politics |last2=Jackson |first2=Doreen |last3=Koop |first3=Royce |publisher=Broadview Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4604-0696-0 |edition=7th |page=186}}</ref> | |||
===Early 20th century=== | |||
== Government and politics == | |||
{{multiple image | |||
{{main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada|Monarchy in Canada}} | |||
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], ].]] | |||
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| caption_align = center | |||
| align = right | |||
| image_style = border:none; | |||
| header = 1918 ] depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses | |||
| image1 = Canada WWI l'Emprunt de la Victoire2.jpg | |||
| image2 = Canada WWI Victory Bonds2.jpg | |||
| caption1 = French version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds". | |||
| caption2 = The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds". | |||
}} | |||
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Brian Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9 |page=4}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the ] later became part of the ], which played a substantial role in the ] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Desmond |title=A military history of Canada |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9 |edition=4th |pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258}}</ref> The ] erupted when the ] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with ] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="McGonigal1962">{{Cite book |last=McGonigal |first=Richard Morton |title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism |publisher=] |year=1962 |chapter=Intro}}</ref> In 1919, Canada joined the ] independently of Britain,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and the '']'', affirmed Canada's independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63 |title=Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada |publisher=University of Calgary Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |page=63}}</ref> | |||
The ] during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryce |first=Robert B. |url=https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc |title=Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression |year=1986 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7735-0555-1 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> In response to the downturn, the ] (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a ] (as pioneered by ]) in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mulvale |first=James P |date=July 11, 2008 |title=Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility |journal=Basic Income Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.2202/1932-0183.1084}}</ref> On the advice of Prime Minister ], ] effective September 10, 1939, by King ], seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.<ref name="morton-milhist" /> | |||
Canada is a ] with ], ], as head of state;<ref>{{cite web |author=Heritage Canada |authorlink=Department of Canadian Heritage |publisher= Heritage Canada |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/royalvisit2005/53_e.cfm |title=The Queen and Canada: 53 Years of Growing Together|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Governor General of Canada |authorlink=Governor General of Canada |publisher= Governor General of Canada|url=http://www.gg.ca/gg/rr/index_e.asp |title=Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> the monarch of Canada also serves as head of state of ], putting Canada in a ] relationship with those other states. The country is a ] with a ] of ] and strong democratic traditions. | |||
The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Humphreys |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-SsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |title=Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-78404-098-7 |page=151}}</ref> Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 ], the ], the ], the ], and the ] in 1944.<ref name="morton-milhist" /> Canada provided asylum for the ] while that country was ] and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to ] from ].<ref name="netherlands">{{Cite book |last=Goddard |first=Lance |title=Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55002-547-7 |pages=225–232}}</ref> | |||
] consists of written text and unwritten traditions and conventions.<ref>{{cite web |author=Department of Justice |publisher= Department of Justice, Canada |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html |title=Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> The ] (formerly the British North America Act) established governance based on Parliamentary precedent "similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom" and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The ] added a ], which guarantees basic rights and freedoms for Canadians that generally cannot be overridden by legislation of any level of government in Canada. However, a "]", allows the federal parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter temporarily, for a period of five years. | |||
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military ]<!--This is not a misspelling: follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel--> for Canada, Britain, ], and the ].<ref name="morton-milhist" /> Despite another ] in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bothwell |first=Robert |title=Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984 |publisher=UBC Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7748-1368-6 |pages=11, 31}}</ref> | |||
].]]The position of ], Canada's ], belongs to the ] of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the ]. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and Cabinet ministers, all of whom are sworn into the ] to become Ministers of the Crown and ] to the elected ]. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the ] (who is the Monarch's representative in Canada). However, the Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet, and by convention, the Governor General respects the Prime Minister's choices. ] ministers are traditionally drawn from elected members of the Prime Minister's party in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister exercises vast political power, especially in the appointment of government officials and ]. ] has served as Governor General since ], ], and ], leader of the ], has been Prime Minister since ], ]. | |||
===Contemporary era=== | |||
The ] is made up of the Queen and two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed ]. Each member in the House of Commons is elected by ] in a ]; general elections are called by the Governor General when the Prime Minister so advises. While there is no minimum term for a Parliament, a new election must be called within five years of the last general election. Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the Prime Minister and formally appointed by the Governor General, and serve until age 75. | |||
The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the ] to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a ] ruled by a British governor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alfred Buckner |first=Phillip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135 |title=Canada and the British Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1 |pages=135–138}}</ref> After two ], Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyer |first=J. Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119 |title=Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-4597-1884-5 |page=119}}</ref> | |||
Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new ], marked by the adoption of the ] in 1965,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mackey |first=Eva |title=The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-8481-1 |page=57}}</ref> the implementation of ] (English and French) in 1969,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Landry |first1=Rodrigue |last2=Forgues |first2=Éric |date=May 2007 |title=Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=185 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.022 }}</ref> and the institution of ] in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Esses |first1=Victoria M |last2=Gardner |first2=RC |date=July 1996 |title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status |journal=] |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=145–152 |doi=10.1037/h0084934}}</ref> ] programs were also instituted, such as ], the ], and ]; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sarrouh |first=Elissar |date=January 22, 2002 |title=Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development |url=http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717075406/http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf |archive-date=July 17, 2010 |website=Social Policy Series, No. 1 |publisher=United Nations |pages=14–16, 22–37}}</ref> | |||
Canada's four major political parties are the ], the ], the ] (NDP), and the ]. The current government is formed by the Conservative Party of Canada. While the ] and other smaller parties do not have current representation in Parliament, the list of ] is substantial. | |||
]''<ref name="Ministère de la Justice 2021 d986">{{cite web |title=The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms |website=Ministère de la Justice |date=March 15, 2021 |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/ |archive-date=September 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922224653/https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/ | url-status=live}}</ref>|alt=refer to caption]] | |||
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the ''Canada Act 1982'', the ] of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the '']''.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 5, 2014 |title=Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982 |url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211083245/http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx |archive-date=February 11, 2017 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
== Law == | |||
| {{cite web |last=Trepanier |first=Peter |year=2004 |title=Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical Tradition |url=http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002130/http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |access-date=February 10, 2017 |website=]}} | |||
{{main|Law of Canada}} | |||
| {{cite book |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-55111-595-5 |editor-last=Bickerton |editor-first=James |edition=4th |pages=250–254, 344–347 |editor-last2=Gagnon |editor-first2=Alain}}</ref> In 1999, ] became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Légaré |first=André |year=2008 |title=Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=15 |issue=2–3 |pages=335–367 |doi=10.1163/157181108X332659 |jstor=24674996}} | |||
] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill.]] | |||
}}</ref> | |||
At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the ] of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular ] movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Lance W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415 |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |last2=Clifton |first2=Rodney A. |last3=Ferguson |first3=Barry |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7735-7314-7 |page=415}}</ref> The radical ] (FLQ) ignited the ] with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Munroe |first=HD |year=2009 |title=The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=288–305 |doi=10.1080/09546550902765623 }}</ref> and the ] ] was elected in 1976, organizing an ] on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the ] failed in 1990.<ref name="sorens">{{Cite journal |last=Sorens |first=J |date=December 2004 |title=Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy |journal=Electoral Studies |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=727–752 |doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003}}</ref> This led to the formation of the ] in Quebec and the invigoration of the ] in the West.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
Canada's ] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The ] is the highest court and final arbiter and is led by the Right Honourable Madam Chief Justice ], P.C. Its nine members are appointed by the ] on the advice of the Prime Minister. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice, after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments (see ] for more detail). | |||
| {{cite news |last=Leblanc |first=Daniel |date=August 13, 2010 |title=A brief history of the Bloc Québécois |work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901151147/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |archive-date=September 1, 2010}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Betz |first1=Hans-Georg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173 |title=The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies |last2=Immerfall |first2=Stefan |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21134-9 |page=173}} | |||
}}</ref> A ] followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schmid |first=Carol L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112 |title=The Politics of Language: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-803150-5 |page=112}}</ref> In 1997, the ] ruled ] by a province would be unconstitutional, and the ] was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name="sorens" /> | |||
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of ] in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>{{cite web |title=Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182 |url=http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archive-date=June 22, 2008 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> the ] in 1989, a ] targeting female students;<ref>{{cite web |last=Sourour |first=Teresa K |year=1991 |title=Report of Coroner's Investigation |url=http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228182645/http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2016 |access-date=March 8, 2017}}</ref> and the ] of 1990,<ref>{{Cite news |year=2000 |title=The Oka Crisis |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |access-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804233458/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |archive-date=August 4, 2011}}</ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roach |first=Kent |url=https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 |title=September 11: consequences for Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7735-2584-9 |pages=}}</ref> Canada joined the ] in 1990 and was active in ] in the 1990s, including operations in the ] during and after the ],<ref name="Defence 2016 d710">{{cite web |last=Defence |first=National |title=Canadian Armed Forces operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina |website=Canada.ca |date=July 25, 2016 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/recently-completed/canadian-armed-forces-operations-bosnia-herzegovina.html |access-date=March 23, 2024 |archive-date=March 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323054357/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/recently-completed/canadian-armed-forces-operations-bosnia-herzegovina.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and in ], resulting in an incident that has been described as "]".<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where ] predominates. ] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal ] (RCMP). | |||
| {{cite web |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-peacekeepers-in-somalia |title=Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia |date=August 2, 2019 |last=Foot |first=Richard |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |publisher=Historica Canada |access-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=March 12, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312044307/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-peacekeepers-in-somalia |url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Cohen |first=S.A. |title=Israel's Armed Forces in Comparative Perspective |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=BESA studies in international security |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-135-16956-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |page=160 |archive-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304062940/https://books.google.com/books?id=0yiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 | url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada sent ], resulting in the largest amount of ] for any single military mission since the ] in the early 1950s.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite web |title=Canada and the War in Afghanistan |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=September 11, 2001 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/international-campaign-against-terrorism-in-afghanistan |access-date=March 25, 2024 |quote=In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.|archive-date=January 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129023800/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/international-campaign-against-terrorism-in-afghanistan |url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite web |last=Defence |first=National |title=Canada in Afghanistan (2001-2014) |website=Canada.ca |date=August 30, 2016 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/services/defence/caf/militaryhistory/wars-operations/afghanistan.html |access-date=March 25, 2024|archive-date=March 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325072429/https://www.canada.ca/en/services/defence/caf/militaryhistory/wars-operations/afghanistan.html |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the ]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hehir |first1=Aidan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2TchAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |title=Libya, the Responsibility to Protect and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention |last2=Murray |first2=Robert |publisher=] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-137-27396-3 |page=88}}</ref> and also became involved in battling the ] insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Juneau |first=Thomas |year=2015 |title=Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic State |url=http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211070017/http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state |archive-date=December 11, 2015 |access-date=December 10, 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref> The country celebrated ] in 2017, three years before the ] began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/coronavirus-disease-covid-19.html |publisher=Government of Canada |year=2021 |archive-date=June 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613213135/https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/coronavirus-disease-covid-19.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, the possible graves of ] near the former sites of ]s.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 25, 2021 |title=Catholic group to release all records from Marievel, Kamloops residential schools |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/catholic-group-to-release-all-records-from-marievel-kamloops-residential-schools-1.5485691 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625180324/https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/catholic-group-to-release-all-records-from-marievel-kamloops-residential-schools-1.5485691 |archive-date=June 25, 2021 |publisher=CTV News}}</ref> Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these ]s attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into ].<ref name="q869">{{cite book | title=They Came for the Children: Canada, Aboriginal Peoples, and Residential Schools | publisher=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-100-19995-5 | page=intro}}</ref> | |||
== Foreign relations and military == | |||
{{main|Foreign relations of Canada|Canadian Forces|Military history of Canada}} | |||
] in Ottawa.]] | |||
==Geography== | |||
Canada and the ] share the world's longest undefended ], co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partners. Canada has nevertheless maintained an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with ] and declining participation in the ]. Canada also maintains historic ties to the ] and ] and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the ] and ] (French-Speaking Countries). | |||
{{Main|Geography of Canada}} | |||
{{Further|Environment of Canada}} | |||
] | |||
Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of about 64,000 regular and 26,000 reserve personnel.<ref>{{cite web |author=Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs) |authorlink=Department of National Defence (Canada) |publisher= Department of National Defence |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/family_e.asp |title=The National Defence family|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> The unified ] (CF) comprise the ], ], and ]. Major CF equipment deployed includes 1,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 861 aircraft.<ref name="cf_equipment">{{cite web |author=Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs) |authorlink=Department of National Defence (Canada) |publisher=Department of National Defence |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/Reports/cds_report/anxd_e.asp |title=Canadian Forces Equipment |accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> | |||
By total area (including its waters), Canada is the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brescia |first1=Michael M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qzBUEWxpoC&pg=PA38 |title=North America: An Introduction |last2=Super |first2=John C. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8020-9675-3 |page=38}}</ref> By land area alone, Canada ], due to having the world's largest area of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Battram |first=Robert A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1 |title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6 |page=1}}</ref> Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses {{convert|9984670|km2|abbr=on}} of territory.<ref name="McColl2005">{{Cite book |last=McColl |first=R. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA135 |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |date=September 2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=135}}</ref> Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}.<ref name="International Boundary Commission" /> In addition to sharing ]—spanning {{convert|8,891|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}{{efn|name="canadausa"|{{cvt|6,416|km}} via the ] and {{cvt|2,475|km}} via ]<ref name="International Boundary Commission">{{cite web |title=Boundary Facts |publisher=International Boundary Commission |url=https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520142611/https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |url-status=live}}</ref>}}—Canada shares a land border with ] (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on ],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chase |first1=Steven |title=Canada and Denmark reach settlement over disputed Arctic island, sources say |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |website=The Globe and Mail |date=June 10, 2022 |archive-date=June 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612214859/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and a ] with ]'s ] of ] to the southeast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gallay |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429 |title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-48718-0 |page=429}}</ref> Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, ], on the northern tip of ]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |publisher=] |year=2008 |page=20}}</ref> In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is ] in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at ] in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from ], Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to ], Yukon Territory, at 141°W.<ref name="p496">{{cite web | title=Where is Canada in the World? | website=World Population by Country 2024 (Live) | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/canada/location | access-date=October 26, 2024}}</ref> | |||
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], ], and the ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |work=The Atlas of Canada |title=Physiographic Regions of Canada |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |date=September 12, 2016 |archive-date=June 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621185011/https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> ] prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in ] and through the ], and the relatively flat ] in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.<ref name="McColl2005" /> The Great Lakes feed the ] (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.<ref name="McColl2005" /> Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}—containing much of the world's ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
] with 1957 ].]] | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=William G |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |title=The surface climates of Canada |last2=Oke |first2=TR |last3=Rouse |first3=Wayne R |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7735-1672-4 |page=124}} | |||
| {{cite web |date=December 5, 2012 |title=Physical Components of Watersheds |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205125542/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archive-date=December 5, 2012 |website=The Atlas of Canada}} | |||
}}</ref> There are also fresh-water glaciers in the ], the ], and the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sandford |first=Robert William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |title=Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water |publisher=Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-927330-20-3 |page=11}}</ref> ], having ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Etkin |first1=David |title=An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada |last2=Haque |first2=CE |last3=Brooks |first3=Gregory R |date=April 30, 2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4020-1179-5 |pages=569, 582, 583}}</ref> | |||
===Climate=== | |||
Strong attachment to the ] and Commonwealth in ] led to major participation in British military efforts in the ], the ], and the ]. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for ], making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.<ref name="canada_policy"> | |||
{{main|Temperature in Canada|Climate change in Canada}} | |||
{{cite book | author = Government of Canada| title = Canada's international policy statement : a role of pride and influence in the world| publisher = Government of Canada | location = Ottawa |url=http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cip-pic/IPS/IPS-Overview.pdf | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-662-68608-X}}</ref><ref name="middle_powers">{{cite book | first = Andrew Fenton |last = Cooper |coauthors= Higgot, Richard A.; Nossal, Kim R. | title = Relocating Middle Powers: Australia and Canada in a Changing World Order| publisher = UBC Press | location = Vancouver |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Hw3laaTpOiIC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&vq=reaching+out&dq=Canada+middle+power&psp=s&sig=0009fdoEDuy42hFgXuCmmymun6c | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-7748-0450-5 }}</ref> Canada joined the ] in 1945 and became a founding member of ] in 1949. During the ], Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the ], and founded the ] (NORAD) in cooperation with the ] to defend against aerial attacks from the ]. | |||
] | |||
Average winter and summer high ] vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a ], where daily average temperatures are near {{Convert|-15|C|F|lk=on}}, but can drop below {{convert|-40|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with severe ]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics, Regina SK |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archive-date=January 5, 2009 |access-date=January 18, 2010 |publisher=]}}</ref> In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}}, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding {{convert|40|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 25, 2013 |title=Regina International Airport |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084648/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |archive-date=May 18, 2015 |website=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
Much of ] is covered by ice and ]. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bush |first1=E. |last2=Lemmen |first2=D.S. |year=2019 |title=Canada's Changing Climate Report |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf |publisher=Government of Canada |page=84 |archive-date=April 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422235552/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR_FULLREPORT-EN-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by {{convert|1.7|C-change}}, with changes ranging from {{convert|1.1|to|2.3|C-change}} in various regions, since 1948.<ref name="McColl2005" /> The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.<ref name="ClimateReport">{{cite web |first1=X. |last1=Zhang |first2=G. |last2=Flato |last3=Kirchmeier-Young |first3=M. |first4=L. |last4=Vincent |first5=H. |last5=Wan |first6=X. |last6=Wang |first7=R. |last7=Rong |first8=J. |last8=Fyfe |first9=G. |last9=Li|first0=V. |last0=KharinV. |year=2019 |title=Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Across Canada; Chapter 4 |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR-Chapter4-TemperatureAndPrecipitationAcrossCanada.pdf |website=Canada's Changing Climate Report |publisher=Government of Canada |pages=112–193 |editor-last=Bush |editor-first=E. |editor-last2=Lemmen |editor-first2=D.S. |archive-date=December 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218102442/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/energy/Climate-change/pdf/CCCR-Chapter4-TemperatureAndPrecipitationAcrossCanada.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In the southern regions of Canada, ] and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in ], which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=David R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeYgVGE9j3EC&pg=PA67 |title=Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4063-7 |pages=67–69}}</ref> Canada is one of the largest ],<ref>{{cite web |title=Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions|url=https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions |publisher=Climate Watch |access-date=March 29, 2022 |archive-date=March 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321170958/https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions |url-status=live}}</ref> with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.<ref name="j018">{{cite web |last=Canada |first=Climate Change |title=Greenhouse gas emissions |website=Canada.ca |date=January 9, 2007 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/greenhouse-gas-emissions.html |access-date=May 18, 2024|archive-date=April 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411165603/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/greenhouse-gas-emissions.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Canada has played a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts. During the ] of 1956, ] eased tensions by proposing the inception of the ].<ref name="lester">{{cite web |author=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |authorlink= Canadian Broadcasting Corporation | publisher= CBC.ca |title= Lester B. Pearson |url= | |||
http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top_ten/nominee/pearson-lester.html |date=2006 | accessdate=2006-05-22}}</ref> Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989<ref>{{cite book| first = Desmond | last = Morton | authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)| title = A Military History of Canada| publisher = McClelland & Stewart | location = Toronto | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-7710-6514-0 | pages = pg. 258}}</ref> | |||
and has since maintained forces in international missions in the former ] and elsewhere. | |||
===Biodiversity=== | |||
Canada joined the ] (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor in June 2000, and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001. Canada seeks to expand its ties to ] economies through membership in the ] forum (APEC). | |||
{{main|Wildlife of Canada}} | |||
]. Ecozones are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2018 u350">{{cite web |title=Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=January 12, 2018 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-map |archive-date=September 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902211146/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-map | url-status=live}}</ref>|alt=Map showing Canada divided into different ecozones]] | |||
Canada is divided into ].<ref>{{cite web |date=January 10, 2018 |title=Introduction to the Ecological Land Classification (ELC) 2017 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-1 |publisher=Statistics Canada |archive-date=November 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116145635/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/subjects/standard/environment/elc/2017-1 |url-status=live}}</ref> These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of ], with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf |title=Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada |work=National General Status Working Group: 1 |publisher=Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council |year=2016 |quote=The new estimate indicates that there are about 80,000 known species in Canada, excluding viruses and bacteria |page=2 |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127203149/https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/virtual_sara/files/reports/Wild%20Species%202015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Although Canada has a low percentage of ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ca |title=Canada: Main Details |publisher=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810215710/https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ca |url-status=live}}</ref> due to human activities, ], and ], there are currently more than ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-annual-reports/2019-2020.html |publisher=Species at Risk Public Registry |title=COSEWIC Annual Report |year=2019 |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305111710/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-annual-reports/2019-2020.html |url-status=live}}</ref> About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=17F0CBCE-1#s1i |title=Wild Species 2000: The General Status of Species in Canada |year=2001 |publisher=Conservation Council |archive-date=October 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016214436/https://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=17F0CBCE-1#s1i |url-status=live}}</ref> Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://naturecanada.ca/news/archived/state-of-canadas-biodiversity-highlighted-in-new-government-report/ |title=State of Canada's Biodiversity Highlighted in New Government Report |date=October 22, 2010 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122031530/https://naturecanada.ca/news/archived/state-of-canadas-biodiversity-highlighted-in-new-government-report/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] is considered to be the largest ] on Earth, with approximately {{Convert|3000000|km2|abbr=on}} undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter H. |last1=Raven |first2=Linda R. |last2=Berg |first3=David M. |last3=Hassenzahl |title=Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVpO2R51JBIC&pg=RA1-PA361 |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-94570-4 |pages=1–3}}</ref> Since the end of the last ], Canada has consisted of ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
].]] | |||
| {{cite book |title=National Atlas of Canada |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7705-1198-2 |page=1}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Luckert |first1=Martin K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Gm-rBnGghcC&pg=PA1 |title=Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices |last2=Haley |first2=David |last3=Hoberg |first3=George |publisher=UBC Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7748-2069-1 |page=1}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are ], including 11.4 percent designated as ].<ref name="conserved" /> Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.<ref name="conserved">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/conserved-areas.html |title=Canada's conserved areas |publisher=Environment and Climate Canada |year=2020 |archive-date=April 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402184441/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/conserved-areas.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada's first ], ] established in 1885 spans {{convert|6,641|km2}}.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
Since 2001, Canada has had troops deployed in ] as part of the ] and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded ]. Canada's ] (DART) has participated in three major relief efforts in the past two years; the two-hundred member team has been deployed in relief operations after the ] in South Asia, the ] in September 2005 and the ] in October 2005. | |||
| {{cite web |url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/pm-mp/guidem-mguide/sec15/gm-mg15_e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615122147/http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/pm-mp/guidem-mguide/sec15/gm-mg15_e.pdf |archive-date=June 15, 2006 |title=The Mountain Guide – Banff National Park |publisher=Parks Canada |year=2006}} | |||
| {{cite book |first=Martin F. |last=Price |title=Mountain Area Research and Management: Integrated Approaches |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNIZihxXTwsC&pg=PA217 |year=2013 |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-84977-201-3 |pages=217–218}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada's oldest provincial park, ], established in 1893, covers an area of {{convert|7653.45|km2}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/algonquin-provincial-park-management-plan |title=Algonquin Provincial Park Management Plan |year=1998 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209143502/https://www.ontario.ca/page/algonquin-provincial-park-management-plan |url-status=live}}</ref> ] is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly {{convert|10000|km2}}.<ref> | |||
{{cite web |url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/mpaspotlight-pleinsfeuxzpm/index-eng.html |title=Spotlight on Marine Protected Areas in Canada |publisher=Fisheries and Oceans Canada |date=December 13, 2017 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413193502/https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/mpaspotlight-pleinsfeuxzpm/index-eng.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada's largest national wildlife region is the ] which spans {{convert|11570.65|km2}}.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|{{cite web |title=Scott Islands Marine National Widllife Area |url=https://www.protectedplanet.net/555695926 |access-date=September 25, 2020 |website=Protected Planet}} | |||
| {{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/national-wildlife-areas/locations/scott-islands-marine/regulatory-strategy.html |title=Proposed Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area: regulatory strategy |publisher=Environment and Climate Change Canada |date=February 7, 2013 |archive-date=January 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123182613/https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/national-wildlife-areas/locations/scott-islands-marine/regulatory-strategy.html |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
==Government and politics== | |||
In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.<ref name="NewsMax">"". ]. ], ].</ref> In August 2007, Canadian sovereignty in ] was challenged following a ] which planted a Russian flag at the seabed at the North Pole. Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.<ref>{{cite web | last = Blomfield | first = Adrian| url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/08/01/wpole101.xml | publisher = Telegraph | title = Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt | date = 2007-08-03 | accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada}} | |||
] and their surroundings]] | |||
== Provinces and territories == | |||
Canada is described as a "]",<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=2021 Democracy Index |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |archive-date=December 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220221533/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/eiu-democracy-index-2021.pdf?mkt_tok=NzUzLVJJUS00MzgAAAGI0GGHOJ2F2YyVeWTMPBvGitE1QlEWRD5yPY_rnJ7yECNSo-bJC-UDL28b-Jbo7b3rOFkdk4UXgoR60SFZUwf1xCQFR_IZjXHkR6eeaGzObViC1Q |url-status=live}}</ref> with a tradition of ],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Westhues |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives |last2=Wharf |first2=Brian |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-55458-409-3 |pages=10–11}}</ref> and an ],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bickerton |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&pg=PA56 |title=Canadian Politics |last2=Gagnon |first2=Alain |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-0121-5 |page=56}}</ref> ] political ideology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |edition=4th |pages=13–23}}</ref> An emphasis on ] has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
{{main|Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian federalism}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=McQuaig |first=L. |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |publisher=Doubleday Canada |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT14 |page=14}} | |||
].]] | |||
| {{cite book |last=Fierlbeck |first=Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bZBHlF4V8EC&pg=PA87 |title=Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55111-711-9 |page=87}} | |||
}}</ref> ], alongside an ], are founding principles of ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries |last2=P. Scheurell |first2=Robert |date=March 17, 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-36677-5 |page=48}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Boughey |first=Janina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgK-DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |title=Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism? |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5099-0788-5 |page=105}} | |||
| {{cite web | last=McLachlin | first=Beverly |authorlink=Beverley McLachlin| title=Human Rights Protection in Canada | publisher= " Osgoode Hall Review of Law and Policy | date=Jun 30, 2014 | url=https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=ohrlp |quote=Canada's experience with human rights. Canada's experience can be divided into three phases: 1) Judicially implied rights; 2) Legislatively protected rights; and 3) Constitutionally protected human rights. Before human rights legislation and the Charter, courts in Canada relied on the theory of an "implied bill of rights" to protect traditional civil liberties such as freedom of speech and association. The theoretical foundation for these rights was the importance of free political speech and discussion in a democracy. }} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively ] parties practising "brokerage politics":{{efn| name=politics|"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful ] that embody a ] catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting ] and ] to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
Canada is a ] composed of ten ]s and three ]; in turn, these may be grouped into numerous ]s. ] consists of ] and three ] (], ], ]). ] consists of ] (] and ]) and ] (comprised of the three ] of ], ], and ]; and ]). Three territories (], ], and ]) comprise ]. Provinces have a ] from the federal government, territories somewhat less. Each has its own ]. | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Marland |first1=Alex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSeSaYPa2A4C&pg=PA257 |title=Political Marketing in Canada |last2=Giasson |first2=Thierry |last3=Lees-Marshment |first3=Jennifer |publisher=UBC Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7748-2231-2 |page=257}} | |||
|{{Cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA195 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |last2=Smith |first2=David |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=195}} | |||
}}</ref> "The traditional ''brokerage'' model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|{{cite journal |first=Christopher |last=Cochrane |year=2010 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40983510 |title=Left/Right Ideology and Canadian Politics |journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne de Science Politique |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=583–605 |doi=10.1017/S0008423910000624 |jstor=40983510 }} | |||
|{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Brooks |title=Canadian Democracy: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeQnPIXV5CEC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-541806-4 |page=265 |quote=Two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics}} | |||
|{{cite book |first=Miriam |last=Smith |title=Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0695-1 |page=17 |quote=Canada's party system has long been described as a "brokerage system" in which the leading parties (Liberal and Conservative) follow strategies that appeal across major ] in an effort to defuse potential tensions.}} | |||
|{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada|edition= 4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=...most Canadian governments, especially in the federal sphere, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}}}</ref> | |||
}} the ] leaning ]<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Bittner |first1=Amanda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 |title=Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics |last2=Koop |first2=Royce |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2411-8 |page=300}} | |||
| {{cite web |last=Johnston |first=Richard |title=The baffling history of Canada's party system |website=Policy Options |date=April 13, 2021 |url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ |archive-date=December 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209225002/https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> and the ] leaning ] (or its ]).<ref name="Gill 2021 p. 485">{{cite journal |last=Gill |first=Jessica K. |title=Unpacking the Role of Neoliberalism on the Politics of Poverty Reduction Policies in Ontario, Canada: A Descriptive Case Study and Critical Analysis |journal=Social Sciences |publisher=MDPI AG |volume=10 |issue=12 |date=December 20, 2021|doi=10.3390/socsci10120485 |page=485 | doi-access=free}}</ref> The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale.<ref name="Gill 2021 p. 485" /> Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the ]—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the ]; the New Democratic Party (occupying the ]<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166 |title=Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective |last2=de Graaf |first2=Nan Dirk |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966399-6 |pages=166–167}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZAwDwAAQBAJ |title=The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History |publisher=UBC Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7748-3610-4}} | |||
}}</ref>); the ]; and the ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Election 2015 roundup |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |archive-date=October 22, 2015 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> ] and ] politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|{{Cite journal |last1=Ambrose |first1=Emma |last2=Mudde |first2=Cas |year=2015 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033}} | |||
|{{Cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=June 27, 2017 |title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627090321/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |archive-date=June 27, 2017}} | |||
|{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=John |title=What's actually standing in the way of right-wing populism in Canada? |website=Macleans.ca |date=February 8, 2022 |url=https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |archive-date=October 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031024415/https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |url-status=live}} | |||
|{{cite journal | last=Blake | first=Raymond B. | title=Locating the Right in Canadian Political History | journal=American Review of Canadian Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=54 | issue=1 | date=Jan 2, 2024 | issn=0272-2011 | doi=10.1080/02722011.2024.2326264 | pages=1–8|quote=Social conservatives and the extreme right have had limited success designing the direction and policies of Canada’s right-wing political parties.}}}}</ref> | |||
Canada has a ] within the context of a ]—the ] being the foundation of the executive, ], and ] branches.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as ], ], and ]) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the ]; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. ] are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces. | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Dowding |first1=Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AClHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT395 |title=The Selection of Ministers around the World |last2=Dumont |first2=Patrick |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-63444-7 |page=395}} | |||
| {{cite web |date=March 29, 1867 |title=Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble |url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203024121/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |archive-date=February 3, 2010 |publisher=]}} | |||
| {{cite news |last=Smith |first=David E |date=June 10, 2010 |title=The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy? |page=6 |work=The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options |publisher=] |url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C?url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archive-date=June 17, 2010}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=MacLeod |first=Kevin S |url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |title=A Crown of Maples |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-662-46012-1 |edition=2nd |page=16 |author-link=Kevin S. MacLeod |access-date=March 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105160848/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |archive-date=January 5, 2016}} | |||
}}</ref> The ]ing monarch is also monarch of ]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196 |title=Battle Royal: Monarchists vs. Republicans and the Crown of Canada |date=2018 |publisher=Dundurn Press |isbn=978-1-4597-4015-0 |page=196}}</ref> and ]. The monarch appoints a representative, the ], on the ] of the ], to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite web |title=The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities |url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Queen's Printer |archive-date=September 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915122338/http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 |url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54 |title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004 |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-11-703249-1 |pages=54–55}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
All provinces have ], elected ] headed by a ] selected in the same way as the Prime Minister of Canada. Each province also has a ] representing the ], analogous to the Governor General of Canada, appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, though with increasing levels of consultation with provincial governments in recent years. | |||
| align = right | |||
| total_width = 270 | |||
| image1 = Charles Prince of Wales.jpg | |||
| caption1 = ], ] | |||
| alt1 = King Charles III | |||
| image2 = Mary Simon, Governor General of Canada.jpg | |||
| caption2 = ], ] | |||
| alt2 = Governor General Mary Simon | |||
| image3 = Justin Trudeau March 2022.jpg | |||
| caption3 = ], ] | |||
| alt3 = Prime Minister Justin Trudeau | |||
}} | |||
The monarchy is the source of ] and authority in Canada.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
== Geography and climate == | |||
| {{cite book |last=MacLeod |first=Kevin S |url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |title=A Crown of Maples |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-662-46012-1 |edition=2nd |page=16 |author-link=Kevin S. MacLeod |access-date=March 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105160848/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |archive-date=January 5, 2016}} | |||
{{main|Geography of Canada|Temperature in Canada}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Forsey |first=Eugene |url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |title=How Canadians Govern Themselves |publisher=Queen's Printer |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-662-39689-5 |edition=6th |pages=1, 16, 26 |author-link=Eugene Forsey |access-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229155255/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/AboutParliament/Forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |archive-date=December 29, 2009}} | |||
]s prevail on the rocky ]. Ice and ] are prominent in the ]. Glaciers are visible in the ] and ]. Flat and fertile ] facilitate agriculture. The ] feed the ] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]] | |||
| {{cite web |last1=Marleau |first1=Robert |last2=Montpetit |first2=Camille |title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828112251/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archive-date=August 28, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Queen's Printer}} | |||
}}</ref> However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial ] in rare ],<ref name="Forseyp1">{{Cite book |last=Forsey |first=Eugene |url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |title=How Canadians Govern Themselves |publisher=Queen's Printer |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-662-39689-5 |edition=6th |pages=1, 16, 26 |author-link=Eugene Forsey |access-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229155255/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/AboutParliament/Forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |archive-date=December 29, 2009}}</ref> the use of the executive powers (or ]) is otherwise directed by the ], a committee of ] responsible to the elected ] and chosen and headed by the prime minister,<ref>{{cite web |last=Edwards |first=Peter |date=November 4, 2015 |title='A cabinet that looks like Canada:' Justin Trudeau pledges government built on trust |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128075156/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |website=Toronto Star}}</ref> the ]. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a ] of members in the House.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkinggovernme02ndjohn/page/134 |title=Thinking government: public sector management in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55111-779-9 |edition=2nd |pages=}}</ref> The ] (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, ], senators, federal court judges, and heads of ] and government agencies.<ref name="Forseyp1" /> The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the ] and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Opposition in a Parliamentary System |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125122354/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm |archive-date=November 25, 2010 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Library of Parliament}}</ref> | |||
] in its temporary location, the ]<ref name="Services Canada 2023 u321">{{cite web |publisher=Public Services and Procurement Canada |title=Restoring and modernizing the West Block |date=August 15, 2023 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-services-procurement/services/infrastructure-buildings/parliamentary-precinct/projects-in-parliamentary-precinct/west-block-project.html |archive-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022035846/https://www.canada.ca/en/public-services-procurement/services/infrastructure-buildings/parliamentary-precinct/projects-in-parliamentary-precinct/west-block-project.html | url-status=live}}</ref>|alt=The House of Commons chamber]] | |||
Canada occupies a major northern portion of ], sharing land borders with the ] to the south and with the ] of ] to the northwest, stretching from the ] in the east to the ] in the west; to the north lies the ]. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second largest country in the world, after ], and largest on the ]. By land area it ranks fourth, after Russia, ], and the United States.<ref></ref> Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60°W and 141°W ],<ref name="territorial_evolution">{{cite web |author=National Resources Canada |publisher= National Resources Canada |url=http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1 |title=Territorial Evolution, 1927|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> but this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada and in the world is ] on the northern tip of ]—latitude 82.5°N—just 817 kilometres (450 ]s) from the North Pole.<ref name="alert">{{cite web | publisher = National Defence Canada | author = National Defence Canada | date = 2006-08-15 | accessdate=2006-10-03 | title = Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert | url = http://www.img.forces.gc.ca/org/cfiog/alert_e.asp}}</ref> Canada has the longest coastline in the world: 243,000 kilometres.<ref name="coastweb">{{cite web |author=Natural Resources Canada |publisher= Natural Resources Canada |url=http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/coast/facts_e.php|title=CoastWeb: | |||
The ] passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the ]. While Canada inherited the British concept of ], this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of ].<ref> | |||
Facts about Canada's coastline |date=] |accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> | |||
{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sovereignty |last=McWhinney |first=Edward Watson |title=Sovereignty |date=October 8, 2019 |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529215957/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sovereignty |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Each of the 338 ] in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an ] or riding. The '']'', requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the '']'' limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; ] still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost ] in the House.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
The ], {{Pop density km2 to sq mi|3.5|precision=1|spell=UK|wiki=yes}}, is among the lowest in the world.<ref name="population_density">{{cite web |author=WorldAtlas.com |publisher= WorldAtlas.com |url=http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/populations/ctydensityl.htm |title=Countries of the World (by lowest population density) |date=2006-02 |accessdate=2006-05-16}}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country is the ] along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River in the southeast.<ref>{{cite web |accessdate = 2006-10-03 | date = 2006 | publisher = railwaypeople.com | author = railwaypeople.com | title = Quebec - Windsor Corridor Jet Train, Canada |url=http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-projects/quebec-windsor-corridor-jet-train-canada-30.html}}</ref> | |||
|{{cite web |title=About Elections and Ridings |url=http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224103929/http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |archive-date=December 24, 2016 |access-date=September 3, 2016 |publisher=Library of Parliament}} | |||
To the north of this region is the broad ], an area of rock scoured clean by the ], thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers. Canada by far has more lakes than any other country and has a large amount of the world's freshwater.<ref name="altas_lakes">{{cite web |author=The Atlas of Canada |publisher=National Resources Canada|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/freshwater/distribution/drainage/1 |title= Drainage patterns |date=] |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author = Encarta| title = Canada | publisher = Microsoft Corporation | accessdate = 2006-06-12| date = 2006 | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563379/Canada.html}}</ref> | |||
| {{cite web |last1=O'Neal |first1=Brian |last2=Bédard |first2=Michel |last3=Spano |first3=Sebastian |date=April 11, 2011 |title=Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522071714/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2011 |publisher=]}}}}</ref> The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Ann L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |title=Handbook of Federal Countries |last2=Nerenberg |first2=Karl |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7735-7047-4 |page=116}}</ref> | |||
] divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. ] are ] and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref name="Montpetit">{{cite web |last1=Marleau |first1=Robert |last2=Montpetit |first2=Camille |title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828112251/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archive-date=August 28, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Queen's Printer}}</ref> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,<ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories |url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201135354/http://pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |archive-date=December 1, 2015 |access-date=November 23, 2015 |publisher=Intergovernmental Affairs Canada}}</ref> and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.<ref>{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Differences from Provincial Governments |url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203044824/http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |archive-date=February 3, 2014 |access-date=January 30, 2014 |publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories}}</ref> | |||
] in Ontario is the largest component of ], one of the world's most voluminous waterfalls,<ref name="AtlasSignificantFacts">{{cite web |author=Natural Resources Canada |authorlink=Natural Resources Canada |publisher= Natural Resources Canada |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/facts/supergeneral.html |title=Significant Canadian Facts |date=]|accessdate=2006-05-16}}</ref> a major source of hydroelectric power, and a tourist destination.]] | |||
===Law=== | |||
In eastern Canada, the Saint Lawrence River widens into the ], the world's largest ], that contains the island of ]. South of the Gulf, the ] protrude eastward along the ] range from northern ] and the ] of Quebec. ] and ] are divided by the ], which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. ] and ] dominate central Canada. West of Ontario, the broad, flat ] spread toward the ], which separate them from ]. | |||
{{Main|Law of Canada}} | |||
The ] is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodek |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |title=The Canadian Constitution |publisher=Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4597-3505-7 |page=13}}</ref> The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (known as the ] prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olive |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=The Canadian Environment in Political Context |date=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0871-9 |pages=41–42}}</ref> The ''Statute of Westminster, 1931'', granted full autonomy, and the ''Constitution Act, 1982'', ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhagwan |first1=Vishnoo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |title=World Constitutions |last2=Vidya |first2=Bhushan |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-207-1937-8 |pages=549–550}}</ref> The ''Charter'' guarantees basic ] that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a ] allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the ''Charter'' for a period of five years.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bakan |first1=Joel |title=Canadian Constitutional Law |last2=Elliot |first2=Robin M |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-55239-085-6 |pages=3–8, 683–687, 699}}</ref> | |||
In western Canada, the ] flows from the ] to the ]. A tributary of a tributary of the Mackenzie is the ], which is home to ], a waterfall about twice as high as ]. | |||
] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill]] | |||
] interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The ] is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by ], the ].<ref>{{cite web |date=December 18, 2017 |title=Current and Former Chief Justices |url=http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180116062534/http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |archive-date=January 16, 2018 |publisher=Supreme Court of Canada}}</ref> The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and ].<ref name="UCP-2018">{{cite book |title=Law, Politics, and the Judicial Process in Canada, 4th Edition |publisher=University of Calgary Press |edition=4 |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-55238-990-4 |jstor=j.ctv56fggn |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv56fggn |pages=117–172 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv56fggn}}</ref> The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Yates |first1=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 |title=Introduction to Law in Canada |last2=Bain |first2=Penny |last3=Yates |first3=Ruth |publisher=Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-13-792862-0 |page=}}</ref> | |||
] vegetation tapers from ] forests to ] and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast ] containing some of the ]. | |||
] prevails everywhere except ] predominates.<ref>{{cite book |first=Julian |last=Hermida |title=Criminal Law in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT9sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |date=May 9, 2018 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |isbn=978-90-411-9627-9 |pages=10–}}</ref> ] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sworden |first=Philip James |title=An introduction to Canadian law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55239-145-7 |pages=22, 150}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Who we are |url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073944/http://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=Ontario Provincial Police}}</ref> In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal ].<ref name="Sullivan-2005">{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=L.E. |title=Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement |publisher=SAGE Publications |issue=v. 3 |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7619-2649-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L145DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA995 |page=995}}</ref> | |||
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary depending on the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces which experience a ], where daily average temperatures are near −15 °] (5 °]) but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.<ref name="twn_regina">{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |authorlink=The Weather Network |publisher=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02072.htm?CASK0261 |title=Statistics, Regina SK |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year, (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia is an exception and enjoys a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter. | |||
] provides certain ] and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Jim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpaDwAAQBAJ |title=Aboriginal Peoples and the Law: A Critical Introduction |publisher=UBC Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7748-8023-7}}</ref> Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.<ref name="FN">{{Cite report |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |title=Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 |last=Patterson |first=Lisa Lynne |publisher=Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament |page=3 |access-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126203243/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |series=1 |year=2004 |url-status=live |archive-date=November 26, 2014}}</ref> The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by ].<ref name="FN" /> These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the ], and exemption from taxation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madison |first=Gary Brent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |title=Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7766-0514-2 |page=128}}</ref> | |||
On the east and west coast average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (75 to 85 °F) with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).<ref name="twn_vancouver">{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |authorlink=The Weather Network |publisher=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02096.htm?CABC0308 |title=Statistics: Vancouver Int'l, BC |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><ref name="twn_toronto">{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |authorlink=The Weather Network |publisher=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02017.htm?CAON0696 |title=Statistics: Toronto Pearson Int'l |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> For a more complete description of climate across Canada see Environment Canada's Website.<ref>{{cite web |author=Environment Canada |authorlink=Environment Canada |publisher= Environment Canada |url=http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html |title=Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><br clear="right"> | |||
===Provinces and territories=== | |||
== Economy == | |||
{{ |
{{Main|Provinces and territories of Canada}} | ||
{{See also|Canadian federalism}} | |||
] depicting, top to bottom, ], ], ], ], and ].]] | |||
]|link=Provinces and territories of Canada]] | |||
Canada is one of the world's ] with a high per capita income, a member of the ] (OECD) and ] (G8). Canada is a ] economy with slightly more government intervention than the United States, but much less than most European nations.<ref>{{cite web | accessdate = 2006-10-03 | year = 2006 | publisher = The Heritage Foundation | author = The Heritage Foundation | title = Index of Economic Freedome | url = http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/indexoffreedom.cfm}}</ref> Canada has traditionally had a lower per capita ] (GDP) than its southern neighbour (whereas wealth has been more equally divided), but higher than the large western European economies<ref>{{cite book | first = John NH | last = Britton | title = Canada and the Global Economy: The geography of Structural and Technological Change | publisher = McGill-Queen's University Press | date = 1996 |location= Montreal | id = ISBN 0-7735-0927-5 | pages = pp. 6–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first = Daniel J| last = Shaw | title = Canada's Productivity and Standard of Living: Past, Present and Future | publisher = Government of Canada | url = http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/prb0223-e.htm | date = 2002-10-24 | accessdate = 2006-10-02}}</ref>. Since the early 1990's, the Canadian economy has been growing rapidly with low ] and large government surpluses on the ] level. Today Canada closely resembles the US in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards.<ref name="cia_factbook" /> While as of October 2007, Canada's national unemployment rate of 5.9% is its lowest in 33 years. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 3.6% in Alberta to a high of 14.6% in Newfoundland and Labrador.<ref name="statcan_labour">{{cite web | author=Statistics Canada |authorlink= Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.ca/english/Subjects/Labour/LFS/lfs-en.htm |title=Latest release from Labour Force Survey |date=] |accessdate=2006-08-04}}</ref> | |||
Canada is a federation composed of 10 ], called provinces, and three ]. These may be grouped into ]: ], ], ], and ] ('']'' refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hamel |first1=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |title=Suburban Governance: A Global View |last2=Keil |first2=Roger |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4426-6357-2 |page=81}}</ref> Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as ], ], and ],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doern |first1=G. Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting |last2=Maslove |first2=Allan M. |last3=Prince |first3=Michael J. |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0 |page=1}}</ref> as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, ] are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clemens |first1=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context |last2=Veldhuis |first2=Niels |publisher=] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-88975-215-3 |page=8}}</ref> | |||
In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. As with other ]s, the Canadian economy is dominated by the ], which employs about three quarters of Canadians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/econ40.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|title=Employment by Industry|date=2007-01-04}}</ref> However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the ], with the ] and ] industries being two of Canada's most important. | |||
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Michael D. |title=The Canadian Monarchy in Saskatchewan |publisher=Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan |year=1990 |page=14 |edition=2nd}}</ref> and power and authority from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the ]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Oliver |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution |last2=Macklem |first2=Patrick |last3=Des Rosiers |first3=Nathalie |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-066482-4 |pages=498–499}}</ref> and the commissioners represent the ],<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.commissioner.gov.nt.ca/en/role-commissioner |author=Commissioner of the Northwest Territories |title=Role of the Commissioner |publisher=Government of Northwest Territories |access-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308194120/https://www.commissioner.gov.nt.ca/en/role-commissioner |url-status=live}}</ref> rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meligrana |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uL9hLqPSdi0C&pg=PA75 |title=Redrawing Local Government Boundaries: An International Study of Politics, Procedures, and Decisions |publisher=UBC Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7748-0934-4 |page=75}}</ref> and any changes to that arrangement require a ], while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Norman L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek7cloNk3E8C&pg=PA174 |title=The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-7705-1742-7 |pages=174–175}}</ref> | |||
Canada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy.<ref name="cia_factbook" /> ] has vast offshore deposits of natural gas and large oil and gas resources are centred in ]. The vast ] give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil behind ].<ref name="athabasca">{{cite web |author=Clarke, Tony; Campbell, Bruce; Laxer, Gordon |publisher= Parkland Institute |url=http://www.ualberta.ca/PARKLAND/research/perspectives/LaxerClarkeCampbellMar06OpEd.htm |title=US oil addiction could make us sick |date=]|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> In Quebec, British Columbia, Newfoundland & Labrador, Ontario and Manitoba, ] is a cheap and clean source of renewable energy. | |||
===Foreign relations=== | |||
Canada is one of the world's most important suppliers of agricultural products, with the Canadian Prairies one of the most important suppliers of ], ] and other grains.<ref name="ce_agriculture">{{cite web |author=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher= Historical Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=J1SEC80771 |title=Agriculture and Food: Export markets |date=2006|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> Canada is the world's largest producer of ] and ] and a world leader in many other natural resources such as ], ], ], and ];<ref name="ce_minig">{{cite web |author=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher= Historica Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC824436 |title=Canadian Mining |date=2006|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> many, if not most, towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with ] and ] representing particularly important industries. | |||
{{Main|Foreign relations of Canada}} | |||
]<ref name="GAC 2014 c263">{{cite web |title=Diplomatic Missions and Consular Posts Accredited to Canada |website=GAC |date=June 10, 2014 |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/missions.aspx?lang=eng |accessdate=February 26, 2024|archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226073816/https://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/missions.aspx?lang=eng |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
{{resizediv|95%|{{legend|#2f3699|Countries that host a Canadian Embassy or High Commission}} | |||
{{legend|#709ad1|Interests section and other representations}} | |||
{{legend|#b4b4b4|Countries that do not host Canadian diplomatic missions}} | |||
{{legend|#22b14c|Canada}}}}]] | |||
Canada is recognized as a ] for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue ] and ] solutions.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last=Chapnick |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |title=The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4049-1 |pages=2–5}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Gabryś |first1=M. |last2=Soroka |first2=T. |title=Canada as a selective power: Canada's Role and International Position after 1989 |publisher=Neriton, Wydawnictwo |series=Societas |year=2017 |isbn=978-83-7638-792-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTpyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |page=39}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Sens |first1=Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Global Politics |last2=Stoett |first2=Peter |publisher=Nelson Education |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-17-648249-7 |edition=5th |page=6}} | |||
| {{cite book | last=McKercher | first=B.J.C. | title=Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge handbooks | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-136-66437-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dGypAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 | access-date=June 17, 2024 | page=131}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada is known for its commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,<ref name="o407">{{cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=J. |last2=Courtney |first2=J.C. |last3=Smith |first3=D. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |publisher=OUP USA |series=Oxford Handbooks in Politics & International Relations |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA363 |page=363}}</ref> and for providing ].<ref> | |||
{{multiref2 | |||
|{{cite web |title=Development Co-operation Profiles – Canada |website=OECD iLibrary |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/aa7e3298-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/aa7e3298-en |access-date=May 28, 2024|archive-date=May 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528044344/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/aa7e3298-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/aa7e3298-en |url-status=live}} | |||
|{{cite journal | last=Webster | first=Craig | title=Canada's Human Rights Policy and ITS Impact on Foreign Assistance Allocation | journal=Peace Research | publisher=Canadian Mennonite University | volume=32 | issue=4 | year=2000 | issn=0008-4697 | jstor=23608002 | pages=85–97 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23608002 | access-date=2024-10-29}}}}</ref> | |||
] have a long and complex relationship;<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
Canada is highly dependent on ], especially trade with the United States. The 1989 ] (FTA) and 1994 ] (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the US Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the G8.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/default.asp?Language=E&Page=archivechretien&Sub=Speeches&Doc=commonwealthbusinessforum.20031204_e.htm | |||
|{{cite encyclopedia |title=Canada and the United States |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=June 11, 2020 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states |archive-date=October 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029025447/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states | url-status=live}} | |||
|publisher = Privy Council Office, Government of Canada | last = Chretien | first = Jean | date = 2003-12-04 | accessdate = 2006-08-07 | title = Notes for an Address by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien on the Occasion of the Commonwealth Business Forum}}</ref> Since the mid 1990s, Canada's federal government has posted annual budgetary surpluses and has steadily paid down the national debt. | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Nord |first1=D.C. |last2=Weller |first2=G.R. |title=Canada and the United States: An Introduction to a Complex Relationship |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GO7PGwAACAAJ |page=14}} | |||
}}</ref> they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|{{cite book |last1=Carment |first1=D. |last2=Sands |first2=C. |title=Canada–US Relations: Sovereignty or Shared Institutions? |publisher=Springer International Publishing |series=Canada and International Affairs |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-05036-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TT6EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |pages=3–10}} | |||
| {{cite journal |last=Haglung |first=David G |date=Autumn 2003 |title=North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security |journal=] |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=675–691 |doi=10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada also maintains historic and traditional ] and ],<ref name="Morrison 2008 p. 177">{{cite journal |last=Morrison |first=Katherine L. |title=The Only Canadians: Canada's French and the British Connection |journal=International Journal of Canadian Studies |publisher=Consortium Erudit |issue=37 |year=2008 |doi=10.7202/040800ar |page=177 |language=fr |doi-access=free}}</ref> along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the ] and the {{Lang|fr|]}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=Patrick |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3 |editor-last=Michaud |editor-first=Nelson |pages=213–214, 349–362 |editor-last2=O'Reilly |editor-first2=Marc J}}</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive ], owing, in part, to its contribution to the ].<ref name="netherlands" /> ] in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.<ref name="GAC 2014 c263" /> | |||
Canada is a ].<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=International Organizations and Forums |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227153935/http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |archive-date=February 27, 2014 |access-date=March 3, 2014 |publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada}}</ref> ] in 1945 and formed the ] together with the United States in 1958.<ref name="Wilson 2012 p. 10">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=G.A.A. |title=NORAD and the Soviet Nuclear Threat: Canada's Secret Electronic Air War |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4597-0412-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-nvkPFdUREC&pg=PT10 |page=10}}</ref> The country has membership in the ], the ], the ] and the ] (OECD).<ref name="Chapnick2011a">{{Cite book |last=Chapnick |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |title=The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4049-1 |pages=2–5}}</ref> The country was a founding member the ] forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the ] (OAS) in 1990.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last=McKenna |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91 |title=Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4426-1108-5 |page=91}} | |||
| {{cite book |title=Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities |year=2015 |publisher=International Business Publications |isbn=978-0-7397-1615-1 |page=27}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada ratified the ] in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.<ref name="Heritage 2017 a990">{{cite web |last=Heritage |first=Canadian |title=Human rights treaties |website=Canada.ca |date=October 23, 2017 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/canada-united-nations-system/treaties.html |access-date=March 15, 2024|archive-date=March 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315141714/https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/canada-united-nations-system/treaties.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
===Military and peacekeeping=== | |||
{{Main|Canadian Armed Forces|Canadian peacekeeping}} | |||
{{further|Military history of Canada}} | |||
] in "special markings" used by the 2014 ]<ref name="Skies Mag 2014 p953">{{cite web |title=RCAF 2014 Demo Jet revealed |website=Skies Mag |date=March 27, 2014 |url=https://skiesmag.com/press-releases/rcaf2014demojetrevealed/ |archive-date=October 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010180249/https://skiesmag.com/press-releases/rcaf2014demojetrevealed/ | url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
Alongside many ], more than 3,000 ] (CAF) personnel are ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/current-operations/list.html |title=Current operations list |year=2024 |publisher=National Defence|archive-date=November 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102133817/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/operations/military-operations/current-operations/list.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The Canadian unified forces comprise the ], ], and ]. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/policies-standards/canada-defence-policy.html |title=Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada's Defence Policy |publisher=National Defence |date=September 22, 2017 |archive-date=September 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924030653/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/policies-standards/canada-defence-policy.html |url-status=live}}</ref>—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/transition-materials/defence-101/2020/03/defence-101/caf-101.html |title=Canadian Armed Forces 101 |date=March 11, 2021 |publisher=National Defence |archive-date=October 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030051937/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/transition-materials/defence-101/2020/03/defence-101/caf-101.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn| name=Force| "The ] is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 ]. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/about/canadian-armed-forces.page |title=About the Canadian Armed Forces |date=March 11, 2021 |publisher=National Defence |archive-date=March 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317004607/http://forces.gc.ca/en/about/canadian-armed-forces.page |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's ] (GDP){{snd}}placing it 14th for ].<ref name="SIPRI-2022">{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |access-date=April 29, 2023 |publisher=]|archive-date=April 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423231601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Sorenson |first1=David S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OZ6NRiL5MkC&pg=PA158 |title=The Politics of Peacekeeping in the Post-cold War Era |last2=Wood |first2=Pia Christina |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7146-8488-8 |page=158}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Sobel |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21 |title=International Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis |last2=Shiraev |first2=Eric |last3=Shapiro |first3=Robert |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7391-0480-4 |page=21}} | |||
}}</ref> Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last=Gutiérrez-Haces |first=Maria Teresa |title=Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy |series=Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes | International Canadian Studies Series |date=November 6, 2018 |pages=231–250 |publisher=University of Ottawa Press |isbn=978-0-7766-2722-9 |url=https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en |access-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065237/https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en | url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite journal |last=Carroll |first=Michael K |title=Peacekeeping: Canada's past, but not its present and future? |journal=International Journal |publisher= |volume=71 |issue=1 |year=2016 |jstor=44631172 |pages=167–176 |doi=10.1177/0020702015619857 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 |access-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228173148/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 | url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite web |title=Canada's Current Role in World |url=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4 |publisher=Environics Institute for Survey Research |access-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-date=March 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304065232/https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada%27s-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4 |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mingst |first1=K. |last2=Karns |first2=M.P. |title=The United Nations In The Post-cold War Era, Second Edition |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-000-30674-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kk2fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 |page=63}}</ref><ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594"/> such as the ] or the ].<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594">{{cite journal |last=Massie |first=Justin |title=Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions |journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) |volume=52 |issue=3 |date=April 30, 2019 |doi=10.1017/s0008423919000040 |pages=575–594}}</ref> Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.<ref name="JohnsonJoshee2007">{{cite book |first1=Lauri |last1=Johnson |first2=Reva |last2=Joshee |title=Multicultural education policies in Canada and the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8jr_pE3YPwC&pg=PA23 |year=2007 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1325-9 |page=23}}</ref> The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military ], rather than directly through the UN.<ref name="McQuaig2010bt">{{cite book |first=Linda |last=McQuaig |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT50 |year=2010 |publisher=Random House Digital |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |page=50}}</ref> The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.<ref name="James Michaud OReilly 2006 p. 177">{{cite book |last1=James |first1=P. |last2=Michaud |first2=N. |last3=O'Reilly |first3=M. |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-5580-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTk2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA177 |page=177}}</ref> | |||
==Economy== | |||
{{Main|Economy of Canada}} | |||
] is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sassen |first=Saskia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wBlcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT210 |title=Cities in a World Economy |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5063-6260-1 |edition=5th |page=210}}</ref>]] | |||
Canada has a ] ],<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Peter A. |last2=Soskice |first2=David |date=2001 |title=Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EU02HzYJeFsC&q=canada+a+market+economy |publisher=] |page=570 |isbn=9780191647703}} | |||
| {{cite encyclopedia |title=Capitalism in Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/capitalism-in-canada#:~:text=Canada%20has%20a%20%E2%80%9Cmixed%E2%80%9D%20economy |first=Peter |last=Diekmeyer |encyclopedia=] |date=June 11, 2020 |archive-date=October 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016165252/https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/capitalism-in-canada#:~:text=Canada%20has%20a%20%E2%80%9Cmixed%E2%80%9D%20economy |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> with the world's ] {{As of|2023|lc=y}}, and a ] of approximately {{US$|2.221 trillion|link=yes}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2, 2019 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |publisher=] |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922140957/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is one of the world's largest ]s, with a highly ] economy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 |title=Evolution of the world's 25 top trading nations – Share of global exports of goods (%), 1978–2020 |publisher=] |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715130020/https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.<ref name="econ">{{cite journal |year=2021 |title=U.S.-Canada Trade Facts |url=https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada |url-status=live |journal=Canada's State of Trade |edition=20 |publisher=Global Affairs Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417130737/https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada |archive-date=April 17, 2022}} . {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003053553/https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf|date=October 3, 2019}}.</ref> Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.<ref name="econ" /> In 2018, Canada had a ] in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.<ref name="econ" /> The ] is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by ], listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over {{US$|2 trillion}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Monthly Reports |url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |publisher=World Federation of Exchanges |archive-date=February 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218202537/https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |url-status=live}}{{as of|2018|November|lc=y}}</ref> | |||
The ] is the ] of the country.<ref name="Watts-1993">{{cite book |last=Watts |first=George S. |title=Bank of Canada/La Banque du Canada: Origines et premieres annees/Origins and Early History |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-88629-182-2 |jstor=j.ctt9qf36m |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qf36m}}</ref> The ] and ] use data from ] to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.<ref>{{cite web |year=2014 |title=About |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2015 |access-date=March 8, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Canada has a strong ] sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kobrak |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |title=From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance |last2=Martin |first2=Joe |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4426-1625-7 |page=220}}</ref> It ranks low in the ] (14th in 2023)<ref name="cpi">{{cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index (latest) |date=January 31, 2023 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi |publisher=] |archive-date=July 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724013412/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rotberg |first1=Robert I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 |title=Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad |last2=Carment |first2=David |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-57924-7 |page=12}}</ref> It ranks high in the ] (19th in 2024).<ref name="x737">{{cite web | title=World Competitiveness Center | website=IMD business school for management and leadership courses | date=2024-06-10 | url=https://www.imd.org/centers/wcc/world-competitiveness-center/rankings/world-competitiveness-ranking/rankings/wcr-rankings/#_tab_Rank | access-date=2024-11-15}}</ref> Canada's economy ranks above most ] on ]'s ]<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Index of Economic Freedom |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |access-date=May 8, 2021 |publisher=] |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420111447/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |url-status=live}}</ref> and experiences a relatively low level of ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |publisher=] |title=Global Wealth Report |date=October 2018 |first1=Anthony |last1=Shorrocks |first2=Jim |last2=Davies |first3=Rodrigo |last3=Lluberas |archive-date=July 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718173830/https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The country's average household ] per capita is "well above" the OECD average.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |title=Canada |work=OECD Better Life Index |date=2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305123737/https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |title=Prices - Housing prices |publisher=OECD |access-date=August 14, 2022 |archive-date=August 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811142758/https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite journal |url=https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/sppp/article/view/72311/55149 |title=View of 2020 Tax Competitiveness Report: Canada's Investment Challenge |year=2021 |doi=10.11575/sppp.v14i1.72311 |last1=Mintz |first1=Jack |last2=Bazel |first2=Philip |journal=The School of Public Policy Publications |volume=14 |issue=1}} | |||
| {{cite web |title='Worst in the world': Here are all the rankings in which Canada is now last |website=National Post |date=August 11, 2022 |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234013/https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
Since the early 20th century, the growth of ], mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harris |first1=R. Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: Addressing the Twentieth Century, 1891–1961 |last2=Matthews |first2=Geoffrey J. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8020-3448-9 |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |archive-date=March 20, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Canadian economy is dominated by the ], which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 8, 2009 |title=Employment by Industry |url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063742/http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |archive-date=May 24, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Canada has an unusually important ], of which the ] and ] are the most prominent components.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018">{{Cite book |last1=Sueyoshi |first1=Toshiyuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0RKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA496 |title=Environmental Assessment on Energy and Sustainability by Data Envelopment Analysis |last2=Goto |first2=Mika |publisher=Wiley |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-118-97933-4 |page=496}}</ref> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vodden |first1=K |last2=Cunsolo |first2=A. |year=2021 |url=https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/pdf/National_Issues_Report_Final_EN.pdf |title=Rural and Remote Communities; Chapter 3 |work=Canada in a Changing Climate: National Issues Report |editor1-first=F.J. |editor1-last=Warren |editor2-first=N. |editor2-last=Lulham |publisher=Government of Canada|archive-date=December 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209174936/https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/pdf/National_Issues_Report_Final_EN.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
]<ref name="GAC 2020" />}}]] | |||
Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mosler |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38 |title=The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism |last2=Catley |first2=Bob |publisher=] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4094-9852-0 |page=38}}</ref> The ] (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the ] (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include ] in 1994 (later replaced by the ]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA569 |title=The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-511739-4 |editor-last=Krieger |editor-first=Joel |edition=2nd |page=569}}</ref> As of 2023, ] with 51 different countries.<ref name="GAC 2020">{{cite web |title=Expand globally with Canada's free trade agreements |publisher=Trade Commissioner |date=December 3, 2020 |url=https://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/fta-ale-canada.aspx?lang=eng |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306015044/https://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/fta-ale-canada.aspx?lang=eng |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Charles E |title=World Energy Resources |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |isbn=978-3-540-42634-9 |pages=323, 378–389}}</ref> ],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/market-snapshots/2017/market-snapshot-25-years-atlantic-canada-offshore-oil-natural-gas-production.html |title=CER – Market Snapshot: 25 Years of Atlantic Canada Offshore Oil & Natural Gas Production |publisher=Canada Energy Regulator |date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=November 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128010325/https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/market-snapshots/2017/market-snapshot-25-years-atlantic-canada-offshore-oil-natural-gas-production.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.<ref name="Monga 2022">{{cite web |last=Monga |first=Vipal |title=One of the World's Dirtiest Oil Patches Is Pumping More Than Ever |website=Wall Street Journal |date=January 13, 2022 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/oil-sands-canada-dirty-carbon-environment-11642085980 |archive-date=June 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601095803/https://www.wsj.com/articles/oil-sands-canada-dirty-carbon-environment-11642085980 |url-status=live}}</ref> The vast ] and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez-Vallejo |first=Marcela |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgDtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=Reconfiguring Global Climate Governance in North America: A Transregional Approach |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-07042-9 |page=82}}</ref> Canada is additionally one of the world's ]; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, ], and other grains.<ref>{{cite web |year=2017 |title=Trade Ranking Report: Agriculture |url=https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |publisher=FCC |archive-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003070556/https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, ], aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, ], cobalt, and cadmium.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|{{cite web |title=Canada (CAN) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners |publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/can |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112011418/https://oec.world/en/profile/country/can |url-status=live}} | |||
| {{cite web |title=The Atlas of Economic Complexity by @HarvardGrwthLab |website=The Atlas of Economic Complexity |url=https://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/39 |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520150209/https://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/39 |url-status=live}} | |||
}}</ref> Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and ] representing particularly important industries.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 22, 2015 |title=Mapping Canada's Top Manufacturing Industries |url=https://www.ibisworld.com/media/2015/01/22/mapping-canadas-top-manufacturing-industries/ |website=Industry Insider}}</ref> The ] is also a key contributor to the economy.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2021 n754">{{cite web |title=Canada's oceans and the economic contribution of marine sectors |website=Statistics Canada |date=July 19, 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/16-002-x/2021001/article/00001-eng.htm |access-date=September 15, 2023}}</ref> | |||
===Science and technology=== | |||
{{Main|Science and technology in Canada}} | |||
In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic ], with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/230127/dq230127b-eng.htm |title=Gross domestic expenditures on research and development, 2020 (final), 2021 (preliminary) and 2022 (intentions) |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=January 27, 2023}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, the country has produced 15 ] in ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/nobellaureates.php |access-date=December 19, 2020 |publisher=Science.ca}}</ref> The country ] in the worldwide share of articles published in ], according to the ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 tables: Countries/territories {{!}} 2022 tables {{!}} Countries/territories |work= Nature Index|url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/annual-tables/2022/country/all/all |access-date=June 10, 2023}}</ref> and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top Technology Companies in Canada |website=World Top 25,000 Companies by market cap as on Dec 2022 |date=January 1, 2020 |url=https://www.value.today/top-companies/top-technology-companies-canada}}</ref> Canada ], with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total population.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/210531/dq210531d-eng.htm |title=Access to the Internet in Canada, 2020 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=May 31, 2021}}</ref> | |||
] robotic arm (left), referred to as ], transferred the ] over to the Canadian-built ] robotic arm, referred to as ].<ref name="Canadian Space Agency 2002 a865">{{cite web |title=Canadarm, Canadarm2, and Canadarm3 – A comparative table |website=Canadian Space Agency |date=December 31, 2002 |url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/canadarm2/canadarm-canadarm2-canadarm3-comparative-table.asp |access-date=September 7, 2023}}</ref>]] | |||
] include the creation of the modern ],<ref>{{cite web |title=Lew Urry |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=277 |website=Science.ca}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite book |title=Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology |last=Fruton |first=Joseph |publisher=Yale University Press |pages=95–96 |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-300-15359-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6skaZlZNdsC&pg=PA95}}</ref> the development of the ],<ref>{{cite web |title=Leone N. Farrell |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=438 |website=Science.ca}}</ref> and discoveries about the interior structure of the ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Leon Katz |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=404 |website=Science.ca}}</ref> Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the ], mapping the ],<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite news |last=Strauss |first=Evelyn |year=2005 |title=2005 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award |publisher=] |url=http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm |url-status=live |access-date=November 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716192333/http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm |archive-date=July 16, 2010}} | |||
| {{cite web |year=2015 |title=Top ten Canadian scientific achievements |url=http://www.science.ca/askascientist/topachievements.php |website=GCS Research Society}} | |||
}}</ref> the development of the ],<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite web |title=James Hillier |url=http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808192011/http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html |archive-date=August 8, 2013 |access-date=November 20, 2008 |website=Inventor of the Week |publisher=]}} | |||
| {{cite news |last=Pearce |first=Jeremy |date=January 22, 2007 |title=James Hillier, 91, Dies; Co-Developed Electron Microscope |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325113042/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html |archive-date=March 25, 2014}} | |||
}}</ref> ], ], ] technology, and the identification of the first ], ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bolton |first=C. T. |year=1972 |title=Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868 |journal=] |volume=235 |issue=2 |pages=271–273 |doi=10.1038/235271b0 |bibcode=1972Natur.235..271B }}</ref> Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include ]s, ], ], and the identification of the genes that cause ], ], and ], among numerous other diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strathdee |first1=C.A. |first2=H. |last2=Gavish |first3=W. |last3=Shannon |last4=Buchwald, M. |year=1992 |title=Cloning of cDNAs for Fanconi's anemia by functional complementation |journal=] |volume=356 |issue=6372 |pages=763–767 |bibcode=1992Natur.356..763S |doi=10.1038/356763a0 |pmid=1574115}}</ref> | |||
The ] operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites.<ref>{{cite web |year=2016 |title=Canadian Space Milestones |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008060654/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp |archive-date=October 8, 2009 |publisher=Canadian Space Agency}}</ref> Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite when in 1962 ] was launched.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Angelo |first=Joseph A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUWno1sOwnUC&pg=PA22 |title=Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-1018-9 |page=22}}</ref> Canada is a participant in the ] (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the ], ], ] and ] robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bidaud |first1=Philippe |title=Field Robotics: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines |last2=Dupuis |first2=Erick |publisher=] |year=2012 |isbn=978-981-4374-27-9 |pages=35–37 |chapter=An overview of Canadian space robotics activities |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlqDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35}}</ref> Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including ] and ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |date=March 11, 2010 |title=The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada |url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224813/http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html |archive-date=June 9, 2011 |publisher=Newswire}}</ref> Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used ]s, the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Godefroy |first=Andrew B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVLJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=The Canadian Space Program: From Black Brant to the International Space Station |publisher=Springer |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-40105-8 |page=41}}</ref> | |||
==Demographics== | ==Demographics== | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Demographics of Canada|List of cities in Canada}} | ||
], ] skyline with the ]. Toronto is Canada's most populous metropolitan area with 5,113,149 people.<ref name="TO_Pop">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/profiles/community/Details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3520005&Geo2=PR&Code2=35&Data=Count&SearchText=Toronto&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom= |title=2006 Community Profiles|date=]|accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref><ref name="TO_CMA_Pop">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/profiles/community/Details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CMA&Code1=535__&Geo2=PR&Code2=35&Data=Count&SearchText=Toronto&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom= |title=2006 Community Profiles|date=]|accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>]] | |||
] density map (2014)<br>'''Top left:''' The ] is the most densely inhabited and heavily industrialized region.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2015 l621">{{cite web |title=Section 4: Maps |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 11, 2015 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/91-214-x/2015000/section04-eng.htm |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref>]] | |||
Canada's ] counted 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4% since 2001.<ref name="statscan_population_clock">{{cite web |author= Beauchesne, Eric |publisher=National Post |url=http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/financialpost/story.html?id=73b94aac-08f0-477f-a72a-b8b640f6658f&k=90795 |title=We are 31,612,897|date=]|accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref> Population growth is from ] and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About three-quarters of Canada's population lives within 150 kilometres (90 ]) of the US border.<ref>{{cite web |date = 2005-01-25 | accessdate =2006-10-03 | title = Canada World View - Issue 24 | first =Norman | last = Hillmer |publisher = Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada | url = http://www.international.gc.ca/canada-magazine/issue24/01-title-en.asp}}</ref> A similar proportion live in ]s concentrated in the ] (notably: the ] anchored around ], ], ], and their environs), the BC ] (] and environs), and the ] in Alberta.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dissemination.statcan.ca/english/freepub/82-221-XIE/00503/tables/html/44_01.htm | title = Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions | year = 2001 | publisher = Statistics Canada | author = Statistics Canada | accessdate = 2006-10-03}}</ref> | |||
The ] enumerated a ] of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.<ref name="2021cen">{{cite web |last=Zimonjic |first=Peter |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Despite pandemic, Canada's population grows at fastest rate in G7: census |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/census-2021-release-population-cities-1.6344179 |work=CBC News}}</ref> It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2023 e538">{{cite web |title=Canada's population reaches 40{{nbsp}}million | website=Statistics Canada | date=June 16, 2023 | url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects-start/population_and_demography/40-million |access-date=September 7, 2023}}</ref> The main drivers of population growth are ] and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edmonston |first1=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181 |title=The Changing Canadian Population |last2=Fong |first2=Eric |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |page=181}}</ref> Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zimmerman |first=Karla |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51 |title=Canada |publisher=] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-571-0 |edition=10th |page=51}}</ref> driven mainly by ] and ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
According to the 2001 census, it has 34 ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, with 83% of the total population claiming they are white.<ref></ref> | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Hollifield |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective |last2=Martin |first2=Philip |last3=Orrenius |first3=Pia |publisher=] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8047-8627-0 |edition=3rd |page=11}} | |||
The largest ethnic group is ] (20.2%), followed by ] (15.8%), ] (14.0%), ] (12.9%), ] (9.3%), ] (4.3%), ] (3.7%), ] (3.6%), and ] (3.4%); 40% of respondents identified their ethnicity as "Canadian."<ref name="statscan_ethnic">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo26a.htm |title=Population by selected ethnic origins, by provinces and territories|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> Canada's ] population is growing almost twice as fast as the Canadian average. In 2001, 13.4% of the population belonged to non-aboriginal ].<ref name="statscan_minority">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo52a.htm |title=Visible minority population, by province and territory (2001 Census) |date=] |accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Beaujot |first1=Roderic P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CofPBh5BRhwC&pg=PA178 |title=The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population |last2=Kerr |first2=Donald W. |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-55130-322-2 |page=178}} | |||
}}</ref> A record 405,000 immigrants were admitted in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sangani |first1=Priyanka |date=February 15, 2022 |title=Canada to take in 1.3{{nbsp}}million immigrants in 2022–24 |work=] |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/canada-to-take-in-1-3-million-immigrants-in-2022-24/articleshow/89593324.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215120744/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/canada-to-take-in-1-3-million-immigrants-in-2022-24/articleshow/89593324.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=February 15, 2022}}</ref> Canada leads the world in ]; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.<ref name="g225">{{cite web | last=Kim | first=Soo-Jung | title=UNHCR calls for concerted action as forced displacement hits new record in 2022 | website=UNHCR Canada | date=June 14, 2023 | url=https://www.unhcr.ca/news/unhcr-calls-for-concerted-action-as-forced-displacement-hits-new-record-in-2022/#:~:text=OTTAWA%2C%2014%20June%202023%20%E2%80%93%20Canada,UNHCR%2C%20the%20UN%20Refugee%20Agency. | access-date=July 4, 2024}}</ref> New immigrants settle mostly in ], such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grubel |first=Herbert G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5 |title=The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-88975-246-7 |page=5}}</ref> | |||
Canada's population density, at {{convert|4.2|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world,<ref name="2021cen" /> with approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the ] north.<ref name="OECD2014">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004 |publisher=OECD |year=2014 |isbn=978-92-64-10778-6 |pages=142–}}</ref> About 80 percent of the population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the border with the contiguous United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Custred |first=Glynn |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 |title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-88975-235-1 |editor-last=Moens |editor-first=Alexander |page= |chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96}}</ref> Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.<ref name="World Bank Open Data s787">{{cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |website=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CA&name_desc=true |language=la |access-date=August 15, 2023}}</ref> The majority of Canadians (over 70 percent ) live below the ], with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.<ref name="a715">{{cite web | last=Jacobs | first=Frank | title=Most Canadians live south of Seattle and other mental map surprises | website=Big Think | date=January 4, 2024 | url=https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/canadians-south-seattle-mental-map-surprise/ | access-date=October 19, 2024}}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country is the ] in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004">{{Cite book |last1=McMurry |first1=Peter H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391 |title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment |last2=Shepherd |first2=Marjorie F. |last3=Vickery |first3=James S. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-84287-7 |page=391}}</ref> | |||
In 2001, 49% of the ] population and 42.8% of ]'s population were ]. In March 2005, ] projected that people of non-European origins will constitute a majority in both Toronto and Vancouver by 2012.<ref></ref> According to Statistics Canada's forecasts, the number of visible minorities in Canada is expected to double by 2017. Roughly one out of every five people in Canada could be a member of a visible minority by 2017.<ref></ref> | |||
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population – Canada |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E}}</ref> Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
Canada has the ],<ref name="highest immigration">{{cite web |author=Benjamin Dolin and Margaret Young, Law and Government Division |publisher=Library of Parliament |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp190-e.htm | |||
{{Largest metropolitan areas of Canada}} | |||
|title=Canada's Immigration Program |date=]|accessdate=2006-11-29}}</ref> driven by ] and ]; Canada also accepts large numbers of ]. Newcomers settle mostly in the major urban areas of Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal. By the 1990s and 2000s, almost all of Canada’s immigrants came from ].<ref></ref> | |||
===Ethnicity=== | |||
Canadians practice a ]. According to 2001 census,<ref name="statscan_religion">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a.htm |title=Population by religion, by provinces and territories|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> 77.1% of Canadians identified as being ]; of this, ] make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest ] denomination is the ]; about 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% were affiliated with religions other than Christianity, of which the largest is ] numbering 1.9%, followed by ]: 1.1%. | |||
{{main| Ethnic origins of people in Canada}} | |||
Respondents in the ] self-reported over 450 "]".<ref name="2021newsrelease">{{Cite web |date=October 26, 2022 |title=The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227102217/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm |archive-date=December 27, 2023 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> The major ] groups chosen were: ] ({{Percentage | 19062115 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ]n ({{Percentage | 8329945 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ] ({{Percentage | 7013835 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ] ({{Percentage | 2204475 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ] ({{Percentage | 1394170 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ] ({{Percentage | 900495 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ] ({{Percentage | 774515 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), ] ({{Percentage | 105010 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}), and other ({{Percentage | 2163380 | 36328475 | 1 | % = percent}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-10-26 |title=Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810035601 |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.<ref name="2021newsrelease" /> | |||
Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar while reflecting regional history, culture and geography.<ref name="education">{{cite web | author =Council of Ministers of Canada | publisher = Education@Canada | title = General Overview of Education in Canada | url= http://www.educationcanada.cmec.ca/EN/EdSys/over.php | accessdate = 2006-05-22 }}</ref> The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref name="education" /> contributing to an adult literacy rate that is 99%.<ref name="cia_factbook" /> Postsecondary education is also administered by provincial and territorial governments, who provide most of the funding; the federal government administers additional research grants, student loans and scholarships. In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged between 25 and 64 had post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34 the post-secondary attainment reaches 51%.<ref>{{cite web | author = Department of Finance | publisher = Department of Finance Canada | title = Creating Opportunities for All Canadians | url= http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4e.html| date = ] | accessdate = 2006-05-22}}</ref> | |||
] in the 2021 census<ref name="Statistics Canada u055">{{cite web |title=''Canadian'' tops the more than 450 ethnic or cultural origins reported by the population of Canada |website=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/g-b001-eng.htm |access-date=July 8, 2023}}</ref>]] | |||
The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were ]{{efn| name=Canadian|1=All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by ]. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Patrick |last1=Simon |first2=Victor |last2=Piché |title=Accounting for Ethnic and Racial Diversity: The Challenge of Enumeration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6t7p-xxFhnwC&pg=PT48 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-98108-4 |pages=48–49}}</ref> "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Bezanson |first1=Kate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWO_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA455 |title=Rethinking Society in the 21st Century |last2=Webber |first2=Michelle |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-55130-936-1 |edition=4th |pages=455–456}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Edmonston |first1=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA294 |title=The Changing Canadian Population |last2=Fong |first2=Eric |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |pages=294–296}} | |||
}}</ref>}} (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by ] (14.7 percent), ] (12.1 percent), ] (12.1 percent), ] (11.0 percent), ] (8.1 percent), ] (4.7 percent), ] (4.3 percent), ] (3.7 percent), and ] (3.5 percent).<ref name="ethnicpopulationordered2021">{{Cite web |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table Canada Total – Ethnic or cultural origin for the population in private households – 25% sample data |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000011124&HEADERlist=31&SearchText=Canada}}</ref> | |||
Of the 36.3{{nbsp}}million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 24.5{{nbsp}}million reported being "]", representing 67.4 percent of the population.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022a">{{cite web |title=Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810032401}}</ref> The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8{{nbsp}}million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022a" /> One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Visible Minority |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=October 27, 2022 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/minorite-visible#:~:text=In%20the%202021%20census%2C%20around,as%20defined%20by%20Canadian%20law.}}</ref>{{efn|Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".<ref>{{cite web |date=July 25, 2008 |title=Classification of visible minority |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714060402/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-date=July 14, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref>}} the largest of which in 2021 were ] (2.6{{nbsp}}million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7{{nbsp}}million; 4.7 percent), ] (1.5{{nbsp}}million; 4.3 percent), ] (960,000 2.6 percent), ] (690,000; 1.9 percent), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6 percent), ] (390,000; 1.1 percent), ] (360,000; 1.0 percent), ] (220,000; 0.6 percent) and ] (99,000; 0.3 percent).<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022">{{cite web |title=The Daily — The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm}}</ref> | |||
== Culture == | |||
{{main|Culture of Canada}} | |||
] ] and traditional "big house" in ], ].]] | |||
Canadian culture has historically been influenced by ], ], and ] cultures and traditions. It has also been influenced by ] because of its proximity and migration between the two countries. American media and entertainment are popular if not dominant in Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the US and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |first=John D. |last=Blackwell |url=http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture |title=Culture High and Low |year=2005 |accessdate=2006-03-15 |publisher=International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service}}</ref> Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market. | |||
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archive-date=October 15, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pendakur |first=Krishna |title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market |url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archive-date=May 16, 2011 |access-date=June 30, 2014 |publisher=Simon Fraser University}}</ref> The 2021 census indicated that 8.3{{Nbsp}}million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a ] in Canada—above the ] previous record of 22.3 percent.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022b">{{cite web |title=The Daily — Immigrants make up the largest share of the population in over 150 years and continue to shape who we are as Canadians |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026a-eng.htm}}</ref> In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/annual-report-parliament-immigration-2021.html#annex2 |title=2021 Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration |date=March 15, 2022 |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws and institutions such as the ] (CBC), the ] (NFB), and the ] (CRTC).<ref>{{cite web |author=National Film Board of Canada |authorlink=National Film Board of Canada |url=http://www.nfb.ca/atonf/organisation.php?v=h&lg=en |title=Mandate of the National Film Board |year=2005|accessdate=2006-03-15}}</ref> | |||
===Languages=== | |||
Canada is a geographically vast and ethnically diverse country. There are cultural variations and distinctions from province to province and region to region. Canadian culture has also been greatly influenced by immigration from all over the world. Many Canadians value ], and see Canadian culture as being inherently multicultural.<ref name="bickerton" /> Multicultural heritage is enshrined in ]. | |||
{{Main|Languages of Canada}} | |||
]:<ref>{{cite web |title=2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census: Highlights |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429013140/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=October 12, 2010 |publisher=], {{Text|Dated 2006}} | |||
}}</ref>{{resizediv|95%|{{Legend|#FFE400|English – 57%}}{{Legend|#D8A820|English and French – 16% (]s)}}{{Legend|#B07400|French – 21%}}{{Legend|#F5F5DC|Sparsely populated area (< 0.4 persons per km<sup>2</sup>)}}}}]] | |||
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with ] and ] (the ]s) being the ] of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.<ref name=":0" /> ] give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-] guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 16, 2009 |title=Official Languages and You |url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |publisher=] |access-date=September 10, 2011 |archive-date=October 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121057/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
Quebec's 1974 '']'' established French as the only official language of the province.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bourhis |first1=Richard Y |last2=Montaruli |first2=Elisa |last3=Amiot |first3=Catherine E |date=May 2007 |title=Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997 |journal=] |issue=185 |pages=187–224 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.031}}</ref> Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial ] populations in ], ], and ], with ] having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webber |first=Jeremy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f357BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |title=The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis |publisher=] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-78225-631-1 |page=214}}</ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an ] minority constituting 33 percent of the population.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Auer |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_aPmMkzK_AC&pg=PA387 |title=Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-11-018002-2 |page=387}}</ref> There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hayday |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49 |title=Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7735-2960-1 |page=49}}</ref> | |||
], seen here at ], are the federal and national police force of Canada and an international icon.]] | |||
] are influenced by natural, historical, and ] sources. Particularly, the use of the ] as a Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century and is depicted on its ] and ] flags, the ], and on the ].<ref name="symbol1">{{cite book | author=Canadian Heritage | title=Symbols of Canada | year=2002 | location=Ottawa, ON | id=ISBN 0-660-18615-2 | publisher=Canadian Government Publishing}}</ref> Other prominent symbols include the ], ], ], ], and the ].<ref name="symbol1"/> | |||
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heller |first=Monica |title=Crosswords: Language, Education and Ethnicity in French Ontario |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-11-017687-2 |pages=72, 74}}</ref> There are 11 ], composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aboriginal languages |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429005405/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=October 5, 2009 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fettes |first1=Mark |title=Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise |last2=Norton |first2=Ruth |publisher=UBC Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7748-0783-8 |editor-last=Castellano |editor-first=Marlene Brant |page=39 |chapter=Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada |editor-last2=Davis |editor-first2=Lynne |editor-last3=Lahache |editor-first3=Louise}}</ref> ] is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Peter H |title=Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-85575-466-2 |editor-last=Hocking |editor-first=Barbara |page=180 |chapter=Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180}}</ref> | |||
Canada's official national ] are ] (winter) and ] (summer).<ref name="National Sports of Canada Act">{{cite web | url= http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/N-16.7/251603.html | title= National Sports of Canada Act (1994) | work = Consolidated Statutes and Regulations| accessdate= 2006-07-20 | publisher= ]}}</ref> Hockey is a ] and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is the most popular sport Canadians play, with 1.65 million active participants in 2004.<ref name = "sports">{{cite web | author = Conference Board of Canada| authorlink = Conference Board of Canada | year = 2004 | month = December | url = http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pubs/socio-eco/tab2_tab_e.cfm | title = Survey: Most Popular Sports, by Type of Participation, Adult Population | publisher = Sport Canada | work = Strengthening Canada: The Socio-economic Benefits of Sport Participation in Canada—Report August 2005 | accessdate = 2006-07-01}}</ref> Canada's six largest metropolitan areas - Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton - have franchises in the ] (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the league than from all other countries combined. After hockey, other popular spectator sports include ] and ]; the latter is played professionally in the ] (CFL). ], ], ], ], ], and ] are widely played at youth and amateur levels,<ref name = "sports"/> but professional leagues and franchises are not as widespread. | |||
As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their ]. Some of the most common non-official first languages include ] (679,255 first-language speakers), ] (666,585), ] (553,380), Spanish (538,870), ] (508,410), ] (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and ] (237,890).<ref name=":0" /> The country is also home to many ]s, some of which are Indigenous.<ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Sign languages |url=http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730163508/http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ |archive-date=July 30, 2017 |publisher=Canadian Association of the Deaf – Association des Sourds du Canada}}</ref> ] (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jepsen |first1=Julie Bakken |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA702 |title=Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook |last2=De Clerck |first2=Goedele |last3=Lutalo-Kiingi |first3=Sam |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-61451-817-4 |page=702}}</ref> ] (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=Carole Sue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_D_ZRFm_4EsC&pg=PR11 |title=The Canadian Dictionary of ASL Canadian Cultural Society of the Dead |last2=Dolby |first2=Kathy |last3=Campbell |first3=Hilda Marian |publisher=University of Alberta |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-88864-300-1 |page=11}}</ref> | |||
Canada has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the ], the ], and the ]. Canada will be the host country for the ] in ] and ], ].<ref>{{cite web | author= The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games | publisher =www.vancouver2010.com | url = http://www.vancouver2010.com/en | title = Vancouver 2010 | date = 2006 | accessdate = 2006-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = FIFA U-20 World Cup Canada 2007 | author = Canadian Soccer Association | publisher = canadasoccer.com | accessdate= 2006-10-01 | date = 2006 | url = http://www.canadasoccer.com/eng/U20WC_2007/index.asp?top=banner_legs&sub=9}}</ref> | |||
== |
===Religion=== | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Religion in Canada}} | ||
] sculpture by Marlene Hilton Moore at the McMurtry Gardens of Justice in ]<ref name="McMurtry Gardens of Justice">{{cite web |title=Freedom of Religion - by Marlene Hilton Moore |website=McMurtry Gardens of Justice |url=https://mcmurtrygardensofjustice.com/content/freedom-religion-marlene-hilton-moore |access-date=June 12, 2023}}</ref>]] | |||
Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs.<ref name="Cornelissen 2021" /> The ] refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moon |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah66SQsk4hAC&pg=PA1 |title=Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada |publisher=UBC Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7748-1497-3 |pages=1–4}}</ref> ] is a constitutionally protected right.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Jamie S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GbZJ2ZszYw8C&pg=PA345 |title=The Religions of Canadians |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4426-0516-9 |page=345}}</ref> | |||
Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.<ref name="Cornelissen 2021">{{cite web |last=Cornelissen |first=Louis |title=Religiosity in Canada and its evolution from 1985 to 2019 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 28, 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-006-x/2021001/article/00010-eng.htm}}</ref> With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,<ref name="Roberts2005w">{{cite book |first=Lance W. |last=Roberts |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnPOqwsR5UsC&pg=PA359 |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2955-7 |page=359}}</ref> Canada has become a ], ] state.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
], ] is mainly ], with a significant ] community.]] | |||
| {{cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Bramadat |first2=David |last2=Seljak |title=Religion and Ethnicity in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VymssyK1Hs0C&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1018-7 |page=3}} | |||
| {{cite book |first=Kurt |last=Bowen |title=Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA174 |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7194-5 |page=174}} | |||
| {{cite book |first1=Derek |last1=Gregory |first2=Ron |last2=Johnston |first3=Geraldine |last3=Pratt |first4=Michael |last4=Watts |first5=Sarah |last5=Whatmore |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5liCbG4J9LYC&pg=PT672 |year=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-1056-6 |page=672}} | |||
}}</ref> Although the majority of Canadians consider ] in their daily lives,<ref name="Punnett2015">{{cite book |first=Betty Jane |last=Punnett |title=International Perspectives on Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tG2mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-46745-8 |page=116}}</ref> they still believe in God.<ref name="Haskell2009">{{cite book |first=David M. |last=Haskell (Wilfrid Laurier University) |title=Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50 |year=2009 |publisher=Clements Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-894667-92-0 |page=50}}</ref> The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.<ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book |first1=Kevin |last1=Boyle |first2=Juliet |last2=Sheen |title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT219 |year=2013 |publisher=University of Essex – Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-72229-7 |page=219}}</ref> | |||
According to the 2021 census, ] is the largest religion in Canada, with ]s representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. ] overall representing 53.3 percent of the population,{{efn| name=religion|] (29.9%), ] (3.3%), ] (3.1%), ] (1.7%), ] (1.2%), ] (1.1%) ] (0.4%), ] (0.4%), ] (0.2%), ] (0.9%), ] and ] (Holiness) (0.3%), ] (0.8%), and ] (0.2%).<ref name="religion2021">{{Cite web |date=October 26, 2022 |title=Religion by visible minority and generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810034201 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> 7.6{{nbsp}}percent simply identified as "Christians".<ref name="The Canadian Encyclopedia 2022 z483">{{cite web |title=Christianity |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=October 27, 2022 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/christianity |access-date=August 31, 2023}}</ref>}} are followed by people reporting ] at 34.6 percent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm?HPA |title=Religions in Canada—Census 2011 |date=May 8, 2013 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Other faiths include ] (4.9 percent), ] (2.3 percent), ] (2.1 percent), ] (1.0 percent), ] (0.9 percent), and ] (0.2 percent).<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |title=Religion by visible minority and generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810034201}}</ref> Canada has the ], behind ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/AnnualStatutes/2019_5/FullText.html |title=Sikh Heritage Month Act |website=laws.justice.gc.ca |date=January 14, 2020}}</ref> | |||
Canada's two official languages are ] and ]. ] is law, defined in the ], the ], and ''Official Language Regulations''; it is applied by the ]. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web|title=Federal Legislation on Official Languages|publisher=Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages|date=2003-09-01|url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/legislation.asp?Lang=English}}</ref> | |||
==Health== | |||
English and French are the ]s of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population respectively,<ref name="statscan_language">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a.htm |title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> and the languages most spoken at home by 68.3% and 22.3% of the population respectively.<ref name=home_language_2001>{{cite web| url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55535&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55440&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0|title= First Official Language Spoken (7) and Sex (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas 1 , 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data| work=], 2001 Census of Population| accessdate=2007-03-23}}</ref> 98.5% of Canadians speak English or French (English only: 67.5%, French only: 13.3%, both: 17.7%).<ref name="statscan_language2">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15a.htm |title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0% and 23.6% of the population.<ref>{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55673&APATH=3&GID=517770&METH=1&PTYPE=55496&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=99&GK=NA&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0|title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory|date=]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Healthcare in Canada}} | |||
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of ], informally called ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
Although 85% of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in ], ] and southern ], with an ] population in the northern and southeastern parts of ] constituting 35% of that province's population as well as concentrations in Southwestern ] and on ]. Ontario has the largest French population outside Quebec. The ] in Quebec makes French the official language in Quebec, and New Brunswick is the only province to have a statement of official bilingualism in the constitution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Heritage|publisher=Canadian Heritage|url=http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/progs/lo-ol/pubs/mythes/english/abc.html}}</ref> Other provinces have no official language(s) as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official. Several aboriginal languages have official status in Northwest Territories. ] is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory. | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Aase |first1=Karina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jvs1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |title=Researching Quality in Care Transitions: International Perspectives |last2=Waring |first2=Justin |last3=Schibevaag |first3=Lene |publisher=Springer |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-62346-7 |pages=128–129}} | |||
| {{cite news |date=December 1, 2006 |title=Public vs. private health care |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/healthcare/public_vs_private.html |work=CBC News}} | |||
}}</ref> It is guided by the provisions of the '']'' of 1984<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bégin |first=Monique |title=Medicare: Canada's Right to Health |publisher=Optimum Pub. International |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88890-219-1 |chapter=Intro}}</ref> and is ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Leatt |first1=Peggy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_y6J647QFoC&pg=PA81 |title=Government Relations in the Health Care Industry |last2=Mapa |first2=Joseph |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-56720-513-8 |page=81}}</ref> Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".<ref>{{Cite report |title=The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role |publisher=Parliament of Canada |access-date=January 5, 2017 |section-url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/sen/committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm |section=17.2 Universality |archive-date=January 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117231017/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm}}</ref> Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.<ref name="Kroll2012">{{Cite book |last=Kroll |first=David J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STnr1N89LIUC&pg=PA126 |title=Capitalism Revisited: How to Apply Capitalism in Your Life |publisher=Dorrance Publishing |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4349-1768-3 |page=126}}</ref> This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as ]s, ] and ].<ref name="Kroll2012" /> Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Tsai-Jyh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bBhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=An International Comparison of Financial Consumer Protection |publisher=Springer |year=2018 |isbn=978-981-10-8441-6 |page=93}}</ref> | |||
]. Total health expenditure per capita in US dollars (PPP).|alt=graph of expenditures as described in the caption]] | |||
Non-official languages are important in Canada, with 5,202,245 people listing one as a first language.<ref name="statscan_language" /> Some significant non-official first languages include ] (853,745 first-language speakers), ] (469,485), ] (438,080), and ] (271,220).<ref name="statscan_language" /> | |||
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a ] toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years.<ref name=":0" /> Life expectancy is 81.1 years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weiss |first=Thomas G. |author-link=Thomas G. Weiss |year=2017 |title=Canadian Male and Female Life Expectancy Rates by Province and Territory |url=https://www.disabled-world.com/calculators-charts/ca-lifespan.php |website=Disabled World}}</ref> A 2016 report by the ] found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".<ref>{{cite web |year=2016 |title=Health Status of Canadians – How healthy are we? – Perceived health |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/2016-health-status-canadians/page-7-how-healthy-are-we-perceived-health.html |website=Report of the Chief Public Health Officer |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada}}</ref> Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.<ref name="GregoryStephens2019">{{Cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEeCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT75 |title=Fundamentals: Perspectives on the Art and Science of Canadian Nursing |last2=Stephens |first2=Tracey |last3=Raymond-Seniuk |first3=Christy |last4=Patrick |first4=Linda |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4963-9850-5 |page=75}}</ref> Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among ] countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of ].<ref name="GregoryStephens2019" /> Four chronic diseases—] (leading cause of death), ], ], and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
== International rankings == | |||
| {{cite web |year=2017 |title=How Healthy are Canadians? |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/how-healthy-canadians.html#s1 |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada}} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
| {{cite web |year=2019 |title=Health at a Glance 2019 |url=http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/Health-at-a-Glance-2019-Chartset.pdf |publisher=OECD}} | |||
! Organization | |||
}}</ref> | |||
! Survey | |||
! Ranking | |||
In 2021, the ] reported that healthcare spending reached $308{{nbsp}}billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.<ref>{{cite web |year=2022 |title=National Health Expenditure Trends |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/national-health-expenditure-trends |access-date=August 23, 2022 |publisher=Canadian Institute for Health Information}}</ref> In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among ].<ref name="theOECD h799">{{cite web |title=Health resources - Health spending |website=theOECD |url=https://data.oecd.org/healthres/health-spending.htm |access-date=August 31, 2023}}{{doi|10.1787/8643de7e-en}}</ref> Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|- | |||
| {{cite web |year=2017 |title=Health at a Glance 2017 |url=https://www.oecd.org/canada/Health-at-a-Glance-2017-Key-Findings-CANADA.pdf |publisher=OECD}} | |||
| ] | |||
| {{cite web |year=2017 |title=Health at a Glance: OECD Indicators by country |url=http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/health-at-a-glance-19991312.htm |publisher=OECD}} | |||
| ] | |||
}}</ref> The ]s 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most ] ranked Canada second-to-last.<ref name="commonwealthfund">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/fund-reports/2021/aug/mirror-mirror-2021-reflecting-poorly |title=Mirror, Mirror 2021: Reflecting Poorly |date=August 4, 2021 |website=commonwealthfund.org |doi=10.26099/01dv-h208 |last1=Schneider |first1=Eric C. |last2=Shah |first2=Arnav |last3=Doty |first3=Michelle M. |first4=Roosa |last4=Tikkanen |last5=Fields |first5=Katharine |last6=Williams |first6=Reginald D. II}}</ref> Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.<ref name="commonwealthfund" /> An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,<ref name="Duong Vogel 2023 pp. E309–E310">{{cite journal |last1=Duong |first1=Diana |last2=Vogel |first2=Lauren |title=Overworked health workers are 'past the point of exhaustion' |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=195 |issue=8 |date=February 26, 2023 |pmc=9970629 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.1096042 |pages=E309–E310 |pmid=36849179}}</ref> and hospital capacity.<ref name="Thiessen Partner Organization Ma 2023 j399">{{cite web |title=Taking the pulse: A snapshot of Canadian health care, 2023 |website=] |date=August 2, 2023 |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/book/export/html/10799 |access-date=February 15, 2024}}</ref> | |||
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==Education== | |||
| ]/] | |||
{{Main|Education in Canada|Higher education in Canada}} | |||
| | |||
| 6 out of 111 | |||
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|- | |||
Education in Canada is for the most part ], funded and overseen by ], ], and ]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Scholey |first=Lucy |date=April 21, 2015 |title=2015 federal budget 'disappointing' for post-secondary students: CFS |url=http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603103455/http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ |archive-date=June 3, 2015}}</ref> Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| ] | |||
| {{cite book |title=Canada 1956 the Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress |publisher=Canada Year Book Section Information Services Division Dominion Bureau of Statistics |year=1959}} | |||
| | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Montesinos |first1=Vicente |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqzwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 |title=Innovations in Governmental Accounting |last2=Manuel Vela |first2=José |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4757-5504-6 |page=305}} | |||
| 10 out of 60 | |||
}}</ref> Education in Canada is generally divided into ], followed by ] and ]. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Epstein |first=Irving |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FI3zJQzOdcIC&pg=PA73 |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children's Issues Worldwide |publisher=] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-313-33617-1 |page=73}}</ref> Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shanahan |first1=Theresa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpcHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 |title=The Handbook of Canadian Higher Education |last2=Nilson |first2=Michelle |last3=Broshko |first3=Li Jeen |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-55339-506-5 |page=59}}</ref> Established in 1663, {{Lang|fr|]|italic=no}} is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p249">{{Cite book |last1=Blake |first1=Raymond B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqEvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA249 |title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada |last2=Keshen |first2=Jeffrey A. |last3=Knowles |first3=Norman J. |last4=Messamore |first4=Barbara J. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4426-3555-5 |page=249}}</ref> The nation's three top ranking universities are the ], ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/world-university-rankings?countries=ca |title=QS World University Rankings |publisher=QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited |access-date=May 4, 2024}}</ref> The largest university is the ], which has over 85,000 students.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Larry Wayne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTKODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |title=University of Toronto: An Architectural Tour (The Campus Guide) |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-61689-824-3 |edition=2nd |page=11}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| ] | |||
According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| | |||
| {{cite web |title=The Daily — Canada leads the G7 for the most educated workforce, thanks to immigrants, young adults and a strong college sector, but is experiencing significant losses in apprenticeship certificate holders in key trades |website=Statistics Canada |date=November 30, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221130/dq221130a-eng.htm |access-date=March 8, 2024}} | |||
| 14 out of 111 | |||
| {{cite web |title=Key facts about Canada's competitiveness for foreign direct investment |website=GAC |date=January 17, 2022 |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/economist-economiste/analysis-analyse/key_facts-2022-01-faits_saillants.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=March 9, 2024}} }}</ref> the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.<ref name="Education c106">{{cite web |last=Education |first=Level Of |title=Canada |website=Education GPS |url=https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=CAN&treshold=10&topic=EO |access-date=March 8, 2024}}</ref> Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.<ref name="TheGlobalEconomy.com 1971 w626">{{cite web |title=Canada Education spending, percent of GDP |website=TheGlobalEconomy.com |date=December 31, 1971 |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Canada/Education_spending/#:~:text=Public%20spending%20on%20education%2C%20percent%20of%20GDP&text=For%20that%20indicator%2C%20we%20provide,from%202022%20is%204.14%20percent. |access-date=March 9, 2024}}</ref> The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than {{US$|20,000}} per student).<ref>{{cite web |year=2011 |title=Financial and human resources invested in Education |url=http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308202848/http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf |archive-date=March 8, 2014 |access-date=July 4, 2014 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.<ref name="OECD 2023 t514">{{cite web |title=Education at a Glance |website=OECD |date=September 12, 2023 |url=https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/ |access-date=March 8, 2024}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| ]/] | |||
The ] age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref>{{cite web |title=Overview of Education in Canada |url=http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214200211/http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng |archive-date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=October 20, 2010 |publisher=Council of Ministers of Education, Canada}}</ref> contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |date=May 16, 2006 |title=Canada |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/ |website=] |publisher=CIA}}</ref> Just over 60,000 children are ] as of 2016. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| | |||
| {{cite web |year=2015 |title=PISA – Results in Focus |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf |publisher=OECD |page=5}} | |||
| 6 out of 146 | |||
| {{cite web |title=Canada – Student performance (PISA 2015) |url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?plotter=h5&primaryCountry=CAN&treshold=10&topic=PI |access-date=December 18, 2020 |publisher=OECD}} | |||
|- | |||
}}</ref> | |||
| ] World-wide | |||
| | |||
==Culture== | |||
| 16 out of 168 | |||
|- | |||
{{Main|Culture of Canada}} | |||
| ] | |||
]'' by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto<ref name="Kuitenbrouwer 2010 g035">{{cite web |last=Kuitenbrouwer |first=Peter |title=Where is the Monument to Multiculturalism? |website=National Post |date=August 19, 2010 |url=https://nationalpost.com/posted-toronto/where-is-the-monument-to-multiculturalism |access-date=January 11, 2024}}</ref>]] | |||
| | |||
Historically, Canada has been influenced by ], ], and Indigenous cultures and traditions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |title=Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: a short introduction |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8 |pages=3–6}}</ref> During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the ] and its culture.<ref name="t408">{{cite journal | last=Wayland | first=Sarah V. | title=Immigration, Multiculturalism and National Identity in Canada | journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights | publisher=Brill | volume=5 | issue=1 | year=1997 | issn=1385-4879 | jstor=24674516 | pages=33–58 | doi=10.1163/15718119720907408 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24674516 }}</ref> | |||
| 14 out of 159 | |||
|- | |||
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a ] are constitutionally protected.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| ]/] | |||
| {{cite book |last=LaSelva |first=Samuel Victor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcqMl9MK_x0C&pg=PA86 |title=The Moral Foundations of Canadian Federalism: Paradoxes, Achievements, and Tragedies of Nationhood |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7735-1422-5 |page=86}} | |||
| | |||
| {{cite book |last=Dyck |first=Rand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88 |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-17-650343-7 |page=88}} | |||
| 10 out of 161 | |||
| {{cite book |last=Newman |first=Stephen L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELWjuzADl7UC&pg=PA203 |title=Constitutional Politics in Canada and the United States |date=2012 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7914-8584-2 |page=203}} | |||
|- | |||
}}</ref> Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized ] and inclusiveness for all its people.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| ] | |||
| {{cite journal |last=Conway |first=Shannon |title=From Britishness to Multiculturalism: Official Canadian Identity in the 1960s |journal=Études canadiennes / Canadian Studies |issue=84 |date=June 2018 |doi=10.4000/eccs.1118 |pages=9–30 |doi-access=free}} | |||
| ] | |||
| {{cite book |first=Linda |last=McQuaig |date=June 4, 2010 |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |publisher=Doubleday Canada |page=14 |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT14}} | |||
| 8 out of 121 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Guo |first1=Shibao |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |title=Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates |last2=Wong |first2=Lloyd |publisher=University of Calgary |year=2015 |isbn=978-94-6300-208-0 |page=317}} | |||
|- | |||
}}</ref> ] is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sikka |first=Sonia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |title=Multiculturalism and Religious Identity: Canada and India |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7735-9220-9 |page=237}}</ref> and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| ]/ | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Azeezat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ib2rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT148 |title=The Fire Now: Anti-Racist Scholarship in Times of Explicit Racial Violence |last2=Joseph-Salisbury |first2=Remi |last3=Kamunge |first3=Beth |date=2018 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-78699-382-3 |page=148}} | |||
| | |||
| {{cite book |last=Caplow |first=Theodore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146 |title=Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7735-2304-3 |page=146}} | |||
| 168 out of 177<ref>larger number indicates ]</ref> | |||
}}</ref> In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a ] that is distinct from English Canadian culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Franklin |first1=Daniel P |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61 |title=Political Culture and Constitutionalism: A Comparative Approach |last2=Baun |first2=Michael J |publisher=Sharpe |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56324-416-2 |page=61}}</ref> As a whole, Canada is in theory a ] of regional ethnic subcultures.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
|} | |||
| {{cite web |last=Meister |first=Daniel R. |title=Racial Mosaic, The |website=McGill-Queen's University Press |url=https://www.mqup.ca/racial-mosaic--the-products-9780228008712.php |page=234}} | |||
| {{cite journal |last1=Garcea |first1=Joseph |last2=Kirova |first2=Anna |last3=Wong |first3=Lloyd |date=January 2009 |title=Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1353/ces.0.0069}} | |||
| {{cite web |title=Cultural Diversity in Canada: The Social Construction of Racial Difference |website=Ministère de la Justice |date=February 24, 2003 |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/csj-sjc/jsp-sjp/rp02_8-dr02_8/p2.html |access-date=December 17, 2023}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective ], ], and ] of far-right politics, has wide public support.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ambrosea |first1=Emma |last2=Muddea |first2=Cas |year=2015 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033}}</ref> Government policies such as publicly funded health care, ] to redistribute wealth, the ], strong efforts to ], ], a ] attitude toward ] (like ]) and ], and legalized ] and ] are indicators of Canada's political and ].<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Hollifield |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oec_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective |last2=Martin |first2=Philip L. |last3=Orrenius |first3=Pia |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8047-8735-2 |edition=3rd |page=103}} | |||
| {{cite book |last1=Bricker |first1=Darrell |title=What Canadians Think About Almost Everything |last2=Wright |first2=John |publisher=Doubleday Canada |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-385-65985-7 |pages=8–28}} | |||
| {{cite web |date=October 2016 |title=Exploring Canadian values |url=http://www.nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405113447/http://nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |archive-date=April 5, 2017 |access-date=February 1, 2017 |publisher=Nanos Research}} | |||
}}</ref> Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the ], and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite web |year=2011 |title=A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009 |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222133226/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |archive-date=December 22, 2015 |access-date=December 18, 2015 |publisher=Government of Canada}} | |||
| {{cite web |year=2010 |title=Focus Canada (Final Report) |url=http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231952/http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf |archive-date=February 4, 2016 |access-date=December 12, 2015 |publisher=Queen's University |page=4 (PDF page 8) |department=The Environics Institute}} | |||
}}</ref> | |||
===Symbols=== | |||
{{main|National symbols of Canada|Canadian royal symbols}} | |||
].<ref>{{cite web |last=Monaghan |first=David |year=2013 |title=The mother beaver |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/about/house/collections/collection_profiles/CP_mother_beaver-e.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222075619/http://www.parl.gc.ca/about/house/collections/collection_profiles/CP_mother_beaver-e.htm |archive-date=December 22, 2015 |access-date=December 12, 2015 |publisher=The House of Commons Heritage}}</ref> The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—]: ]; ]: ]; ]: ]; ]: ]; and ]: ].]] | |||
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadiana.org/citm/themes/pioneers/pioneers7_e.html |title=Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants |publisher=The History Channel |date=August 25, 2005}}</ref> Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cormier |first=Jeffrey |year=2004 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303410887 |title=The Canadianization Movement: Emergence, Survival, and Success |doi=10.3138/9781442680616 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=9781442680616}}</ref> The use of the ] as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's ] and ] and on the ].<ref name="symbol1" /> Canada's official tartan, known as the "]", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the ], gold in the early ], red at the first ], and brown after falling.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/951077--maple-lead-tartan-becomes-official-symbol |work=] |title=Maple Leaf Tartan becomes official symbol |date=March 9, 2011}}</ref> The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after ], with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gough |first=Barry M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4xK6CasigkC&pg=PA71 |title=Historical Dictionary of Canada |date=2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7504-3 |page=71}}</ref> | |||
Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "{{lang|la|]|italics=on}}" ("From Sea to Sea"),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nischik |first=Reingard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYgTaGwa4nsC&pg=PA113 |title=History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian |publisher=Camden House |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-57113-359-5 |pages=113–114}}</ref> the sports of ] and ], the ], ], ], ], the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,<ref name="symbol1">{{Cite book |url=http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.693005/publication.html |title=Symbols of Canada |publisher=Canadian Government Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-660-18615-3}}</ref> and, more recently, the ] and ].<ref name="Nels">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0hwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT92 |title=Sociology in Action |publisher=Nelson Education-McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-17-672841-0 |edition=2nd Canadian |page=92}}</ref> ], ], ]s, ], ]s, ]s, and ] are defined as uniquely Canadian.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hutchins |first1=Donna |title=The Maple Leaf Forever: A Celebration of Canadian Symbols |last2=Hutchins |first2=Nigel |publisher=The Boston Mills Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55046-474-0 |page=iix}}</ref> Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the ], the Arms of Canada on the ], and the beaver on the ].<ref name="Berman2008">{{Cite book |last=Berman |first=Allen G |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRFWcmAr68YC&pg=PA137 |title=Warman's Coins And Paper Money: Identification and Price Guide |publisher=Krause Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4402-1915-3 |page=137}}</ref> An image of the monarch appears on ] and the obverse of coins.<ref name="Berman2008" /> | |||
===Literature=== | |||
{{main|Canadian literature}} | |||
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=W. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rGawhTGpGK0C&pg=PA19 |title=Canadian Literature in English |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-88984-283-0 |page=19}}</ref> The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.<ref>{{cite book |editor=R.G. Moyles |date=September 28, 1994 |title=Improved by Cultivation: English-Canadian Prose to 1914 |publisher=Broadview Press |page=15 |isbn=978-1-55111-049-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvJgb1-zQJkC&pg=PA15}}</ref> This progressed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=New |first=William H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA259 |title=Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2 |pages=259–261}}</ref> In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.<ref>{{cite book |date=December 28, 2021 |title=Crabtracks: Progress and Process in Teaching the New Literatures in English. Essays in Honour of Dieter Riemenschneider |publisher=BRILL |pages=388–391 |isbn=978-90-04-48650-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSNXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA388}}</ref> By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.<ref name="Dominic2010">{{Cite book |last=Dominic |first=K. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT9 |title=Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature |publisher=Pinnacle Technology |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61820-640-4 |pages=8–9}}</ref> | |||
Numerous ] have accumulated international literary awards,<ref>{{Cite book |last=New |first=William H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA55 |title=Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2 |page=55}}</ref> including novelist, poet, and literary critic ], who received two ]s;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nischik |first=Reingard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_xIap0GDbwC&pg=PA46 |title=Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact |publisher=Camden House |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-57113-139-3 |page=46}}</ref> ] ], who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJI_vgWiJiMC&pg=PA1459 |title=Broadview Anthology of British Literature |publisher=Broadview Press |year=2006 |edition=Concise |volume=B |page=1459 |id=GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT}}</ref> and Booker Prize recipient ], who wrote the novel '']'', which was adapted as a ] that won the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Giddings |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZGUDrLW2yYC&pg=PA197 |title=From Page To Screen: Adaptations of the Classic Novel |last2=Sheen |first2=Erica |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7190-5231-6 |page=197}}</ref> ] produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with '']''.<ref>{{cite book |first1=L. M. |last1=Montgomery |first2=August |last2=Nemo |year=2021 |title=Essential Novelists – L. M. Montgomery: Anne of Green Gables |publisher=Tacet Books |isbn=978-3-9855100-5-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttUpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT2}}</ref> | |||
===Media=== | |||
{{main|Media of Canada}} | |||
] (CBC) satellite truck, used for live television broadcasts]] | |||
Canada's media is ], ], ], and very regionalized.<ref> | |||
{{cite report |last=Fry |first=H |year=2017 |url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/421/CHPC/Reports/RP9045583/chpcrp06/chpcrp06-e.pdf |title=Disruption: Change and churning in Canada's media landscape |publisher=Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage |access-date=February 21, 2022}} | |||
{{cite web |title=Freedom of expression and media freedom |website=GAC |date=February 17, 2020 |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/human_rights-droits_homme/freedom_expression_media-liberte_expression_medias.aspx?lang=eng}}</ref> The '']'' declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".<ref>{{cite book |first=Sara |last=Bannerman |date=May 20, 2020 |title=Canadian Communication Policy and Law |publisher=Canadian Scholars |page=199 |isbn=978-1-77338-172-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs0DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199}}</ref> Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in ], ], and ]—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vipond |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0eDs29g49YC&pg=PA57 |title=The Mass Media in Canada |publisher=James Lorimer Company |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-55277-658-2 |edition=4th |page=57}}</ref> As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the ] (CBC), the ] (NFB), and the ] (CRTC).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Edwardson |first=Ryan |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa |title=Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8020-9519-0 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
], both ] and ], and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "]".<ref name="TarasBakardjievaPannekoek20072">{{cite book |editor-first1=David |editor-last1=Taras |editor-first2=Maria |editor-last2=Bakardjieva |editor-first3=Frits |editor-last3=Pannekoek |date=2007 |title=How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity |publisher=University of Calgary Press |page=87 |isbn=978-1-55238-224-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2YNNHZlt5cC&pg=PA87}}</ref> The largest of these corporations is the country's national ], the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating ] and ] networks in both English and French.<ref name="TarasBakardjievaPannekoek2007">{{cite book |editor-first1=David |editor-last1=Taras |editor-first2=Maria |editor-last2=Bakardjieva |editor-first3=Frits |editor-last3=Pannekoek |date=2007 |title=How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity |publisher=University of Calgary Press |page=86 |isbn=978-1-55238-224-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2YNNHZlt5cC&pg=PA86}}</ref> In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Steven |last1=Globerman |publisher=Institute for Research on Public Policy |title=Cultural Regulation in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlBGJyEdDy4C&pg=PR18 |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-920380-81-9 |page=18}}</ref> | |||
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Steven |date=2011 |title=About Canada: Media |publisher=Fernwood |page=111 |isbn=978-1-55266-447-6}}</ref> In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Bart |last1=Beaty |first2=Rebecca |last2=Sullivan |date=2006 |title=Canadian Television Today |publisher=University of Calgary Press |page=37 |isbn=978-1-55238-222-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGMT39azEAYC&pg=PA33}}</ref> ] limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jacqueline |last=Krikorian |date=2012 |title=International Trade Law and Domestic Policy: Canada, the United States, and the WTO |publisher=UBC Press |page=188 |isbn=978-0-7748-2306-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q9i7ln160QC&pg=PA188}}</ref> | |||
===Visual arts=== | |||
{{main|Canadian art}} | |||
]'' by ]. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the ].<ref name="Art Canada Institute - Institut de l'art canadien h165">{{cite web |title=Tom Thomson, The Jack Pine, 1916–17 |website=Art Canada Institute - Institut de l'art canadien |url=https://www.aci-iac.ca/art-books/tom-thomson/key-works/the-jack-pine/ |access-date=October 16, 2023}}</ref>]] | |||
Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,<ref>{{cite book |first=Carol A. |last=Mullen |date=2020 |title=Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society |publisher=Brill Sense |chapter=Introduction |isbn=978-90-04-41426-6}}</ref> and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cook |first=Ramsay |title=Landscape Painting and National Sentiment in Canada |journal=Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=1974 |jstor=41298655 |pages=263–283}}</ref> The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Mark J. |last1=Kasoff |first2=Patrick |last2=James |year=2013 |title=Canadian Studies in the New Millennium |edition=2 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=198–204 |isbn=978-1-4426-6538-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYqBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT198}}</ref> | |||
Modern painting in Canada has been greatly influenced by several major movements that have emerged over the years. One of the most prominent movements is the ], which was founded in 1920, aimed to capture the wilderness in their artwork.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKay |first=Marylin J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |title=Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3817-7 |page=229}}</ref> Associated with the group was ], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newlands |first=Anne |title=Emily Carr |publisher=Firefly Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-55209-046-6 |pages=8–9}}</ref> The mid-20th century saw the rise of ] in Canada, with artists like ] and ].<ref name="y340">{{cite web | title=Painting: Modern Movements | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=Jun 6, 1944 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/painting-modern-movements | access-date=Nov 5, 2024}}</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, saw emergence of ], with artists such as ] and ].<ref name="m694">{{cite web | title=Traffic: Conceptual Art in Canada c. 1965 to 1980 – Art Museum at the University of Toronto | website=Art Museum at the University of Toronto | date=April 26, 2017 | url=https://artmuseum.utoronto.ca/exhibition/traffic-conceptual-art-canada-c-1965-1980/ | access-date=November 6, 2024}}</ref> This era also saw the emergence of Indigenous artists like ], who combined traditional Indigenous techniques with modern art styles.<ref name="z744">{{cite web | title=Norval (called Copper Thunderbird) Morrisseau | website=National Gallery of Canada | url=https://www.gallery.ca/collection/artist/norval-called-copper-thunderbird-morrisseau | access-date=Nov 5, 2024}}</ref> In more recent years, ] has seen a revival of ], with artists such as ] and ].<ref name="j056">{{cite book | last1=Hill | first1=G.A. | last2=Hopkins | first2=C. | last3=Lalonde | first3=C. | author4=National Gallery of Canada | title=Sakahàn: International Indigenous Art | publisher=National Gallery of Canada | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-88884-912-0 | page=18}}</ref> | |||
===Music=== | |||
{{main|Music of Canada}} | |||
]" in English, 1908<ref name="The Canadian Encyclopedia 2018 g033">{{cite web |title="O Canada" |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=February 7, 2018 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/o-canada |access-date=January 11, 2024}}</ref>]] | |||
Canadian music reflects a ].<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Shane |editor-last=Homan |date=January 13, 2022 |title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music Policy |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |page=179 |isbn=978-1-5013-4534-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCdVEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179}}</ref> Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes ]s, ], ], ], ], ], ], and television ] channels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/CCFTimeline.html |title=The history of broadcasting in Canada |publisher=The Canadian Communications Foundation |access-date=October 28, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309132436/http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/CCFTimeline.html |archive-date=March 9, 2012}}</ref> Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first1=Shane |editor-last1=Homan |editor-first2=Martin |editor-last2=Cloonan |editor-first3=Jen |editor-last3=Cattermole |year=2017 |title=Popular Music and Cultural Policy |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-65952-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUg4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT161}}</ref> As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ifpi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Global_Music_Report_2023_State_of_the_Industry.pdf |title=IFPI Global Music Report 2023 |page=10 |access-date=April 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325055720/https://www.ifpi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Global_Music_Report_2023_State_of_the_Industry.pdf |archive-date=March 25, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> producing internationally renowned ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hull |first1=Geoffrey P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWUil8OuXS8C&pg=PA304 |title=The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st Century |last2=Hutchison |first2=Thomas William |last3=Strasser |first3=Richard |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-87560-8 |page=304}}</ref> Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Acheson |first1=Archibald Lloyd Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5gCzOUo6YhkC&pg=PA181 |title=Much Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes |last2=Maule |first2=Christopher John |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-472-02241-0 |page=181}}</ref> The ] presents Canada's music industry awards, the ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Edwardson |first=Ryan |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa |title=Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8020-9759-0 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> The ] honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FOSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 |title=Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-135-94950-1 |page=324}}</ref> | |||
] dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "]", was written in 1812.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jortner |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6whyXqA7BUC&pg=PA217 |title=The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-976529-4 |page=217}}</ref> "]", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout ] and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.utoronto.ca/icm/0101b.html |title=Maple Cottage, Leslieville, Toronto |work=Institute for Canadian Music |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331095214/http://www.utoronto.ca/icm/0101b.html |archive-date=March 31, 2009}}</ref> "]" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kallmann |first1=Helmut |author-link=Helmut Kallmann |last2=Potvin |first2=Gilles |date=February 7, 2018 |title=O Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/o-canada |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021353/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/o-canada/ |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |website=Encyclopedia of Music in Canada}}</ref> | |||
===Sports=== | |||
{{main|Sports in Canada}} | |||
] outside the ] in Toronto.<ref name="k228">{{cite web |last=Fame |first=Hockey Hall of |title=Exterior Sculptures | website=Hockey Hall of Fame |date=September 28, 1972 |url=https://www.hhof.com/visit/exteriorsculptures.html |access-date=August 30, 2024}}</ref>]] | |||
Canada's official national sports are ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |date=November 5, 2015 |title=National Sports of Canada Act |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124142348/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html |archive-date=November 24, 2015 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> Other major professional games include ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Canadian Sports History |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sports-history |date=September 30, 2016 |last2=West |first2=J. Thomas |last1=Lindsay |first1=Peter}}</ref> Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as ].<ref name="Danilov1997cv">{{cite book |first=Victor J. |last=Danilov |title=Hall of fame museums: a reference guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUO_J0YzpP0C&pg=PA24 |year=1997 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-30000-4 |page=24}}</ref> | |||
Canada shares several ] with the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Butenko |first1=Sergiy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lh7tPTtYelUC&pg=PA42 |title=Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management |last2=Gil-Lafuente |first2=Jaime |last3=Pardalos |first3=Panos M. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-642-13205-6 |pages=42–44}}</ref> Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the ], three ] teams, and one team in each of ] and the ]. Other popular professional competitions include the ], ], the ], and the curling tournaments hosted by ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Morrow |first1=Don |title=Sport in Canada: A History |last2=Wamsley |first2=Kevin B. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-902157-4 |pages=xxi – intro}}</ref> | |||
In terms of participation, ] was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023.<ref name="h903">{{cite web | title=The Daily — Participation in Canadian society through sport and work | website=Statistics Canada | date=October 10, 2023 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/231010/dq231010b-eng.htm | access-date=August 30, 2024}}</ref> This was closely followed by ] (33 percent) and ] (27 percent).<ref name="h903"/> The popularity of specific sports varies;<ref> | |||
{{cite web | last1=Fournier-Savard | first1=Patric | last2=Gagnon | first2=Valerie | last3=Durocher | first3=Dominic | title=Sports: More than just a game | website=Statistics Canada | date=March 5, 2024 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2024008-eng.htm | access-date=August 30, 2024}} | |||
{{cite web | title=The Daily — Participation in Canadian society through sport and work | website=Statistics Canada | date=October 10, 2023 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/231010/dq231010b-eng.htm | access-date=August 30, 2024}}</ref> in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in ] such as ice hockey, ], ] and ], compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport),<ref name="a691">{{cite web | agency=The Canadian Press | title=Study: Soccer most popular sport among Canadian kids post-pandemic | website=Sportsnet.ca | date=July 27, 2023 | url=https://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/article/study-soccer-most-popular-sport-among-canadian-kids-post-pandemic/ | access-date=August 30, 2024}}</ref> ] or basketball.<ref name="h903"/> Sports such as ], ], ], ], and ] are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010) |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110193033/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |access-date=January 27, 2017 |publisher=Government of Canada |page=34}}</ref> | |||
Canada has enjoyed success both ] and ]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mallon |first1=Bill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mM0XzW03AcC&pg=PA71 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement |last2=Heijmans |first2=Jeroen |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8108-7522-7 |page=71}}</ref>—particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Howell |first=Paul Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E2mTzjIKkNcC&pg=PA3 |title=Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-financing Games |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7735-7656-8 |page=3}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Horne |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQozDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT157 |title=Understanding the Olympics |last2=Whannel |first2=Garry |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-49519-2 |page=157}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{multiref2 | |||
| {{cite book |author=United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4XN6eyYqiUC |title=The Economic Impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005 |date=January 2006 |publisher=US GPO |isbn=978-0-16-076789-0}} | |||
| {{cite book |last=Fromm |first=Zuzana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXYgkSsrnaMC |title=Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-197843-0}} | |||
}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY2lnQAACAAJ |title=Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women's World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order |publisher=Canada Border Services Agency |year=2015}}</ref> the ] and ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peterson |first=David |date=July 10, 2014 |title=Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games |work=] |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/why-toronto-should-get-excited-about-the-pan-am-games/article19543736/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925011444/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/why-toronto-should-get-excited-about-the-pan-am-games/article19543736/ |archive-date=September 25, 2020}}</ref> The country is scheduled to co-host the ] alongside Mexico and the United States.<ref>{{cite news |date=June 13, 2018 |title=World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament |publisher=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/44464913 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114150230/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/44464913 |archive-date=January 14, 2021}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
{{Portal|border=no|Canada|Countries}} | |||
{{Canadian topics|state=expanded}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
{{Notelist}} | |||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist}} | |||
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==Further reading== | |||
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;Origin and history of the name | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names | |||
| edition = 2nd ed. | |||
| first = Alan | last = Rayburn | |||
| publisher = University of Toronto Press | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 2001 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-8020-8293-9 | |||
}} | |||
'''Overview''' | |||
;History | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Marsh |first=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wR_-aSFyvuYC&pg=PP1 |title=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5 |ref=none}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = History of Canada Since 1867 | |||
| first = Robert | last = Bothwell | |||
| publisher = Michigan State University Press | |||
| year = 1996 | |||
| location = East Lansing, MI | |||
| id = ISBN 0-87013-399-3 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = History of the Canadian Peoples | |||
| first = J. | last = Bumsted | |||
| publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| location = Oxford, UK | |||
| year = 2004 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-19-541688-0 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = Canada: A National History | |||
| first = Margarat | last= Conrad | |||
| coauthors= Finkel, Alvin | |||
| publisher = Longman | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 2003 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-201-73060-X | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = A Short History of Canada | |||
| first = Desmond | last= Morton | |||
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian) | |||
| publisher = M & S | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 2001 | |||
| edition = 6th ed. | |||
| id = ISBN 0-7710-6509-4 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite journal | |||
| first = W. Kaye | last = Lamb | |||
| title = Canada | |||
| journal = The Canadian Encyclopedia | |||
| year = 2006 | |||
| url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=J1SEC808542 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = History of Canada Before 1867 | |||
| first = Gordon T. | last = Stewart | |||
| publisher = Michigan State University Press | |||
| year = 1996 | |||
| location = East Lansing, MI | |||
| id = ISBN 0-87013-398-5 | |||
}} | |||
'''Culture''' | |||
;Government and law | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/unfinishedcanadi00andr |title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7710-2181-7 |ref=none |author-link=Andrew Cohen (journalist) |url-access=registration}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Vance |first=Jonathan F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TOR9SwAACAAJ |title=A History of Canadian Culture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-544422-3 |ref=none}} | |||
|author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds). | |||
*{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=H.D. |title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values |publisher=Springer International Publishing |series=Recovering Political Philosophy |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-19835-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9W1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 |ref=none}} | |||
|title=Canadian Politics | |||
|publisher=Broadview Press | |||
|edition=4th edition | |||
|location=Orchard Park, NY | |||
|id=ISBN 1-55111-595-6 | |||
|year=2004 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|first=Stephen | last=Brooks | |||
|title=Canadian Democracy : An Introduction | |||
|publisher=Oxford University Press Canada | |||
|edition=3rd edition | |||
|location=Don Mills, ON | |||
|id=ISBN 0-19-541503-5 | |||
|year=2000 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Eugene A. | last = Forsey | |||
| authorlink = Eugene Forsey | |||
| title = How Canadians Govern Themselves | |||
| edition = 6th ed. | |||
| publisher = Canada | |||
| location = Ottawa | |||
| year = 2005 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-662-39689-8 | |||
| url = http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = Secession and international law : conflict avoidance - regional appraisals | |||
| first = Julie | last = Dahlitz | |||
| publisher = T.M.C. Asser Press | |||
| year = 2003 | |||
| location = The Hague | |||
| id = ISBN 90-6704-142-4 | |||
}} | |||
'''Demography and statistics''' | |||
;Foreign relations and military | |||
* {{Cite book |url=https://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=11-402-X&chropg=1&lang=eng |title=Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967 |publisher=Statistics Canada |year=2008 |ref=none}} | |||
*{{cite journal | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Carment |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNYqAxXOxNIC&pg=PP1 |title=The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics |last2=Bercuson |first2=David |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7735-7854-8 |ref=none}} | |||
| first = Tim | last = Cook | |||
* {{Cite report |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2012000-eng.htm |title=Canada Year Book, 2012 |date=December 2012 |publisher=Statistics Canada|id=Catalogue no 11-402-XWE |ref=none}} | |||
| year = 2005 | |||
| title = Quill and Canon: Writing the Great War in Canada | |||
| journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | |||
| volume = 35 | |||
| issue = 3 | |||
| pages = 503+ | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = James| last = Eayrs | |||
| title = In Defence of Canada | |||
| publisher = University of Toronto Press | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 1980 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-8020-2345-2 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Annette Baker| last = Fox | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| title = Canada in World Affairs | |||
| edition = | |||
| publisher = Michigan State University Press | |||
| location = East Lansing | |||
| year = 1996 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-87013-391-8 | |||
| url = | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite journal | |||
| first = Molot Maureen | last = Appel | |||
| year = 1990 | |||
| month = Spring-Fall | |||
| title = Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature | |||
| journal = International Journal of Canadian Studies | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Desmond | last = Morton | |||
| coauthors = Granatstein, J.L. | |||
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian) | |||
| title = Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914–1919 | |||
| edition = | |||
| publisher = Lester & Orpen Dennys | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 1989 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-88619-209-9 | |||
| url = | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Desmond | last = Morton | |||
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian) | |||
| title = A Military History of Canada | |||
| edition = | |||
| publisher = McClelland & Stewart | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 1999 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-7710-6514-0 | |||
| url = | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Desmond | last = Morton | |||
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian) | |||
| title = When Your Number's Up: The Canadian Soldier in the First World War | |||
| edition = | |||
| publisher = Random House of Canada | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| year = 1993 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-394-22288-1 | |||
| url = | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = James | last = Rochlin | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| title = Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian Foreign Policy towards Latin America | |||
| edition = | |||
| publisher = University of British Columbia Press | |||
| location = Vancouver | |||
| year = 1994 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-7748-0476-9 | |||
| url = | |||
}} | |||
'''Economy''' | |||
;Provinces and territories | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Easterbrook |first1=W.T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQGNBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Canadian Economic History |last2=Aitken |first2=Hugh G. J. |publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4426-5814-1 |ref=none}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
* {{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd.org/eco/economic-survey-canada.htm |title=Economic Survey of Canada - 11 March 2021 |publisher=OECD |year=2022 |ref=none}} – () | |||
| first = J. M. | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Jones-Imhotep |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4x8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History |last2=Adcock |first2=Tina |publisher=UBC Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-7748-3726-2 |ref=none}} | |||
| last = Bumsted | |||
| title = History of the Canadian Peoples | |||
| publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| location = Oxford, UK | |||
| year = 2004 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-19-541688-0 | |||
}} | |||
'''Foreign relations and military''' | |||
{{col-break|width=50%}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Conrad |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G8ypARC5JJkC&pg=PP1 |title=Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping |publisher=Dundurn Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-55488-981-5 |ref=none}} | |||
*{{cite book |editor1=Thomas Juneau |editor2=Philippe Lagassé |editor3=Srdjan Vucetic |year=2019 |title=Canadian Defence Policy in Theory and Practice |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-03-026403-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmKtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |ref=none}} | |||
'''Geography and environment''' | |||
*{{cite book |last=Leiss |first=W. |title=Canada and Climate Change |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=Canadian Essentials |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-2280-0985-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vYrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
* {{cite book |last=MacDowell |first=L.S. |title=An Environmental History of Canada |publisher=UBC Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7748-2103-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7-803ot3DIC&pg=PP1}} | |||
| last = Natural Resources Canada | |||
* {{cite book |first1=Daniel R. |last1=Montello |first2=Michael T. |last2=Applegarth |first3=Tom L. |last3=McKnight |year=2021 |title=Regional Geography of the United States and Canada |edition=5th |publisher=Waveland Press |isbn=978-1-4786-4712-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRMoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 |ref=none}} | |||
| title = National Atlas of Canada | |||
* {{Cite book |title=Canadian Oxford World Atlas |publisher=Oxford University Press (Canada) |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-542928-2 |editor-last=Stanford |editor-first=Quentin H |edition=6th |ref=none}} | |||
| publisher = Information Canada | |||
| location = Ottawa | |||
| year = 2005 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-7705-1198-8 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas | |||
| author = Stanford, Quentin H. (ed.) | |||
| edition = 5th ed. | |||
| location = Toronto | |||
| publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada) | |||
| id = ISBN 0-19-541897-2 | |||
| year = 2003 | |||
}} | |||
'''Government and law''' | |||
;Economy | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Malcolmson |first1=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C&pg=PP1 |title=The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada |last2=Myers |first2=Richard |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-0047-8 |edition=4th |ref=none}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PP1 |title=Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada |publisher=Frederick Lee |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |ref=none}} | |||
|author=Central Intelligence Agency | |||
|authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency | |||
|title=The World Factbook | |||
|publisher=National Foreign Assessment Center | |||
|location=Washington, DC | |||
|id=ISSN 1553-8133 | |||
|year=2005 | |||
|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|first=Iain | last=Wallace | |||
|title=A Geography of the Canadian Economy | |||
|publisher=Oxford University Press | |||
|location=Don Mills, ON | |||
|id=ISBN 0-19-540773-3 | |||
|year=2002 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|first = William L. | last=Marr | |||
|coauthor= Paterson, Donald G. | |||
|title= Canada: An Economic History | |||
|publisher= Gage | |||
|location=Toronto | |||
|id = ISBN 0-7715-5684-5 | |||
|year=1980 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|first = Mary Quayle | last=Innis | |||
|title=An Economic History of Canada | |||
|publisher=Ryerson Press | |||
|location=Toronto | |||
|id = ASIN B0007JFHBQ | |||
|year = 1943 | |||
}} | |||
'''History''' | |||
;Demography and statistics | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Careless |first=J. M. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mARx1-EGwR0C&pg=PR1 |title=Canada: A Story of Challenge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-107-67581-0 |edition=Revised |ref=none}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Francis |first1=RD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1 |title=Journeys: A History of Canada |last2=Jones |first2=Richard |last3=Smith |first3=Donald B |publisher=Nelson Education |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-17-644244-6 |ref=none}} | |||
| last = Statistics Canada | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Martin Brook |title=Canadian History |type=2 volumes |last2=Owram |first2=Doug |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1994 |ref=none}} {{ISBN|978-0-8020-5016-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8020-2801-3}} | |||
| title = Canada Year Book | |||
| publisher = Queen of Canada | |||
| location = Ottawa | |||
| year = 2001 | |||
| id = ISBN 0-660-18360-9 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| title = Historical statistics of Canada | |||
| author = Leacy, F. H. (ed.) | |||
| publisher = Statistics Canada | |||
| location = Ottawa | |||
| id = | |||
| url = http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/11-516-XIE/sectiona/toc.htm | |||
| year = 1983 | |||
}} | |||
'''Social welfare''' | |||
;Language | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Alvin |url=https://archive.org/details/socialpolicyprac0000fink |title=Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History |date=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-475-1 |ref=none |url-access=registration}} | |||
*{{cite web | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Valerie D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rd51BwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-927406-31-1 |ref=none}} | |||
| author=Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Burke |first1=Sara Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apjYaExaI-QC&pg=PP1 |title=Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education |last2=Milewski |first2=Patrice |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8020-9577-0 |ref=none}} | |||
| authorlink= Commissioner of Official Languages | |||
| publisher= Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages | |||
| url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/legislation.asp?Lang=English | |||
| title=Federal Legislation on Official Languages | |||
| date=] | |||
| accessdate=2007-05-24 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite web | |||
| author=Statistics Canada | |||
| authorlink=Statistics Canada | |||
| publisher= Statistics Canada | |||
| url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a.htm | |||
| title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory | |||
| date=] | |||
| accessdate=2006-05-14 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite web | |||
| author=Statistics Canada | |||
| authorlink=Statistics Canada | |||
| publisher= Statistics Canada | |||
| url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15a.htm | |||
| title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory | |||
| date=] | |||
| accessdate=2006-05-14}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
;Culture | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds). | |||
|title=Canadian Politics | |||
|publisher=Broadview Press | |||
|edition=4th edition | |||
|location=Orchard Park, NY | |||
|id=ISBN 1-55111-595-6 | |||
|year=2004 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite web | |||
|first=John D. |last=Blackwell | |||
|url=http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture | |||
|title=Culture High and Low | |||
|year=2005 | |||
|accessdate=2006-03-15 | |||
|publisher=International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| author=Canadian Heritage | |||
| title=Symbols of Canada | |||
| year=2002 | |||
| location=Ottawa, ON | |||
| id=ISBN 0-660-18615-2 | |||
| publisher=Canadian Government Publishing | |||
}} Similar publication online . | |||
*{{cite web | |||
|author=National Film Board of Canada | |||
|authorlink=National Film Board of Canada | |||
|url=http://www.nfb.ca/atonf/organisation.php?v=h&lg=en | |||
|title=Mandate of the National Film Board | |||
|year=2005 | |||
|accessdate=2006-03-15 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Gordon | last = Currie | |||
| title = 100 years of Canadian football: The dramatic history of football's first century in Canada, and the story of the Canadian Football League | |||
| publisher = Pagurian Press | |||
| location = Don Mills, ON | |||
| year = 1968 | |||
| id = ASIN B0006CCK4G | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Doug | last = Maxwell | |||
| title = Canada Curls: The Illustrated History of Curling in Canada | |||
| publisher = Whitecap books | |||
| location = North Vancouver, BC | |||
| year = 2002 | |||
| id = ISBN 1-55285-400-0 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| first = Brian | last = McFarlane | |||
| title = Brian McFarlane's History of Hockey | |||
| year = 1997 | |||
| location = Champaign, IL | |||
| publisher = Sports Publishing Inc | |||
| id = ISBN 1-57167-145-5 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|first=Philip |last=Resnick | |||
|title=The European Roots Of Canadian Identity | |||
|publisher=Broadview Press | |||
|location=Peterborough, Ont. | |||
|id=ISBN 1-55111-705-3 | |||
|year=2005 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
| author=Ross, David & Hook, Richard | |||
| title=The Royal Canadian Mounted Police 1873–1987 | |||
| publisher= Osprey | |||
| location=London | |||
| id=ISBN 0-85045-834-X | |||
| year=1988 | |||
}} | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
</div> | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{Sister project links|collapsible=collapsed|voy=Canada|Canada}} | |||
{{portal}} | |||
{{Sisterlinks|Canada}} | |||
; Government | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
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* | |||
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'''Overviews''' | |||
;Crown corporations | |||
* from ] Libraries GovPubs | |||
* | |||
* from the ] | |||
* | |||
* from ] | |||
* | |||
'''Government''' | |||
;Other | |||
* <!--Archives of early pages are at wayback.archive.org/*/http://www.canada.gc.ca/--> | |||
* | |||
* | * | ||
* | |||
* | |||
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* at '']'' | |||
* UN Human Development Program: , | |||
*{{wikitravelpar|Canada}} | |||
'''Travel''' | |||
<br/>{{Provinces and territories of Canada}} | |||
* | |||
{{Template group | |||
|title = Geographic locale | |||
{{Anchor|Related information}} <!-- Target for Navbox link at See also section --> | |||
|list = | |||
{{Canada topics}} | |||
{{Countries of North America}} | |||
{{Navboxes | |||
{{Countries of Northern America}} | |||
|title=Related topics | |||
|list1={{Countries of North America}} | |||
{{The Commonwealth}} | |||
{{Monarchies}} | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Template group | |||
|title = International membership, relationships and history | |||
|list = | |||
{{Canada ties}} | |||
{{Commonwealth of Nations}} | |||
{{Territories of the British Empire}} | |||
{{Commonwealth Realms}} | |||
{{G8 nations}} | |||
{{Monarchies|state=collapsed}} | |||
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} | |||
{{NAFTA}} | |||
}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 02:49, 23 December 2024
Country in North America For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).
Canada | |
---|---|
Flag Coat of arms | |
Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin) "From Sea to Sea" | |
Anthem: "O Canada"Royal anthem: "God Save the King" | |
Capital | Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W / 45.400; -75.667 |
Largest city | Toronto |
Official languages | |
Demonym(s) | Canadian |
Government | Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
• Monarch | Charles III |
• Governor General | Mary Simon |
• Prime Minister | Justin Trudeau |
Legislature | Parliament |
• Upper house | Senate |
• Lower house | House of Commons |
Independence from the United Kingdom | |
• Confederation | July 1, 1867 |
• Statute of Westminster, 1931 | December 11, 1931 |
• Patriation | April 17, 1982 |
Area | |
• Total area | 9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd) |
• Water (%) | 11.76 (2015) |
• Total land area | 9,093,507 km (3,511,023 sq mi) |
Population | |
• 2024 Q4 estimate | 41,465,298 (36th) |
• 2021 census | 36,991,981 |
• Density | 4.2/km (10.9/sq mi) (236th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $2.582 trillion (16th) |
• Per capita | $62,766 (30th) |
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $2.215 trillion (9th) |
• Per capita | $53,834 (19th) |
Gini (2024) | 29.2 low inequality |
HDI (2022) | 0.935 very high (18th) |
Currency | Canadian dollar ($) (CAD) |
Time zone | UTC−3.5 to −8 |
• Summer (DST) | UTC−2.5 to −7 |
Internet TLD | .ca |
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's second-largest country by total area, with the world's longest coastline. Its border with the United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of just over 41 million people, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in urban areas and large areas of the country being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations, and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminating in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.
A developed country, Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world by nominal GDP, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Recognized as a middle power, Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign relations policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries. Canada is part of multiple international organizations and forums.
Etymology
Main article: Name of CanadaWhile a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.
From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. Following the British conquest of New France, this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.
Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.
History
Main article: History of Canada Further information: Timeline of Canadian history and Historiography of CanadaIndigenous peoples
The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis, the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.
The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.
Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade. These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties. From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society. Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008. This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide, settlement agreements, and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.
European colonization
It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson. In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland. No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I. The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast. In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.
In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp. In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.
British North America
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances. Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.
The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.
Confederation and expansion
Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.
To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory. This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves", clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements. This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land. The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.
Early 20th century
1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horsesFrench version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds".The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.
The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.
The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War. Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.
Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy. In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.
At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970, and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; and the Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups. Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars, and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military". Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.
In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption. In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools. Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Canada Further information: Environment of CanadaBy total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country. By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes. Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi). In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on Hans Island, and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast. Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to Mount St. Elias, Yukon Territory, at 141°W.
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water. There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains, and the Arctic Cordillera. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes.
Climate
Main articles: Temperature in Canada and Climate change in CanadaAverage winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity. Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally, with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of CanadaCanada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones. These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries, due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost. About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure". Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions.
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885 spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi). Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi). Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi).
Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of CanadaCanada is described as a "full democracy", with a tradition of liberalism, and an egalitarian, moderate political ideology. An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of Canadian federalism.
At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics": the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors). The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale. Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left); the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party. Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.
Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries and Canada's 10 provinces. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.
Charles III, King of CanadaMary Simon, Governor General of CanadaJustin Trudeau, Prime Minister of CanadaThe monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada. However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations, the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister, the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.
The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.
Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.
Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces, and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.
Law
Main article: Law of CanadaThe Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.
Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada. The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.
Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples. The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.
Provinces and territories
Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada See also: Canadian federalismCanada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and social programs, as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council, rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of CanadaCanada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions. Canada is known for its commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts, and for providing aid to developing countries.
Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship; they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts. Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France, along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War. Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.
Canada is a member of various international organizations and forums. Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958. The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The country was a founding member the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990. Canada ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.
Military and peacekeeping
Main articles: Canadian Armed Forces and Canadian peacekeeping Further information: Military history of CanadaAlongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations. The Canadian unified forces comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers. In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) – placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.
Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image. Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States. Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined. The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN. The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.
Economy
Main article: Economy of CanadaCanada has a highly developed mixed-market economy, with the world's ninth-largest economy as of 2023, and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221 trillion. It is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion. Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States. In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.
The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science, and industry use data from Statistics Canada to enable financial planning and develop economic policy. Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions. It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (14th in 2023) and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world". It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (19th in 2024). Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on the Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity. The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average. Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability and foreign direct investment.
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce. Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components. Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.
Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the Second World War. The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement). As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy. Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world. The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third- or fourth-largest. Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains. The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium. Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries. The fishing industry is also a key contributor to the economy.
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in CanadaIn 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion. As of 2023, the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine. The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index, and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms. Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total population.
Canada's developments in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery, the discovery of insulin, the development of the polio vaccine, and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus. Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex, the development of the electron microscope, plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1. Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites. Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite when in 1962 Alouette 1 was launched. Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2, Canadarm3 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle. Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS, and MOST. Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Canada and List of cities in CanadaThe 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure. It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023. The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification. A record 405,000 immigrants were admitted in 2021. Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022. New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world, with approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north. About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States. Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres. The majority of Canadians (over 70 percent ) live below the 49th parallel, with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons. Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.
Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian census | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
1 | Toronto | Ontario | 6,202,225 | 11 | London | Ontario | 543,551 | ||
2 | Montreal | Quebec | 4,291,732 | 12 | Halifax | Nova Scotia | 465,703 | ||
3 | Vancouver | British Columbia | 2,642,825 | 13 | Niagara Region | Ontario | 433,604 | ||
4 | Ottawa–Gatineau | Ontario–Quebec | 1,488,307 | 14 | Windsor | Ontario | 422,630 | ||
5 | Calgary | Alberta | 1,481,806 | 15 | Oshawa | Ontario | 415,311 | ||
6 | Edmonton | Alberta | 1,418,118 | 16 | Victoria | British Columbia | 397,237 | ||
7 | Quebec City | Quebec | 839,311 | 17 | Saskatoon | Saskatchewan | 317,480 | ||
8 | Winnipeg | Manitoba | 834,678 | 18 | Regina | Saskatchewan | 249,217 | ||
9 | Hamilton | Ontario | 785,184 | 19 | Sherbrooke | Quebec | 227,398 | ||
10 | Waterloo Region | Ontario | 575,847 | 20 | Kelowna | British Columbia | 222,162 |
Ethnicity
Main article: Ethnic origins of people in CanadaRespondents in the 2021 Canadian census self-reported over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins". The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent). Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.
The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 24.5 million reported being "White", representing 67.4 percent of the population. The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021. One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority, the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent), Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent), Filipinos (960,000 2.6 percent), Arabs (690,000; 1.9 percent), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6 percent), Southeast Asians (390,000; 1.1 percent), West Asians (360,000; 1.0 percent), Koreans (220,000; 0.6 percent) and Japanese (99,000; 0.3 percent).
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent. In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups. The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent. In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.
Languages
Main article: Languages of CanadaA multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively. Canada's official bilingualism policies give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-language minorities guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.
Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province. Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba, with Ontario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec. New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an Acadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official. There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects. Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.
As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890). The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools. Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.
Religion
Main article: Religion in CanadaCanada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. The Constitution of Canada refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right.
Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s. With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state. Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, they still believe in God. The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.
According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent. Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent). Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.
Health
Main article: Healthcare in CanadaHealthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984 and is universal. Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country". Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector. This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry. Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years. Life expectancy is 81.1 years. A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health". Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use. Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes. Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.
In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308 billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year. In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD. Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources. The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last. Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage. An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals, and hospital capacity.
Education
Main articles: Education in Canada and Higher education in CanadaEducation in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government. Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada. Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded. Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada. The nation's three top ranking universities are the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia. The largest university is the University of Toronto, which has over 85,000 students.
According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world; the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree. Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education. The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student). As of 2022, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years, contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent. Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.
Culture
Main article: Culture of CanadaHistorically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected. Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized human rights and inclusiveness for all its people. The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture. As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.
Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support. Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBT rights, and legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values. Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Symbols
Main articles: National symbols of Canada and Canadian royal symbolsThemes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism. Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada. Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling. The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.
Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "A mari usque ad mare" ("From Sea to Sea"), the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies, and, more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk. Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian. Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel. An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.
Literature
Main article: Canadian literatureCanadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration. This progressed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality. In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world. By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.
Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards, including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes; Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English; and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture. L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.
Media
Main article: Media of CanadaCanada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized. The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations". The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing. Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.
Visual arts
Main article: Canadian artArt in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples, and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism. The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.
Modern painting in Canada has been greatly influenced by several major movements that have emerged over the years. One of the most prominent movements is the Group of Seven, which was founded in 1920, aimed to capture the wilderness in their artwork. Associated with the group was Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. The mid-20th century saw the rise of abstract art in Canada, with artists like Jean-Paul Riopelle and Paul-Émile Borduas. In the 1960s and 1970s, saw emergence of conceptual art, with artists such as Michael Snow and Ian Carr-Harris. This era also saw the emergence of Indigenous artists like Norval Morrisseau, who combined traditional Indigenous techniques with modern art styles. In more recent years, contemporary art has seen a revival of figurative art, with artists such as Kent Monkman and Shuvinai Ashoona.
Music
Main article: Music of CanadaCanadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes. Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, and television music video channels. Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music. As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles. Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards. The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.
Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812. "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem. "O Canada" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.
Sports
Main article: Sports in CanadaCanada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse. Other major professional games include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and football. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.
Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States. Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, three Major League Soccer teams, and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the curling tournaments hosted by Curling Canada.
In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023. This was closely followed by cycling (33 percent) and running (27 percent). The popularity of specific sports varies; in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey, skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport), tennis or basketball. Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.
Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics—particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics, the 1988 Winter Olympics, the 2010 Winter Olympics, the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games. The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.
See also
- Index of Canada-related articles
- List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories
- Outline of Canada
Notes
- 6,416 km (3,987 mi) via the contiguous 48 states and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) via Alaska
- "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe." "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."
- "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."
- All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."
- Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".
- Catholic Church (29.9%), United Church (3.3%), Anglican Church (3.1%), Eastern Orthodoxy (1.7%), Baptistism (1.2%), Pentecostalism and other Charismatic (1.1%) Anabaptist (0.4%), Jehovah's Witness (0.4%), Latter Day Saints (0.2%), Lutheran (0.9%), Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness) (0.3%), Presbyterian (0.8%), and Reformed (0.2%). 7.6 percent simply identified as "Christians".
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Further reading
Main articles: Bibliography of Canada and Bibliography of Canadian historyOverview
- Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.
Culture
- Cohen, Andrew (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.
- Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.
- Forbes, H.D. (2019). Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values. Recovering Political Philosophy. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-19835-0.
Demography and statistics
- Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967. Statistics Canada. 2008.
- Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.
- Canada Year Book, 2012 (Report). Statistics Canada. December 2012. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE.
Economy
- Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.
- Economic Survey of Canada - 11 March 2021. OECD. 2022. – (Previous surveys)
- Jones-Imhotep, Edward; Adcock, Tina (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2.
Foreign relations and military
- Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.
- Thomas Juneau; Philippe Lagassé; Srdjan Vucetic, eds. (2019). Canadian Defence Policy in Theory and Practice. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-03-026403-1.
Geography and environment
- Leiss, W. (2022). Canada and Climate Change. Canadian Essentials. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-2280-0985-6.
- MacDowell, L.S. (2012). An Environmental History of Canada. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-2103-2.
- Montello, Daniel R.; Applegarth, Michael T.; McKnight, Tom L. (2021). Regional Geography of the United States and Canada (5th ed.). Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-4786-4712-6.
- Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.
Government and law
- Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
History
- Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
- Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History (2 volumes). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3
Social welfare
- Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.
- Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.
- Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.
External links
Overviews
- Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Canada profile from the OECD
- Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures
Government
- Official website of the Government of Canada
- Official website of the Governor General of Canada
- Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada
Travel
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Categories:- Canada
- 1867 establishments in Canada
- Countries in North America
- Countries and territories where English is an official language
- Federal monarchies
- Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
- French-speaking countries and territories
- G20 members
- Member states of NATO
- Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
- Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
- Member states of the United Nations
- Northern America
- States and territories established in 1867
- OECD members