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| director = {{ubl|]<br>(uncredited)|Chong Gon-jo}} | director = {{ubl|]<br>(uncredited)|Chong Gon-jo}}
| producer = {{ubl|Shin Sang-ok|{{Ill|Takeshi Miyanishi|ja|宮西武史}}<br>(both uncredited)}} | producer = {{ubl|Shin Sang-ok|{{Ill|Takeshi Miyanishi|ja|宮西武史}}<br>(both uncredited)}}
| writer = Kim Seryun | writer = {{ubl|]|]<br>(uncredited)}}
| based_on = | based_on =
| starring = {{Plainlist|<!--These actors are the only ones listed on the 1998 Japanese billing block; per ].--> | starring = {{Plainlist|<!--These actors are the only ones listed on the 1998 Japanese billing block; per ].-->
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| editing = Kim Ryŏnsun | editing = Kim Ryŏnsun
| studio = {{Plainlist| | studio = {{Plainlist|
* Korean Art Film Studio * ]
* Shin Films * Shin Films
* ] * ]
* {{Ill|Beijing Film Studio|zh|北京電影製片廠}} * {{Ill|Beijing Film Studio|zh|北京電影製片廠}}
}} }}
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* North Korea * North Korea
* Japan * Japan
* China{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2003|p=145}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 2: "The Night Before Departure"}} * China{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}
}} }}
| language = Korean | language = Korean
| budget = {{USD|2–3 million|long=no}} | budget = {{JPY|200–300 million}}<br>({{USD|2–3 million|long=no}})
| gross = | gross =
}} }}


'''''Pulgasari'''''{{efn|name=Title|{{Korean|불가사리|context=north|mr=Pulgasari|rr=Bulgasari}}. The film was released in Japan as {{Nihongo|'''''Giant Monster Pulgasari'''''|大怪獣プルガサリ|Daikaijū Purugasari|lead=yes}} and {{Nihongo|'''''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster'''''|プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣|Purugasari: Densetsu no Daikaijū|lead=yes}} in 1995 and 1998, respectively.{{sfn|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023a}}{{sfn|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023b}}}} is an ] ]{{efn-lr|Genres attributed to the following sources:{{sfn|Becker|2005|p=138}}{{sfn|Fowler|2014}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|Przywara|2002}}{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Power|2019}}}} ] directed and produced in 1985 during ]. A co-production between North Korea, Japan, and China, it is considered a remake of '']'', a lost 1962 South Korean film that also depicts an ] from ]. The ] includes Chang Sŏnhŭi, Ham Kisŏp, Ri Chongguk, Ri Ingwŏn, and Yu Kyŏngae, with ] in the title role. Set during the ], the film follows a blacksmith's daughter who brings to life a metal-eating monster her late father envisioned to defeat the monarchy. '''''Pulgasari'''''{{efn|name=Title|{{Korean|불가사리|context=north|mr=Pulgasari|rr=Bulgasari}}. The film was released in Japan as {{Nihongo|'''''Giant Monster Pulgasari'''''|大怪獣プルガサリ|Daikaijū Purugasari|lead=yes}} and {{Nihongo|'''''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster'''''|プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣|Purugasari: Densetsu no Daikaijū|lead=yes}} in 1995 and 1998, respectively.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=1}}{{sfn|''Natalie''}} Its title has also been spelled '''''Pulgasary'''''.{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}{{sfn|McCarthy|1994}}{{sfn|Milner|1997|p=44}}}} is an ] ]{{efn-lr|Genres attributed to the following sources:{{sfn|ADV Films|2000|p=n40}}{{sfn|Becker|2005|p=138}}{{sfn|Fowler|2014}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|Przywara|2002}}{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Power|2019}}}} ] directed and produced in 1985 during ]. A co-production between North Korea, Japan, and China, it is considered a remake of '']'', a lost 1962 South Korean film that also depicts an ] from ]. The ] includes Chang Sŏnhŭi, Ham Kisŏp, Ri Chongguk, Ri Ingwŏn, and Yu Kyŏngae, with ] in the title role. Set during the ], the film follows a blacksmith's daughter who brings to life a metal-eating monster her late father envisioned to defeat the monarchy.


Shin and ] were in captivity in North Korea since their kidnapping by ] in 1978. The pitch for ''Pulgasari'' was submitted in February 1985, and became Shin's last film made under Kim's orders. ] took place in ] from June to August 1985, with the ] contributing roughly 13,000 ]. A team of 15 ] employees handled special effects photography from September to December. With an estimated {{JPY|200–300 million}} ({{USD|2–3 million|long=no}}) budget, ''Pulgasari'' was one of the most expensive films ever produced in North Korea. Shin and his wife, ], were in captivity in North Korea since their kidnapping by ] in 1978. ''Pulgasari'' was pitched in February 1985 to capitalize on the success of '']'' (1984), and became Shin's last film made under Kim Jong Il's orders. ] and ] collaborated on the screenplay. ] took place in ] from June to August 1985, with the ] contributing roughly 13,000 ]. North Korean filmmaker Chong Gon-jo allegedly finished the film on behalf of Shin and was given sole director credit. A team of 15 ] employees handled special effects photography from September to December. With an estimated {{JPY|200–300 million}} ({{USD|2–3 million|long=no}}) budget, ''Pulgasari'' was one of the most expensive films ever produced in North Korea.


''Pulgasari'' was previewed at ] in January 1986 and readied for release in Japan and North Korea later that year. However, the film was banned in March after Shin and Choi escaped North Korean supervision and fled to the United States, where Shin later worked on a ]. ''Pulgasari'' eventually debuted on ] in Japan on January 21, 1995, and had its official premiere in Tokyo on July 4, 1998, to commercial success. According to '']'', it became the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time. Critical reception in Japan was positive, with many favorable comparisons to '']'' (1998). ''Pulgasari'' has since become the most-widely-seen North Korean film internationally and has gained a ]. ''Pulgasari'' was previewed at ] in January 1986 and readied for release in Japan and North Korea later that year. However, the film was banned in March after Shin and Choi escaped North Korean supervision and fled to the United States, where Shin later worked on a ]. ''Pulgasari'' eventually debuted on ] in Japan on January 21, 1995, and had its official premiere in Tokyo on July 4, 1998, to commercial success. According to '']'', it became the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time. Critical reception in Japan was positive, with many favorable comparisons to '']'' (1998). ''Pulgasari'' has since become the most-widely-seen North Korean film internationally and a ].


==Plot== ==Plot==
<!-- Per MOS:FILMPLOT: "Plot summaries for feature films should be between 400 and 700 words". The current summary is 438--> <!-- Per MOS:FILMPLOT: "Plot summaries for feature films should be between 400 and 700 words". The current summary is 438-->
In feudal ], toward the end of the ], a king strictly controls the land, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. Takse, the finest blacksmith in the land, is imprisoned and forced to starve for defending his people. Shortly before his death, Takse makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation into a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter Ami soon receives the figurine, which springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing. The figurine becomes a metal-eating monster Ami dubs ], which is the name of the mythical beast her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel. Pulgasari shares a special bond with Ami; after eating a farmer's tools, it turns into a powerful figure. In ], toward the end of the ], a king strictly controls the land, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. Takse, the finest blacksmith in the land, is imprisoned and forced to starve for defending his people. Shortly before his death, Takse makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation into a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter Ami soon receives the figurine, which springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing. The figurine becomes a metal-eating monster Ami dubs ], which is the name of the mythical beast her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel. Pulgasari shares a special bond with Ami; after eating a farmer's tools, it turns into a powerful figure.


The peasants become fed up with being penurious and suffering, forming an army intent on overthrowing the monarchy with the aid of Pulgasari, who has now become gigantic. Imperial generals kidnap Ami and threaten to kill her if Pulgasari does not enter a large cage they have created. The monster lets itself become trapped and is set ablaze to save Ami, but is unharmed. The rebels later storm the palace of the region's Governor and kill him. Soon after, the king becomes aware that a rebellion is being planned in the country and intends to crush it. The king runs into Pulgasari, who wins many battles against his army because of its unending hunger for all kinds of metal, which its enemies readily provide for hostilities. The peasants become fed up with being penurious and suffering, and form an army intent on overthrowing the monarchy with the aid of Pulgasari, who has now become gigantic. Imperial generals kidnap Ami and threaten to kill her if Pulgasari does not enter a large cage they have created. The monster lets itself be trapped and is set ablaze to save Ami, but is unharmed. The rebels later storm the palace of the region's Governor and kill him. Soon after, the king becomes aware that a rebellion is being planned in the country and intends to crush it. The king runs into Pulgasari, who wins many battles against his army because of its unending hunger for all kinds of metal, which its enemies readily provide for hostilities.


Eventually, the royal army seemingly kills the creature by burying it under the ground, captures and executes InDe (the rebellion's leader to whom Ami is betrothed), and threatens to kill Ami if she and the rebels do not surrender. After escaping, Ami revives Pulgasari by pouring some of her blood on the burial site. The creature again grows strong and attacks the king's palace, destroying it and killing the king. Eventually, the royal army seemingly kills the creature by burying it under the ground, captures and executes InDe (the rebellion's leader to whom Ami is betrothed), and threatens to kill Ami if she and the rebels do not surrender. After escaping, Ami revives Pulgasari by pouring some of her blood on the burial site. The creature again grows strong and attacks the king's palace, destroying it and killing the king.
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==Cast== ==Cast==
{{div col}} {{div col}}
* Chang Sŏnhŭi ({{korean|hangul=장선희|labels=no}}) as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} * Chang Sŏnhŭi ({{korean|hangul=장선희|labels=no}}) as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ham Kisŏp ({{korean|hangul=함기섭|labels=no}}) as InDe, Ami's boyfriend{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ham Kisŏp ({{korean|hangul=함기섭|labels=no}}) as InDe, Ami's boyfriend{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ri Chongguk ({{korean|hangul=리종국|labels=no}}) as Ana, Ami's brother{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ri Chongguk ({{korean|hangul=리종국|labels=no}}) as Ana, Ami's brother{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ri Ingwŏn ({{korean|hangul=리인권|labels=no}}) as Takse, the blacksmith{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ri Ingwŏn ({{korean|hangul=리인권|labels=no}}) as Takse, the blacksmith{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Pak Yŏnghak ({{korean|hangul=박영학|labels=no}}) as the King{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} * Pak Yŏnghak ({{korean|hangul=박영학|labels=no}}) as the King{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ri Ryongun ({{korean|hangul=리룡운|labels=no}}) as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ri Ryongun ({{korean|hangul=리룡운|labels=no}}) as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Pak Pongik ({{korean|hangul=박봉익|labels=no}}) as the Governor{{sfn|KMDb}} * Pak Pongik ({{korean|hangul=박봉익|labels=no}}) as the Governor{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Yu Kyŏngae ({{korean|hangul=유경애|labels=no}}) as InDe's mother{{sfn|KMDb}} * Yu Kyŏngae ({{korean|hangul=유경애|labels=no}}) as InDe's mother{{sfn|KMDb}}
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* Kim Kich'ŏn ({{korean|hangul=김기천|labels=no}}) as a member of the Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}} * Kim Kich'ŏn ({{korean|hangul=김기천|labels=no}}) as a member of the Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ri Ŏnchŏl ({{korean|hangul=리언철|labels=no}}) as a member of the Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ri Ŏnchŏl ({{korean|hangul=리언철|labels=no}}) as a member of the Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}}
* ] as ] (uncredited){{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}}{{sfn|Jin|1999}}{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}}} * ] as ] (uncredited){{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}}{{sfn|Jin|1999}}{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Izumi|2013}}}}
** {{Ill|Masao Fukazawa|ja|深沢政雄}} as the baby Pulgasari (uncredited){{sfn|Izumi|2013}} ** {{Ill|Masao Fukazawa|ja|深沢政雄}} as the baby Pulgasari (uncredited){{sfn|Izumi|2013}}
{{div col end}} {{div col end}}
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{{Div col}} {{Div col}}
* ] – director and producer (uncredited){{sfn|Edwards|2007|pp=210, 213}} * ] – director and producer (uncredited){{sfn|Edwards|2007|pp=210, 213}}
* Chong Gon-jo{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}}}} ({{korean|hangul=정건조|labels=no}}){{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|Mo|2018}} – director{{efn|name=Director|Many publications have claimed that Chong Gon-jo was the assistant director and finished the film on behalf of Shin.{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Shin|2019}} However, some contended that Chong's name was merely used to replace Shin's in the credits.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Yamada|1995|p=152}} Shin maintained to have directed the film himself.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}} Satsuma reinforced this by articulating that Shin was the '']'' director and Chong was his assistant.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}} Nonetheless, he counted: "I think in the latter half of the shooting, he gave Chong Gon-jo some rein to finish the film."{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}}} * Chong Gon-jo{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}}} ({{korean|hangul=정건조|labels=no}}){{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|Mo|2018}} – director{{efn|name=Director|Many publications have claimed that Chong Gon-jo was the assistant director and finished the film on behalf of Shin.{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Shin|2019}} However, '']'' contended that his name was merely used to replace Shin's in the credits.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} Shin maintained to have directed the film himself.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} Satsuma reinforced this by articulating that Shin was the '']'' director and Chong was his assistant.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}} Nonetheless, he counted: "I think in the latter half of the shooting, he gave Chong Gon-jo some rein to finish the film."{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}} Lee Dong-jin of the '']'' alleged that Shin directed around 80% of ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Lee|2000b}} }}
* {{Ill|Takeshi Miyanishi|ja|宮西武史}} – producer and compositor (uncredited){{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 6: "Arrival in China"}}{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} * {{Ill|Takeshi Miyanishi|ja|宮西武史}} – producer and compositor (uncredited){{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}{{sfn|Homenick|2024}}
* Ro Tongch'ŏn ({{korean|hangul=로동천|labels=no}}) – lighting{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ro Tongch'ŏn ({{korean|hangul=로동천|labels=no}}) – lighting{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ri Inpŏm ({{korean|hangul=리인범|labels=no}}) – lighting{{sfn|KMDb}} * Ri Inpŏm ({{korean|hangul=리인범|labels=no}}) – lighting{{sfn|KMDb}}
* Ri Toik ({{korean|hangul=리도익|labels=no}}) – art director{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}} * Ri Toik ({{korean|hangul=리도익|labels=no}}) – art director{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* ] – special effects director (uncredited){{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Monma|1996|p=207}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}} * ] – special effects director (uncredited){{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer |p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|Izumi|2013}}
* Pak Ch'ŏnggil ({{korean|hangul=박청길|labels=no}}) – special effects art director{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}} * Pak Ch'ŏnggil ({{korean|hangul=박청길|labels=no}}) – special effects art director{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* {{Ill|Yoshio Suzuki|ja|鈴木儀雄}} – special effects art director (uncredited){{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} * {{Ill|Yoshio Suzuki|ja|鈴木儀雄}} – special effects art director (uncredited){{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}
* Kim Tŭkho ({{korean|hangul=김득호|labels=no}}) – special effects cinematographer{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}} * Kim Tŭkho ({{korean|hangul=김득호|labels=no}}) – special effects cinematographer{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}
* {{Ill|Kenichi Eguchi|ja|江口憲一}} – special effects cinematographer (uncredited){{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} * {{Ill|Kenichi Eguchi|ja|江口憲一}} – special effects cinematographer (uncredited){{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}
* Kohei Mikami – special effects lighting (uncredited){{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} * Kohei Mikami – special effects lighting (uncredited){{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}
* {{Ill|Nobuyuki Yasumaru|ja|安丸信行}} – Pulgasari suit modeler (uncredited){{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Yamada|1995|p=152}} * {{Ill|Nobuyuki Yasumaru|ja|安丸信行}} – Pulgasari suit modeler (uncredited){{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|Mo|2018}}
{{Div col end}} {{Div col end}}


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| direction = horizontal | direction = horizontal
| align = right | align = right
| footer = ] (pictured in 1966) and ] (2000) | footer = ] (pictured in 1964) and ] (2000)
| image1 = 19660529申相玉.jpg | image1 = Shin Sang-ok (1964).png
| alt1 = A photo of Shin Sang-ok | alt1 = A photo of Shin Sang-ok
| image2 = Kim Jong-Il.jpg | image2 = Kim Jong-Il.jpg
| alt2 = A photograph of Kim Jong Il | alt2 = A photograph of Kim Jong Il
}} }}
], the heir apparent of North Korea, was an admirer of cinema and of South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok, who rose to fame during the 1960s.{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}} Kim was reported to have a collection of around 15,000{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}} to 20,000{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=1}} film titles in his possession. Major new releases from around the globe were typically added to his collection shortly after opening in theaters.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} In 1978, Kim arranged the kidnapping of Shin and his wife, famed actress ], intending for them to make ]s to gain North Korean cinema external recognition.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Peralta|2011}}{{sfn|Kim|2020}} Following incarceration for repeated attempts to flee North Korea, Shin was released from jail in 1983 but forced to work in the country's film industry until he and Choi escaped in 1986.{{sfn|Kim|2020}}{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} ''Pulgasari'' became Shin's seventh directorial effort supported by Kim,{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Peralta|2011}} his fifth of 1985 (following '']'', '']'', '']'', and ''Breakwater''),{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Kim|2020}} and his last North Korean production altogether.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Choe|2006}}{{sfn|Taylor|2012|p=162}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}}{{sfn|Grebey|2024}}}}{{efn|''Pulgasari'' was not, however, their final collaboration. In the time leading up to his escape, Shin was preparing a film inspired by '']'' (1956) for Kim.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Takeshi Miyanishi recalled that he started working with Shin to prepare another film immediately after ''Pulgasari'', but decided to back out.{{sfn|Homenick|2024}}}} ], the heir apparent of North Korea, was an admirer of cinema and of South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok, who rose to fame during the 1960s.{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}} Kim was reported to have a collection of around 15,000{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}} to 20,000{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|Amano|2017}}{{pg|1}}{{sfn|Evans|2013}} film titles in his possession. Major new releases from around the globe were typically added to his collection shortly after opening in theaters.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} In 1978, Kim arranged the kidnapping of Shin and his wife, famed actress ], intending for them to make ]s to gain North Korean cinema external recognition.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Gourevitch|2003}}{{sfn|WBUR|2012}}{{sfn|Moxley|2014}}{{sfn|Kim|2020}}}} Shin was imprisoned for attempting to flee North Korea; he was released from jail in 1983 but forced to work in the country's film industry until he and Choi escaped in 1986.{{sfn|Kim|2020}}{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} ''Pulgasari'' was Shin's seventh directorial effort supported by Kim,{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}} his fifth of 1985 (following '']'', '']'', '']'', and ''Breakwater''),{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Kim|2020}} and his last North Korean production.{{sfn|Choe|2006}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}}{{sfn|Grebey|2024}}{{efn|''Pulgasari'' was not, however, their final collaboration altogether. In the time leading up to his escape, Shin was preparing a film inspired by '']'' (1956) for Kim.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Takeshi Miyanishi recalled that he started working with Shin to prepare another film immediately after ''Pulgasari'', but decided to back out.{{sfn|Homenick|2024}}}}


The script of ''Pulgasari'' was written by Kim Seryun ({{korean|hangul=김세륜|labels=no}}) in collaboration with Ri Chun-gu ({{korean|hangul=이춘구|labels=no}}); the duo were regarded as the greatest screenwriters in North Korea at the time.{{sfn|Choe|2002}}{{sfn|Kim|2000}} Shin and Miyanishi stated that the film's story is based around ], a legendary creature from ].{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Homenick|2024}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} Furthermore, according to retrospective sources, ''Pulgasari'' is a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film '']''.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}}{{sfn|Mun|2003}}{{sfn|Lind|2014}}{{sfn|Ozaki|2018}}}} The 1962 film—which is now considered ]—was the first-ever Korean film in the '']'' (giant monster) genre, predating '']'' and '']'' by five years.{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}}{{sfn|Ozaki|2018}} The script of ''Pulgasari'' was written by ] ({{korean|hangul=김세륜|labels=no}}) in collaboration with ] ({{korean|hangul=이춘구|labels=no}}); the duo were regarded as the best screenwriters in North Korea at the time.{{sfn|Choe|2002}}{{sfn|Kim|2000}} Shin and Miyanishi stated that the film's story is based around ], a creature from ].{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} Furthermore, according to retrospective sources, ''Pulgasari'' is a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film '']''.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}}{{sfn|Mun|2003}}{{sfn|Ozaki|2018}}}} The 1962 film—which is now considered ]—was the first-ever Korean film in the '']'' (giant monster) genre, predating '']'' and '']'' by five years.{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}}{{sfn|Ozaki|2018}}


''Pulgasari'' would become a collaboration between Korean Art Film Studio{{sfn|KMDb}} and Shin Films{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} of North Korea, ] of Japan,{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} and {{Ill|Beijing Film Studio|zh|北京電影製片廠}} of China.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 2: "The Night Before Departure"}} Special-effects art director Yoshio Suzuki flew to North Korea on April 20, 1985, to attend the first meeting between the film's Japanese and North Korean crews, with the help of an interpreter. The meeting was held at a studio near the ] that produced films about ] and his family. The studio had been set up as a temporary office for Shin's production team while a larger studio was constructed for the film. The Japanese crew developed the Pulgasari suit at Toho from April 28 to late May, with Nobuyuki Yasumaru in charge of modeling it.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}}{{sfn|''Asahigraph''|1988|p=20}} ''Pulgasari'' would become a collaboration between the ]{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|''Natalie''}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|Lee|2000a}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}}} and Shin Films{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} of North Korea,{{efn|Korean film importer SN21 Enterprises claimed in a 1999 trial that Shin Films was a distributor based in ], not one of the film's North Korean production companies.{{sfn|Jin|1999}}}} ] of Japan,{{sfn|Milner|1997|p=44}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} and {{Ill|Beijing Film Studio|zh|北京電影製片廠}} of China.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} Special-effects art director Yoshio Suzuki flew to North Korea on April 20, 1985, to attend the first meeting between the film's Japanese and North Korean crews, with the help of an interpreter. The meeting was held at a studio near the ] that produced films about ] and his family. The studio had been set up as a temporary office for Shin's production team while a larger studio was constructed for the film. The Japanese crew developed the Pulgasari suit at Toho from April 28 to late May, with Nobuyuki Yasumaru in charge of modeling it.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}


===Conception and pre-production=== ===Conception and pre-production===
The ] Kenpachiro Satsuma stated ''Pulgasari'' was pitched in mid-February 1985, and ] started in ] and ] that April.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} The planning of ''Pulgasari'' was accredited to Shin,{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} but according to author Paul Fischer, Shin showed no apparent interest in the Japanese ''kaiju'' genre and never said who originally conceived the project.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} Kim Jong Il is said to have been a fan of Toho's '']'' franchise and saw its 1984 reboot '']'' because it was the first in the series to receive a Korean-dubbed release.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} He reportedly loved the reboot so much that he sought employees from Toho's '']'' (Japanese special effects) department to work on North Korea's own monster movie.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Izumi|2013}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} Shin recalled Kim’s suggestion to design the monster resembling a cow.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} The ] Kenpachiro Satsuma stated that the pitch for ''Pulgasari'' was submitted in mid-February 1985, and ] started in ] and ] that April.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} The planning of ''Pulgasari'' was accredited to Shin,{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} but according to author Paul Fischer, Shin showed no apparent interest in the Japanese ''kaiju'' genre and never said who originally conceived the project.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} Kim Jong Il is said to have been a fan of Toho's '']'' franchise and saw its 1984 reboot '']'' because it was the first in the series to receive a Korean-dubbed release.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} He reportedly loved the reboot and sought to capitalize on its significant commercial success in Japan by hiring employees from Toho's '']'' (Japanese special effects) department to work on North Korea's own monster movie.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Izumi|2013}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} Shin recalled Kim’s suggestion to design the monster resembling a cow.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}


Shin told Suzuki of his plans to set the film in China during the ] period if the historical research and costumes made it match. He also said he would start filming on August 15, 1985, and, if this concept was successful, he would "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 10: "Director Shin Sang-ok talks about North Korea's special effects situation"}} ''Pulgasari'' was ultimately set in Goryeo but the king's palace was based on the ] complex in Beijing. The special effects crew referred to it as the ] during production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 8: "The Great Collapse"}} Shin told Suzuki of his alternative plans to set the film in China during the ] period if the historical research and costumes made it match. He also said, if this concept was successful, he would start filming on August 15, 1985, and "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} ''Pulgasari'' was ultimately set in Goryeo but the king's palace was based on the ] complex in Beijing. The special effects crew referred to it as the ] during production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}


Twenty-one-year-old Chang Sŏnhŭi, who previously starred in ''Love, Love, My Love'',{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}} played the lead in ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} Chang was a trainee flight attendant who met Shin at ], and was immediately asked to become a full-time employee at Shin Films.{{sfn|Kim|2020}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}} Through his Japanese office, Shin invited 15 of Toho's special-effects-sector staff, including Satsuma and Nakano, to work on the film.{{sfn|Korean Film Archive}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=211}} Kim had reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of Godzilla in ''The Return of Godzilla'' and demanded he play Pulgasari.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} Satsuma accepted an invitation to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Satsuma allegedly became the first foreigner to appear in a North Korean film.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 9: "There's still more to come"}} Twenty-one-year-old Chang Sŏnhŭi, who had previously starred in ''Love, Love, My Love'',{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}} played the lead in ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} Chang was a trainee flight attendant who met Shin at ], and was immediately asked to become a full-time employee at Shin Films.{{sfn|Kim|2020}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}} Through his Japanese office, Shin invited 15 of Toho's special-effects-sector staff, including Satsuma and Nakano, to work on the film.{{sfn|Korean Film Archive}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=211}} Kim had reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of ] in ''The Return of Godzilla'' and demanded he play Pulgasari.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} Satsuma accepted an invitation to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} Satsuma allegedly became the first foreigner to appear in a North Korean film.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}


===Filming=== ===Filming===
] took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985 while special-effects photography was done from September to December.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Cho Myŏnghyŏn ({{korean|hangul=조명현|labels=no}}) and Pak Sŭngho ({{korean|hangul=박승호|labels=no}}) served as the film's main cinematographers.{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}} Satsuma later said the film had a budget of {{JPY|200–300 million}} (equivalent to {{USD|2–3 million|long=no}}), making it one of the largest and most-expensive North Korean productions to date.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=215}} Some sources described its production budget as "unlimited",{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Atsumi|2016}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=}} that it was supported by the ],{{sfn|Atsumi|2016}} and featured 13,000 extras.{{sfn|Lee|2000}} In regards to the extras and military, Satsuma commented: ] took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985 while special-effects photography was done from September to December.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} Cho Myŏnghyŏn ({{korean|hangul=조명현|labels=no}}) and Pak Sŭngho ({{korean|hangul=박승호|labels=no}}) served as the film's main cinematographers.{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}} Satsuma later said the film had a budget of {{JPY|200–300 million}} (equivalent to {{USD|2–3 million|long=no}}), making it one of the largest and most-expensive North Korean productions to date.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=215}} Some sources described its production budget as "unlimited",{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Amano|2017}}{{pg|2}}{{sfn|Atsumi|2016}} that it was supported by the ],{{sfn|Atsumi|2016}} and featured 13,000 extras.{{sfn|Lee|2000a}} In regards to the extras and military, Satsuma commented:


{{blockquote|I think, you can get any North Korean people to appear in a film for free. Shin Sang-ok told me that you can have as many people as you want for the extra scenes. The military would go and fetch the people and they would come. So, it wasn't a matter of money at all in that sense.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=215}}}} {{blockquote|I think, you can get any North Korean people to appear in a film for free. Shin Sang-ok told me that you can have as many people as you want for the extra scenes. The military would go and fetch the people and they would come. So, it wasn't a matter of money at all in that sense.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=215}}}}


According to Shin, Kim Jong Il was "very supportive" of ''Pulgasari''{{'s}} production despite never being present during filming.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{efn|In a 1994 interview, Satsuma asserted that Kim also produced the film.{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}} Some modern sources cite Kim as an executive producer.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|WBUR|2012}}{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}}}} For Shin to create the film, Kim ordered the construction of Munsu Studio, an immense complex described by Satsuma as a "state of the art film studio", which covered approximately 20,000 '']''. The facility had four studios—the largest two each covered 400 ''pyeong'' while the other two were 200 ''pyeong''—six screening rooms, six recording studios, around 300 waiting rooms, and other spaces to store art equipment.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea"}} Munsu Studio was still in development when it was used for special effects photography.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea"}} According to Shin, Kim Jong Il was "very supportive" of ''Pulgasari''{{'s}} production despite never being present during filming.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{efn|In a 1994 interview, Satsuma asserted that Kim also produced the film.{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}} Some modern sources cite Kim as an executive producer.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|WBUR|2012}}{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}}}} For Shin to create the film, Kim ordered the construction of Munsu Studio, an immense complex described by Satsuma as a "state of the art film studio", which covered approximately 20,000 '']''. The facility had four studios—the largest two each covered 400 ''pyeong'' while the other two were 200 ''pyeong''—six screening rooms, six recording studios, around 300 waiting rooms, and other spaces to store art equipment.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} Munsu Studio was still in development when it was used for special effects photography.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}


During an interview with author Johannes Schönherr, Satsuma said Shin was present on set a few times and was "extremely busy and&nbsp;... often absent".{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=215}} Furthermore, Fischer claimed that Satsuma only spoke to Shin once during production and asked him whether he would ever return to South Korea, to which Shin replied: "It would be too complicated, politically, to go back".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=286}} According to Satsuma and some South Korean reports, Chong Gon-jo substituted for Shin towards the end of filming.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Shin|2019}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}}}{{efn|name=Director}} During an interview with author Johannes Schönherr, Satsuma said Shin was present on set a few times and was "extremely busy and&nbsp;... often absent".{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=215}} Furthermore, Fischer claimed that Satsuma only spoke to Shin once during production and asked him whether he would ever return to South Korea, to which Shin replied: "It would be too complicated, politically, to go back".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=286}} According to Satsuma and some South Korean reports, Chong Gon-jo substituted for Shin towards the end of filming.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Shin|2019}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}}}{{efn|name=Director}}
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] ]


In mid-September 1985, before departing Japan, the Japanese crew filmed the Pulgasari suit wandering around a miniature village in Studio 9 at ], but this footage was omitted from the film's final cut.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Satsuma and an assistant director flew from ] to Beijing via ] on ] Flight 930 on September 11, 1985.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 2: "The Night Before Departure"}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 3: "Flying over the continent"}} On September 14, they began working at Beijing Film Studio to prepare the miniature palace and set for the film's climax, which the Chinese crew had already been creating.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 7: "Beijing Film Studio"}} Conflict between the two crews soon arose; the Chinese believed the Japanese team "just walked in and started damaging the set that we put our heart and soul into building for three months".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 8: "The Great Collapse"}} Satsuma mentioned he was "impressed that the Chinese government could allow such an ambitious filming, even if it was just a movie" when talking about the destruction of the palace in the Pulgasari suit for the film.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 2: "The Night Before Departure"}} In mid-September 1985, before departing Japan, the Japanese crew filmed the Pulgasari suit wandering around a miniature village in Studio 9 at ], but this footage was omitted from the film's final cut.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} Satsuma and an assistant director flew from ] to Beijing via ] on ] Flight 930 on September 11, 1985.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} On September 14, they began working at Beijing Film Studio to prepare the miniature palace and set for the film's climax, which the Chinese crew had already been creating.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} Conflict between the two crews soon arose; the Chinese believed the Japanese team "just walked in and started damaging the set that we put our heart and soul into building for three months".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} Satsuma mentioned he was "impressed that the Chinese government could allow such an ambitious filming, even if it was just a movie" when talking about the destruction of the palace in the Pulgasari suit for the film.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}


After spending two weeks shooting in Beijing, the Toho team traveled to Pyongyang to complete the two months of special effects photography.{{sfn|Homenick|2022}} According to Satsuma, upon arrival in North Korea, their passports were confiscated "for our own safety".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} He and the other Japanese were kept for one-and-a-half months as guests at Kim's villa, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated room with a bed, a television, a bookshelf, and a radio.{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} One of the Japanese employees said their rooms were ]; this was allegedly evident when one of them, while alone in his room, was talking to himself about how he missed drinking Japanese beer, only to discover the next day it had been added to his refrigerator.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} Kim often visited the villa but refused to meet the Japanese guests and avoided them.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea"}} After spending two weeks shooting in Beijing, the Toho team traveled to Pyongyang to complete the two months of special effects photography.{{sfn|Homenick|2022}} According to Satsuma, upon arrival in North Korea, their passports were confiscated "for our own safety".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} He and the other Japanese were kept for one-and-a-half months as guests at Kim's villa, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated room with a bed, a television, a bookshelf, and a radio.{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}}{{pg|2}} One of the Japanese employees said their rooms were ]; this was allegedly evident when one of them, while alone in his room, was talking to himself about how he missed drinking Japanese beer, only to discover the next day it had been added to his refrigerator.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} Kim often visited the villa but refused to meet the Japanese guests and avoided them.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}


The effects crew was working at Shin's studio around October 1985;{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} Satsuma and {{Ill|Eiichi Asada|ja|浅田英一}} noted that the building's windows had no glass,{{sfn|Homenick|2022}}{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} with the former adding that this environment "felt like mid-winter".{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} They also filmed some scenes on a hill behind the Korean Art Film Studio rather than inside that facility.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=212}} Satsuma named a scene in which Pulgasari rises over a hill while the rebels and king's army fight below the "Marusan", which he said is the name of the mound at which they filmed it.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=214}} On-site filming in North Korea became challenging for the special effects team, due in part to electrical constraints and equipment theft.{{sfn|McCarthy|1994}}{{sfn|Homenick|2022}} Satsuma and {{Ill|Eiichi Asada|ja|浅田英一}} noted that the windows in Shin's studio had no glass,{{sfn|Homenick|2022}}{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}}{{pg|2}} with the former adding that this environment "felt like mid-winter".{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}}{{pg|2}} They also filmed some scenes on a hill behind the Korean Art Film Studio rather than inside that facility.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=212}} Satsuma named a scene in which Pulgasari rises over a hill while the rebels and king's army fight below the "Marusan", which he said is the name of the mound at which they filmed it.{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=214}}


===Post-production=== ===Post-production===
] partly took place in Japan{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} and concluded in December 1985.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Miyanishi continued working on the film in North Korea for over a month after the rest of the Toho crew returned to Japan.{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} Kim Ryŏnsun ({{Korean|hangul=김련순|labels=no}}) edited the film and Sŏ Chŏnggŏn ({{korean|hangul=서정건|labels=no}}) composed the score.{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}} Kim Jong Il was purportedly reluctant to publicize Shin was the director.{{sfn|Cheung|2014}} Accordingly, Chong received sole directorial credit.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}{{sfn|Korean Film Archive}}}} ] partly took place in Japan{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} and concluded in December 1985.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} Miyanishi continued working on the film in North Korea for over a month after the rest of the Toho crew returned to Japan.{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} Kim Ryŏnsun ({{Korean|hangul=김련순|labels=no}}) edited the film and Sŏ Chŏnggŏn ({{korean|hangul=서정건|labels=no}}) composed the score.{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|KMDb}} Kim Jong Il was purportedly reluctant to publicize Shin was the director.{{sfn|Cheung|2014}} Accordingly, only the North Korean staff was credited within the film;{{sfn|Lee|2000b}} Chong received sole directorial credit.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=213}}{{sfn|Lee|2000b}}{{sfn|Korean Film Archive}}}}


==Release== ==Release==
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]'s book ''Godzilla's View of North Korea''.]] ]'s book ''Godzilla's View of North Korea''.]]


''Pulgasari'' was intended to receive an international release.{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}} Satsuma noted that ''Pulgasari'' was lauded upon its first screening at ] in January 1986.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} On February 16, Shin, under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, flew to ] to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the ].{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=294}} The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated an unidentified major enterprise had acquired ''Pulgasari'' for Japanese distribution.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} The Japanese website ''Tocana'' said it was prepared for release in celebration of Kim Il Sung's birthday.{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=1}} According to many retrospective sources, the film was, however, banned both in North Korea and overseas when Shin and Choi escaped their North Korean supervisors in ] on March 12 and subsequently fled to the United States.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Kim|2000}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=}}{{sfn|''Natalie''|2024}}}} Some have also suggested that ''Pulgasari'' has consequently never been theatrically shown in North Korea.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}} Contrarily, Fischer contended that it was released in North Korea a few weeks after Shin's escape and achieved financial success.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|pp=303–304}} Satsuma said of his knowledge of the initial cancellation of its release: ''Pulgasari'' was intended to receive an international release.{{sfn|''Natalie''}}{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}} Satsuma noted that ''Pulgasari'' was lauded upon its first screening at ] in January 1986.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} On February 16, Shin, under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, flew to ] to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the ].{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=294}} The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated an unidentified major enterprise had acquired ''Pulgasari'' for Japanese distribution;{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} Satsuma said Shin agreed with a Japanese company representing North Korea and an ]-based distributor to release the film in Japan on home video and in theaters.{{sfn|Milner|1997|p=45}} Michihiro Amano of the Japanese website ''Tocana'' said it was prepared for release to celebrate Kim Il Sung's birthday (occurring on April 15).{{sfn|Amano|2017}}{{pg|1}} As many retrospective sources have stated, the film was, however, banned when Shin and Choi escaped their North Korean supervisors in ] on March 12, 1986, and subsequently fled to the United States.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|''Natalie''}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|Cho}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Amano|2017}}{{pg|2}}{{sfn|Kim|2000}}}} American home video distributor ] claimed that ''Pulgasari'' was "banned by the North Korean government for its ] leanings".{{sfn|ADV Films|2000|p=n40}} Some have suggested that the film has consequently never been shown in North Korea.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Moxley|2014}} Contrarily, Fischer contended that it was released in North Korea a few weeks after Shin's escape and achieved financial success.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|pp=303–304}} Steven Chung explains in his 2014 book ''Split Screen Korea: Shin Sang-ok and Postwar Cinema'' that "it is not clear whether the film was released publicly in North Korea&nbsp;... though there is some indication that it was screened for Kim Jong Il and other cultural and news officials."{{sfn|Chung|2014|p=199}}


Satsuma attributed the film's eventual release to Kim Jong Il assuming the role of ] in 1994.{{sfn|Milner|1997|p=45}} On January 21, 1995, the Japanese home video distributor Twin released ''Pulgasari'' on ] in Japan;{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=1}}{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}} according to its flyer, this release was the film's first public distribution in any format.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer|p=2}} The VHS copy of the film could only be purchased by mail order per the distribution agreement.{{sfn|Milner|1997|p=44}} Although Twin's president Yoshimitsu Yoshitsuru claimed to have acquired permission from Shin for the release,{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}} '']'' and Amano later said this release was ].{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|Amano|2017}}{{pg|2}} The film's official debut{{sfn|''Natalie''}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} took place in Tokyo at the Kineca Ōmori theater on July 4, 1998; it remained playing there until September due to high demand.{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} Later that year, Raging Thunder released it in several other Japanese cinemas and on home video,{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Amano|2017}}{{pg|2}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} with optional Japanese subtitles or dubbing.{{sfn|Raging Thunder|1999}}
{{blockquote|It was soon decided that the film would be released in Japan. However, in a sudden turn of events, the joyous mood took a turn, and our ''Pulgasari'' was caught up in a political vortex and disappeared from the public eye. And as we all know, 13 years later, the movie, which was thought to have been shelved, miraculously saw the light of day.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}}}}

====Japan====
On January 21, 1995, the Japanese home video distributor Twin released ''Pulgasari'' on ] in Japan;{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=1}} according to its flyer, this release was the film's first public distribution in any format.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} According to ], Twin's president Yoshimitsu Yoshitsuru claimed to have acquired permission from Shin for the release.{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}} '']'' and ''Tocana'' later said this release was ].{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=}} In 1996, critic {{Ill|Takashi Monma|ja|門間貴志}} reported several Japanese film festivals had attempted to screen ''Pulgasari'' but were all turned down.{{sfn|Monma|1996|p=203}} The film's official debut{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1999|p=192}}{{sfn|''Natalie''|2024}} took place in Tokyo at the Kineca Ōmori theater on July 4, 1998; it remained playing there until September due to high demand,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} and was released in several other Japanese cinemas and on home video later that year.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}


====South Korea==== ====South Korea====
In November 1998, ] (MBC) announced it would broadcast ''Pulgasari'' on its ] in 1999.{{sfn|Choe|1998}} Shin later accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against it, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting ''Pulgasari'' and '']'' in South Korea.{{sfn|Jin|1999}}{{sfn|Choe|2000}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}} The following year, Judge {{Ill|Shin Jeong-chi|ko|신정치}} of ] dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that although Shin held the ] to the films, the North Korean production company owned the broadcasting rights.{{sfn|Choe|2000}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}} In November 1998, ] (MBC) announced it would broadcast ''Pulgasari'' on its ] in 1999.{{sfn|Choe|1998}} Shin later accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against it, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting ''Pulgasari'' and '']'' in South Korea.{{sfn|Jin|1999}}{{sfn|Choe|2000}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}} The following year, Judge {{Ill|Shin Jeong-chi|ko|신정치}} of ] dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that although Shin held the ] to the films, the North Korean production company owned the broadcasting rights.{{sfn|Choe|2000}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}}


] of the ] said in May 2000 that ''Pulgasari'' had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement as part of the ].{{sfn|Choe|2000}} On July 22 that same year,{{sfn|No|2000}}{{sfn|Ju|2018}} ''Pulgasari'' became the first North Korean film to be distributed in South Korean theaters.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|No|2000}}{{sfn|Ju|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|BBC|2018}}}} The same month, '']'' reported its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire ].{{sfn|No|2000}} ] of the ] said in May 2000 that ''Pulgasari'' had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement as part of the ].{{sfn|Choe|2000}} On July 22 that same year,{{sfn|Lee|2000b}}{{sfn|No|2000}}{{sfn|Ju|2018}} ''Pulgasari'' became the first North Korean film to be distributed in South Korean theaters.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Lee|2000b}}{{sfn|No|2000}}{{sfn|Ju|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|BBC|2018}}}} The same month, '']'' reported its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire ].{{sfn|No|2000}}


''Pulgasari'' was screened at the 22nd ] in July 2018.{{sfn|Shim|2018}} On June 5 of the following year, it opened the seventh Muju Film Festival.{{sfn|Lee|2019}} ''Pulgasari'' was screened at the 22nd ] in July 2018.{{sfn|Shim|2018}} On June 5 of the following year, it opened the seventh Muju Film Festival.{{sfn|Lee|2019}}


====Other territories==== ====Other territories====
In 2001, ] distributed ''Pulgasari'' on VHS in the United States through its subsidiary Rubbersuit Productions.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=197}} It later received several screenings in the US, the United Kingdom, and Canada.{{sfn|Romano|2015}} In 2006, the film had its New York premiere as part of ]'s year-long "Godzilla festival".{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} In April 2015, it was shown in Paris at ] museum,{{sfn|Jeu de Paume|2015}} and became available for viewing on ].{{sfn|Romano|2015}} In 2001, ] distributed ''Pulgasari'' on VHS in the United States through its subsidiary Rubbersuit Productions.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=197}} The film had its New York premiere in 2006 as part of ]'s year-long "Godzilla festival".{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} It later received several additional screenings in the US, the United Kingdom, and Canada;{{sfn|Romano|2015}} and was shown in Paris at the ] museum in April 2015.{{sfn|Jeu de Paume|2015}} The film has also become available for viewing on ].{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Power|2019}}{{sfn|Moxley|2014}}{{sfn|Lucas|2024}}}}


===Box office=== ===Box office===
The film achieved several Japanese box-office records,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}{{sfn|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014|p=3}} attracting around 18,000 attendees during its theatrical run at Kineca Ōmori.{{sfn|Lee|2000}}{{sfn|No|2000}} In 2018, Ju Seong-cheol of '']'' stated ''Pulgasari'' outperformed ]'s '']'' (1998) in Japan and held the record for the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time.{{sfn|Ju|2018}} The film achieved several Japanese box-office records,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}{{sfn|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014|p=3}} attracting around 18,000 attendees during its theatrical run at Kineca Ōmori.{{sfn|Lee|2000a}}{{sfn|No|2000}} In 2018, Ju Seong-cheol of '']'' stated ''Pulgasari'' outperformed ]'s '']'' (1998) in Japan and held the record for the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time.{{sfn|Ju|2018}}


In South Korea, ''Pulgasari'' opened in 50 theaters,{{sfn|No|2000}} and was a ], drawing under 1,000 theatergoers.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}}{{sfn|''The Korea Herald''|2003|page=44}} Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to remove the film within the first week of its release.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} Johannes Schönherr cited reasonings by contemporaneous publications on its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese ''kaiju'' films released there and the lack of interest from adolescents in low-budget special effects.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} In South Korea, ''Pulgasari'' opened in 50 theaters,{{sfn|No|2000}} and was a ], drawing under 1,000 theatergoers.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to remove the film within the first week of its release.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} Johannes Schönherr cited reasonings by contemporaneous publications on its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese ''kaiju'' films released there and the lack of interest from adolescents in low-budget special effects.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}


==Reception== ==Reception==


===Critical response=== ===Critical response===
Japanese critics widely praised ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Choe|2000}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=220}} {{Ill|Jun Edoki|ja|江戸木純}}, one of the film's main advocates, referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} According to the '']'', Japanese reviewers positively compared ''Pulgasari'' to ''Godzilla'' (1998) at the time, saying ''Pulgasari'' is not "sophisticated" like ''Godzilla'' and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} ''Kinema Junpo'' noted that the film is more reminiscent of the '']'' trilogy than the ''Godzilla'' series.{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1998|p=179}} Lee Dong-jin of the South Korean newspaper '']'' compared ''Pulgasari''{{'s}} technical prowess to ''Godzilla'' (1998); he wrote ''Pulgasari'' "feels a bit old, but is a fun work that cutely mixes drama and spectacle".{{sfn|Lee|2000}} South Korean reviewers also criticized the acting, especially Chang's.{{sfn|''The Korea Herald''|2003|page=44}} Japanese critics widely praised ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Choe|2000}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=220}} {{Ill|Jun Edoki|ja|江戸木純}}, one of the film's main advocates, referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} According to the '']'', Japanese reviewers positively compared ''Pulgasari'' to ''Godzilla'' (1998) at the time, saying ''Pulgasari'' is not "sophisticated" like ''Godzilla'' and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} Similarly, Lee Dong-jin of the South Korean newspaper '']'' compared ''Pulgasari''{{'s}} technical prowess to ''Godzilla'' (1998); he wrote ''Pulgasari'' "feels a bit old, but is a fun work that cutely mixes drama and spectacle".{{sfn|Lee|2000a}}


Reviewing the film's initial American video release, '']'' noted its political background and said it should have been parodied in an episode of '']''.{{sfn|Przywara|2002}} Reviewing the film's initial American video release, '']'' noted its background and said it should have been parodied in an episode of '']''.{{sfn|Przywara|2002}}


===Participants' response=== ===Participants' response===
Satsuma later said he adored ''Pulgasari'' and that he fondly remembered performing in it,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}{{sfn|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014|p=3}} deeming it to be the "most memorable work in long acting career".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} In October 1988, ] published a book written by Satsuma titled ''Godzilla's View of North Korea'', which details his experiences of working on the film.{{sfn|''Asahigraph''|1988|p=19}}{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=3}} He told ''Choson Sinbo'' in 1998 his favorite scene in the film was the one in which the titular monster is caged and set ablaze, and that he wanted to return to North Korea to work on a sequel.{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} '']'' also said Satsuma considered the film to be better than ''Godzilla'' (1998).{{sfn|Power|2019}} Satsuma later said he adored ''Pulgasari'' and that he fondly remembered performing in it,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}{{sfn|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014|p=3}} deeming it to be the "most memorable work in long acting career".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} In 1988, ] published a book written by Satsuma titled ''Godzilla's View of North Korea'', which details his experiences of working on the film;{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}}{{pg|2-3}} the book was also published in April 1994.{{sfn|McCarthy|1994}} He told ''Choson Sinbo'' in 1998 his favorite scene in the film was the one in which the titular monster is caged and set ablaze, and that he wanted to return to North Korea to work on a sequel.{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} '']'' also said Satsuma considered the film to be better than ''Godzilla'' (1998).{{sfn|Power|2019}}


In 2005, Shin told '']'' he believed the film's special effects were outdated.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} According to Fischer, Kim Jong Il considered ''Pulgasari'' to be a masterpiece.{{sfn|Fischer|2015b}} Likewise, Takeshi Miyanishi called it a "good movie" and considered it among the best films he had worked on.{{sfn|Homenick|2024}} In 2005, Shin told '']'' he believed the film's special effects were outdated.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} According to Fischer, Kim Jong Il considered ''Pulgasari'' to be a masterpiece.{{sfn|Fischer|2015b}} Likewise, Takeshi Miyanishi called it a "good movie" and considered it among the best films he had worked on.{{sfn|Homenick|2024}}


===Interpretations=== ===Interpretations===
According to '']'' in 2003, there has been some speculation Shin included a hidden message in ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for Kim Il Sung betraying a revolution for his own purposes and as a plea to the North Korean people to rise against the Kim regime. Some believe this is represented by Pulgasari demanding his subjects feed him more iron, even after the monarchy has been defeated, leading to the workers rebelling against and defeating their savior.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Shin rejected interpretations that the film contains a message on North Korea's contemporaneous ].{{sfn|Power|2019}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} In his late life, he explained that ''Pulgasari'' was rather meant as a plea for pacifism, a warning against nuclear war.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} A 2019 article quoted Shin saying: "It was a pure monster film, I didn't put any ideology in it".{{sfn|Power|2019}} According to Johannes Schönherr, there has been some speculation Shin included a hidden message in ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=83}} The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for Kim Il Sung betraying a revolution for his own purposes and as a plea to the North Korean people to rise against the Kim regime. Some believe this is represented by Pulgasari demanding his subjects feed him more iron, even after the monarchy has been defeated, leading to the workers rebelling against and defeating their savior.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=83}} Shin rejected interpretations that the film contains a message on North Korea's contemporaneous ].{{sfn|Power|2019}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} In his late life, he explained that ''Pulgasari'' was rather meant as a plea for pacifism, a warning against nuclear war.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} A 2019 article quoted Shin saying: "It was a pure monster film, I didn't put any ideology in it".{{sfn|Power|2019}}


==Remake== ==Remake==
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==Legacy== ==Legacy==
''Pulgasari'' is now considered a ]. Modern sources have stated it has become the most-widely-seen North Korean movie worldwide and Shin's best-known work, partly due to its involvement in his abduction by North Korea.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015b}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|pp=82, 84}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=282}}{{sfn|Gourevitch|2003}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=168}}}} According to Fischer, the film "defined career and changed his life".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=287}} ''Pulgasari'' is now considered a ]. Modern sources have stated it has become the most-widely-seen North Korean movie worldwide and Shin's best-known work, partly due to its involvement in his abduction by North Korea.{{efn-lr|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}}{{sfn|Gourevitch|2003}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015b}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|pp=82, 84}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=282}}{{sfn|Edwards|2007|p=168}}}} According to Fischer, the film "defined career and changed his life".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=287}}


In the years following its US premiere in 2001, Western critics and ''kaiju'' fans have frequently mocked the film, according to Schönherr.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} In a 2015 retrospective, Fischer described it as Shin's worst film.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=287}} A 2016 review on ] called it propaganda, and solely praised Shin's efforts and the monster's depiction.{{sfn|Regehr|2016}} Simon Fowler of ''The Guardian'' ranked it the third-best North Korean film ever made but noted: "it's to get lost in the ridiculousness of it all".{{sfn|Fowler|2014}} ] said ''Pulgasari'' was among the few North Korean films he had seen, and described it as an "enjoyably campy ''kaiju'' flick".{{sfn|Ross|2021}} In March 2024, '']'' ranked the film tenth on its "10 Best So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies" list,{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}} and '']'' called it "quite bad as a film";{{sfn|Grebey|2024}} both websites said its behind-the-scenes story is more fascinating than the film itself.{{sfn|Grebey|2024}}{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}} Since its US premiere in 2001, Western reviewers and ''kaiju'' fans have frequently mocked the film, according to Schönherr.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} In a 2015 retrospective, Fischer described it as Shin's worst film.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=287}} A 2016 review on ] called it propaganda, and solely praised Shin's efforts and the monster's depiction.{{sfn|Regehr|2016}} Simon Fowler of ''The Guardian'' ranked it the third-best North Korean film ever made but noted: "it's to get lost in the ridiculousness of it all".{{sfn|Fowler|2014}} ] said ''Pulgasari'' was among the few North Korean films he had seen, and described it as an "enjoyably campy ''kaiju'' flick".{{sfn|Ross|2021}} In March 2024, '']'' ranked the film tenth on its "10 Best So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies" list,{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}} and '']'' called it "quite bad as a film";{{sfn|Grebey|2024}} both websites said its behind-the-scenes story is more fascinating than the film itself.{{sfn|Grebey|2024}}{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}} A 2024 retrospective by Mattie Lucas suggested that ''Pulgasari'' was more evocative of '']'' (1920) than the ''Godzilla'' series, which it is commonly compared to. She also believed it was a worthy homage to the ''kaiju'' genre, despite noting that it may contain controversial ideology.{{sfn|Lucas|2024}}

In 2013, filmmaker ] mentioned ''Pulgasari'' as the standout among the films that she had seen while making a documentary on North Korean cinema titled ''Aim High In Creation''.{{sfn|Evans|2013}}

==Notes==
{{notelist|30em}}


==References== ==References==
===Footnotes=== ===Footnotes===
{{notelist-lr|30em}} {{notelist-lr|30em}}

===Notes===
{{notelist|30em}}


===Citations=== ===Citations===
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===Works cited=== ===Works cited===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=ADV Films |author-link=ADV Films |date=2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/adv-films-2000-catalog |title=Animation and Feature Film Catalog 2000 |publisher=] }}
* {{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrwJAQAAMAAJ&q=%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%81%8C%E8%A6%8B%E3%81%9F%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE+1988 |title=アサヒグラフ, Issues 3459-3467 |magazine=] |via=] |year=1988 |ref={{sfnref|''Asahigraph''|1988}} |language=ja }}
* {{cite web |last=Amano |first=Michihiro |title=北朝鮮版の【怪獣映画】が想像以上に素晴らしい…! 金正日が国家予算を注いだ傑作の内容とは? |trans-title=North Korea's version of a "''kaiju'' movie" is better than you can imagine! What is the content of this masterpiece that Kim Jong-il poured his national budget into? |url=https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry.html |date=April 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623230908/https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry.html |archive-date=June 23, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=TOCANA |publisher=MICHI Inc. |language=ja }}
* {{cite news |last=Associated Press |author-link=Associated Press |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/205906423/ |title=Communist chief made movies |newspaper=] |date=September 12, 1994 |via=] |url-access=subscription |access-date=July 31, 2024 }} * {{cite news |last=Associated Press |author-link=Associated Press |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/205906423/ |title=Communist chief made movies |newspaper=] |date=September 12, 1994 |via=] |url-access=subscription |access-date=July 31, 2024 }}
* {{Cite web |last=Atsumi |first=Shiho |date=September 23, 2016 |title=拉致された韓国の人気映画監督は、金正日のために北朝鮮版『ゴジラ』を作った(渥美志保) |trans-title=The abducted popular South Korean film director who made a North Korean version of "Godzilla" for Kim Jong Il |url=https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/9d3d19b30988a3f9b40a1b73820fc79053b63500 |access-date=July 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704051033/https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/9d3d19b30988a3f9b40a1b73820fc79053b63500 |archive-date=July 4, 2024 |url-status=live |website=] |language=ja}} * {{Cite web |last=Atsumi |first=Shiho |date=September 23, 2016 |title=拉致された韓国の人気映画監督は、金正日のために北朝鮮版『ゴジラ』を作った(渥美志保) |trans-title=The abducted popular South Korean film director who made a North Korean version of "Godzilla" for Kim Jong Il |url=https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/9d3d19b30988a3f9b40a1b73820fc79053b63500 |access-date=July 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704051033/https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/9d3d19b30988a3f9b40a1b73820fc79053b63500 |archive-date=July 4, 2024 |url-status=live |website=] |publisher=] |language=ja}}
* {{cite web |last=BBC |author-link=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/korean/news-44794555|title=북한 영화: 한국서 북한 영화 9편 상영이 주목되는 이유 |trans-title=North Korean Cinema: Why 9 North Korean Films Are Getting a Spotlight in South Korea |language=ko |date=July 11, 2018 |access-date=August 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120225851/https://www.bbc.com/korean/news-44794555 |archive-date=November 20, 2020 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last=BBC |author-link=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/korean/news-44794555|title=북한 영화: 한국서 북한 영화 9편 상영이 주목되는 이유 |trans-title=North Korean Cinema: Why 9 North Korean Films Are Getting a Spotlight in South Korea |language=ko |date=July 11, 2018 |access-date=August 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120225851/https://www.bbc.com/korean/news-44794555 |archive-date=November 20, 2020 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Becker |first=Jasper |author-link=Jasper Becker |title=Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea |url=https://archive.org/details/rogueregimekimjo00beck |publisher=] |date=2005 |isbn=978-0195308914}} * {{cite book |last=Becker |first=Jasper |author-link=Jasper Becker |title=Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea |url=https://archive.org/details/rogueregimekimjo00beck |publisher=] |date=2005 |isbn=978-0195308914}}
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* {{Cite web |title=大ヒット、「プルガサリ」|trans-title=The big hit, ''Pulgasari'' |url=http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |date=1998 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |language=ja |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705003011/http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} }} * {{Cite web |title=大ヒット、「プルガサリ」|trans-title=The big hit, ''Pulgasari'' |url=http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |date=1998 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |language=ja |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705003011/http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} }}
* {{cite web |title=First NK Monster Faces Hollywood-Born Godzilla in Japan |url=http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/050th_issue/98070804.htm |date=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927181928/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/050th_issue/98070804.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |access-date=June 25, 2024 |work=] |ref={{sfnref|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} }} * {{cite web |title=First NK Monster Faces Hollywood-Born Godzilla in Japan |url=http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/050th_issue/98070804.htm |date=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927181928/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/050th_issue/98070804.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |access-date=June 25, 2024 |work=] |ref={{sfnref|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Chung |first=Steven |date=2014 |title=Split Screen Korea: Shin Sang-ok and Postwar Cinema |url=https://archive.org/details/splitscreenkorea0000chun/ |url-access=limited |publisher=]|isbn=978-0816691340}}
* {{Cite web |date=December 27, 2023 |title=ゴジラ俳優「薩摩剣八郎さん」死去 金正日肝いり「怪獣映画」に出演 かつて明かした北朝鮮"極寒の撮影秘話" |trans-title=Godzilla actor Kenpachiro Satsuma passes away; he appeared in Kim Jong Il's "''kaiju'' movie" and once revealed the "secret story of filming in the extreme cold of North Korea" |url=https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=] |publisher=] |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228010013/https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |archive-date=December 28, 2023 |url-status=live |ref={{refsfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}} }} * {{Cite web |date=December 27, 2023 |title=ゴジラ俳優「薩摩剣八郎さん」死去 金正日肝いり「怪獣映画」に出演 かつて明かした北朝鮮"極寒の撮影秘話" |trans-title=Godzilla actor Kenpachiro Satsuma passes away; he appeared in Kim Jong Il's "''kaiju'' movie" and once revealed the "secret story of filming in the extreme cold of North Korea" |url=https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=] |publisher=] |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228010013/https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |archive-date=December 28, 2023 |url-status=live |ref={{refsfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}} }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Edwards |editor-first=Matthew |year=2007 |url=https://archive.org/details/filmoutofboundse0000unse/ |url-access=limited |title=Film Out of Bounds: Essays and Interviews on Non-Mainstream Cinema Worldwide |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4766-0780-1 |via=] |access-date=August 1, 2024 |chapter=Godzilla Goes to North Korea: An Interview with Kenpachiro Satsuma |interviewer=Schönherr, Johannes }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Edwards |editor-first=Matthew |year=2007 |url=https://archive.org/details/filmoutofboundse0000unse/ |url-access=limited |title=Film Out of Bounds: Essays and Interviews on Non-Mainstream Cinema Worldwide |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4766-0780-1 |access-date=August 1, 2024 |chapter=Godzilla Goes to North Korea: An Interview with Kenpachiro Satsuma |interviewer=Schönherr, Johannes }}
* {{cite web|last=Evans|first=Chris|date=June 13, 2013|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/north-korean-cinema-kim-jongil-s-movie-mania-8657673.html|title=North Korean cinema: Kim Jong-il's movie mania|work=]|access-date=November 17, 2024|url-status=live|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20220706093655/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/north-korean-cinema-kim-jongil-s-movie-mania-8657673.html|archive-date=July 6, 2022}}
* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=3899|title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031153718/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=3899|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|date=2023|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023a}}}}
* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf |title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031160328/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''}}}} * {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf |title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi (Movie Flyers)|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031160328/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|1995 Japanese flyer}}}}
* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=13524|title=プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣|trans-title=''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031163932/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=13524|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|date=2023|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023b}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Paul |date=February 3, 2015 |title=A Kim Jong-Il Production: The Extraordinary True Story of a Kidnapped Filmmaker, His Star Actress, and a Young Dictator's Rise to Power |url=https://archive.org/details/kimjongilproduct0000fisc?q=pulgasari |publisher=] |isbn=9781250054272 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnref|Fischer|2015a}} }} * {{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Paul |date=February 3, 2015 |title=A Kim Jong-Il Production: The Extraordinary True Story of a Kidnapped Filmmaker, His Star Actress, and a Young Dictator's Rise to Power |url=https://archive.org/details/kimjongilproduct0000fisc?q=pulgasari |publisher=] |isbn=9781250054272 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnref|Fischer|2015a}} }}
* {{Cite news |last=Fischer |first=Paul |date=February 21, 2015 |title=Kim Jong-il and the great movie-star kidnap |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/feb/21/kim-jong-il-movie-star-kidnap-plot-north-south-korea-godzilla |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720021642mp_/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/feb/21/kim-jong-il-movie-star-kidnap-plot-north-south-korea-godzilla |archive-date=July 20, 2015 |access-date=July 3, 2024 |work=] |ref={{sfnref|Fischer|2015b}} }} * {{Cite news |last=Fischer |first=Paul |date=February 21, 2015 |title=Kim Jong-il and the great movie-star kidnap |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/feb/21/kim-jong-il-movie-star-kidnap-plot-north-south-korea-godzilla |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720021642mp_/http://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/feb/21/kim-jong-il-movie-star-kidnap-plot-north-south-korea-godzilla |archive-date=July 20, 2015 |access-date=July 3, 2024 |work=] |ref={{sfnref|Fischer|2015b}} }}
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* {{cite web |last=Jeu de Paume |author-link=Jeu de Paume (museum) |url=https://jeudepaume.org/en/evenement/pulgasari-a-film-by-shin-sang-ok/ |title=''Pulgasari'' a film by Shin Sang-Ok |date=April 11, 2015 |access-date=August 1, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028103905/https://jeudepaume.org/en/evenement/pulgasari-a-film-by-shin-sang-ok/ |archive-date=October 28, 2021 }} * {{cite web |last=Jeu de Paume |author-link=Jeu de Paume (museum) |url=https://jeudepaume.org/en/evenement/pulgasari-a-film-by-shin-sang-ok/ |title=''Pulgasari'' a film by Shin Sang-Ok |date=April 11, 2015 |access-date=August 1, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028103905/https://jeudepaume.org/en/evenement/pulgasari-a-film-by-shin-sang-ok/ |archive-date=October 28, 2021 }}
* {{cite web |last=Jin |first=Seong-ho |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/1999/01/21/1999012170401.html |title= 북영화 '불가사리'TV방영 진통 |trans-title=Media Replay: North Korean movie ''Pulgasari'' TV broadcast pains |language=ko |work=] |date=January 21, 1999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801043048/https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/1999/01/21/1999012170401.html |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |access-date=August 1, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Jin |first=Seong-ho |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/1999/01/21/1999012170401.html |title= 북영화 '불가사리'TV방영 진통 |trans-title=Media Replay: North Korean movie ''Pulgasari'' TV broadcast pains |language=ko |work=] |date=January 21, 1999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801043048/https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/1999/01/21/1999012170401.html |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |access-date=August 1, 2024 }}
* {{cite web |last=Ju |first=Seong-cheol |title=북한영화를 아십니까 |trans-title=Do you know North Korean movies? |language=ko |url=http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |date=June 22, 2018 |access-date=July 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240729035552/http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |url-status=live |archive-date=July 29, 2024}} * {{cite web |last=Ju |first=Seong-cheol |title=북한영화를 아십니까 |trans-title=Do you know North Korean movies? |language=ko |url=http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |date=June 22, 2018 |access-date=July 29, 2024 |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240729035552/http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |url-status=live |archive-date=July 29, 2024}}
* {{cite web |last=Kim |first=Jung-gi |url=https://www.imaeil.com/page/view/2000052514175715455 |title=신상옥감독 영화 '불가사리' 내달 국내 개봉 |trans-title=Director Shin Sang-ok's film ''Pulgasari'' to be released in Korea next month |date=May 25, 2000 |language=ko |work={{Ill|Maeil Shinmun|ko|매일신문}} |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240925050811/https://www.imaeil.com/page/view/2000052514175715455 |archive-date=September 25, 2024 |access-date=September 25, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Kim |first=Jung-gi |url=https://www.imaeil.com/page/view/2000052514175715455 |title=신상옥감독 영화 '불가사리' 내달 국내 개봉 |trans-title=Director Shin Sang-ok's film ''Pulgasari'' to be released in Korea next month |date=May 25, 2000 |language=ko |work={{Ill|Maeil Shinmun|ko|매일신문}} |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240925050811/https://www.imaeil.com/page/view/2000052514175715455 |archive-date=September 25, 2024 |access-date=September 25, 2024 }}
* {{cite web |last=Kim |first=Ju-won |date=2020 |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |title=북한 신필림영화와 신상옥 부부의 북한탈출 |trans-title=North Korea's Shin Films and Shin Sang-ok and his wife's escape from North Korea |work=] |access-date=July 17, 2024 |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717053851/https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |archive-date=July 17, 2024}} * {{cite web |last=Kim |first=Ju-won |date=2020 |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |title=북한 신필림영화와 신상옥 부부의 북한탈출 |trans-title=North Korea's Shin Films and Shin Sang-ok and his wife's escape from North Korea |work=] |access-date=July 17, 2024 |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717053851/https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |archive-date=July 17, 2024}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G641AQAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari |title=Film & Video Yearbook 1999 |date=May 14, 1999 |series=] |language=ja |via=] |issue=1283 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704035257/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=G641AQAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari&dq=Pulgasari&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwizuJqZgPOGAxW7fPUHHabdAM84ChDoAXoECAwQAg |archive-date=July 4, 2024 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|1999}} }} * {{cite web |url=https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |title=プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣 |trans-title=''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster'' |work=] |access-date=July 31, 2024 |language=ja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801044355/https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''}} }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLlNAQAAIAAJ |title=Issues 1265-1268 |series=] |language=ja |via=] |date=1998 |access-date=August 5, 2024 |quote=プルガサリが、ゴジラというより大魔神なのは、気がつく人はとうに気づいているだろう。|trans-quote=Pulgasari is more like the Daimajin than Godzilla, as those who pay attention have probably already realized. |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|1998}} }}
* {{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rxNAQAAIAAJ |title=Issues 1392-1395 |magazine=] |year=2003 |language=ja |via=] |quote=1985 年、日本、中国、北朝鮮の合作で制作され、 98 年に日本公開された「プルガサリ/伝説の大怪獣」。 |trans-quote=''Pulgasari/The Legendary Giant Monster'' was produced in 1985 as a collaboration between Japan, China, and North Korea, and was released in Japan in 1998. |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|2003}} }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |title=プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣 |trans-title=''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster'' |work=] |access-date=July 31, 2024 |language=ja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801044355/https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} }}
* {{cite web |last=KMDb |url=http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=July 8, 2024 |work=] |publisher=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304014928/http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |archive-date=March 4, 2019 |language=ko }} * {{cite web |last=KMDb |url=http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=July 8, 2024 |work=] |publisher=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304014928/http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |archive-date=March 4, 2019 |language=ko }}
** {{cite web |url=https://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180/credit |title=크레디트 |trans-title=Credits |access-date=August 2, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240802000850/https://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180/credit |archive-date=August 2, 2024 |language=ko }} ** {{cite web |url=https://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180/credit |title=크레디트 |trans-title=Credits |access-date=August 2, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240802000850/https://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180/credit |archive-date=August 2, 2024 |language=ko }}
* {{Cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44a6AAAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari |title=Korea Now |date=2003 |volume=32 |newspaper=] |via=] |ref={{sfnref|''The Korea Herald''|2003}} }}
* {{cite web |last=Korean Film Archive |author-link=Korean Film Archive |url=https://www.koreafilm.or.kr/movie/PM_002095 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=August 1, 2024 |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801234834/https://www.koreafilm.or.kr/movie/PM_002095/ |archive-date=August 1, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Korean Film Archive |author-link=Korean Film Archive |url=https://www.koreafilm.or.kr/movie/PM_002095 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=August 1, 2024 |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801234834/https://www.koreafilm.or.kr/movie/PM_002095/ |archive-date=August 1, 2024 }}
* {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Dong-jin |date=July 18, 2000 |title=민중 위해 싸우는 괴수 '불가사리' |trans-title=''Pulgasari'', a monster fighting for the people |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/07/18/2000071870364.html |work=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240728235532/https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/07/18/2000071870364.html |archive-date=July 28, 2024 |access-date=July 28, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Dong-jin |date=July 18, 2000 |title=민중 위해 싸우는 괴수 '불가사리' |trans-title=''Pulgasari'', a monster fighting for the people |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/07/18/2000071870364.html |work=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240728235532/https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/07/18/2000071870364.html |archive-date=July 28, 2024 |access-date=July 28, 2024 |language=ko |ref={{sfnref|Lee|2000a}} }}
* {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Dong-jin |date=July 19, 2000 |title=‘불가사리’ 22일 선보여 북한영화 첫 개봉… ‘조용한’ 극장가 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' will be shown on the 22nd, making it the first North Korean film released... in a 'quiet' theater district |url=https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1443 |work=NK chosun/] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20241130081551/https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1443 |archive-date=November 30, 2024 |access-date=November 30, 2024 |language=ko |ref={{sfnref|Lee|2000b}} }}
* {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Do-yeon |date=April 29, 2019 |title=무주산골영화제 개막작은 북한 영화 '불가사리' |trans-title=The North Korean film ''Pulgasari'' is the opening film of the Muju Mountain Film Festival |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030040344/https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |archive-date=October 30, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |work=] |language=ko }} * {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Do-yeon |date=April 29, 2019 |title=무주산골영화제 개막작은 북한 영화 '불가사리' |trans-title=The North Korean film ''Pulgasari'' is the opening film of the Muju Mountain Film Festival |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030040344/https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |archive-date=October 30, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |work=] |language=ko }}
* {{Cite web |last=Lind |first=Maria |date=February 18, 2014 |title=Magnus Bärtås |url=https://artreview.com/66-future-greats-magnus-brts/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702034025/https://artreview.com/66-future-greats-magnus-brts/ |archive-date=July 2, 2024 }} * {{Cite web |last=Lucas |first=Mattie |date=April 26, 2024 |url=http://www.fromthefrontrow.net/2024/04/cinema-obscura-pulgasari-1985.html |title=Cinema Obscura <nowiki>|</nowiki> ''Pulgasari'' <nowiki>|</nowiki> 1985 |website=From the Front Row |access-date=November 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507112840/http://www.fromthefrontrow.net/2024/04/cinema-obscura-pulgasari-1985.html |archive-date=May 7, 2024 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite new |last=McCarthy |first=Terry |author-link=Terry McCarthy (journalist) |date=July 17, 1994 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/out-of-korea-it-s-still-quite-a-funny-old-colony-1414595.html |title=Out of Korea: It's still quite a funny old colony |work=] |access-date=November 17, 2024 }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Milner |first=David |date=1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/Cult_Movies_21_1997/ |title=Kenpachiro Satsuma Interview — Take Three |magazine=Cult Movies |issue=21 }}
* {{cite web |last=Mo |first=Eun-yeong |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |language=ko |url=https://www.bifan.kr/program/program_view.asp?pk_seq=3057 |date=2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730000725/https://www.bifan.kr/program/program_view.asp?pk_seq=3057 |archive-date=July 30, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=July 30, 2024 |work=] }} * {{cite web |last=Mo |first=Eun-yeong |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |language=ko |url=https://www.bifan.kr/program/program_view.asp?pk_seq=3057 |date=2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730000725/https://www.bifan.kr/program/program_view.asp?pk_seq=3057 |archive-date=July 30, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=July 30, 2024 |work=] }}
* {{cite web |last=Moxley |first=Mitch |url=http://www.gq.com/story/meet-the-sally-field-of-north-korean-cinema |title=Meet the Sally Field of North Korean Cinema |work=] |date=September 30, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150928184951/http://www.gq.com/story/meet-the-sally-field-of-north-korean-cinema |archive-date=September 28, 2015 |access-date=November 23, 2024 |url-access=limited }}
* {{Cite book |last=Monma |first=Takashi |author-link=:ja:門間貴志 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfEvAQAAIAAJ |title=アジア映画にみる日本 II |trans-title=Japan As Seen in Asian Films II |date=1996 |publisher=] |isbn=9784784509423 |language=ja |via=] |quote=<!--上映は、北朝鮮ではペンディング状態となっている。日本の特撮技術スタッフも参加した怪獣映画『プルガサリ』なども、これまで幾つかの映画祭が日本での招待上映を試みたが、許可されなかった。|trans-quote=The screening is pending in North Korea. Several film festivals have tried to invite the monster movie ''Pulgasari'', which also featured Japanese special effects staff, to Japan for screening, but were not allowed to do so.-->}}
* {{cite web |last=Mun |first=Seok |url=http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=17050 |title=스크린 진기록 대행진 |trans-title=Screen Record Parade (11) |work=] |date=February 6, 2003 |access-date=July 28, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008155638/http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=17050 |archive-date=October 8, 2024 |language=ko }} * {{cite web |last=Mun |first=Seok |url=http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=17050 |title=스크린 진기록 대행진 |trans-title=Screen Record Parade (11) |work=] |date=February 6, 2003 |access-date=July 28, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008155638/http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=17050 |archive-date=October 8, 2024 |language=ko }}
* {{Cite web |title=プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣 |trans-title=''Pulgasari: The Legendary Monster'' (image gallery 2/2) |url=https://natalie.mu/eiga/gallery/film/116501/5288 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624224942/https://natalie.mu/eiga/gallery/film/116501/5288 |archive-date=June 24, 2024 |url-status=live |website=] |language=ja |ref={{refsfn|''Natalie''|2024}} }} * {{Cite web |title=プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣 |trans-title=''Pulgasari: The Legendary Monster'' (image gallery 2/2) |url=https://natalie.mu/eiga/gallery/film/116501/5288 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624224942/https://natalie.mu/eiga/gallery/film/116501/5288 |archive-date=June 24, 2024 |url-status=live |website=] |language=ja |ref={{refsfn|''Natalie''}} }}
* {{Cite web |date=September 22, 2014 |title=映画「ゴジラ」7本で"中の人"を…俳優・薩摩剣八郎さんは今|あの人は今こうしている |trans-title=Actor Kenpachi Satsuma, who played the role of "the man behind the scenes" in seven "Godzilla" movies... What's he up to now? |url=https://www.nikkan-gendai.com/articles/view/geino/153504/3 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |website=] |language=ja |page=3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929235359/http://www.nikkan-gendai.com/articles/view/geino/153504/3 |archive-date=September 29, 2015 |ref={{sfnref|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014}} }} * {{Cite web |date=September 22, 2014 |title=映画「ゴジラ」7本で"中の人"を…俳優・薩摩剣八郎さんは今|あの人は今こうしている |trans-title=Actor Kenpachi Satsuma, who played the role of "the man behind the scenes" in seven "Godzilla" movies... What's he up to now? |url=https://www.nikkan-gendai.com/articles/view/geino/153504/3 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |website=] |language=ja |page=3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929235359/http://www.nikkan-gendai.com/articles/view/geino/153504/3 |archive-date=September 29, 2015 |ref={{sfnref|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014}} }}
* {{Cite web |last=NK chosun |title= 춘향역 장선희 |trans-title=Shin Sang-ok's North Korean Film Story: Chang Sŏnhŭi as Chunhyang |url=https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |access-date=July 17, 2024 |work=] |language=ko |date=October 8, 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717051630/https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |archive-date=July 17, 2024 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|NK chosun|2000b}}}} * {{Cite web |last=NK chosun |title= 춘향역 장선희 |trans-title=Shin Sang-ok's North Korean Film Story: Chang Sŏnhŭi as Chunhyang |url=https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |access-date=July 17, 2024 |work=] |language=ko |date=October 8, 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717051630/https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |archive-date=July 17, 2024 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|NK chosun|2000b}}}}
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* {{Cite web |last=No |first=Sun-dong |date=July 2000 |url=https://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=91684 |title=북한 영화 개봉1호 <불가사리> |trans-title=North Korea's first film release, ''Pulgasari'' |language=ko |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708014624/https://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=91684 |archive-date=July 8, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=July 8, 2024 }} * {{Cite web |last=No |first=Sun-dong |date=July 2000 |url=https://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=91684 |title=북한 영화 개봉1호 <불가사리> |trans-title=North Korea's first film release, ''Pulgasari'' |language=ko |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708014624/https://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=91684 |archive-date=July 8, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=July 8, 2024 }}
* {{cite web |last=Ozaki |first=Kazuo |date=December 3, 2018 |title=監督との対話から見える『グエムル -漢江の怪物-』の輪郭 |trans-title=The outline of ''The Host'' revealed through conversation with the director |url=https://www.thecinema.jp/article/734 |access-date=May 20, 2021 |work=thecinema.jp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517190747/https://www.thecinema.jp/article/734 |archive-date=May 17, 2021 |url-status=live |language=ja}} * {{cite web |last=Ozaki |first=Kazuo |date=December 3, 2018 |title=監督との対話から見える『グエムル -漢江の怪物-』の輪郭 |trans-title=The outline of ''The Host'' revealed through conversation with the director |url=https://www.thecinema.jp/article/734 |access-date=May 20, 2021 |work=thecinema.jp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517190747/https://www.thecinema.jp/article/734 |archive-date=May 17, 2021 |url-status=live |language=ja}}
* {{cite news |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |date=December 19, 2011 |title=''Pulgasari'': Kim Jong Il's Giant Monster Film |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/12/19/143986699/pulgasari-kim-jong-ils-giant-monster-film |access-date=September 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925230942/http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/12/19/143986699/pulgasari-kim-jong-ils-giant-monster-film |archive-date=September 25, 2017 |url-status=live |work=The Two-Way |publisher=] |language=en}}
* {{cite web |last=Power |first=Ed |date=May 30, 2019 |title=''Pulgasari'': the lunatic story behind North Korea's monstrous Godzilla rip-off |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/0/pulgasari-lunatic-story-behind-north-koreas-monstrous-godzilla/ |url-status=live |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117145309/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/0/pulgasari-lunatic-story-behind-north-koreas-monstrous-godzilla/ |archive-date=November 17, 2022 }} * {{cite web |last=Power |first=Ed |date=May 30, 2019 |title=''Pulgasari'': the lunatic story behind North Korea's monstrous Godzilla rip-off |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/0/pulgasari-lunatic-story-behind-north-koreas-monstrous-godzilla/ |url-status=live |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117145309/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/0/pulgasari-lunatic-story-behind-north-koreas-monstrous-godzilla/ |archive-date=November 17, 2022 }}
* {{Cite web |last=Przywara |first=Dennis |date=October 31, 2002 |title=''Pulgasari'' |url=https://filmthreat.com/uncategorized/pulgasari/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702040206/https://filmthreat.com/uncategorized/pulgasari/ |archive-date=July 2, 2024}} * {{Cite web |last=Przywara |first=Dennis |date=October 31, 2002 |title=''Pulgasari'' |url=https://filmthreat.com/uncategorized/pulgasari/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702040206/https://filmthreat.com/uncategorized/pulgasari/ |archive-date=July 2, 2024}}
* {{cite web |last=Raging Thunder |date=February 1999 |url=http://www.raging-thunder.com/head.html |title=レイジング・サンダー・ホームページ |trans-title=Raging Thunder homepage |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990221202736/http://www.raging-thunder.com/head.html |archive-date=February 21, 1999 |access-date=November 25, 2024 }}
* {{cite web |last=Regehr |first=Jonathan |date=November 8, 2016 |title=Classic Movie Review: ''Pulgasari'', a North Korean monster propaganda movie from 1985! |url=https://screenanarchy.com/2016/11/classic-movie-review-pulgasari-a-north-korean-monster-propaganda-movie-from-1985-contrib.html |work=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109173359/http://screenanarchy.com/2016/11/classic-movie-review-pulgasari-a-north-korean-monster-propaganda-movie-from-1985-contrib.html |archive-date=November 9, 2016 |access-date=July 31, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Regehr |first=Jonathan |date=November 8, 2016 |title=Classic Movie Review: ''Pulgasari'', a North Korean monster propaganda movie from 1985! |url=https://screenanarchy.com/2016/11/classic-movie-review-pulgasari-a-north-korean-monster-propaganda-movie-from-1985-contrib.html |work=] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109173359/http://screenanarchy.com/2016/11/classic-movie-review-pulgasari-a-north-korean-monster-propaganda-movie-from-1985-contrib.html |archive-date=November 9, 2016 |access-date=July 31, 2024 }}
* {{cite news |last=Romano |first=Nick |date=April 6, 2015 |title=How Kim Jong Il Kidnapped a Director, Made a Godzilla Knockoff, and Created a Cult Hit. |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/04/pulgasari-north-korea-cult-hit |access-date=September 25, 2017 |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705155941/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/04/pulgasari-north-korea-cult-hit |archive-date=July 5, 2015 |url-status=live}} * {{cite news |last=Romano |first=Nick |date=April 6, 2015 |title=How Kim Jong Il Kidnapped a Director, Made a Godzilla Knockoff, and Created a Cult Hit. |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/04/pulgasari-north-korea-cult-hit |access-date=September 25, 2017 |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705155941/http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/04/pulgasari-north-korea-cult-hit |archive-date=July 5, 2015 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Ross |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Ross |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/sight-and-sound/features/off-the-shelf-korean-cinema-fan-club |title=Off the shelf: Korean Cinema Fan Club |date=November 2, 2021 |work=] |access-date=July 21, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726073218/https://www.bfi.org.uk/sight-and-sound/features/off-the-shelf-korean-cinema-fan-club |archive-date=July 26, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Ross |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Ross |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/sight-and-sound/features/off-the-shelf-korean-cinema-fan-club |title=Off the shelf: Korean Cinema Fan Club |date=November 2, 2021 |work=] |access-date=July 21, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726073218/https://www.bfi.org.uk/sight-and-sound/features/off-the-shelf-korean-cinema-fan-club |archive-date=July 26, 2024 }}
* {{Cite web |last=Satsuma |first=Kenpachiro |author-link=Kenpachiro Satsuma |title=プルガサリ撮影秘話 |trans-title=The Secret Story Behind the Filming of ''Pulgasari'' |publisher=Tokyo Narasaki Research Institute |url=http://www.narasaki-net.com/tokyo/gdpback.htm |date=2007 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828125138/http://www.narasaki-net.com/tokyo/gdpback.htm |archive-date=August 28, 2016 |url-status=live |language=ja }} * {{Cite web |last=Satsuma |first=Kenpachiro |author-link=Kenpachiro Satsuma |title=プルガサリ撮影秘話 |trans-title=The Secret Story Behind the Filming of ''Pulgasari'' |publisher=Tokyo Narasaki Research Institute |url=http://www.narasaki-net.com/tokyo/gdpback.htm |date=2007 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828125138/http://www.narasaki-net.com/tokyo/gdpback.htm |archive-date=August 28, 2016 |url-status=dead |language=ja }}
* {{cite book |last=Schönherr |first=Johannes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6n0itIPmakC&pg=PA81 |title=North Korean Cinema: A History |publisher=] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-6526-2 |via=]}} * {{cite book |last=Schönherr |first=Johannes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6n0itIPmakC&pg=PA82 |title=North Korean Cinema: A History |publisher=] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-6526-2 |via=]}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Shapiro |first=Michael |date=April 2005 |title=A Kim Jong Il Productio |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/a-kim-jong-il-productio |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804212728/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/a-kim-jong-il-productio |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=May 8, 2013 |magazine=] |url-access=subscription}} * {{cite magazine |last=Shapiro |first=Michael |date=April 2005 |title=A Kim Jong Il Productio |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/a-kim-jong-il-productio |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804212728/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/a-kim-jong-il-productio |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=May 8, 2013 |magazine=] |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite web |last=Shim |first=Sun-ah |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20180712007300315 |title=Bucheon Fantastic Film Festival opens 22nd edition |work=] |date=July 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730001623/https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20180712007300315 |archive-date=July 30, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=July 30, 2024}} * {{cite web |last=Shim |first=Sun-ah |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20180712007300315 |title=Bucheon Fantastic Film Festival opens 22nd edition |work=] |date=July 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730001623/https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20180712007300315 |archive-date=July 30, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=July 30, 2024}}
* {{Cite web |last=Shin |first=Hyo-ryeong |date=May 29, 2019 |title=무주산골영화제 개막작, 남 신상옥·북 정건조 '불가사리' |trans-title=Muju Mountain Film Festival Opening Film, Shin Sang-ok and North Korean Chong Gon-jo's ''Pulgasari'' |url=https://www.newsis.com/view/NISX20190429_0000635359 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=] |language=ko |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623213947/https://www.newsis.com/view/NISX20190429_0000635359 |archive-date=June 23, 2024 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite web |last=Shin |first=Hyo-ryeong |date=May 29, 2019 |title=무주산골영화제 개막작, 남 신상옥·북 정건조 '불가사리' |trans-title=Muju Mountain Film Festival Opening Film, Shin Sang-ok and North Korean Chong Gon-jo's ''Pulgasari'' |url=https://www.newsis.com/view/NISX20190429_0000635359 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=] |language=ko |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623213947/https://www.newsis.com/view/NISX20190429_0000635359 |archive-date=June 23, 2024 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Ben |url=https://archive.org/details/apocalypseonsetn0000tayl/ |url-access=limited |title=Apocalypse on the Set: Nine Disastrous Film Productions |date=2 February 2012 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1468300130 }}
* {{Cite web |title=北朝鮮版の【怪獣映画】が想像以上に素晴らしい…! 金正日が国家予算を注いだ傑作の内容とは? |trans-title=North Korea's version of a "''kaiju'' movie" is better than you can imagine! What is the content of this masterpiece that Kim Jong-il poured his national budget into? |url=https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry.html |date=April 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623230908/https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry.html |archive-date=June 23, 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=TOCANA |language=ja |ref={{refsfn|TOCANA|2017}}}}
* {{Cite web |last=Urquhart |first=Jeremy |date=March 17, 2024 |title=10 So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies, Ranked |url=https://collider.com/so-bad-its-good-monster-movies-ranked/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507021435/https://collider.com/so-bad-its-good-monster-movies-ranked/ |archive-date=May 7, 2024 |url-status=live}} * {{Cite web |last=Urquhart |first=Jeremy |date=March 17, 2024 |title=10 So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies, Ranked |url=https://collider.com/so-bad-its-good-monster-movies-ranked/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507021435/https://collider.com/so-bad-its-good-monster-movies-ranked/ |archive-date=May 7, 2024 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |url=https://variety.com/1995/scene/markets-festivals/romanian-counts-prod-n-bounty-99129646/ |title=Romanian counts prod'n bounty |work=] |access-date=July 21, 2024 |date=August 14, 1995 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726220240/https://variety.com/1995/scene/markets-festivals/romanian-counts-prod-n-bounty-99129646/ |archive-date=July 26, 2024 |ref={{refsfn|''Variety''|1995}}}} * {{cite web |url=https://variety.com/1995/scene/markets-festivals/romanian-counts-prod-n-bounty-99129646/ |title=Romanian counts prod'n bounty |work=] |access-date=July 21, 2024 |date=August 14, 1995 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726220240/https://variety.com/1995/scene/markets-festivals/romanian-counts-prod-n-bounty-99129646/ |archive-date=July 26, 2024 |ref={{refsfn|''Variety''|1995}}}}
* {{Cite web |last=WBUR |author-link=WBUR-FM |date=May 16, 2012 |title=The Films That Dictators Loved |url=https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2012/05/16/films-dictators-love |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227072609/https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2012/05/16/films-dictators-love |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |access-date=September 26, 2024}} * {{Cite web |last=WBUR |author-link=WBUR-FM |date=May 16, 2012 |title=The Films That Dictators Loved |url=https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2012/05/16/films-dictators-love |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227072609/https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2012/05/16/films-dictators-love |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |access-date=September 26, 2024}}
* {{Cite web |last=Wiggins |first=Brent |date=October 13, 2022 |title=''Pulgasari'': A Look at the North Korean Kaiju Movie |url=https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125909/https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |website=] }} * {{Cite web |last=Wiggins |first=Brent |date=October 13, 2022 |title=''Pulgasari'': A Look at the North Korean Kaiju Movie |url=https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125909/https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |website=] }}
* {{cite book|last=Yamada|first=Masami|title=大ゴジラ図鑑2|trans-title=Pictorial Book of Godzilla 2|date=December 1995|publisher=]|isbn=4-89425-117-5|language=ja}}
* {{cite web |last=Yonhap News |author-link=Yonhap News Agency |url=https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |title="신상옥씨 영화 北에 저작권 있어" 서울고법, 신감독 항고기각 |trans-title="North Korea owns the copyright to Mr. Shin Sang-ok's movies" Seoul High Court dismisses director Shin's appeal |date=October 19, 1999 |work={{ill|Incheon Ilbo|ko|인천일보}} |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731011544/https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |archive-date=July 31, 2024 |access-date=July 31, 2024 }} * {{cite web |last=Yonhap News |author-link=Yonhap News Agency |url=https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |title="신상옥씨 영화 北에 저작권 있어" 서울고법, 신감독 항고기각 |trans-title="North Korea owns the copyright to Mr. Shin Sang-ok's movies" Seoul High Court dismisses director Shin's appeal |date=October 19, 1999 |work={{ill|Incheon Ilbo|ko|인천일보}} |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731011544/https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |archive-date=July 31, 2024 |access-date=July 31, 2024 }}
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Revision as of 14:34, 23 December 2024

1985 film by Shin Sang-ok

For other uses, see Bulgasari (disambiguation).
Pulgasari
An artwork depicting a horned creature in front of an infernoJapanese VHS flyer
Directed by
Written by
Produced by
Starring
Cinematography
  • Cho Myŏnghyŏn
  • Pak Sŭngho
Edited byKim Ryŏnsun
Music bySŏ Chŏnggŏn
Production
companies
Distributed byTwin (1995)
Raging Thunder (1998)
Release dates
  • January 21, 1995 (1995-01-21) (VHS)
  • July 4, 1998 (1998-07-04) (Tokyo)
Running time95 minutes
Countries
  • North Korea
  • Japan
  • China
LanguageKorean
Budget¥200–300 million
($2–3 million)

Pulgasari is an epic monster film Shin Sang-ok directed and produced in 1985 during his abduction in North Korea. A co-production between North Korea, Japan, and China, it is considered a remake of Bulgasari, a lost 1962 South Korean film that also depicts an eponymous creature from Korean folklore. The ensemble cast includes Chang Sŏnhŭi, Ham Kisŏp, Ri Chongguk, Ri Ingwŏn, and Yu Kyŏngae, with Kenpachiro Satsuma in the title role. Set during the Goryeo dynasty, the film follows a blacksmith's daughter who brings to life a metal-eating monster her late father envisioned to defeat the monarchy.

Shin and his wife, Choi Eun-hee, were in captivity in North Korea since their kidnapping by Kim Jong Il in 1978. Pulgasari was pitched in February 1985 to capitalize on the success of The Return of Godzilla (1984), and became Shin's last film made under Kim Jong Il's orders. Kim Seryun and Ri Chun-gu collaborated on the screenplay. Principal photography took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985, with the Korean People's Army contributing roughly 13,000 extras. North Korean filmmaker Chong Gon-jo allegedly finished the film on behalf of Shin and was given sole director credit. A team of 15 Toho employees handled special effects photography from September to December. With an estimated ¥200–300 million ($2–3 million) budget, Pulgasari was one of the most expensive films ever produced in North Korea.

Pulgasari was previewed at Toho Studios in January 1986 and readied for release in Japan and North Korea later that year. However, the film was banned in March after Shin and Choi escaped North Korean supervision and fled to the United States, where Shin later worked on a remake. Pulgasari eventually debuted on VHS in Japan on January 21, 1995, and had its official premiere in Tokyo on July 4, 1998, to commercial success. According to Cine21, it became the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time. Critical reception in Japan was positive, with many favorable comparisons to Godzilla (1998). Pulgasari has since become the most-widely-seen North Korean film internationally and a cult classic.

Plot

In feudal Korea, toward the end of the Goryeo dynasty, a king strictly controls the land, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. Takse, the finest blacksmith in the land, is imprisoned and forced to starve for defending his people. Shortly before his death, Takse makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation into a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter Ami soon receives the figurine, which springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing. The figurine becomes a metal-eating monster Ami dubs Pulgasari, which is the name of the mythical beast her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel. Pulgasari shares a special bond with Ami; after eating a farmer's tools, it turns into a powerful figure.

The peasants become fed up with being penurious and suffering, and form an army intent on overthrowing the monarchy with the aid of Pulgasari, who has now become gigantic. Imperial generals kidnap Ami and threaten to kill her if Pulgasari does not enter a large cage they have created. The monster lets itself be trapped and is set ablaze to save Ami, but is unharmed. The rebels later storm the palace of the region's Governor and kill him. Soon after, the king becomes aware that a rebellion is being planned in the country and intends to crush it. The king runs into Pulgasari, who wins many battles against his army because of its unending hunger for all kinds of metal, which its enemies readily provide for hostilities.

Eventually, the royal army seemingly kills the creature by burying it under the ground, captures and executes InDe (the rebellion's leader to whom Ami is betrothed), and threatens to kill Ami if she and the rebels do not surrender. After escaping, Ami revives Pulgasari by pouring some of her blood on the burial site. The creature again grows strong and attacks the king's palace, destroying it and killing the king.

After defeating the king, Pulgasari becomes problematic; it starts eating the rebels' weapons and farmers' tools, given to the creature without objection because the peasants still believe it is a benign savior. Ami realizes Pulgasari's hunger will never be sated and that the monster is inadvertently oppressing the people it fought for. She sacrifices herself by hiding inside a large bell that Pulgasari finds and quickly eats. The monster yells in anguish as Ami's presence in its body causes it to turn to stone and crumble into pieces, killing both of them but saving the people.

Cast

  • Chang Sŏnhŭi (장선희) as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter
  • Ham Kisŏp (함기섭) as InDe, Ami's boyfriend
  • Ri Chongguk (리종국) as Ana, Ami's brother
  • Ri Ingwŏn (리인권) as Takse, the blacksmith
  • Pak Yŏnghak (박영학) as the King
  • Ri Ryongun (리룡운) as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary
  • Pak Pongik (박봉익) as the Governor
  • Yu Kyŏngae (유경애) as InDe's mother
  • Ro Hyech'ŏl (로혜철) as InDe's brother
  • Tae Sanghun (태상훈) as a member of the Rebel Forces
  • Kim Kich'ŏn (김기천) as a member of the Rebel Forces
  • Ri Ŏnchŏl (리언철) as a member of the Rebel Forces
  • Kenpachiro Satsuma as Pulgasari (uncredited)

Production

Crew

  • Shin Sang-ok – director and producer (uncredited)
  • Chong Gon-jo (정건조) – director
  • Takeshi Miyanishi [ja] – producer and compositor (uncredited)
  • Ro Tongch'ŏn (로동천) – lighting
  • Ri Inpŏm (리인범) – lighting
  • Ri Toik (리도익) – art director
  • Teruyoshi Nakano – special effects director (uncredited)
  • Pak Ch'ŏnggil (박청길) – special effects art director
  • Yoshio Suzuki [ja] – special effects art director (uncredited)
  • Kim Tŭkho (김득호) – special effects cinematographer
  • Kenichi Eguchi [ja] – special effects cinematographer (uncredited)
  • Kohei Mikami – special effects lighting (uncredited)
  • Nobuyuki Yasumaru [ja] – Pulgasari suit modeler (uncredited)

Development

Further information: Abduction of Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee A photo of Shin Sang-okA photograph of Kim Jong IlShin Sang-ok (pictured in 1964) and Kim Jong Il (2000)

Kim Jong Il, the heir apparent of North Korea, was an admirer of cinema and of South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok, who rose to fame during the 1960s. Kim was reported to have a collection of around 15,000 to 20,000 film titles in his possession. Major new releases from around the globe were typically added to his collection shortly after opening in theaters. In 1978, Kim arranged the kidnapping of Shin and his wife, famed actress Choi Eun-hee, intending for them to make propaganda films to gain North Korean cinema external recognition. Shin was imprisoned for attempting to flee North Korea; he was released from jail in 1983 but forced to work in the country's film industry until he and Choi escaped in 1986. Pulgasari was Shin's seventh directorial effort supported by Kim, his fifth of 1985 (following Love, Love, My Love, Salt, The Tale of Shim Chong, and Breakwater), and his last North Korean production.

The script of Pulgasari was written by Kim Seryun (김세륜) in collaboration with Ri Chun-gu (이춘구); the duo were regarded as the best screenwriters in North Korea at the time. Shin and Miyanishi stated that the film's story is based around Pulgasari or Bulgasari, a creature from Korean folklore. Furthermore, according to retrospective sources, Pulgasari is a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film Bulgasari. The 1962 film—which is now considered lost—was the first-ever Korean film in the kaiju (giant monster) genre, predating Space Monster Wangmagwi and Yongary, Monster from the Deep by five years.

Pulgasari would become a collaboration between the Korean Art Film Studio and Shin Films of North Korea, Toho of Japan, and Beijing Film Studio [zh] of China. Special-effects art director Yoshio Suzuki flew to North Korea on April 20, 1985, to attend the first meeting between the film's Japanese and North Korean crews, with the help of an interpreter. The meeting was held at a studio near the Taedong River that produced films about Kim Il Sung and his family. The studio had been set up as a temporary office for Shin's production team while a larger studio was constructed for the film. The Japanese crew developed the Pulgasari suit at Toho from April 28 to late May, with Nobuyuki Yasumaru in charge of modeling it.

Conception and pre-production

The suit actor Kenpachiro Satsuma stated that the pitch for Pulgasari was submitted in mid-February 1985, and location scouting started in Pyongyang and Beijing that April. The planning of Pulgasari was accredited to Shin, but according to author Paul Fischer, Shin showed no apparent interest in the Japanese kaiju genre and never said who originally conceived the project. Kim Jong Il is said to have been a fan of Toho's Godzilla franchise and saw its 1984 reboot The Return of Godzilla because it was the first in the series to receive a Korean-dubbed release. He reportedly loved the reboot and sought to capitalize on its significant commercial success in Japan by hiring employees from Toho's Tokusatsu (Japanese special effects) department to work on North Korea's own monster movie. Shin recalled Kim’s suggestion to design the monster resembling a cow.

Shin told Suzuki of his alternative plans to set the film in China during the Three Kingdoms period if the historical research and costumes made it match. He also said, if this concept was successful, he would start filming on August 15, 1985, and "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly". Pulgasari was ultimately set in Goryeo but the king's palace was based on the Forbidden City complex in Beijing. The special effects crew referred to it as the Hall of Supreme Harmony during production.

Twenty-one-year-old Chang Sŏnhŭi, who had previously starred in Love, Love, My Love, played the lead in Pulgasari. Chang was a trainee flight attendant who met Shin at Pyongyang International Airport, and was immediately asked to become a full-time employee at Shin Films. Through his Japanese office, Shin invited 15 of Toho's special-effects-sector staff, including Satsuma and Nakano, to work on the film. Kim had reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of Godzilla in The Return of Godzilla and demanded he play Pulgasari. Satsuma accepted an invitation to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production. Satsuma allegedly became the first foreigner to appear in a North Korean film.

Filming

Principal photography took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985 while special-effects photography was done from September to December. Cho Myŏnghyŏn (조명현) and Pak Sŭngho (박승호) served as the film's main cinematographers. Satsuma later said the film had a budget of ¥200–300 million (equivalent to $2–3 million), making it one of the largest and most-expensive North Korean productions to date. Some sources described its production budget as "unlimited", that it was supported by the Korean People's Army, and featured 13,000 extras. In regards to the extras and military, Satsuma commented:

I think, you can get any North Korean people to appear in a film for free. Shin Sang-ok told me that you can have as many people as you want for the extra scenes. The military would go and fetch the people and they would come. So, it wasn't a matter of money at all in that sense.

According to Shin, Kim Jong Il was "very supportive" of Pulgasari's production despite never being present during filming. For Shin to create the film, Kim ordered the construction of Munsu Studio, an immense complex described by Satsuma as a "state of the art film studio", which covered approximately 20,000 pyeong. The facility had four studios—the largest two each covered 400 pyeong while the other two were 200 pyeong—six screening rooms, six recording studios, around 300 waiting rooms, and other spaces to store art equipment. Munsu Studio was still in development when it was used for special effects photography.

During an interview with author Johannes Schönherr, Satsuma said Shin was present on set a few times and was "extremely busy and ... often absent". Furthermore, Fischer claimed that Satsuma only spoke to Shin once during production and asked him whether he would ever return to South Korea, to which Shin replied: "It would be too complicated, politically, to go back". According to Satsuma and some South Korean reports, Chong Gon-jo substituted for Shin towards the end of filming.

Special effects

A photo of the entrance to Beijing Film Studio in China
The Beijing Film Studio [zh] in China (pictured in 2022) where the scene of Pulgasari destroying the king's palace was filmed.

In mid-September 1985, before departing Japan, the Japanese crew filmed the Pulgasari suit wandering around a miniature village in Studio 9 at Toho Studios, but this footage was omitted from the film's final cut. Satsuma and an assistant director flew from Tokyo to Beijing via Shanghai on China Airlines Flight 930 on September 11, 1985. On September 14, they began working at Beijing Film Studio to prepare the miniature palace and set for the film's climax, which the Chinese crew had already been creating. Conflict between the two crews soon arose; the Chinese believed the Japanese team "just walked in and started damaging the set that we put our heart and soul into building for three months". Satsuma mentioned he was "impressed that the Chinese government could allow such an ambitious filming, even if it was just a movie" when talking about the destruction of the palace in the Pulgasari suit for the film.

After spending two weeks shooting in Beijing, the Toho team traveled to Pyongyang to complete the two months of special effects photography. According to Satsuma, upon arrival in North Korea, their passports were confiscated "for our own safety". He and the other Japanese were kept for one-and-a-half months as guests at Kim's villa, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated room with a bed, a television, a bookshelf, and a radio. One of the Japanese employees said their rooms were bugged; this was allegedly evident when one of them, while alone in his room, was talking to himself about how he missed drinking Japanese beer, only to discover the next day it had been added to his refrigerator. Kim often visited the villa but refused to meet the Japanese guests and avoided them.

On-site filming in North Korea became challenging for the special effects team, due in part to electrical constraints and equipment theft. Satsuma and Eiichi Asada [ja] noted that the windows in Shin's studio had no glass, with the former adding that this environment "felt like mid-winter". They also filmed some scenes on a hill behind the Korean Art Film Studio rather than inside that facility. Satsuma named a scene in which Pulgasari rises over a hill while the rebels and king's army fight below the "Marusan", which he said is the name of the mound at which they filmed it.

Post-production

Post-production partly took place in Japan and concluded in December 1985. Miyanishi continued working on the film in North Korea for over a month after the rest of the Toho crew returned to Japan. Kim Ryŏnsun (김련순) edited the film and Sŏ Chŏnggŏn (서정건) composed the score. Kim Jong Il was purportedly reluctant to publicize Shin was the director. Accordingly, only the North Korean staff was credited within the film; Chong received sole directorial credit.

Release

Distribution

A poster featuring a monster and three Goryeo-period imperial generals. Credits are printed in English on the left; Shin Sang Ok is credited for "planning" and Chong Gon-jo is credited as the director, and Chang Sŏnhŭi and Ham Kisŏp are mentioned as cast members. The film's title is printed in English as "Pulgasary" in the top right corner.
An English-language poster published in the 1994 edition of Kenpachiro Satsuma's book Godzilla's View of North Korea.

Pulgasari was intended to receive an international release. Satsuma noted that Pulgasari was lauded upon its first screening at Toho Studios in January 1986. On February 16, Shin, under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, flew to Berlin to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival. The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated an unidentified major enterprise had acquired Pulgasari for Japanese distribution; Satsuma said Shin agreed with a Japanese company representing North Korea and an Osaka-based distributor to release the film in Japan on home video and in theaters. Michihiro Amano of the Japanese website Tocana said it was prepared for release to celebrate Kim Il Sung's birthday (occurring on April 15). As many retrospective sources have stated, the film was, however, banned when Shin and Choi escaped their North Korean supervisors in Vienna on March 12, 1986, and subsequently fled to the United States. American home video distributor ADV Films claimed that Pulgasari was "banned by the North Korean government for its anti-communism leanings". Some have suggested that the film has consequently never been shown in North Korea. Contrarily, Fischer contended that it was released in North Korea a few weeks after Shin's escape and achieved financial success. Steven Chung explains in his 2014 book Split Screen Korea: Shin Sang-ok and Postwar Cinema that "it is not clear whether the film was released publicly in North Korea ... though there is some indication that it was screened for Kim Jong Il and other cultural and news officials."

Satsuma attributed the film's eventual release to Kim Jong Il assuming the role of North Korea's Supreme Leader in 1994. On January 21, 1995, the Japanese home video distributor Twin released Pulgasari on VHS in Japan; according to its flyer, this release was the film's first public distribution in any format. The VHS copy of the film could only be purchased by mail order per the distribution agreement. Although Twin's president Yoshimitsu Yoshitsuru claimed to have acquired permission from Shin for the release, Kinema Junpo and Amano later said this release was piracy. The film's official debut took place in Tokyo at the Kineca Ōmori theater on July 4, 1998; it remained playing there until September due to high demand. Later that year, Raging Thunder released it in several other Japanese cinemas and on home video, with optional Japanese subtitles or dubbing.

South Korea

In November 1998, Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation (MBC) announced it would broadcast Pulgasari on its television channel in 1999. Shin later accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against it, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting Pulgasari and Love, Love, My Love in South Korea. The following year, Judge Shin Jeong-chi [ko] of Seoul High Court dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that although Shin held the moral rights to the films, the North Korean production company owned the broadcasting rights.

Park Jie-won of the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism said in May 2000 that Pulgasari had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement as part of the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration. On July 22 that same year, Pulgasari became the first North Korean film to be distributed in South Korean theaters. The same month, Sisa Journal reported its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire screen quotas.

Pulgasari was screened at the 22nd Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival in July 2018. On June 5 of the following year, it opened the seventh Muju Film Festival.

Other territories

In 2001, A.D. Vision distributed Pulgasari on VHS in the United States through its subsidiary Rubbersuit Productions. The film had its New York premiere in 2006 as part of Columbia University's year-long "Godzilla festival". It later received several additional screenings in the US, the United Kingdom, and Canada; and was shown in Paris at the Jeu de Paume museum in April 2015. The film has also become available for viewing on YouTube.

Box office

The film achieved several Japanese box-office records, attracting around 18,000 attendees during its theatrical run at Kineca Ōmori. In 2018, Ju Seong-cheol of Cine21 stated Pulgasari outperformed TriStar's Godzilla (1998) in Japan and held the record for the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time.

In South Korea, Pulgasari opened in 50 theaters, and was a box-office bomb, drawing under 1,000 theatergoers. Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to remove the film within the first week of its release. Johannes Schönherr cited reasonings by contemporaneous publications on its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese kaiju films released there and the lack of interest from adolescents in low-budget special effects.

Reception

Critical response

Japanese critics widely praised Pulgasari. Jun Edoki [ja], one of the film's main advocates, referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate". According to the Choson Sinbo, Japanese reviewers positively compared Pulgasari to Godzilla (1998) at the time, saying Pulgasari is not "sophisticated" like Godzilla and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days". Similarly, Lee Dong-jin of the South Korean newspaper The Chosun Ilbo compared Pulgasari's technical prowess to Godzilla (1998); he wrote Pulgasari "feels a bit old, but is a fun work that cutely mixes drama and spectacle".

Reviewing the film's initial American video release, Film Threat noted its background and said it should have been parodied in an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000.

Participants' response

Satsuma later said he adored Pulgasari and that he fondly remembered performing in it, deeming it to be the "most memorable work in long acting career". In 1988, Bungeishunjū published a book written by Satsuma titled Godzilla's View of North Korea, which details his experiences of working on the film; the book was also published in April 1994. He told Choson Sinbo in 1998 his favorite scene in the film was the one in which the titular monster is caged and set ablaze, and that he wanted to return to North Korea to work on a sequel. The Daily Telegraph also said Satsuma considered the film to be better than Godzilla (1998).

In 2005, Shin told The New Yorker he believed the film's special effects were outdated. According to Fischer, Kim Jong Il considered Pulgasari to be a masterpiece. Likewise, Takeshi Miyanishi called it a "good movie" and considered it among the best films he had worked on.

Interpretations

According to Johannes Schönherr, there has been some speculation Shin included a hidden message in Pulgasari. The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for Kim Il Sung betraying a revolution for his own purposes and as a plea to the North Korean people to rise against the Kim regime. Some believe this is represented by Pulgasari demanding his subjects feed him more iron, even after the monarchy has been defeated, leading to the workers rebelling against and defeating their savior. Shin rejected interpretations that the film contains a message on North Korea's contemporaneous class conflict. In his late life, he explained that Pulgasari was rather meant as a plea for pacifism, a warning against nuclear war. A 2019 article quoted Shin saying: "It was a pure monster film, I didn't put any ideology in it".

Remake

Main article: Galgameth

In 1995, under the alias Simon Sheen, Shin worked on an American remake of Pulgasari. Galgameth (1996), which was directed by Sean McNamara and written by Michael Angeli, tells the story of a young prince who is aided by a benevolent monster, reclaiming his deceased father's medieval kingdom. Shin said Galgameth, along with The Gardener (1998), "caused a big financial loss".

Legacy

Pulgasari is now considered a cult classic. Modern sources have stated it has become the most-widely-seen North Korean movie worldwide and Shin's best-known work, partly due to its involvement in his abduction by North Korea. According to Fischer, the film "defined career and changed his life".

Since its US premiere in 2001, Western reviewers and kaiju fans have frequently mocked the film, according to Schönherr. In a 2015 retrospective, Fischer described it as Shin's worst film. A 2016 review on Screen Anarchy called it propaganda, and solely praised Shin's efforts and the monster's depiction. Simon Fowler of The Guardian ranked it the third-best North Korean film ever made but noted: "it's to get lost in the ridiculousness of it all". Jonathan Ross said Pulgasari was among the few North Korean films he had seen, and described it as an "enjoyably campy kaiju flick". In March 2024, Collider ranked the film tenth on its "10 Best So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies" list, and Vulture called it "quite bad as a film"; both websites said its behind-the-scenes story is more fascinating than the film itself. A 2024 retrospective by Mattie Lucas suggested that Pulgasari was more evocative of The Golem: How He Came into the World (1920) than the Godzilla series, which it is commonly compared to. She also believed it was a worthy homage to the kaiju genre, despite noting that it may contain controversial ideology.

In 2013, filmmaker Anna Broinowski mentioned Pulgasari as the standout among the films that she had seen while making a documentary on North Korean cinema titled Aim High In Creation.

Notes

  1. Korean: 불가사리; RRBulgasari; MRPulgasari. The film was released in Japan as Giant Monster Pulgasari (Japanese: 大怪獣プルガサリ, Hepburn: Daikaijū Purugasari) and Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster (Japanese: プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣, Hepburn: Purugasari: Densetsu no Daikaijū) in 1995 and 1998, respectively. Its title has also been spelled Pulgasary.
  2. ^ Many publications have claimed that Chong Gon-jo was the assistant director and finished the film on behalf of Shin. However, The New Yorker contended that his name was merely used to replace Shin's in the credits. Shin maintained to have directed the film himself. Satsuma reinforced this by articulating that Shin was the de facto director and Chong was his assistant. Nonetheless, he counted: "I think in the latter half of the shooting, he gave Chong Gon-jo some rein to finish the film." Lee Dong-jin of the The Chosun Ilbo alleged that Shin directed around 80% of Pulgasari.
  3. Pulgasari was not, however, their final collaboration altogether. In the time leading up to his escape, Shin was preparing a film inspired by The Conqueror (1956) for Kim. Takeshi Miyanishi recalled that he started working with Shin to prepare another film immediately after Pulgasari, but decided to back out.
  4. Korean film importer SN21 Enterprises claimed in a 1999 trial that Shin Films was a distributor based in Vienna, not one of the film's North Korean production companies.
  5. In a 1994 interview, Satsuma asserted that Kim also produced the film. Some modern sources cite Kim as an executive producer.

References

Footnotes

  1. Genres attributed to the following sources:
  2. Attributed to multiple references:
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Citations

  1. ^ Satsuma 2007.
  2. ^ 1995 Japanese flyer, p. 1.
  3. ^ Natalie. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNatalie (help)
  4. ^ Associated Press 1994, p. 3.
  5. ^ McCarthy 1994.
  6. ^ Milner 1997, p. 44.
  7. ^ ADV Films 2000, p. n40.
  8. Becker 2005, p. 138.
  9. ^ Fowler 2014.
  10. ^ 1995 Japanese flyer, p. 2.
  11. ^ Kinema Junpo.
  12. ^ Przywara 2002.
  13. ^ Cho.
  14. ^ Romano 2015.
  15. ^ Power 2019.
  16. ^ KMDb.
  17. ^ Choson Sinbo 1998b.
  18. ^ Jin 1999.
  19. ^ Mo 2018.
  20. ^ Shapiro 2005.
  21. ^ Izumi 2013.
  22. Edwards 2007, pp. 210, 213.
  23. ^ Schönherr 2012, p. 84.
  24. ^ Shim 2018.
  25. ^ Edwards 2007, p. 213.
  26. ^ Lee 2019.
  27. ^ Shin 2019.
  28. ^ NK chosun 2000a.
  29. ^ Lee 2000b.
  30. ^ Homenick 2024.
  31. ^ Jackson-Han 2006.
  32. ^ Wiggins 2022.
  33. ^ Amano 2017.
  34. ^ Evans 2013.
  35. ^ Gourevitch 2003.
  36. ^ WBUR 2012.
  37. ^ Moxley 2014.
  38. ^ Kim 2020.
  39. ^ Gorenfeld 2003.
  40. Choe 2006.
  41. ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 285.
  42. ^ Grebey 2024.
  43. Choe 2002.
  44. ^ Kim 2000.
  45. Mun 2003.
  46. ^ Ozaki 2018.
  47. ^ Lee 2000a.
  48. ^ Choson Sinbo 1998a.
  49. ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 283.
  50. ^ NK chosun 2000b.
  51. ^ Korean Film Archive.
  52. Edwards 2007, p. 211.
  53. ^ Edwards 2007, p. 215.
  54. ^ Atsumi 2016.
  55. ^ Urquhart 2024.
  56. Fischer 2015a, p. 286.
  57. ^ Homenick 2022.
  58. ^ Daily Shincho 2023. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDaily_Shincho2023 (help)
  59. Edwards 2007, p. 212.
  60. Edwards 2007, p. 214.
  61. Cheung 2014.
  62. Fischer 2015a, p. 294.
  63. ^ Milner 1997, p. 45.
  64. Fischer 2015a, pp. 303–304.
  65. Chung 2014, p. 199.
  66. Raging Thunder 1999.
  67. Choe 1998.
  68. ^ Choe 2000.
  69. ^ Yonhap News 1999.
  70. ^ No 2000.
  71. ^ Ju 2018.
  72. ^ Schönherr 2012, p. 148.
  73. BBC 2018.
  74. Edwards 2007, p. 197.
  75. Jeu de Paume 2015.
  76. ^ Lucas 2024.
  77. ^ Nikkan Gendai 2014, p. 3.
  78. Edwards 2007, p. 220.
  79. ^ Fischer 2015b.
  80. ^ Schönherr 2012, p. 83.
  81. Variety 1995. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVariety1995 (help)
  82. ^ Edwards 2007, pp. 169–170.
  83. Schönherr 2012, pp. 82, 84.
  84. Fischer 2015a, p. 282.
  85. Edwards 2007, p. 168.
  86. ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 287.
  87. Regehr 2016.
  88. Ross 2021.

Works cited

External links

Films directed by Shin Sang-ok
Kim Jong Il
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