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| | term_start = 30 January 1592<ref>http://www.jgray.org/codes/1917CIC.txt {{Bare URL plain text|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.papalencyclicals.net/pius12/p12layap.htm|title = Guiding Principles of the Lay Apostolate|date = 5 October 1957}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiS4eZsQyCwC|title = The Law of the Church: A Cyclopaedia of Canon Law for English-speaking Countries|last1 = Taunton|first1 = Ethelred Luke|year = 1906}}</ref> | | term_start = 30 January 1592<ref>http://www.jgray.org/codes/1917CIC.txt {{Bare URL plain text|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.papalencyclicals.net/pius12/p12layap.htm|title = Guiding Principles of the Lay Apostolate|date = 5 October 1957}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiS4eZsQyCwC|title = The Law of the Church: A Cyclopaedia of Canon Law for English-speaking Countries|last1 = Taunton|first1 = Ethelred Luke|year = 1906}}</ref> | ||
| | term_end = 3 March 1605 |
| term_end = 3 March 1605 | ||
| | predecessor = ] | | predecessor = ] | ||
| | successor = ] | | successor = ] | ||
| | ordination = 31 December 1580 | | ordination = 31 December 1580 | ||
| | ordained_by = | | ordained_by = | ||
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| | birth_place = ], ], ] | | birth_place = ], ], ] | ||
| | death_date = {{death date and age |1605|3|3|1536|2|24|df=y}} | | death_date = {{death date and age |1605|3|3|1536|2|24|df=y}} | ||
| | death_place = ], |
| death_place = ], Papal States | ||
| | previous_post = {{Indented plainlist| | | previous_post = {{Indented plainlist| | ||
| * ] ( |
* ] (1569) | ||
| * ] (1585–1592) | |||
| * ] (1586–1592) | |||
| * ] (1586–1592) | |||
| * Legate ''a latere'' in Poland (1588–1589) | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| | coat_of_arms = C o a Clementem VIII.svg | | coat_of_arms = C o a Clementem VIII.svg | ||
| | signature = Signature of Pope Clement VIII.svg | |||
| | other = Clement | | other = Clement | ||
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| '''Pope Clement VIII''' ({{ |
'''Pope Clement VIII''' ({{langx|la|Clemens VIII}}; {{langx|it|Clemente VIII}}; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born '''Ippolito Aldobrandini''', was head of the ] and ruler of the ] from 2 February 1592 to his death, in March 1605. | ||
| Born in Fano, Italy<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father/clemente-viii.html|title=Clement VIII|website=w2.vatican.va}}</ref> to a prominent ] family, he initially came to prominence as a ]yer before being made a ] in 1585. In 1592 he was ] and took the name of Clement. During his papacy he effected the reconciliation of ] to the Catholic faith and was instrumental in setting up an alliance of ] nations to oppose the ] in the so-called ]. He also successfully adjudicated in a bitter dispute between the ] and the ] on the issue of ] and ]. In 1600 he presided over a ] which saw many pilgrimages to ]. He presided over the trial and execution of ] and |
Born in Fano, Italy<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father/clemente-viii.html|title=Clement VIII|website=w2.vatican.va}}</ref> to a prominent ] family, he initially came to prominence as a ]yer before being made a ] in 1585. In 1592 he was ] and took the name of Clement. During his papacy he effected the reconciliation of ] to the Catholic faith and was instrumental in setting up an alliance of ] nations to oppose the ] in the so-called ]. He also successfully adjudicated in a bitter dispute between the ] and the ] on the issue of ] and ]. In 1600 he presided over a ] which saw many pilgrimages to ]. He presided over the trial and execution of ] and implemented strict measures against Jewish residents of the Papal States. According to some accounts, he may have been the first pope to drink coffee, and his approval thereof may have led to its popularization. | ||
| Clement VIII died at the age of 69 in 1605 and his remains now rest in the Roman church of ]. | Clement VIII died at the age of 69 in 1605 and his remains now rest in the Roman church of ]. | ||
| ==Early life== | ==Early life== | ||
| He was from a ] family, and followed his father as a ]yer, becoming an ] (judge) of the ], the highest ] constituted by the ].<ref>''See'' ], ap. con. ''Pastor Bonus'' art. 121, 80 Acta Apostolicae Sedis 841 (1988) (noting that the ] is the supreme tribunal).</ref> He was only ordained as a priest on 31 December 1580 at the age of 45 and became pope on 2 February 1592 when he was not yet 56. He was an effective, if sometimes rigorous, administrator. | He was baptized on 4 March at the cathedral of Fano. He was from a ] family, one of eight sons and one daughter of ] and wife Lesa Deti, and followed his father as a ]yer, becoming an ] (judge) of the ], the highest ] constituted by the ].<ref>''See'' ], ap. con. ''Pastor Bonus'' art. 121, 80 Acta Apostolicae Sedis 841 (1988) (noting that the ] is the supreme tribunal).</ref> He was only ordained as a priest on 31 December 1580 at the age of 45 and became pope on 2 February 1592 when he was not yet 56. He was an effective, if sometimes rigorous, administrator. | ||
| ==Cardinal== | ==Cardinal== | ||
| ], ] (Paris)]] | ], ] (Paris)]] | ||
| He was made ] of ] in 1585 by ], who named him ] in January 1586 and in 1588 sent him as legate in ]. He placed himself under the spiritual direction of the reformer ], who for thirty years was his confessor. Aldobrandini won the gratitude of the ]s by his ] in Poland to obtain the release of the imprisoned ], the defeated |
He was made ] of ] in 1585 by ], who named him ] in January 1586 and in 1588 sent him as ] in ]. He placed himself under the spiritual direction of the reformer Saint ], who for thirty years was his confessor. Aldobrandini won the gratitude of the ]s by his ] in Poland to obtain the release of the imprisoned ], the defeated candidate for the Polish throne.<ref name="Loughlin">{{Catholic|title=Pope Clement VIII|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04027a.htm|last=Loughlin|first=James|volume=4|year=1908|access-date=3 September 2014|inline=1}}</ref> | ||
| After the death of ] (1591), ] ensued, in which a determined minority of Italian Cardinals were unwilling to be dictated to by ]. Known to be very intelligent, disciplined, and in tune with the inner workings of the Church,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://baroque.trinity.duke.edu/items/show/404| title = "Pope Clement VIII," Italian Baroque Art, Duke University}}</ref> Cardinal Aldobrandini was elected on 30 January 1592, as a portent of more balanced and liberal Papal policy in European affairs. He took the non-politicised name Clement VIII. He proved to be an able Pope, with an unlimited capacity for work, and a lawyer's eye for detail. He was a wise statesman, the general object of whose policy was to free the Papacy from its dependence upon ].<ref name=Loughlin/> | After the death of ] (1591), ] ensued, in which a determined minority of Italian Cardinals were unwilling to be dictated to by ]. Known to be very intelligent, disciplined, and in tune with the inner workings of the Church,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://baroque.trinity.duke.edu/items/show/404| title = "Pope Clement VIII," Italian Baroque Art, Duke University}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Cardinal Aldobrandini was elected on 30 January 1592, as a portent of more balanced and liberal Papal policy in European affairs. He took the non-politicised name Clement VIII. He proved to be an able Pope, with an unlimited capacity for work, and a lawyer's eye for detail. He was a wise statesman, the general object of whose policy was to free the Papacy from its dependence upon ].<ref name=Loughlin/> | ||
| ==Ecclesiastical matters== | ==Ecclesiastical matters== | ||
| Line 57: | Line 62: | ||
| === Clementine Vulgate === | === Clementine Vulgate === | ||
| {{Main|Sixto-Clementine Vulgate}}{{See also|Sixtine Vulgate|Nova Vulgata}} | {{Main|Sixto-Clementine Vulgate}}{{See also|Sixtine Vulgate|Nova Vulgata}} | ||
| In November 1592, he published the Clementine Vulgate.<ref name="Metzger">{{Cite book|title=The Early Versions of the New Testament|last=Metzger|first=Bruce M.|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1977|location=Oxford|pages=349|author-link=Bruce M. Metzger}}</ref> It was issued with the Bull '' |
In November 1592, he published the Clementine Vulgate.<ref name="Metzger">{{Cite book|title=The Early Versions of the New Testament|last=Metzger|first=Bruce M.|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1977|location=Oxford|pages=349|author-link=Bruce M. Metzger}}</ref> It was issued with the Bull ''Cum Sacrorum'' (9 November 1592)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vulsearch.sourceforge.net/html/index.html#constitutio|title=Vulgata Clementina|website=vulsearch.sourceforge.net|access-date=2019-09-17|archive-date=2018-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610012037/http://vulsearch.sourceforge.net/html/index.html#constitutio|url-status=dead}}</ref> which asserted that every subsequent edition must be assimilated to this one, that no word of the text could be changed, and that not even variant readings could be printed in the margin.<ref name="Scrivener65">{{Cite book|title=A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament|last=Scrivener|first=Frederick Henry Ambrose|author2=Edward Miller|publisher=]|year=1894|edition=4|volume=2|location=London|page=65|author-link=Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener|title-link=A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament}}</ref> This new official version of the Vulgate, known as the Clementine Vulgate''<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/reformationofbib0000peli|url-access=registration|title=The reformation of the Bible, the Bible of the Reformation|last=Pelikan|first=Jaroslav Jan|date=1996|publisher=Yale University Press|others=Dallas : Bridwell Library ; Internet Archive|location=New Haven|pages=, 98|chapter=1 : Sacred Philology ; Catalog of Exhibition |isbn=9780300066678|author-link=Jaroslav Pelikan}}</ref> ''or Sixto-Clementine Vulgate'',<ref name=":8" /><ref name="gerace225">{{Cite journal|last=Gerace|first=Antonio|date=2016|title=Francis Lucas 'of Bruges' and Textual Criticism of the Vulgate before and after the Sixto-Clementine (1592)|url=https://limo.libis.be/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=LIRIAS1883326&context=L&vid=Lirias&search_scope=Lirias&tab=default_tab&lang=en_US&fromSitemap=1|journal=Journal of Early Modern Christianity|volume=3|issue=2|pages=201–237|doi=10.1515/jemc-2016-0008|s2cid=193547960|via=]}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>'' became and remained the official Bible of the ] until the '']'' replaced it in 1979.''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CXQqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 |title=The Latin New Testament: A Guide to Its Early History, Texts, and Manuscripts|last=Houghton|first=H. A. G.|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780198744733|pages=132–133|language=en}}</ref>'' | ||
| ===''De Auxiliis'' controversy=== | ===''De Auxiliis'' controversy=== | ||
| In 1597, he established the ] which was to settle the theological controversy between the ] and the ] concerning the respective role of ] and ]. Although the debate tended toward a condemnation of ]'s insistence on free will to the detriment of efficacious grace, the important influence of the Jesuit Order — among other considerations — which, beside important political and theological power in Europe, had also various missions abroad (] in South America, ], etc.), led the Pope to abstain from an official condemnation of the Jesuits. In 1611 and again in 1625 a decree prohibited any discussion of the matter, although it was often informally |
In 1597, he established the ] which was to settle the theological controversy between the ] and the ] concerning the respective role of ] and ]. Although the debate tended toward a condemnation of ]'s insistence on free will to the detriment of efficacious grace, the important influence of the Jesuit Order — among other considerations — which, beside important political and theological power in Europe, had also various missions abroad (] in South America, ], etc.), led the Pope to abstain from an official condemnation of the Jesuits. In 1611 and again in 1625 a decree prohibited any discussion of the matter, although it was often informally skirted by the publication of commentaries on ]. | ||
| ===Jubilee of 1600=== | ===Jubilee of 1600=== | ||
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| ===Consistories=== | ===Consistories=== | ||
| {{main|Cardinals created by Clement VIII}} | {{main|Cardinals created by Clement VIII}} | ||
| The pope created 53 cardinals in six consistories during his pontificate; he named his two nephews ] and ] as cardinals. Notable cardinals named during his reign included |
The pope created 53 cardinals in six consistories during his pontificate; he named his two nephews ] and ] as cardinals. Notable cardinals named during his reign included Camillo Borghese (his successor ]) as well as the noted theologians ] and ]. | ||
| ==Foreign relations== | ==Foreign relations== | ||
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| ===Relations with France and Spain=== | ===Relations with France and Spain=== | ||
| ]<br /><small>({{circa|1601}}, ])</small>]] | ]<br /><small>({{circa|1601}}, ])</small>]] | ||
| The most remarkable event of Clement VIII's reign was the reconciliation to the Church of ] (1589–1610), after long negotiations, carried on with great dexterity through Cardinal ], that resolved the complicated situation in France. Henry embraced Catholicism on 25 July 1593. After a pause to assess Henry IV's sincerity, Clement VIII braved Spanish displeasure, and in the autumn of 1595 he solemnly absolved Henry IV, thus putting an end to the thirty years' religious war in |
The most remarkable event of Clement VIII's reign was the reconciliation to the Church of ] (1589–1610), after long negotiations, carried on with great dexterity through Cardinal ], that resolved the complicated situation in ]. Henry embraced Catholicism on 25 July 1593. After a pause to assess Henry IV's sincerity, Clement VIII braved ] displeasure, and in the autumn of 1595 he solemnly absolved Henry IV, thus putting an end to the thirty years' ] in France.<ref name=Loughlin/> | ||
| Henry IV's friendship was of essential importance to the papacy two years later, when ], ], died childless (27 October 1597), and the pope resolved to attach the stronghold of the ] family to the states of the Church. Though Spain and the ] encouraged Alfonso II's illegitimate cousin, ], to withstand the pope, they were deterred from giving him any material aid by Henry IV's threats, and a |
Henry IV's friendship was of essential importance to the papacy two years later, when ], ], died childless (27 October 1597), and the pope resolved to attach the stronghold of the ] family to the states of the Church. Though Spain and the Emperor ] encouraged Alfonso II's illegitimate cousin, ], to withstand the pope, they were deterred from giving him any material aid by Henry IV's threats, and a Papal army entered ] almost unopposed.<ref name=Loughlin/> | ||
| In 1598 Clement VIII won more credit for the papacy by bringing about a definite treaty of peace between Spain and France in the ],<ref name=Loughlin/> which put an end to their long contest; he negotiated peace between France and ] as well. | In 1598 Clement VIII won more credit for the papacy by bringing about a definite treaty of peace between Spain and France in the ],<ref name=Loughlin/> which put an end to their long contest; he negotiated peace between France and the ] as well. | ||
| ===Long War=== | ===Long War=== | ||
| {{main|Holy League of Pope Clement VIII|Long Turkish War}} | {{main|Holy League of Pope Clement VIII|Long Turkish War}} | ||
| In 1594, Clement VIII initiated an alliance of Christian European powers to take part in the war with the Ottoman Empire, fought mainly in ], which would become known as the " |
In 1594, Clement VIII initiated an alliance of Christian European powers to take part in the war with the ], fought mainly in ], which would become known as the "Long Turkish War" and continue past Clement's own lifetime. Facilitated by the pope, a treaty of alliance was signed in ] by ] and ] of ]. ] of ] and ] of Wallachia joined the alliance later that year. Clement VIII himself lent the Emperor valuable assistance in men and money.<ref name=Loughlin/> | ||
| ==Internal policies== | ==Internal policies== | ||
| ===Law enforcement=== | ===Law enforcement=== | ||
| Clement VIII was as vigorous as ] (1585–90) in crushing banditry in the |
Clement VIII was as vigorous as ] (1585–90) in crushing banditry in the Papal provinces of ] and the ] and in punishing the lawlessness of the ].<ref name=Loughlin/> Upon his ascension to the Papal throne in 1592, he immediately had several noble troublemakers put to death. These included most famously Troio Savelli, scion of a powerful ancient Roman family, and the youthful and noble ], who had murdered her father – probably as a consequence of his repeated abuses. The latter case prompted many requests of clemency – rejected by the Pope, who passed the confiscated Cenci property to his own family. | ||
| Clement's strict ways also concerned philosophical and religious matters. In 1599 he had the Italian miller ] – who had formed the belief that God was not eternal but had Himself once been created out of chaos – tried by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. A more famous case was the trial for ] of ], who was ] in 1600. Pope Clement VIII participated personally in the final phases of the trial, inviting the ] in charge of the case to proceed with the verdict. | Clement's strict ways also concerned philosophical and religious matters. In 1599 he had the Italian miller ] – who had formed the belief that God was not eternal but had Himself once been created out of chaos – tried by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. A more famous case was the trial for ] of ], who was ] in 1600. Pope Clement VIII participated personally in the final phases of the trial, inviting the ] in charge of the case to proceed with the verdict. | ||
| ===Anti-Jewish measures=== | ===Anti-Jewish measures=== | ||
| Clement VIII tightened measures against the Jewish inhabitants of his territories. In 1592, the ] '']'' forbade the Jewish community of the ] of ], a |
Clement VIII tightened measures against the Jewish inhabitants of his territories. In 1592, the ] '']'' forbade the Jewish community of the ] of ], a Papal enclave, to sell new goods, putting them at an economic disadvantage. In 1593, the bull '']'' reiterated ]'s decree of 1569 which banned Jews from living in the Papal States outside the cities of Rome, ], and Avignon. The main effect of the bull was to evict Jews who had returned to areas of the Papal States (mainly ]) after 1586 (following their expulsion in 1569) and to expel Jewish communities from cities like ] (which had been incorporated under papal dominion since 1569).<ref name="foa">{{cite book |last1=Foa |first1=Anna |last2=Grover |first2=Andrea |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBchbFySf-UC&pg=PA117 |title=The Jews of Europe After the Black Death |publisher=University of California Press |page=117 |isbn=978-0520087651 }}</ref> The bull also alleged that Jews in the Papal States had engaged in ] and exploited the hospitality of Clement VIII's predecessors "who, in order to lead them from their darkness to knowledge of the true faith, deemed it opportune to use the clemency of Christian piety towards them" (alluding to ''Christiana pietas'').<ref name="frag">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nh4DG4AsTuUC&pg=PA182 |pages=182–183 |title=Church, Censorship and Culture in Early Modern Italy |isbn=9780521661720 |last1=Fragnito |first1=Gigliola |last2=Mozzarelli |first2=Cesare |last3=Oresko |first3=Robert |date=2001-09-06 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> With the bull ''Cum Hebraeorum malitia'' a few days later, Clement VIII also forbade the reading of the ].<ref>S. Wendehorst, "Katholische Kirche und Juden in der Frühen Neuzeit" 1.3 "Zensur des Talmud", following Willchad Paul Eckert, "Catholizmus zwischen 1580 und 1848" in Karl Heinrich Rengstorf and Siegfried Kortzfleisch, eds. ''Kirche und Sinagoge'' II (Stuttgart, 1970) p. 232.</ref> | ||
| ==Later life and death== | ==Later life and death== | ||
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| {{See also|History of coffee}} | {{See also|History of coffee}} | ||
| ] aficionados often claim that the spread of its popularity among Catholics is due to Pope Clement VIII's influence. |
] aficionados often claim that the spread of its popularity among Catholics is due to Pope Clement VIII's influence. According to the legend, there was opposition to coffee as "Satan's drink",<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ukers|first=William H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YkftDQAAQBAJ&q=coffee+beverage+of+the+devil&pg=PT24|title=All about Coffee: A History of Coffee from the Classic Tribute to the World's Most Beloved Beverage|date=2012|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781440556326|language=en}}</ref> leading to the pope's advisors asking him to denounce the beverage. However, upon tasting coffee, Pope Clement VIII declared: "Why, this Satan's drink is so delicious that it would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it."<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/01/10/144988133/drink-coffee-off-with-your-head| title = Cole, Adam. "Drink Coffee? Off With Your Head!", ''Salt'', NPR, January 17, 2012| website = NPR| date = 17 January 2012| last1 = Cole| first1 = Adam}}</ref> Clement allegedly blessed the bean because it appeared better for the people than alcoholic beverages.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401222223/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/coffee.jsp |date=April 1, 2016 }}</ref> The year often cited is 1600. It is not clear whether this is a true story, but it may have been found amusing at the time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coffee Facts and Statistics|url=http://www.professorshouse.com/food-beverage/beverages/coffee-facts-statistics.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601194012/http://www.professorshouse.com/food-beverage/beverages/coffee-facts-statistics.aspx|archive-date=2010-06-01|access-date=2010-06-08}}</ref> | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Clement 08}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:Clement 08}} | ||
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Latest revision as of 17:11, 23 December 2024
Head of the Catholic Church from 1592 to 1605 Not to be confused with Antipope Clement VIII.| Pope Clement VIII | |
|---|---|
| Bishop of Rome | |
 Portrait by an unknown Italian artist, 17th century | |
| Church | Catholic Church |
| Papacy began | 30 January 1592 |
| Papacy ended | 3 March 1605 |
| Predecessor | Innocent IX |
| Successor | Leo XI |
| Previous post(s) |
|
| Orders | |
| Ordination | 31 December 1580 |
| Consecration | 2 February 1592 by Alfonso Gesualdo di Conza |
| Created cardinal | 18 December 1585 by Sixtus V |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Ippolito Aldobrandini 24 February 1536 Fano, Marche, Papal States |
| Died | 3 March 1605(1605-03-03) (aged 69) Rome, Papal States |
| Signature |  |
| Coat of arms |  |
| Other popes named Clement | |
| Papal styles of Pope Clement VIII | |
|---|---|
| |
| Reference style | His Holiness |
| Spoken style | Your Holiness |
| Religious style | Holy Father |
Pope Clement VIII (Latin: Clemens VIII; Italian: Clemente VIII; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 2 February 1592 to his death, in March 1605.
Born in Fano, Italy to a prominent Florentine family, he initially came to prominence as a canon lawyer before being made a Cardinal-Priest in 1585. In 1592 he was elected Pope and took the name of Clement. During his papacy he effected the reconciliation of Henry IV of France to the Catholic faith and was instrumental in setting up an alliance of Christian nations to oppose the Ottoman Empire in the so-called Long War. He also successfully adjudicated in a bitter dispute between the Dominicans and the Jesuits on the issue of efficacious grace and free will. In 1600 he presided over a jubilee which saw many pilgrimages to Rome. He presided over the trial and execution of Giordano Bruno and implemented strict measures against Jewish residents of the Papal States. According to some accounts, he may have been the first pope to drink coffee, and his approval thereof may have led to its popularization.
Clement VIII died at the age of 69 in 1605 and his remains now rest in the Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore.
Early life
He was baptized on 4 March at the cathedral of Fano. He was from a Florentine family, one of eight sons and one daughter of Silvestro Aldobrandini and wife Lesa Deti, and followed his father as a canon lawyer, becoming an Auditor (judge) of the Roman Rota, the highest ecclesiastical court constituted by the Holy See. He was only ordained as a priest on 31 December 1580 at the age of 45 and became pope on 2 February 1592 when he was not yet 56. He was an effective, if sometimes rigorous, administrator.
Cardinal
He was made Cardinal-Priest of S. Pancrazio in 1585 by Pope Sixtus V, who named him major penitentiary in January 1586 and in 1588 sent him as Papal legate in Poland. He placed himself under the spiritual direction of the reformer Saint Philip Neri, who for thirty years was his confessor. Aldobrandini won the gratitude of the Habsburgs by his successful diplomatic efforts in Poland to obtain the release of the imprisoned Archduke Maximilian, the defeated candidate for the Polish throne.
After the death of Pope Innocent IX (1591), another stormy conclave ensued, in which a determined minority of Italian Cardinals were unwilling to be dictated to by Philip II of Spain. Known to be very intelligent, disciplined, and in tune with the inner workings of the Church, Cardinal Aldobrandini was elected on 30 January 1592, as a portent of more balanced and liberal Papal policy in European affairs. He took the non-politicised name Clement VIII. He proved to be an able Pope, with an unlimited capacity for work, and a lawyer's eye for detail. He was a wise statesman, the general object of whose policy was to free the Papacy from its dependence upon Spain.
Ecclesiastical matters
Clementine Vulgate
Main article: Sixto-Clementine VulgateSee also: Sixtine Vulgate and Nova VulgataIn November 1592, he published the Clementine Vulgate. It was issued with the Bull Cum Sacrorum (9 November 1592) which asserted that every subsequent edition must be assimilated to this one, that no word of the text could be changed, and that not even variant readings could be printed in the margin. This new official version of the Vulgate, known as the Clementine Vulgate or Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, became and remained the official Bible of the Catholic Church until the Nova Vulgata replaced it in 1979.
De Auxiliis controversy
In 1597, he established the Congregatio de Auxiliis which was to settle the theological controversy between the Dominican Order and the Jesuits concerning the respective role of efficacious grace and free will. Although the debate tended toward a condemnation of Molinism's insistence on free will to the detriment of efficacious grace, the important influence of the Jesuit Order — among other considerations — which, beside important political and theological power in Europe, had also various missions abroad (Misiones Jesuiticas in South America, missions in China, etc.), led the Pope to abstain from an official condemnation of the Jesuits. In 1611 and again in 1625 a decree prohibited any discussion of the matter, although it was often informally skirted by the publication of commentaries on Thomas Aquinas.
Jubilee of 1600
During the jubilee of 1600, three million pilgrims visited the holy places. The Synod of Brest was held 1595 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, by which a great part of the Ruthenian clergy and people were reunited to Rome.
Canonisations and beatifications
Clement VIII canonised Hyacinth (17 April 1594), Julian of Cuenca (18 October 1594), and Raymond of Peñafort (1601). He beatified 205 individuals, 200 of them being group martyrs; notable individuals he named as Blessed included Carlo Borromeo.
Consistories
Main article: Cardinals created by Clement VIIIThe pope created 53 cardinals in six consistories during his pontificate; he named his two nephews Pietro and Cinzio Passeri as cardinals. Notable cardinals named during his reign included Camillo Borghese (his successor Pope Paul V) as well as the noted theologians Robert Bellarmine and Caesar Baronius.
Foreign relations
Relations with France and Spain
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(c. 1601, J. Paul Getty Museum)
The most remarkable event of Clement VIII's reign was the reconciliation to the Church of Henry IV of France (1589–1610), after long negotiations, carried on with great dexterity through Cardinal Arnaud d'Ossat, that resolved the complicated situation in France. Henry embraced Catholicism on 25 July 1593. After a pause to assess Henry IV's sincerity, Clement VIII braved Spanish displeasure, and in the autumn of 1595 he solemnly absolved Henry IV, thus putting an end to the thirty years' religious war in France.
Henry IV's friendship was of essential importance to the papacy two years later, when Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, died childless (27 October 1597), and the pope resolved to attach the stronghold of the Este family to the states of the Church. Though Spain and the Emperor Rudolf II encouraged Alfonso II's illegitimate cousin, Cesare d'Este, to withstand the pope, they were deterred from giving him any material aid by Henry IV's threats, and a Papal army entered Ferrara almost unopposed.
In 1598 Clement VIII won more credit for the papacy by bringing about a definite treaty of peace between Spain and France in the Peace of Vervins, which put an end to their long contest; he negotiated peace between France and the Duchy of Savoy as well.
Long War
Main articles: Holy League of Pope Clement VIII and Long Turkish WarIn 1594, Clement VIII initiated an alliance of Christian European powers to take part in the war with the Ottoman Empire, fought mainly in Hungary, which would become known as the "Long Turkish War" and continue past Clement's own lifetime. Facilitated by the pope, a treaty of alliance was signed in Prague by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania. Aron Vodă of Moldavia and Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined the alliance later that year. Clement VIII himself lent the Emperor valuable assistance in men and money.
Internal policies
Law enforcement
Clement VIII was as vigorous as Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) in crushing banditry in the Papal provinces of Umbria and the Marche and in punishing the lawlessness of the Papal nobility. Upon his ascension to the Papal throne in 1592, he immediately had several noble troublemakers put to death. These included most famously Troio Savelli, scion of a powerful ancient Roman family, and the youthful and noble Beatrice Cenci, who had murdered her father – probably as a consequence of his repeated abuses. The latter case prompted many requests of clemency – rejected by the Pope, who passed the confiscated Cenci property to his own family.
Clement's strict ways also concerned philosophical and religious matters. In 1599 he had the Italian miller Menocchio – who had formed the belief that God was not eternal but had Himself once been created out of chaos – tried by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. A more famous case was the trial for heresy of Giordano Bruno, who was burned at the stake in 1600. Pope Clement VIII participated personally in the final phases of the trial, inviting the Cardinals in charge of the case to proceed with the verdict.
Anti-Jewish measures
Clement VIII tightened measures against the Jewish inhabitants of his territories. In 1592, the papal bull Cum saepe accidere forbade the Jewish community of the Comtat Venaissin of Avignon, a Papal enclave, to sell new goods, putting them at an economic disadvantage. In 1593, the bull Caeca et Obdurata reiterated Pope Pius V's decree of 1569 which banned Jews from living in the Papal States outside the cities of Rome, Ancona, and Avignon. The main effect of the bull was to evict Jews who had returned to areas of the Papal States (mainly Umbria) after 1586 (following their expulsion in 1569) and to expel Jewish communities from cities like Bologna (which had been incorporated under papal dominion since 1569). The bull also alleged that Jews in the Papal States had engaged in usury and exploited the hospitality of Clement VIII's predecessors "who, in order to lead them from their darkness to knowledge of the true faith, deemed it opportune to use the clemency of Christian piety towards them" (alluding to Christiana pietas). With the bull Cum Hebraeorum malitia a few days later, Clement VIII also forbade the reading of the Talmud.
Later life and death
Clement VIII was afflicted by gout, using a wheelchair by the late 1590s, and was forced to spend much of his later life immobilized in bed. He suddenly became ill on 10 February 1605 and his condition rapidly deteriorated over the next few weeks. He died on 3 March 1605 around midnight, leaving a reputation for prudence, munificence, ruthlessness and capacity for business. Clement was buried in St. Peter's Basilica, and later Pope Paul V (1605–21) had a mausoleum built for him in the Borghese Chapel of Santa Maria Maggiore, where his remains were transferred in 1646.
His reign is especially distinguished by the number and beauty of his medals. Clement VIII founded the Collegio Clementino for the education of the sons of the richer classes, and augmented the number of national colleges in Rome by opening the Collegio Scozzese for the training of missionaries to Scotland.
Coffee
See also: History of coffeeCoffee aficionados often claim that the spread of its popularity among Catholics is due to Pope Clement VIII's influence. According to the legend, there was opposition to coffee as "Satan's drink", leading to the pope's advisors asking him to denounce the beverage. However, upon tasting coffee, Pope Clement VIII declared: "Why, this Satan's drink is so delicious that it would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it." Clement allegedly blessed the bean because it appeared better for the people than alcoholic beverages. The year often cited is 1600. It is not clear whether this is a true story, but it may have been found amusing at the time.
See also
- Giovanni Aldobrandini, his older brother, who was a cardinal
- Sixto-Clementine Vulgate
- Cardinals created by Clement VIII
References
- http://www.jgray.org/codes/1917CIC.txt
- "Guiding Principles of the Lay Apostolate". 5 October 1957.
- Taunton, Ethelred Luke (1906). "The Law of the Church: A Cyclopaedia of Canon Law for English-speaking Countries".
- "Clement VIII". w2.vatican.va.
- See John Paul II, ap. con. Pastor Bonus art. 121, 80 Acta Apostolicae Sedis 841 (1988) (noting that the Apostolic Signatura is the supreme tribunal).
- ^
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Loughlin, James (1908). "Pope Clement VIII". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
- ""Pope Clement VIII," Italian Baroque Art, Duke University".
- Metzger, Bruce M. (1977). The Early Versions of the New Testament. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 349.
- "Vulgata Clementina". vulsearch.sourceforge.net. Archived from the original on 2018-06-10. Retrieved 2019-09-17.
- Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose; Edward Miller (1894). A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament. Vol. 2 (4 ed.). London: George Bell & Sons. p. 65.
- ^ Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan (1996). "1 : Sacred Philology ; Catalog of Exhibition ". The reformation of the Bible, the Bible of the Reformation. Dallas : Bridwell Library ; Internet Archive. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 14, 98. ISBN 9780300066678.
- Gerace, Antonio (2016). "Francis Lucas 'of Bruges' and Textual Criticism of the Vulgate before and after the Sixto-Clementine (1592)". Journal of Early Modern Christianity. 3 (2): 201–237. doi:10.1515/jemc-2016-0008. S2CID 193547960 – via KULeuven.
- Houghton, H. A. G. (2016). The Latin New Testament: A Guide to Its Early History, Texts, and Manuscripts. Oxford University Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 9780198744733.
- Foa, Anna; Grover, Andrea (2000). The Jews of Europe After the Black Death. University of California Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0520087651.
- Fragnito, Gigliola; Mozzarelli, Cesare; Oresko, Robert (2001-09-06). Church, Censorship and Culture in Early Modern Italy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN 9780521661720.
- S. Wendehorst, "Katholische Kirche und Juden in der Frühen Neuzeit" 1.3 "Zensur des Talmud", following Willchad Paul Eckert, "Catholizmus zwischen 1580 und 1848" in Karl Heinrich Rengstorf and Siegfried Kortzfleisch, eds. Kirche und Sinagoge II (Stuttgart, 1970) p. 232.
- Hunt, John M. (2016). The Vacant See in Early Modern Rome: A Social History of the Papal Interregnum. Brill. p. 74.
- Ukers, William H. (2012). All about Coffee: A History of Coffee from the Classic Tribute to the World's Most Beloved Beverage. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781440556326.
- Cole, Adam (17 January 2012). "Cole, Adam. "Drink Coffee? Off With Your Head!", Salt, NPR, January 17, 2012". NPR.
- Wallin, Nils-Bertil. "Coffee: A Long Way From Ethiopia", Yale Global, November 5, 2002 Archived April 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- "Coffee Facts and Statistics". Archived from the original on 2010-06-01. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
External links
- Collier, Theodore Freylinghuysen (1911). "Clement s.v. Clement VIII." . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 486.
- Mons. Jouin, "The Holy See and the Jews", from Révue International des Societés, 1918
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