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{{short description|Systematic removal of a certain ethnic or religious group}} | |||
{{Other uses}} | |||
{{use mdy dates|date=September 2017}} | |||
{{discrimination sidebar}} | {{discrimination sidebar}} | ||
] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]] | |||
'''Ethnic cleansing''' is the systematic forced removal of ] or religious groups from a given territory with the intent of creating a territory inhabited by people of a homogeneous or pure ethnicity, religion, culture, and history. The forces applied may be various forms of ] (], ]), as well as ], and intimidation. | |||
'''Ethnic cleansing''' is the systematic forced removal of ], ], or ] groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically ]. Along with direct removal such as ] or ], it also includes indirect methods aimed at ] by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction.<ref name=UN/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walling |first1=Carrie Booth |title=The history and politics of ethnic cleansing |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights |date=2000 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=47–66 |doi=10.1080/13642980008406892 |s2cid=144001685 |quote=Most frequently, however, the aim of ethnic cleansing is to expel the despised ethnic group through either indirect coercion or direct force, and to ensure that return is impossible. Terror is the fundamental method used to achieve this end.<br />Methods of indirect coercion can include: introducing repressive laws and discriminatory measures designed to make minority life difficult; the deliberate failure to prevent mob violence against ethnic minorities; using surrogates to inflict violence; the destruction of the physical infrastructure upon which minority life depends; the imprisonment of male members of the ethnic group; threats to rape female members, and threats to kill. If ineffective, these indirect methods are often escalated to coerced emigration, where the removal of the ethnic group from the territory is pressured by physical force. This typically includes physical harassment and the expropriation of property. Deportation is an escalated form of direct coercion in that the forcible removal of 'undesirables' from the state's territory is organised, directed and carried out by state agents. The most serious of the direct methods, excluding genocide, is murderous cleansing, which entails the brutal and often public murder of some few in order to compel flight of the remaining group members.13 Unlike during genocide, when murder is intended to be total and an end in itself, murderous cleansing is used as a tool towards the larger aim of expelling survivors from the territory. The process can be made complete by revoking the citizenship of those who emigrate or flee.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schabas |first1=William A. |title='Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions |journal=European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online |date=2003 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/221161104X00075 |quote=The Commission considered techniques of ethnic cleansing to include murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extrajudicial executions, sexual assault, confinement of civilian populations in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian populations, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>The danger of overstretching the term can be avoided...The goal of ethnic cleansing is to permanently remove a group from the area it inhabits...There is a popular dimension to ethnic cleansing because there are people needed to threaten with violence, to evict homes, organize mass transports, and to prevent the return of the unwanted...The main goal of ethnic cleansing was the removal of a group from a certain territory ''The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History''. (2012). United Kingdom: OUP Oxford.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Joireman |first1=Sandra Fullerton |title=Peace, preference, and property : return migration after violent conflict |publisher=University of Michigan |page=49 |quote=Violent conflict changes communities. "Returnees painfully discover that in their period of absence the homeland communities and their identities have undergone transformation, and these ruptures and changes have serious implications for their ability to reclaim a sense of home upon homecoming." The first issue in terms of returning home is usually the restoration of property, specifically the return or rebuilding of homes. People want their property restored, often before they return. But home means more than property, it also refers to the nature of the community. Anthropological literature emphasizes that time and the experience of violence changes people's sense of home and desire to return, and the nature of their communities of origin. To sum up, previous research has identified factors that influence decisions to return: time, trauma, family characteristics and economic opportunities. |author-link=Sandra Joireman}}</ref> Both the definition and charge of ethnic cleansing is often disputed, with some researchers including and others excluding ] or mass killings as a means of depopulating an area of a particular group.{{sfn|Bulutgil|2018|p=1136}}<ref name=Garrity/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirby-McLemore |first1=Jennifer |title=Settling the Genocide v. Ethnic Cleansing Debate: Ending Misuse of the Euphemism Ethnic Cleansing |journal=Denver Journal of International Law and Policy |date=2021–2022 |volume=50 |page=115 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/denilp50&div=11&id=&page=}}</ref> | |||
Ethnic cleansing is usually accompanied with the efforts to remove physical and cultural evidence of the targeted group in the territory through the destruction of homes, social centers, farms, and infrastructure, and by the desecration of monuments, cemeteries, and places of worship. | |||
Although scholars do not agree on which events constitute ethnic cleansing,<ref name=Garrity>{{cite journal |last1=Garrity |first1=Meghan M |title='Ethnic Cleansing': An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity |journal=Political Science Quarterly |date=27 September 2023 |volume=138 |issue=4 |pages=469–489 |doi=10.1093/psquar/qqad082}}</ref> ] throughout history. The term was first used to describe ] treatment of the ] in the 1980s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who first coined the euphemism "ethnic cleansing" for racial murder and persecution? Surely it must have been a dictator? {{!}} Notes and Queries {{!}} guardian.co.uk |url=https://www.theguardian.com/notesandqueries/query/0,,-2894,00.html |access-date=2024-09-13 |website=www.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Howe |first=Marvine |date=12 July 1982 |title=Exodus of Serbians stirs province in Yugoslavia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/12/world/exodus-of-serbians-stirs-province-in-yugoslavia.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180317141650/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/12/world/exodus-of-serbians-stirs-province-in-yugoslavia.html |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date= |work=The New York Times |pages=8}}</ref> and entered widespread use during the ] in the 1990s. Since then, the term has gained widespread acceptance due to journalism.{{sfn|Thum|2010|p=75|ps=: way. Despite its euphemistic character and its origin in the language of the perpetrators, 'ethnic cleansing' is now the widely accepted scholarly term used to describe the systematic and violent removal of undesired ethnic groups from a given territory.}} Although research originally focused on deep-rooted animosities as an explanation for ethnic cleansing events, more recent studies depict ethnic cleansing as "a natural extension of the homogenizing tendencies of ]" or emphasize security concerns and the effects of ], portraying ethnic tensions as a contributing factor. Research has also focused on the role of war as a causative or potentiating factor in ethnic cleansing. However, states in a similar strategic situation can have widely varying policies towards minority ethnic groups perceived as a security threat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bulutgil |first1=H. Zeynep |title=The state of the field and debates on ethnic cleansing |journal=Nationalities Papers |date=2018 |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=1136–1145 |doi=10.1080/00905992.2018.1457018|s2cid=158519257 }}</ref> | |||
Initially used by the perpetrators during the ] and cited in this context as a euphemism akin to that of the "]", by the 1990s the term gained widespread acceptance in academic discourse in its generic meaning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Thum |first1= Gregor |year= 2006–2007 |title= Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945 |journal= Contemporary European History |volume= 19 |issue=1 |pages= 75–81 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309990257 |url= }}</ref> | |||
Ethnic cleansing has no legal definition under ], but the methods by which it is carried out are considered ] and may also fall under the ].<ref name=UN>{{cite web |publisher=United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect |title=Ethnic cleansing|url=https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/ethnic-cleansing.shtml |website=United Nations |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |title=Crimes Against Humanity: A Beginner's Guide |date=2012 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-146-8 |language=en |chapter='Ethnic cleansing' and genocide}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schabas |first1=William A. |title='Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions |journal=European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online |date=2003 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/221161104X00075 |quote='Ethnic cleansing' is probably better described as a popular or journalistic expression, with no recognized legal meaning in a technical sense... 'ethnic cleansing' is equivalent to deportation,' a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions as well as a crime against humanity, and therefore a crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal. |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
==Ethnic cleansing vs. genocide== | |||
== Etymology == | |||
The crimes committed during an ethnic cleansing are similar to those of ], but while genocide includes an intent at complete or partial destruction of the target group, ethnic cleansing may involve murder only to the point of mobilizing the target group out of the territory. Hence there may be varied degrees of mass murder in an ethnic cleansing, often subsiding when the target group appears to be leaving the desired territory, while during genocide the mass murder is ubiquitous and constant throughout the process, continuing even while the target group tries to flee.<ref name="SCRes780-Report">Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to ] (1992), May 27, 1994 (), English page=33, Paragraph 130</ref><ref></ref> | |||
]. The ] aimed to reduce the number of Armenians to below 5–10% of the population in any part of the ], which resulted in the elimination of a million Armenians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akçam |first1=Taner |author1-link=Taner Akcam |title=] |date=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15333-9 |language=en |chapter=Demographic Policy and the Annihilation of the Armenians|quote=The thesis being proposed here is that the Armenian Genocide was not implemented solely as demographic engineering, but also as destruction and annihilation, and that the 5 to 10 percent principle was decisive in achieving this goal. Care was taken so that the number of Armenians deported to Syria, and those who remained behind, would not exceed 5 to 10 percent of the population of the places in which they were found. Such a result could be achieved only through annihilation... According to official Ottoman statistics, it was necessary to reduce the prewar population of 1.3 million Armenians to approximately 200,000.}}</ref>]] | |||
] leave ] in 1947 during the ], which followed the ]]] | |||
An antecedent to the term is the Greek word {{lang|grc-Latn|andrapodismos}} ({{lang|grc|ἀνδραποδισμός}}; lit. "enslavement"), which was used in ancient texts. e.g., to describe atrocities that accompanied ]'s ] in 335 ].<ref name="Booth">{{cite book|year=2012|title=The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions|editor-last=Booth|editor-first=Ken |first=Carrie |last=Booth Walling |contribution=The History and Politics of Ethnic Cleansing|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1-13633-476-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4MsBgAAQBAJ|page=48}}</ref> The ] from Spain between 1609 and 1614 is considered by some authors to be one of the first episodes of state-sponsored ethnic cleansing in the modern western world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Saldanha |first1=Arun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bRvAAAAQBAJ&q=ethnic+cleansing&pg=PA51 |title=Deleuze and Race |date=2012 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-6961-5 |pages=51, 70 |language=en}}</ref> ], who coined the term "genocide", considered the ] by American settlers as a historical example of genocide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonnell |first1=M. A. |last2=Moses |first2=A. D. |author2-link=A. Dirk Moses |date=2005 |title=Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas |journal=] |volume=7 |pages=501–529 |doi=10.1080/14623520500349951 |s2cid=72663247 |number=4}}</ref> Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sousa |first=Ashley |date=2016 |title=Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/soh.2016.0023 |journal=Journal of Southern History |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=135–136 |doi=10.1353/soh.2016.0023 |s2cid=159731284 |issn=2325-6893}}</ref> Circassian genocide, also known as "]", is often regarded by various historians as the first large-scale ethnic cleansing campaign launched by a state during the 19th century ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA |pages=66|chapter=3: From War to Genocide}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |isbn= 1-84511-057-9 | title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide |year=2005|pages=298–302|chapter=6: Declining Powers |publisher=175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010}}</ref> ] general ], who supervised the operations of ] during 1860s, dehumanised Muslim Circassians as "a pestilence" to be expelled from their native lands. Russian objective was the annexation of land; and the Russian military operations that forcibly deported Circassians were designated by Yevdakimov as “''ochishchenie''” (cleansing).<ref name="Richmond 2013 96, 97"/> | |||
Ethnic cleansing is not to be confused with ]; however, academic discourse considers both as existing in a spectrum of assaults on nations or religio-ethnic groups. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced deportation or population transfer whereas genocide is the intentional murder of part or all of a particular ethnic, religious, or national group.<ref name=Schabas></ref> Some academics consider genocide as a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing."<ref name=Mann></ref> Thus, these concepts are different, but related; "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people."<ref name=MassVio></ref> | |||
In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs ({{lang|cs|očista}}), the Poles ({{lang|pl|czystki etniczne}}), the French ({{lang|fr|épuration}}) and the Germans ({{lang|de|Säuberung}}).<ref>{{cite book |first=Philipp |last=Ther |editor1-first=Rainer |editor1-last=Munz |editor2-first=Rainer |editor2-last=Ohliger |year=2004 |title=Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Russia in Comparative Perspective |chapter=The Spell of the Homogeneous Nation State: Structural Factors and Agents of Ethnic Cleansing |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-13575-938-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ |access-date=August 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110924/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ |archive-date=January 26, 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} A 1913 ] report condemning the actions of all participants in the ] contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|title=The Two Carnegie Reports: From the Balkan Expedition of 1913 to the Albanian Trip of 1921|first=Nadine|last=Akhund|date=December 31, 2012|journal=Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires|volume=XIVb|issue=1–2|doi=10.4000/balkanologie.2365|via=balkanologie.revues.org|access-date=April 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404043111/https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|archive-date=April 4, 2017|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
Synonyms include ''ethnic purification''.<ref>Drazen Petrovic, , ''European Journal of International Law'', Vol. No. 3. Retrieved May 20, 2006.</ref> | |||
] following the end of World War II]] | |||
==Definitions== | |||
During the ] in ], ] pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was "cleaned of Jews" ({{lang|de|]}}<!-- lower case because it's an adjective -->).<ref>{{cite book|first=Mary|last=Fulbrooke|year=2004|title=A Concise History of Germany|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-52154-071-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|page=197|access-date=August 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110933/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|archive-date=January 26, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The Nazi {{lang|de|]}} called for the genocide and ethnic cleansing of most ] in central and eastern Europe for the purpose of providing more ] for the Germans.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eichholtz |first=Dietrich |title='Generalplan Ost' zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker |trans-title='General Plan East' for the enslavement of Eastern European peoples |journal=Utopie Kreativ |volume=167 |date=September 2004 |via=] |pages=800–808 |language=de |url=https://www.rosalux.de/publikation/id/3303/utopie-kreativ-167/}}</ref> During the ], the euphemism {{lang|hr|čišćenje terena}} ("cleansing the terrain") was used by the Croatian ] to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely systematically killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes.<ref name="Toal">{{cite book|last1=Toal|first1=Gerard|last2=Dahlman|first2=Carl T.|title=Bosnia Remade: Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-973036-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|page=3|access-date=March 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706230527/http://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|archive-date=July 6, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Richard |last=West|year=1994|title=Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7867-0332-6|page=93}}</ref> The term was also used in the December 20, 1941 directive of Serbian ] in reference to the ] against ] and ] between 1941 and 1945.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edina|last=Becirevic|year=2014|title=Genocide on the River Drina|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-3001-9258-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|pages=22–23|access-date=August 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110928/https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|archive-date=January 26, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian phrase {{lang|ru|очистка границ}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|ochistka granits}}; lit. "cleansing of borders") was used in ] documents of the early 1930s to refer to the ] from the {{convert|22|km|adj=on}} ] in the ] and ].{{Citation needed|reason=Not in the source provided for the next sentence|date=August 2021}} This process of the ] was repeated on an even larger scale in 1939–1941, involving many other groups suspected of disloyalty.<ref name="martin"/> | |||
]'' refers to the slaughter of tens of thousands of Greeks on the island of Chios by ] troops in 1822.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dadrian |first=Vahakn N. |title=Warrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian Conflict |location=New Brunswick |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1999 |page=153 |isbn=1-56000-389-8 }}</ref>]] | |||
], at least 750,000 Palestinians were ] from what is now Israel.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Nakba did not start or end in 1948 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/5/23/the-nakba-did-not-start-or-end-in-1948 |work=Al Jazeera |date=23 May 2017}}</ref>]] | |||
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to ] defined ethnic cleansing as "a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas."<ref name="SCRes780-Report"/> In its previous, first interim report it noted, "ased on the many reports describing the policy and practices conducted in the former ], 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, ] and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention."<ref>Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to ] (1992), May 27, 1994 (), English page=33, Paragraph 129</ref> | |||
In its complete form, the term appeared for the first time in the Romanian language ({{lang|ro|purificare etnică}}) in an address by Vice Prime Minister ] to cabinet members in July 1941. After the beginning of the ],{{clarify|date=October 2017}} he concluded: "I do not know when the Romanians will have such chance for ethnic cleansing."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethnopolitical Temptations Reach Southeastern Europe: Wartime Policy Papers of Vasa Čubrilović and Sabin Manuilă|last=Petrovic|first=Vladimir|publisher=CEU Press|year=2017}}</ref> In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term "etnicheskoye chishcheniye" which literally translates to "ethnic cleansing" to describe Azerbaijani efforts to drive Armenians away from ].<ref>Allen, Tim, and Jean Seaton, eds. ''The media of conflict: War reporting and representations of ethnic violence''. Zed Books, 1999. p. 152</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feierstein |first=Daniel |date=2023-04-04 |title=The Meaning of Concepts: Some Reflections on the Difficulties in Analysing State Crimes |url=https://ojs.ub.rub.de/index.php/HARM/article/view/10453 |journal=HARM – Journal of Hostility, Aggression, Repression and Malice |volume=1 |doi=10.46586/harm.2023.10453 |issn=2940-3073 |quote=The concept seems to have been borrowed from the Slavic expression etnicheskoye chishcheniye, first used by Soviet authorities in the 1980s to describe Azeri attempts to expel Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh area, and then immediately reappropriated by Serb nationalists to describe their policies in the central region of Yugoslavia.}}</ref><ref>Cox, Caroline. {{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Contemporary Review'' 270 (1997): 8–13: "These operations were part of a policy designated `Operation Ring, comprising the proposed ethnic cleansing (a word used in relation to Azerbaijan's policy before it became familiar to the world in the context of the former Yugoslavia) of all Armenians from their ancient homeland of Karabakh."</ref> It was widely popularized by the Western media during the ] (1992–1995). | |||
In 1992, the German equivalent of ''ethnic cleansing'' ({{langx|de|ethnische Säuberung}}, {{IPA|de|ˈʔɛtnɪʃə ˈzɔɪ̯bəʁʊŋ|pron|De-ethnische Säuberung.ogg}}) was named ] by the '']'' due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.<ref>{{cite news |first=Christoph |last=Gunkel |date=October 31, 2010 |url=http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |work=] |title=Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort! |language=de |trans-title=One year, one (un)word! |access-date=February 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512233554/http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or ] to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group." | |||
== Definitions == | |||
As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of ]:<blockquote>thnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with ] and ]. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory''.<ref>Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, "", Foreign Affairs 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.</ref></blockquote> | |||
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to ] defined ethnic cleansing as: | |||
{{blockquote|a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas", ]] " 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, ], extra-judicial executions, ] and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute ] and can be assimilated to specific ]s. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the ].<ref>{{cite web |date=May 27, 1994 |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |url=https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unsc/1994/en/113325 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |publisher=United Nations Security Council |page=33 |format=PDF}} Paragraph 129</ref><ref name="SCRes780-Report-130">{{cite web |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |date=May 27, 1994 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1994/674 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |format=PDF |page=33 <!--paragraph 130--> |quote=Upon examination of reported information, specific studies and investigations, the Commission confirms its earlier view that 'ethnic cleansing' is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful driving sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups. This policy and the practices of warring factions are described separately in the following paragraphs. |access-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200247/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S%2F1994%2F674 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live }} Paragraph 130.</ref>}} | |||
] has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end."<ref name="martin">Martin, Terry (1998). . '']'' 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822</ref> | |||
The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or ] to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group."<ref>Hayden, Robert M. (1996) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411202522/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 |date=April 11, 2016 }}. '']'' 55 (4), 727–48.</ref> As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of ], "ethnic cleansing ... defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory."<ref>Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203190219/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |date=February 3, 2004 }}, ''Foreign Affairs'' 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.</ref> | |||
In reviewing the ] (ICJ) ] in the judgement of ] on July 12, 2007 the ] quoted from the ICJ ruling on the ''Bosnian Genocide Case'' to draw a distinction between ''ethnic cleansing'' and ''genocide''.<blockquote>The term 'ethnic cleansing' has frequently been employed to refer to the events in ] which are the subject of this case ... ] resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to 'the abhorrent policy of 'ethnic cleansing', which is a form of genocide', as being carried on in Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... It can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the Convention]], if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. Neither the intent, as a matter of policy, to render an area "ethnically homogeneous", nor the operations that may be carried out to implement such policy, can as such be designated as genocide: the intent that characterizes genocide is "to destroy, in whole or in part" a particular group, and deportation or displacement of the members of a group, even if effected by force, is not necessarily equivalent to destruction of that group, nor is such destruction an automatic consequence of the displacement. This is not to say that acts described as 'ethnic cleansing' may never constitute genocide, if they are such as to be characterized as, for example, 'deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part', contrary to Article II, paragraph (c), of the Convention, provided such action is carried out with the necessary specific intent ('']''), that is to say with a view to the destruction of the group, as distinct from its removal from the region. As the ] has observed, while 'there are obvious similarities between a genocidal policy and the policy commonly known as 'ethnic cleansing' ' (''Krstić,'' IT-98-33-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, August 2, 2001, para. 562), yet ' clear distinction must be drawn between physical destruction and mere dissolution of a group. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide. |ECHR quoting the ICJ.<ref>] §45 citing Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro ("Case concerning the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide") the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found under the heading of "intent and 'ethnic cleansing'" § 190</ref></blockquote> | |||
Terry Martin has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end."<ref name="martin">Martin, Terry (1998). {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724042805/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168 |date=July 24, 2019}}. '']'' 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822</ref> | |||
==Origins of the term== | |||
The term was coined early in 1941 by ] nationalists citing the forced removal of non-Croats from territory claimed or sought by Croats. It also followed slaughter, starvation and sexual violence against Serbs by Croat Ustaše regime upon civilian Serb population. The term was also cited in academia as "the euphemistic lexicon of zealotry" with such descriptions as the ] for the ].<ref>Cornell, Stephen and Douglas Hartmann. "Ethnicity and Race: Making Identity in a Changing World." p3</ref> | |||
], the founder of ], has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": because "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2">Douglas Singleterry (April 2010), "Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", ''Genocide Studies and Prevention'' 5, 1</ref> | |||
As early as 1914, a ] report on the ] points out that village-burning and ethnic cleansing had traditionally accompanied ] wars, regardless of the ethnic group in power. However, the term "cleanse" was probably used first in reference to removing ethnic groups from an area by ] in describing what happened to the ] in Belgrade when the city was captured by the ]'s forces in 1806.<ref>{{cite book |author=Judah, Tim |title=The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia |year=1997 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press|page=75 |isbn=0-300-08507-9}}</ref> ] wrote, in his biography of the famous Serbian leader published in 1883, that after the fighting "the Serbs, in their bitterness (after 500 years of Turkish occupation), slit the throats of the Turks everywhere they found them, sparing neither the wounded, nor the woman, nor the Turkish children".<ref>{{cite book |author=Mirko Grmek, Marc Gjidara, Neven Simac|title=Le Nettoyage ethnique: Documents historiques sur une idéologie serbe |year=1993 |location=Paris |language=French|page=24}}</ref> | |||
] in 1941.]] | |||
During World War II, ] laid down the Croatian plan to purge Croatia of Serbs: by killing one third, expelling one third and assimilating the rest. | |||
=== As a crime under international law === | |||
On May 16, 1941, a commander in the Croatian extremist ] faction, ], said: | |||
There is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing;<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ward |last=Ferdinandusse |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |title=The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International Crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705180121/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=5 |year=2004 |page=1042, note 7|doi=10.1093/ejil/15.5.1041 |doi-access=free }}</ref> however, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense—the forcible deportation of a population—is defined as a ] under the statutes of both the ] (ICC) and the ] (ICTY).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113100723/http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm |date=January 13, 2008 }}, Article 7; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806141633/http://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-e/index.htm |date=August 6, 2009 }}, Article 5.</ref> The gross human rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under public international law of ] and in certain circumstances ].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Daphna |last1=Shraga |first2=Ralph |last2=Zacklin |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |title=The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233818/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=3 |year=2004}}</ref> There are also situations, such as the ], where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see '']''). '']''<!-- a person, not a court case --> argues that similar ethnic cleansing could go unpunished in the future.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106100246/http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4600&context=expresso |date=November 6, 2018 }}, Paper 951, 2006, ] School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13</ref> | |||
<blockquote> | |||
<!-- The emergence of ethnic cleansing as a distinct category of war crime has been a somewhat complex process. Each individual element of a programme of ethnic cleansing could be considered as an individual violation of humanitarian law—a killing here, a house-burning there—thus missing the systematic way in which such violations were perpetrated with a single aim in mind. International courts consider individual incidents in the light of a possible pattern of ethnic cleansing. In the Yugoslav case, the ICTY considers the widespread massacres and abuses of human rights in Bosnia and Kosovo as part of an overall "]" to carve out ethnically pure states in the region; however, many alleged "ethnic cleansings" in the past do not fit the modern definition of "crimes against humanity"; the post-World War II ] were sanctioned by the international agreement at ], requiring that the actions proceed humanely. --> | |||
"Every Croat who today solicits for our enemies not only is not a good Croat, but also an opponent and disrupter of the prearranged, well-calculated plan for cleansing '''' our ] of unwanted elements ."<ref></ref>{{Verify credibility|date=June 2008}}<ref name="p. 106">Nicholas A. Robins, Adam Jones (2009), Genocides by the oppressed: subaltern genocide in theory and practice, Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6, </ref><ref name="pp. 158–159">Steven L. Jacobs, Confronting genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, , Lexington Books, 2009</ref> | |||
</blockquote> | |||
=== Mutual ethnic cleansing === | |||
Only a month later (June 30, 1941), ] (a lawyer from ] who was also an ideologue of the ]s), published a booklet with the title "On Our State and Its Borders". Moljević asserted: | |||
'''Mutual ethnic cleansing''' occurs when two groups commit ethnic cleansing against minority members of the other group within their own territories. For instance in the 1920s, Turkey expelled its Greek minority and Greece expelled its Turkish minority following the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinxten |first1=Rik |last2=Dikomitis |first2=Lisa |title=When God Comes to Town: Religious Traditions in Urban Contexts |date=1 May 2009 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-84545-920-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMF-mjzt1fsC |access-date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Other examples where mutual ethnic cleansing occurred include the ]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cornell |first1=Svante E. |title=Religion as a factor in Caucasian conflicts |journal=Civil Wars |date=September 1998 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=46–64 |doi=10.1080/13698249808402381 |language=en |issn=1369-8249}}</ref> and the population transfers by the Soviets of Germans, Poles, and Ukrainians after ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=Timothy |title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |date=11 July 2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10586-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |access-date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
<blockquote> | |||
"One must take advantage of the war conditions and at a suitable moment seize the territory marked on the map, cleanse '''' it before anybody notices and with strong battalions occupy the key places (...) and the territory surrounding these cities, freed of non-Serb elements. The guilty must be promptly punished and the others deported – the Croats to (significantly amputated) Croatia, the Muslims to ] or perhaps ] – while the vacated territory is settled with Serb refugees now located in Serbia."<ref></ref>{{Verify credibility|date=May 2009}}<ref name="p. 106"/><ref name="pp. 158–159"/> | |||
</blockquote> | |||
== Causes == | |||
In fact, the Ustaše carried out widespread persecution and massacre of the ] during World War II, and on several occasions referred to these acts as "cleansing".<ref></ref> | |||
] in 1943. Most ] of Volhynia had either been murdered or had fled the area.]] | |||
According to ], in '']'' (2004), murderous ethnic cleansing is strongly related to the creation of democracies. He argues that murderous ethnic cleansing is due to the rise of ], which associates citizenship with a specific ]. Democracy, therefore, is tied to ethnic and national forms of exclusion. Nevertheless, it is not democratic states that are more prone to commit ethnic cleansing, because minorities tend to have constitutional guarantees. Neither are stable authoritarian regimes (except the nazi and communist regimes) which are likely perpetrators of murderous ethnic cleansing, but those regimes that are in process of democratization. Ethnic hostility appears where ethnicity overshadows social classes as the primordial system of social stratification. Usually, in deeply divided societies, categories such as class and ethnicity are deeply intertwined, and when an ethnic group is seen as oppressor or exploitative of the other, serious ethnic conflict can develop. Michael Mann holds that when two ethnic groups claim sovereignty over the same territory and can feel threatened, their differences can lead to severe grievances and danger of ethnic cleansing. The perpetration of murderous ethnic cleansing tends to occur in unstable geopolitical environments and in contexts of war. As ethnic cleansing requires high levels of organisation and is usually directed by states or other authoritative powers, perpetrators are usually state powers or institutions with some coherence and capacity, not failed states as it is generally perceived. The perpetrator powers tend to get support by core constituencies that favour combinations of ], ], and violence.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503062111/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/dark-side-of-democracy/7E75A132A188A2804E91F4F209B6FE1F|date=May 3, 2020}}, Mann, Michael (2005), The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1 "The Argument," pp. 1–33.</ref> | |||
However, the concept of ethnic cleansing was not restricted to Yugoslavia during this period. The Russian phrase очистка границ (''ochistka granits'' "cleansing of borders") was used in ] documents of the early 1930s to refer to the forced resettlement of ] from the 22 km ] in the ] and ]. This process was repeated on an even larger and wider scale in 1939–1941, involving many other ethnicities with allegedly external loyalties: see ] and ].<ref name="martin"/> | |||
Ethnic cleansing was prevalent during the ] in Europe (19th and 20th centuries).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Müller-Crepon |first1=Carl |last2=Schvitz |first2=Guy |last3=Cederman |first3=Lars-Erik |date=2024 |title="Right-Peopling" the State: Nationalism, Historical Legacies, and Ethnic Cleansing in Europe, 1886–2020 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00220027241227897 |journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |language=en |doi=10.1177/00220027241227897 |issn=0022-0027|hdl=20.500.11850/657611 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mylonas |first=Harris |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/politics-of-nationbuilding/C9E4A27E97D35705F0549C0FC1C03457 |title=The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02045-0 |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139104005}}</ref> Multi-ethnic European engaged in ethnic cleansing against minorities in order to pre-empt their secession and the loss of territory.<ref name=":0" /> Ethnic cleansing was particularly prevalent during periods of interstate war.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
Most notoriously, the ] administration in Germany under ] applied a similar term to their systematic replacement of the Jewish people. When an area under Nazi control had its entire Jewish population removed, by driving the population out, by deportation to ]s and/or murder, that area was declared '']'' (lit. "Jew Clean"): "cleansed of Jews" (cf. ]). | |||
== Genocide == | |||
==Ethnic cleansing as a military, political and economic tactic== | |||
]. From 1914 until 1923, ] in ] and ] were subject to a campaign including massacres and deportations. The ] (IAGS) recognizes it as genocide and refers to the campaign as the '']''.<ref>{{cite web|author=International Association of Genocide Scholars|title=Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides|date=December 16, 2007|url=http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|access-date=15 August 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110601144026/http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2011}}</ref>]] | |||
{{Section OR|date=June 2009}} | |||
], which was held in ] in 2005.]] | |||
Ethnic cleansing has been described as part of a continuum of violence whose most extreme form is ]. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced ] or ]. While ethnic cleansing and genocide may share the same goal and methods (e.g., ]), ethnic cleansing is intended to displace a persecuted population from a given territory, while genocide is intended to destroy a group.<ref name=Schabas>{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William |year=2000 |title=Genocide in International Law |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC |pages=199–201 |isbn=9780521787901 |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083003/https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=January 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Ethnic cleansing versus genocide: | |||
The purpose of ethnic cleansing is to remove competitors. The party implementing this policy sees a risk (or a useful scapegoat) in a particular ethnic group, and uses propaganda about that group to stir up ] (fear, uncertainty and doubt) in the general population. The targeted ethnic group is marginalized and demonized. It can also be conveniently blamed for the economic, moral and political woes of that region.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an expert opinion this paragraph is OR. In the case of civil war based on ethnicity there is no need to use propaganda.}}{{Or|date=June 2010}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Benjamin |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor1-first=Donald |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-first=A. Dirk |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923211-6 |chapter='Ethnic cleansing' versus genocide?|date= 2010 |quote=Explaining the relationship between ethnic cleansing and genocide has caused controversy. Ethnic cleansing shares with genocide the goal of achieving purity but the two can differ in their ultimate aims: ethnic cleansing seeks the forced removal of an undesired group or groups where genocide pursues the group's 'destruction'. Ethnic cleansing and genocide therefore fall along a spectrum of violence against groups with genocide lying on the far end of the spectrum.}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Terry |title=The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing |journal=The Journal of Modern History |date=1998 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=813–861 |doi=10.1086/235168 |jstor=10.1086/235168 |s2cid=32917643 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168 |issn=0022-2801 |quote=When murder itself becomes the primary goal, it is typically called genocide... Ethnic cleansing is probably best understood as occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end. Given this continuum, there will always be ambiguity as to when ethnic cleansing shades into genocide}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Schabas |first1=William A. |title='Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions |journal=European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online |date=2003 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/221161104X00075 |quote=The crime of genocide is aimed at the intentional destruction of an ethnic group. 'Ethnic cleansing' would seem to be targeted at something different, the expulsion of a group with a view to encouraging or at least tolerating its survival elsewhere. Yet ethnic cleansing may well have the effect of rendering the continued existence of a group impossible, thereby effecting its destruction. In other words, forcible deportation may achieve the same result as extermination camps.|doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Walling |first1=Carrie Booth |title=The history and politics of ethnic cleansing |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights |date=2000 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=47–66 |doi=10.1080/13642980008406892 |s2cid=144001685 |quote=These methods are a part of a wider continuum ranging from genocide at one extreme to emigration under pressure at the other... It is important - politically and legally - to distinguish between genocide and ethnic cleansing. The goal of the former is extermination: the complete annihilation of an ethnic, national or racial group. It contains both a physical element (acts such as murder) and a mental element (those acts are undertaken to destroy, in whole or in part, the said group). Ethnic cleansing involves population expulsions, sometimes accompanied by murder, but its aim is consolidation of power over territory, not the destruction of a complete people.}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Naimark |first1=Norman M. |author1-link=Norman Naimark |title=Fires of Hatred |date=2002|url=https://www.hoover.org/research/fires-hatred |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00994-3 |pages=2–5 |quote=A new term was needed because ethnic cleansing and genocide two different activities, and the differences between them are important. As in the case of determining first-degree murder, intentionality is a critical distinction. Genocide is the intentional killing off of part or all of an ethnic, religious, or national group; the murder of a people or peoples (in German, ''Völkermord'') is the objective. The intention of ethnic cleansing is to remove a people and often all traces of them from a concrete territory. The goal, in other words, is to get rid of the "alien" nationality, ethnic, or religious group and to seize control of the territory it had formerly inhabited. At one extreme of its spectrum, ethnic cleansing is closer to forced deportation or what has been called "population transfer"; the idea is to get people to move, and the means are meant to be legal and semi-legal. At the other extreme, however, ethnic cleansing and genocide are distinguishable only by the ultimate intent. Here, both literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people.}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Hayden |first1=Robert M. |title=Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers |journal=Slavic Review |date=1996 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=727–748 |doi=10.2307/2501233 |jstor=2501233 |s2cid=232725375 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 |issn=0037-6779 |quote=Hitler wanted the Jews utterly exterminated, not simply driven from particular places. Ethnic cleansing, on the other hand, involves removals rather than extermination and is not exceptional but rather common in particular circumstances.}}</ref> | |||
Some academics consider genocide to be a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing".<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Michael |year=2005 |title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&q=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy |page=17 |isbn=9780521538541 |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083003/https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy |archive-date=January 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Norman Naimark writes that these concepts are different but related, for "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people."<ref name=MassVio>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Naimark |first=Norman |date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |title=Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing |encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306173512/http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> William Schabas states "ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser."<ref name="Schabas"/> Multiple genocide scholars have criticized distinguishing between ethnic cleansing and ], with ] arguing that forced deportation necessarily results in the destruction of a group and this must be foreseen by the perpetrators.{{efn| "How could ‘forced deportation’ ever be achieved without extreme coercion, indeed violence? How, indeed, could deportation not be forced? How could people not resist? How could it not involve the destruction of a community, of the way of life that a group has enjoyed over a period of time? How could those who deported a group not intend this destruction? In what significant way is the forcible removal of a population from their homeland different from the destruction’ of a group? If the boundary between ‘cleansing’ and genocide is unreal, why police it?"<ref name=shawcriti/>}}<ref name=shawcriti>Shaw, Martin (2015b), What is Genocide, Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-8706-3 ‘Cleansing’ and genocide.</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> | |||
Physically removing the targeted ethnic community provides a very clear, visual reminder of the power of the current government. It also provides a safety-valve for violence stirred up by the FUD. The government in power benefits significantly from seizing the assets of the dispossessed ethnic group.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an expert opinion this paragraph is OR. It can also be argued just as persuasively it shows the weakness of an occupying power that they perceive the need to expel.}}{{Or|date=June 2010}} | |||
== As a military, political, and economic tactic == | |||
The reason given for ethnic cleansing is usually that the targeted community is potentially or actually hostile to the "approved" population.{{Weasel-inline|date=June 2010}} Suddenly your neighbour becomes a "danger" to you and your children. In giving in to the FUD, you become as much a victim of political manipulation as the targeted group. Although ethnic cleansing has sometimes been motivated by claims that an ethnic group is literally "unclean" (as in the case of the ]), it has generally been a deliberate (if brutal) way of ensuring the complete domination of a region.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an expert opinion this paragraph is OR. Who says it is the usual reason}}{{Or|date=June 2010}} | |||
] victims]] | |||
]. Poles are led to trains under German army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the ] following ].]] | |||
] from the ] close by ], Bosnia and Herzegovina that were forced out of their homes and villages by ] forces in 1993]] | |||
] carried out by ] forces, part of the ]]] | |||
], who organized the extermination campaigns of "]", designated Russian military operations targeting Circassian natives by the term “''ochishchenie''” (cleansing).<ref name="Richmond 2013 96, 97">{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA |pages=96, 97 |chapter=4: 1864}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |isbn= 1-84511-057-9 | title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide |year=2005|pages=299–300|chapter=6: Declining Powers |publisher=175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010}}</ref>]] | |||
]. According to some authors, Russian military forces massacred and forcibly deported between 95 and 97% of all native Circassians during the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |year=2016 |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC8lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Yevdokimov+circassian+deportations+deaths&pg=PA110 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-317-53386-3 |pages=108–110|via=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA |pages= 97, 132}}</ref>]] | |||
The ] ({{Langx|it|massacri delle foibe}}; {{Langx|sl|poboji v fojbah}}; {{Langx|hr|masakri fojbe}}), or simply "the foibe", refers to ethnic cleansing, mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after ], mainly committed by ] and ] in the ]{{efn|Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the ].}} of ] (] and ]), ] and ], against local Italians (] and ]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities,{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc=p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings"}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}}<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Troha|first=Nevenka|date=2014|title=Nasilje vojnih in povojnih dni|url=https://www.sistory.si/11686/www.sistory.si/11686/42309|access-date=4 June 2023|website=www.sistory.si|publisher=Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino|language=sl|quote=By this definition, among the 601 victims , 475 were members of armed formations and 126 were civilians.}}</ref> and ], ], ] and ] ] against the regime of ], presumed to be associated with ], ], collaboration with ]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of ]{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} The foibe massacres were followed by the ], which was the post-] exodus and departure of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) towards ], and in smaller numbers, towards the ], ] and ].<ref name="rainews">{{cite web|url=https://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/giorno-ricordo-10-febbraio-2004-2014-dieci-anni-strage-foibe-eccidio-tito-comunisti-slavi-esodo-giuliano-dalmata-77ba65a1-a1e5-460e-bb57-946819b4b905.html|title=Il Giorno del Ricordo|date=February 10, 2014 |access-date=16 October 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref name="ilgiornale">{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/lesodo-giuliano-dalmata-e-quegli-italiani-fuga-che-nacquero-1639585.html|title=L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte|date=February 5, 2019 |access-date=24 January 2023|language=it}}</ref> From 1947, after the war, they were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,<ref name="books.google.fr">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHnEI2m5tFIC&pg=PA309|title=Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation|page=295|author=Pamela Ballinger|date=7 April 2009|publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822392361|access-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> which gave them little option other than emigration.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia-qdCeUaXIC&pg=PA136 |title=Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union – Page 136, Lynn Tesser|isbn=9781137308771|last1=Tesser|first1=L.|date=14 May 2013|publisher=Springer }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC&pg=PA103 |title=History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans |page=103 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0691086974 |last1=Ballinger|first1=Pamela|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykMVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133|title=Refugees in the Age of Total War|pages=139, 143|author=Anna C. Bramwell, University of Oxford, UK|date=1988|publisher=Unwin Hyman |isbn=9780044451945}}</ref> In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II.<ref>Matjaž Klemenčič, ''The Effects of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia on Minority Rights: the Italian Minority in Post-Yugoslav Slovenia and Croatia.'' See {{cite web |url=http://www.cliohres.net/books/7/26.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724111950/http://www.cliohres.net/books/7/26.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> According to the census organized in ] in 2001 and that organized in ] in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former ] amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 ] and 19,636 ]).<ref name="dzs">{{Croatian Census 2001 | url=http://web.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/Popis/E01_02_02/E01_02_02.html | title=12. Population by ethnicity, by towns/municipalities, census 2001 |access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.si/Popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7|title=Popis 2002|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref> | |||
In the 1990s ], ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon. It typically entailed intimidation, forced expulsion and/or killing of the undesired ethnic group, as well as the destruction or removal of key physical and cultural elements. These included places of worship, cemeteries, works of art and historic buildings. According to numerous ICTY verdicts, both Serb<ref name="ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/index.htm|title=ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement}}</ref> and Croat<ref name="ICTY: Kordić and Čerkez verdict">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/icty/kordic/trialc/judgement/index.htm|title=ICTY: Kordić and Čerkez verdict}}</ref> forces performed ethnic cleansing of their intended territories in order to create ethnically pure states (] and ]). Serb forces were also judged to have committed ] at the end of the war.<ref>ICTY; "Address by ICTY President Theodor Meron, at Potočari Memorial Cemetery" The Hague, June 23, 2004 </ref> | |||
] in 1939 as part of the German ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the Reich.]] | |||
Based on the evidence of numerous attacks by Croat forces against Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), the ICTY Trial Chamber concluded in the ''Kordić and Čerkez case'' that by April 1993, the Croat leadership from Bosnia and Herzegovina had a designated plan to ] in Central Bosnia. ], the local political leader, was found to be the ] of this plan.<ref name="ICTY: Kordić and Čerkez verdict - IV. Attacks on towns and villages: killings - C. The April 1993 Conflagration in Vitez and the Lašva Valley - 3. The Attack on Ahmići (Paragraph 642)">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/icty/kordic/trialc/judgement/kor-tj010226e-5.htm#IVC3|title=ICTY: Kordić and Čerkez verdict – IV. Attacks on towns and villages: killings – C. The April 1993 Conflagration in Vitez and the Lašva Valley – 3. The Attack on Ahmići (Paragraph 642)}}</ref> | |||
The ] in the 9th and 7th centuries BC is considered by some scholars to be one of the first cases of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethnic cleansing |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethnic-cleansing |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> | |||
In the same year (1993), ethnic cleansing was also occurring in another country. During the ], the armed ] ] insurgency implemented a campaign of ] against the large population of ethnic Georgians.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an NEUTRAL expert opinion this sentence is OR. Who says it was ethnic cleansing}} This was actually a case of trying to drive out a majority, rather than a minority, since Georgians were the single largest ethnic group in pre-war Abkhazia, with a 45.7% plurality as of 1989.<ref>US State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993, Abkhazia case.</ref> As a result of this deliberate campaign by the Abkhaz separatists, more than 250,000 ethnic Georgians were forced to flee, and approximately 30,000 people were killed during separate incidents involving massacres and expulsions (see ]).<ref>Chervonnaia, Svetlana Mikhailovna. ''Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow.'' Gothic Image Publications, 1994.</ref><ref>US State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993, February 1994, Chapter 17.</ref> This was recognized as ethnic cleansing by ] conventions, and was also mentioned in ] GA/10708.<ref></ref> | |||
During the 1980s, in ], ethnic cleansing was common during all phases of the conflict, notable incidents were seen in the early phase of the war, such as the ], the ], the ], and during the ] such as the ] committed by Lebanese Maronite forces backed by ] against ] and ] civilians. After the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf, the ] broke out, where ethnic cleansings (mostly in the form of tit-for-tat killings) occurred. During that time, the Syrian backed, mostly Druze dominated ] used a policy they called "territorial cleansing" to "drain" the ] of Maronite Christians in order to deny them of resisting the advance of the PSP. As a result, 163,670 Christian villagers were displaced due to these operations. In response to these massacres, the ] conducted a similar policy, which resulted in 20,000 Druze displaced. | |||
As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of systemic impacts. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support for resistance by eliminating the civilians — recognizing ]'s dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are fish in water, it removes the fish by draining the water{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the ] after 1945, it can contribute to long-term stability.<ref>Judt, Tony. ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945'' Penguin Press, 2005</ref> Some individuals of the large German population in ] and prewar ] had encouraged Nazi ] before the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved.<ref>Tony Judt ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945'' Penguin Press, 2005.</ref> It thus establishes "]" – radical demographic changes which can be very hard to reverse. | |||
Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, ], or ] of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority. | |||
For the most part, ethnic cleansing is such a brutal tactic and so often accompanied by large-scale bloodshed that it is widely reviled. It is generally regarded as lying somewhere between ]s and ] on a scale of odiousness, and is treated by ] as a ]. Ethnic cleansing may be seen as a policy aimed to stabilise the borders of the State.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an expert opinion this paragraph is OR.|reason=As we have a definition section why do we have this paragraph here?}}{{Or|date=June 2010}} | |||
]n civilians, being cleansed from their homeland during the ]]] | |||
According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb<ref name="Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic, Ljubisa Beara, Drago Nikolic, Ljubomir Borovcanin, Radivoje Miletic, Milan Gvero, and Vinko Pandurevic">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/popovic/tdec/en/060926.pdf|title=Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic, Ljubisa Beara, Drago Nikolic, Ljubomir Borovcanin, Radivoje Miletic, Milan Gvero, and Vinko Pandurevic|quote=In the Motion, the Prosecution submits that both the existence and implementation of the plan to create an ethnically pure Bosnian Serb state by Bosnian Serb political and military leaders are facts of common knowledge and have been held to be historical and accurate in a wide range of sources.|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=11 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211023111/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/popovic/tdec/en/060926.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/index.htm |title=ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414072922/http://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/index.htm |archive-date=14 April 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Tadic Case: The Verdict">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/sid/7537|title=Tadic Case: The Verdict|quote=Importantly, the objectives remained the same: to create an ethnically pure Serb State by uniting Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina and extending that State from the FRY to the Croatian Krajina along the important logistics and supply line that went through opstina Prijedor, thereby necessitating the expulsion of the non-Serb population of the opstina.|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=14 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014175448/https://www.icty.org/sid/7537|url-status=live}}</ref> and Croat<ref name="Prosecuter v. Jadranko Prlic, Bruno Stojic, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petkovic and Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/prlic/acdec/en/080311.pdf|title=Prosecutor v. Jadranko Prlic, Bruno Stojic, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petkovic, Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic|quote=Significantly, the Trial Chamber held that a reasonable Trial Chamber, could make a finding beyond any reasonable doubt that all of these acts were committed to carry out a plan aimed at changing the ethnic balance of the areas that formed Herceg-Bosna and mainly to deport the Muslim population and other non-Croat population out of Herceg-Bosna to create an ethnically pure Croatian territory within Herceg-Bosna.|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905185823/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/prlic/acdec/en/080311.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (] and ] by the Serbs; and ] by the Croats). | |||
==Ethnic cleansing as a crime under international law== | |||
There is no formal legal definition of ethnic cleansing.<ref>Ward Ferdinandusse, , The European Journal of International Law Vol. 15 no.5 (2004), p. 1042, note 7.</ref> However, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense – the forcible deportation of a population – is defined as a crime against humanity under the statutes of both ] (ICC) and the ] (ICTY).<ref>, Article 7; , Article 5.</ref> The gross human-rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under the definitions for genocide or crimes against humanity of the statutes.<ref>Daphna Shraga and Ralph Zacklin , The European Journal of International Law Vol. 15 no.3 (2004).</ref> | |||
Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.{{sfnp|Weine|Becker|Vojvoda|Hodzic|1998|p=147}} | |||
The UN Commission of Experts (established pursuant to ]) held that the practices associated with ethnic cleansing "constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes. Furthermore ... such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention." The UN General Assembly condemned "ethnic cleansing" and racial hatred in a 1992 resolution.<ref> ""Ethnic cleansing" and racial hatred" United Nations. December 16, 1992. Retrieved on 2006, 09–03</ref> | |||
] have engaged in a systemic displacement of Palestinian herders in ] as a form of nationalist and economic warfare.<ref>{{cite journal| first=Saad |last=Amira |year=2021 |title=The slow violence of Israeli settler-colonialism and the political ecology of ethnic cleansing in the West Bank |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=512–532 |doi=10.1080/2201473X.2021.2007747|s2cid=244736676 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/the-most-successful-land-grab-strategy-since-1967-as-settlers-push-bedouins-off-west-bank-territory |title='The most successful land-grab strategy since 1967' as settlers push Bedouins off West Bank territory |date= October 21, 2023|work=The Guardian |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231022174942/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/the-most-successful-land-grab-strategy-since-1967-as-settlers-push-bedouins-off-west-bank-territory |archive-date=22 Oct 2023 |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Kierszenbaum |first2=Quique |location=Ein Rashash}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=בעוד העיניים נשואות לדרום ולעזה, הטיהור האתני בגדה מואץ |language=he |url=https://www.mekomit.co.il/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%93-%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D-%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%94-%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95/ |date=19 Oct 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231022180318/https://www.mekomit.co.il/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%93-%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D-%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%94-%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95/ |archive-date=22 Oct 2023 |work=Mekomit |last=Ziv |first=Oren |trans-title=While the eyes are on the south and Gaza, the ethnic cleansing in the West Bank is accelerating}}</ref> | |||
There are however situations, such as the ], where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see ]). ] argues that if similar circumstances arise in the future, this precedent would allow the ethnic cleansing of other populations under international law.<ref>, Paper 951, 2006, ] School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13</ref> | |||
When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the ] through the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany in its reduced borders after 1945, the forced population movements, constituting a type of ethnic cleansing, may contribute to long-term stability of a post-conflict nation.<ref name="Judt, Tony 2005">Judt, Tony (2005). ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945''. Penguin Press.</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} Some justifications may be made as to why the targeted group will be moved in the conflict resolution stages, as in the case of the ethnic Germans, some individuals of the large German population in ] and prewar ] had encouraged Nazi ] before World War II, but this was forcibly resolved.<ref name="Judt, Tony 2005"/>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} | |||
<!--The emergence of ethnic cleansing as a distinct category of war crime has been a somewhat complex process. Each individual element of a programme of ethnic cleansing could be considered as an individual violation of humanitarian law - a killing here, a house-burning there – thus missing the systematic way in which such violations were perpetrated with a single aim in mind. International courts therefore consider individual incidents in the light of a possible pattern of ethnic cleansing. In the Yugoslav case, for instance, the ICTY considers the widespread massacres and abuses of human rights in Bosnia and Kosovo as part of an overall "joint criminal enterprise" to carve out ethnically pure states in the region. | |||
According to historian ], during an ethnic cleansing process, there may be destruction of physical symbols of the victims including ]s, books, monuments, graveyards, and street names: "Ethnic cleansing involves not only the forced deportation of entire nations but the eradication of the memory of their presence."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naimark |first=Norman M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-QLXnX16kAC |title=Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe |date=2002-09-19 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00994-3 |pages=209–211 |language=en}}</ref> In many cases, the side perpetrating the alleged ethnic cleansing and its allies have fiercely disputed the charge.{{Clarify|reason=please expand this|date=February 2024}} | |||
However, many alleged "ethnic cleansings" in the past do not fit the modern definition of "crimes against humanity." For example, the post-WW2 ] were sanctioned by the international agreement at ], requiring that the actions proceed humanely.--> | |||
== Instances == | |||
==Silent ethnic cleansing== | |||
{{main list|List of ethnic cleansing campaigns}} | |||
'''Silent ethnic cleansing''' is a term coined in the mid-1990s by some observers of the ]. Apparently concerned with Western media representations of atrocities committed in the conflict — which generally focused on those perpetrated by the ] — atrocities committed against Serbs were dubbed "silent", on the grounds that they were not receiving adequate coverage.<ref>Krauthammer, Charles: "When Serbs Are 'Cleansed,' Moralists Stay Silent", ''International Herald Tribune'', August 12, 1995.</ref> | |||
== See also == | |||
Since that time, the term has been used by other ethnically oriented groups for situations that they perceive to be similar — examples include both sides in ]'s ], and the expulsion of ] from former German territories during and after World War II.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009|reason=needs sources for both alleged examples}} | |||
Some observers,{{Who|date=August 2009}} however, assert that the term should only be used to denote population changes that do not occur as the result of overt violent action, or at least not from more or less organized aggression – the absence of such stressors being the very factor that makes it "silent", although some form of coercion is still used. The United States practiced this during the Indian Wars of the 19th century. | |||
==Instances of ethnic cleansing== | |||
{{main|List of ethnic cleansings}} | |||
This section lists incidents that have been termed "ethnic cleansing" by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case; nor do all the claims necessarily follow the definitions given in this article. Where claims of ethnic cleansing originate from non-experts (e.g., journalists or politicians) this is noted. | |||
===Ancient history=== | |||
*Ancient Chinese texts record that General ] ordered the extermination of the ], especially the ], during the ] in the fourth century AD. People with racial characteristics such as high-bridged noses and bushy beards were killed; in total, 200,000 were reportedly massacred.<ref> ] '''Original text''' 閔躬率趙人誅諸胡羯,無貴賤男女少長皆斬之,死者二十余萬,屍諸城外,悉為野犬豺狼所食。屯據四方者,所在承閔書誅之,于時高鼻多須至有濫死者半。</ref> | |||
===Early modern period=== | |||
* Spain ] in 1492, then its ]s in 1502, forcibly Christianizing the remaining Muslims.<ref>A brief History of Ethnic Cleansing, by Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, p. 4</ref> The descendents of these converted Muslims were called ]. After the 1571 suppression of the ] in the ] region, almost 80,000 Moriscos were expelled from there to other parts of Spain and some 270 villages and hamlets were repopulated with settlers brought in from Northern Spain. This was followed by the overall ] from the entire Spanish realm in 1609–1614. | |||
* After the ] and ] in 1652, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and ] as ethnic cleansing, in that it sought to remove Irish ] from the eastern part of the country, but others such as the historian ] have described the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as ]. | |||
* In the 1740s, the British government, following the ], instituted the ']' in ] which essentially depopulated much of the Scottish Highlands. | |||
* About ten years later, during the ], they instituted a ] of the French Catholic ] population of ]—eventually removing thousands of settlers from the region and relocating them to New England and elsewhere. Some moved eventually to New Orleans and became known as Cajuns. The subsequent death of over 50% of the deported Acadian population, has been described by many scholars as being an act of ethnic cleansing <ref></ref> | |||
<!-- GENOCIDE REF TAG START--><ref name=genocide> | |||
* Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). ''Nationalism and Rationality''. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer" | |||
* ''Ukrainian Quarterly''. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.." | |||
*David Norbrook (2000).''Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660''. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing.." | |||
* (2000). ''War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1'' (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. p. 51 "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000." | |||
* (2002). ''Profiles in Leadership'', Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide" | |||
* ] (2002). ''The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace''. ISBN 978-0-312-29418-2. p 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide." | |||
*Peter Berresford Ellis (2002). ''Eyewitness to Irish History'', John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-26633-4. p. 108 "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement." | |||
*] (2003). ''Rewriting Cromwell – A Case of Deafening Silences'', Canadian Journal of History. Dec 2003. "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell.<br/> Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that "it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it." | |||
*, Brenda J Lutz, (2004). ''Global Terrorism'', Routledge:London, p.193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal." | |||
* (2005). ''Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2''. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population". | |||
*Mark Levene (2005). ''Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State'', I.B.Tauris: London: <blockquote>, and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.</blockquote></ref><!-- GENOCIDE REF TAG END-->] | |||
===19th century=== | |||
* ], the first ruler of an independent ], ordered the killing of the remaining white population of French creoles on Haiti by instigating the ].<ref>{{cite book | first = Philippe R. | last = Girard | year = 2011 | title = The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804 | location = Tuscaloosa, Alabama | publisher = The University of Alabama Press | isbn = 978-0-8173-1732-4 | ref = harv | pages = 319–322}}</ref> | |||
* On May 26, 1830, president ] of the United States signed the ] which resulted in the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert E. Greenwood PhD|title=Outsourcing Culture: How American Culture has Changed From "We the People" Into a One World Government|publisher=Outskirts Press|year=2007|pages=97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Rajani Kannepalli Kanth|title=The Challenge of Eurocentrism|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2009|author=Rajiv Molhotra|chapter=American Exceptionalism and the Myth of the American Frontiers|pages=180, 184, 189, 199}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|authors=Paul Finkelman and Donald R. Kennon|title=Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2008|pages=15,141,254}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ben Kiernan|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2007|pages=328, 330}}</ref> | |||
*Michael Mann, basing his figures on those provided by ], states that between 1821 and 1922, a large number of Muslims were expelled from south-eastern Europe as Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia gained their independence from the ]. Mann describes these events as "murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe". These countries sought to expand their territory against the ], which culminated in the ] of the early 20th century.<ref>Michael Mann, ''The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing'', , Cambridge, 2005 "... figures are derive from McCarthy (1995: I 91, 162–4, 339), who is often viewed as a scholar on the Turkish side of the debate. Yet even if we reduce his figures by 50 percent, they would still horrify. He estimates that between 1812 and 1922 somewhere around 5½ million Muslims were driven out of Europe and 5 million more were killed or died of disease or starvation while fleeing. ... In the final Balkan wars of 1912–13 he estimates that 62 percent of Muslims (27 percent dead, 35 percent refugees) disappeared from the lands conquered by Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria. This was murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe, ..." | |||
</ref> | |||
*In 2005, the historian ] of the ] published ''The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1830–1875''. This book repudiates traditional historians, such as ] and ], who viewed the settlement of Texas by the displacement of the native populations as a healthful development. Anderson writes that at the time of the outbreak of the ], when the Texas population was nearly 600,000, the still new state was "a very violent place. ... Texans mostly blamed Indians for the violence – an unfair indictment, since a series of terrible droughts had virtually incapacitated the Plains Indians, making them incapable of extended warfare."<ref name=anderson>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KKGt7CMROmgC&pg=PA9|title=The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1830–1875|publisher=], 2005, p. 9 (quotation), ISBN 0-8061-3698-7|accessdate=October 23, 2010|isbn=978-0-8061-3698-1|year=2005}}</ref> ''The Conquest of Texas'' was nominated for a ]. | |||
* The nomadic ] people have been expelled from European countries several times.<ref>Donald Kenrick, pages xx–xxiv, Scarecrow, Lanham, 2007</ref> | |||
===20th century=== | |||
{{Section OR|date=May 2009}} | |||
] | |||
====1900s–1910s==== | |||
*The ] during and shortly after the ] in 1913. | |||
*German Empire during First World War plans to annex up to 35,000 square kilometers of pre-war ] and ethnically cleanse between 2 to 3 million Poles and Jews out of these territories to make room for German settlers.<ref>Truth or conjecture?: German civilian war losses in the East, page 366 Stanisław Schimitzek | |||
Zachodnia Agencia Prasowa, 1966</ref><ref>To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, page 151-152</ref><ref>Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands by Omer Bartov and Eric D. Weitz page 55 Indiana University Press 2013</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Immanuel Geiss "Tzw. polski pas graniczny 1914-1918". Warszawa 1964</ref><ref>The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of a Habsburg Archduke | |||
By Timothy Snyder "On the annexations and ethnic cleansing, see Geiss, Der Polnische Grenzstreifen"</ref><ref>Absolute Destruction: Military Culture And The Practices Of War In Imperial Germany ] page 233 | |||
Cornell University Press, 2005</ref> | |||
* The ] regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 ] during the ], in 1919–1920.<ref>Kort, Michael (2001). ''The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath'', p. 133. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0396-9.</ref> Geoffrey Hosking stated "It could be argued that the Red policy towards the Don Cossacks amounted to ethnic cleansing. It was short-lived, however, and soon abandoned because it did not fit with normal Leninist theory and practice".<ref>{{cite book|first=Geoffrey A. |last=Hosking |year=2006 |title=Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union|publisher=Harvard University Press|page= footnote 29|isbn=0-674-02178-9}} The footnote ends with a reference: {{cite journal|first=Peter |last=Holquist |title=Conduct Merciless, Mass Terror Decossackization on the Don, 1919 |journal=Cahiers di monde Russe|issue=38 |year=1997|pages=127–162}}</ref> | |||
*] took place during and after ] and was implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and forced labor, and the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on ]es to the ].<ref>''Armenia: The Survival of A Nation'' by Christopher J. Walker, Croom Helm (Publisher) London 1980, pp. 200–203</ref><ref>The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden by Viscount Bryce, James Bryce and Arnold Toynbee, Uncensored Edition. Ara Sarafian (ed.) Princeton, New Jersey: ], 2000. ISBN 0-9535191-5-5, pp. 635–649</ref> The total number of people killed as a result has been estimated to be between 600,000 to 1,500,000. | |||
*In the course of several Armenian-Azerbaijani conflicts (1905–07, 1918–20), hundreds of thousands of Armenians and Azerbaijanis were resettled by force and/or many of them were killed and injured.<ref name="BBC Russian">{{Cite news | |||
| title = "Черный сад": Глава 5. Ереван. Тайны Востока | |||
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in_depth/newsid_4664000/4664621.stm | |||
| publisher=BBC Russian | |||
| date= July 8, 2005 | |||
| accessdate =September 1, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="De Waal, Thomas">{{Cite book | |||
| title = Black Garden | |||
| author = De Waal, Thomas | |||
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pletup86PMQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=black+garden#v=onepage&q&f=false | |||
| publisher=NYU Press | |||
| isbn=0-8147-1945-7 | |||
| accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref name=source2>{{Cite book | |||
| title = After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial & Postcommunist States | |||
| author = Lowell W. Barrington | |||
| publisher=University of Michigan Press | |||
| location=USA | |||
| year = 2006 | |||
| pages=In late 1988, the entire Azerbaijani population (including Muslim Kurds) — some 167000 people — was kicked out of the Armenian SSR. In the process, dozens of people died due to isolated Armenian attacks and adverse conditions. This population transfer was partially in response to Armenians being forced out of Azerbaijan, but it was also the last phase of the gradual homogenization of the republic under Soviet rule. The population transfer was the latest, and not so "gentle," episode of ethnic cleansing that increased Armenia's homogenization from 90 percent to 98 percent. Nationalists, in collaboration with the Armenian state authorities, were responsible for this exodus. | |||
| isbn=0-472-06898-9 | |||
| accessdate= }}</ref><ref>De Waal, Thomas. ''Black garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War.'' New York: New York University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8147-1945-7, p. 40</ref><ref>Cornell, Svante E. ''Small nations and great powers: a study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus''. London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-7007-1162-7. p. 82</ref><ref>Remnick, David. "Hate Runs High in Soviet Union's Most Explosive Ethnic Feud." '']''. September 6, 1989.</ref><ref>]. ''The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within, 2nd ed''. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 475.</ref><ref>]. ''A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End, 2nd ed.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 272.</ref><ref>Azerbaijan: The status of Armenians, Russians, Jews and other minorities, report, 1993, INS Resource Informacion Center, p.10</ref><ref></ref> | |||
====1920s–1930s==== | |||
*During 1920-21, The Greek army in the ] burned dozens of Turkish/Muslim villages with large scale violence and ethnic cleansing<ref>url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6DF4dNEjenIC&pg=PA113&dq=Most+Christian+irregulars+involved+in+the+ethnic+cleansing+of+the+Gemlik%E2%80%93Yalova%E2%80%93+%CC%87Izmit+region&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=WXPtUf-kGsTStAb3-YBg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Most%20Christian%20irregulars%20involved%20in%20the%20ethnic%20cleansing%20of%20the%20Gemlik%E2%80%93Yalova%E2%80%93%20%CC%87Izmit%20region&f=falsequote=Most Christian irregulars involved in the ethnic cleansing of the Gemlik–Yalova– ̇Izmit region</ref> | |||
*The 1923 ] has been described as ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/harut-sassounian/turkish-prime-minister-ad_b_208246.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Harut | last=Sassounian | title=Turkish Prime Minister Admits Ethnic Cleansing | date=June 28, 2009}}</ref> | |||
], 1922]] | |||
*The Burning of '],' also known as the ']': in which the wealthiest African-American community in the USA was burned to the ground. During the 16 hour offensive, over 800 people were hospitalized, more than 6,000 ] residents were arrested and detained in a prison camp, and 35 city blocks composed of 1,256 residences were destroyed by fire caused by bombing resulting in an estimated 10,000 African-American Residents left homeless.<ref name=eruption>, ''],'' June 29, 1921.</ref> Property damage totaled $1.5 million (1921).<ref name=eruption /> Although the official death toll claimed that 26 blacks and 13 whites died during the fighting, most estimates are considerably higher. At the time of the riot, the ] listed 8,624 persons in need of assistance, in excess of 1,000 homes and businesses destroyed, and the delivery of several stillborn infants.<ref name=book>Hannibal B. Johnson, Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District. Austin, TX. 1998.</ref> | |||
*], in which the ] invaded China in the 1930s. Millions of Chinese were killed, civilians and military personnel alike. The ] that was used by the ] resulted in the deaths of many of these Chinese. The Three Alls Policy was Kill all, Burn all Seize all. | |||
*], Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing in the ] region of ] by forcibly removing and relocating 100,000 people of the Cyrenaican indigenous population from their valuable land property that was slated to be given to Italian settlers.<ref>Anthony L. Cardoza. ''Benito Mussolini: the first fascist''. Pearson Longman, 2006 Pp. 109.</ref> | |||
*The Chinese ] Generals ] and ] launched campaigns of expulsion in ] and ] against ethnic Tibetans. The actions of these Generals have been called Genocidal by some authors.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} | |||
*However, that was not the last Labrang saw of General Ma. Ma Qi launched a war against the Tibetan ], which author "Dinesh Lal" calls "genocidal", in 1928, inflicting a defeat upon them and seizing the Labrang Buddhist monastery.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} The Muslim forces looted and ravaged the monastery again.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=xGvECiS-uEgC&pg=PA90|title=Labrang: a Tibetan Buddhist monastery at the crossroads of four civilizations|author=Paul Kocot Nietupski|year=1999|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|isbn=1-55939-090-5|page=90|accessdate=June 28, 2010}}</ref> | |||
*Authors Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that follow genocidal and David Goodman called them ethnic cleansing: The ] government supported ] when he launched seven extermination expeditions into ], eliminating thousands of Tibetans.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g3C2B9oXVbQC&dq=ma+bufang+son&q=genocidal#v=snippet&q=ma%20bufang's%20seven%20genocidal%20golog&f=false|title=Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity |author=Uradyn Erden Bulag|year=2002|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=273|isbn=0-7425-1144-8|accessdate=June 28, 2010}}</ref> Some Tibetans counted the number of times he attacked him, remembering the seventh attack which made life impossible.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=RhxXAAAAMAAJ&q=the+warlord+Ma+Pu-fang+had+come+for+the+seventh+time+to+massacre+the+people,+life+became+almost+impossible+for+us&dq=the+warlord+Ma+Pu-fang+had+come+for+the+seventh+time+to+massacre+the+people,+life+became+almost+impossible+for+us|title=China reconstructs, Volume 10|author=Chung-kuo fu li hui, Zhongguo fu li hui|year=1961|publisher=China Welfare Institute|page=16|isbn=|accessdate=June 28, 2010}}</ref> Ma was highly anti-communist, and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and also destroyed ] Temples.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DbkfQATHikQC&pg=PA72|title=China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives|author=David S. G. Goodman|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=204|isbn=0-521-61349-3|accessdate=June 28, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=QVSVux0wIW0C&pg=PA75|title=The other global city|author=Shail Mayaram|year=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|page=76|isbn=0-415-99194-3|accessdate=July 30, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=QVSVux0wIW0C&pg=PA75|title=The other global city|author=Shail Mayaram|year=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|page=77|isbn=0-415-99194-3|accessdate=July 30, 2010}}</ref> | |||
The Holodomor (1932-1933), a genocidal famine perpetrated on the orders of Josef Stalin involved widespread ethnic cleansing of ethnic Ukrainians in Soviet Ukraine. Food and grain were forcibly seized from villages, internal borders between Soviet Ukraine and the Russian SSR were sealed to prevent population movement; movement was also restricted between villages and urban centers. Stalin's destruction of ethnic Ukrainians also extended to a wide-scale purge of Ukrainian intelligentsia, political elite and Party officials before and after the famine. A ban on the Ukrainian language and widespread Russification was also instilled. An estimated 10 million Ukrainians were exterminated in the famine. After liquidation, Stalin repopulated the territory with ethnic Russians. | |||
====1940s==== | |||
], ] and ] populations were expelled, or ethnically cleansed.]] | |||
* The ] | |||
* The ] and the ] following the defeat of Poland in the ] | |||
* The deportation of ] from ] and Northern ] (1940–1941, 1944–1951), by the USSR to ] and ]. | |||
* The ] on May 18, 1944 to the Uzbek SSR and other parts of the Soviet Union. | |||
* The ] from the former territory of ] after World War II. This policy was decided at the ] by the victorious powers.<ref>. Journals.cambridge.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref><ref>. Journals.cambridge.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref><ref>. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref> | |||
* The Nazi German government's persecutions and expulsions of Jews in Germany, ] and other ]-controlled areas prior to the initiation of ]. Estimated number of those who died in the process is nearly 6 million Jews.<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman M. |last=Naimark. |title=Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe|location=Cambridge and London: |publisher=Harvard University Press| year=2001| url=http://books.google.com/?id=L-QLXnX16kAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0-674-00994-3}} {{page needed|date=October 2010}}</ref> | |||
* In the last months of the Second World War, ] from Yugoslavia, Poland and Czechoslovakia, beginning in the fall of 1944 and going through the spring and summer of 1945. At the ] July 17 – August 2, 1945 the Allies agreed to transferring the rest (article XIII of the Potsdam communiqué). In all 14 million ethnic Germans were expelled and it has been asserted that as many as two million might have perished in the process.<ref>Alfred de Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam, Routledge, London 177; "A Terrible Revenge" Palgrave/Macmillan 2006</ref> Due to horrifying revelations of Nazi genocidal practices at the same period, and to the collaboration of many ethnic Germans with Nazi occupation in various countries, their expulsion was mostly tolerated by international public opinion at the time. Historians such as Thomas Kamusella, Piotr Pikle, Steffen Prauser and Arfon Rees all describe it as ethnic cleansing. Kamusella links it to the development of ethnic nationalism in central and eastern Europe.<ref>'''', European University Institute, Florense. EUI Working Paper HEC No. 2004/1, Edited by Steffen Prauser and Arfon Rees pp. 24,20,29</ref> | |||
* At least 330,000 ], 30,000 ] and 30,000 Roma were killed during the ] (see ]) (today Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina).<ref></ref><ref>Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943 pp20</ref> The same number of Serbs were forced out of the NDH, from May 1941 to May 1945. The ] managed to kill more than 45 000 Serbs, 12 000 or more Jews and approximately 16,000 Roma at the Jasenovac Concentration Camp.<ref></ref><ref>. Jusp-jasenovac.hr. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref> | |||
* At least 40,000 ] civilians were killed by ] in ] as a revenge (so called "Cold Days"), in 1944.<ref>. Hungarianhistory.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref> | |||
] in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia (now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had fled the area.]] | |||
* During World War II, in ], approximately 10,000 Serbs were killed by ] and Albanian colloborators,<ref name=Krizman>Serge Krizman, Maps of Yugoslavia at War, Washington 1943.</ref><ref name=Istorija>ISBN 86-17-09287-4: Kosta Nikolić, Nikola Žutić, Momčilo Pavlović, Zorica Špadijer: Историја за трећи разред гимназије природно-математичког смера и четврти разред гимназије општег и друштвено-језичког смера, Belgrade, 2002, p. 182.</ref> and about 80<ref name=Krizman/> to 100,000<ref name=Krizman/><ref name=Annexe>, by the Serbian Information Centre-London to a report of the Select Committee on Foreign Affairs of the ] of the ].</ref> or more<ref name=Istorija/> were ethnically cleansed.<ref name=Annexe/> After World War II, the new communist authorities of Yugoslavia banned Serbians and Montenegrins expelled during the war from returning to their abandoned estates.<ref>. Kosovo.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref> | |||
* During the four years of wartime occupation from 1941–1944, the Axis (German, Hungarian and ]) forces committed numerous war crimes against the civilian population of Serbs, Roma and Jews in the former Yugoslavia: about 50,000 people in ] (north ]) (see ]) were murdered and about 280,000 were arrested, raped or tortured.<ref>''Enciklopedija Novog Sada'', Sveska 5, Novi Sad, 1996 (page 196).</ref> The total number of people killed under Hungarian occupation in Bačka was 19,573, in Banat 7,513 (under German occupation) and in Syrmia 28,199 (under Croatian occupation).<ref name="Ćurčić">Slobodan Ćurčić, ''Broj stanovnika Vojvodine'', Novi Sad, 1996 (pages 42, 43).</ref> | |||
*During the Axis occupation of ] (1943–1944), the Albanian collaborationist organization ] with ] support mounted a major offensive in southern Albania (]) with devastating results: over 200 Greek populated towns and villages were burned down or destroyed, 2,000 ] were killed, 5,000 imprisoned and 2,000 forced to concentration camps. Moreover, 30,000 people had to flee to nearby Greece during and after this period.<ref>Albania in the Twentieth Century, A History: Volume II: Albania in Occupation and War, 1939–45. Owen Pearson. I.B.Tauris, 2006. ISBN 1-84511-104-4.</ref><ref>.Pyrrhus J. Ruches. </ref>{{Request quotation|date=July 2009}}<!-- where does the author claim it was ethnic cleansing--> | |||
* Towards the end of World War II, nearly 30,000 ethnic Albanian Muslims were expelled from the coastal region of Epirus in northwestern Greece, an area known among Albanians as ]. | |||
*During the ] 6 million Muslims fled ethnic violence taking place in ] to settle in what became ] and 5 million Hindus and Sikhs fled from what became Pakistan to settle in India. The events which occurred during this time period have been described as ethnic cleansing by Ishtiaq Ahmed (an associate professor in the Department of Political Science, Stockholm University) <ref>. Cambridge.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref><ref>{{Wayback |date=20070607092454 |url=http://www.sasnet.lu.se/partition.doc |title= }}{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref> | |||
* The ] of approximately 700,000 Palestinian Arabs who either fled or were expelled during the ] and later the ] that accompanied the establishment of the ] was the result of ethnic cleansing by Jewish forces.<ref>{{cite book |author=]| title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 2005|pages=109, 519|ISBN=9780521831307}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=]|year=1992|title=Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882-1948|publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies| edition=2001|pages=175,207–210|ISBN= 9780887282355}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crimesofwar.org/a-z-guide/arab-israeli-war/| author= ]| title=''Arab-Israeli War''| website=crimesofwar.org| publisher=The Crimes of War Education Project|accessdate=2014-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Under the Cover of War: The Zionist Expulsion of the Palestinians|year=2009|pages=23|ISBN=9780981513133}}</ref> | |||
] in 1947.]] | |||
* Between the ] and the ] in 1967, there was a ]. Many Jews living in Arab and Muslim nations were forcibly expelled by authorities, while others fled due to persecutions or ]s which broke out during the conflicts.<ref>Jews expelled from Arab countries accuse Arab regimes of ethnic cleansing. Jerusalem Post, Jun. 25, 2003, JENNY HAZAN AND GREER FAY CASHMAN</ref><ref name=JCPA></ref><ref>. Fr.jpost.com (2013-06-25). Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref><ref>Ran HaCohen, </ref><ref name=Footnotea>A bipartisan resolution passed by the U.S. Congress in October 2003 noted that that Jews in Arab countries, "were forced to flee and in some cases brutally expelled amid coordinated violence and anti-Semitic incitement that amounted to ethnic cleansing." () ], while conceding that Jews faced harassment in Arab countries following the 1948 war, whether from the people and/or regimes, finds this characterization to be, "shamefully cynical when it is imputed by the very ]s who demanded 'let my people go', or by the same Israel that did all it could to force those very countries to let their Jews leave." ()</ref> Between 800,000–1,000,000 Jews fled or were expelled from the Arab world, and another 200,000 Jews from non-Arab Muslim nations fled due to increasing insecurity and growing hostility. Most migrated to ], where today, they and their descendants constitute about 40% of Israel's population. | |||
* After the ] achieved independence from the ] in 1949, around 300,000 people, predominantly ]s, or people of mixed Indonesian and Dutch ancestry, fled or were expelled.<ref></ref> | |||
* In the aftermath of the 1949 Durban Riots (an inter-racial conflict between ] and ]), hundreds of Indians fled ].<ref>, TheIndianStar.com</ref> | |||
* ]'s war on the ethnic ] civil population in the ] during ]'s occupation of ] in accord with the 1920s speech by ]'s speech: {{quote|When dealing with such a race as Slavic - inferior and barbarian - we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy.... We should not be afraid of new victims.... The Italian border should run across the ], ] and the ].... I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians....|Benito Mussolini, speech held in ], 22 February 1922<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.znaci.net/00001/179.pdf |first=Jože |last=Pirjevec |chapter=The Strategy of the Occupiers |title=Resistance, Suffering, Hope: The Slovene Partisan Movement 1941–1945 |year=2008 |isbn=978-961-6681-02-5 |page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HyVMfMQoSCYC&pg=PT46 |title=Aut aut |year=2011 |isbn=978-88-6576-106-9 |first=Marta |last=Verginella |chapter=Antislavizmo, rassizmo di frontiera? |language=Italian}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.it/books?ei=FbFMT-3lAs3NswbUmKH_DQ&hl=it&id=PAOzAAAAIAAJ&dq=Di+fronte+ad+una+razza+inferiore+e+barbara+come+la+slava&q=Di+fronte+ad+una+razza+inferiore+e+barbara+come+la+slava#search_anchor |title=Scritti politici: di Benito Mussolini; Introduzione e cura di Enzo Santarelli |year=1979 |first=Enzo |last=Santarelli |page=196 |language=Italian}}</ref>}} | |||
* ] against Italians | |||
====1950s==== | |||
* On September 5 and 6, 1955 the ] or "Septembrianá"/"Σεπτεμβριανά", secretly backed by the Turkish government, was launched against the Greek population of ]. The mob also attacked some Jewish and Armenian residents of the city. The event contributed greatly to the gradual extinction of the Greek minority in the city and throughout the entire country, which numbered 100,000 in 1924 after the Turko-Greek population exchange treaty. By 2006 there were only 2,500 Greeks living in Istanbul.<ref> Human Rights Watch, July 2, 2006.</ref> | |||
* Between 1957–1962 President ] of Egypt carried out an Anti-European policy, which resulted in the expulsion of 100–200,000 ] from ] and the rest of ]. Many other ] were expelled, such as ] and French.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} | |||
====1960s==== | |||
* On July 5, 1960, five days after the ] gained independence from Belgium, the ] garrison near ] mutinied against its white officers and attacked numerous European targets. This caused fear amongst the approximately 100,000 ] still resident in the Congo and led to their mass exodus from the country.<ref></ref> | |||
*] rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the ]) led to an exodus of some 300,000 ]. They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprises a few years later in 1964.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|year=1991|title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London,New Jersey|pages=43–44,98,56–57,176|isbn=0-86232-868-3}}</ref><ref>, TIME</ref> | |||
*The creation of the ] system in South Africa, which began in 1948 but reached its full flowering in the 1960s and 1970s, involved some ethnic cleansing, including the separation of blacks, ], and whites into separate residential areas and private spheres. The government created ], which involved ] of non-white populations to reserved lands.<ref>Bell, Terry: ''Unfinished Business: South Africa, Apartheid and Truth'', (pp. 63–4), Verso, (2001, 2003) ISBN 1-85984-545-2</ref><ref>Valentino, Benjamin A., ''Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century'', (p. 189), Cornell University Press, (2004) ISBN 0-8014-3965-5.</ref> | |||
* As the ] fought for the independence of ] from ], it expelled the '']'' population of European descent and ]; most fled to France, where they had citizenship. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 of these European descendants and native Jewish people left the country.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* ] expelled ] and ] from the nation in 1964.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* In 1966, there was unrest in the northern part of ] that led to the death of about 80,000 people. Those killed were originally from the South Eastern region of the country and this act was seen as an attack on the ] people. This led ], the military governor of the Eastern region, to declare that region a Sovereign state, ]. The ] began on July 6, 1967, but ended in 1970 with the help of the ] and ]. Although there is relative peace in Nigeria, today, there is still some religious unrest in the North being caused by the ] group. | |||
* By 1969, more than 350,000 ] were living in ]. In 1969, Honduras enacted a new land reform law. This law took land away from Salvadoran immigrants and redistributed this land to native-born Honduran peoples. Thousands of Salvadorans were displaced by this law (see ]).{{Citation needed|date=May 2009|reason=citation needed which claims that this was an act of ethnic cleansing.}} | |||
====1970s==== | |||
* Shortly after ] gained power in ], the Libyan government forcibly expelled some 150,000 ] living in the country on October 7, 1970, in retaliation for Italy's 1911 colonization of the country. The expulsion is known in Libya as the "]".<ref>. Bbc.co.uk (2005-10-27). Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref> | |||
* During the ] of 1971, the military of Pakistan carried out genocide killing between 100,000 to 3 million people and around 10 million ], mainly ], fled the country. Furthermore, many intellectuals and other religious minorities were targeted by death squads and '']''. Thousands of temples were desecrated and hundreds of women were raped.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2009/09/20/bangladesh-demolition-ramana-kali-temple-march-1971 |title=Bangladesh: The Demolition Of Ramana Kali Temple In March 1971 |work=] |accessdate=April 28, 2011}}</ref> (see]) | |||
* ]'s regime forced the expulsion in 1972 of ]'s entire ethnic ] population, mostly of ]n descent.<ref></ref> | |||
* The ethnic cleansing in 1974–76 of the ] population of the areas under Turkish military occupation in ] during and after the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE7D6143AF936A3575AC0A964958260|title='Ethnic cleansing', Cypriot style|date=September 5, 1992|work=The New York Times|accessdate=December 29, 2008}}</ref> | |||
* Following the U.S. withdrawal from ] in 1973 and the communist victory two years later, the ]'s coalition government was overthrown by the communists. The ], who had actively supported the anti-communist government, became targets of retaliation and persecution. The government of Laos has been accused of committing genocide against the Hmong,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.unpo.org/article/5095| author=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization| accessdate=20 April 2011|title=WGIP: Side event on the Hmong Lao, at the United Nations}}</ref><ref>Jane Hamilton-Merritt, ''Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos'', 1942–1992 (Indiana University Press, 1999), pp337-460</ref> with up to 100,000 killed.<ref>''Forced Back and Forgotten'' (Lawyers' Committee for Human Rights, 1989), p8.</ref> | |||
* The ] ] government in ] disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups, including ethnic ], ] and ]s. In the late 1960s, an estimated 425,000 ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia; by 1984, as a result of Khmer Rouge ] and emigration, only about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country. The small Thai minority along the border was almost completely exterminated, only a few thousand managing to reach safety in Thailand. The ] Muslims suffered serious purges with as much as half of their population exterminated. A Khmer Rouge order stated that henceforth "The Cham nation no longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the ]" (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9).<ref>"". ].</ref><ref>. ].</ref> | |||
* Subsequent waves of hundreds of thousands of ] fled ] and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 250,000 in 1978 as a result of the ].<ref name="myanmar"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Peter Ford |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2012/0612/Why-deadly-race-riots-could-rattle-Myanmar-s-fledgling-reforms |title=Why deadly race riots could rattle Myanmar's fledgling reforms |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=June 12, 2012}}</ref> | |||
* The ] resulted in the discrimination and consequent migration of ]'s ]. Many of these people fled as "]".<ref>. ].</ref> In 1978–79, some 250,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees (many officially encouraged and assisted) or were expelled across the land border with China.<ref>Butterfield, Fox, "Hanoi Regime Reported Resolved to Oust Nearly All Ethnic Chinese," ''],'' July 12, 1979.</ref><ref>Kamm, Henry, "Vietnam Goes on Trial in Geneva Over its Refugees," ''The New York Times,'' July 22, 1979.</ref> | |||
====1980s==== | |||
* In the aftermath of ]'s assassination in 1984, the ruling party ] supporters formed large mobs and killed around 3000 ] around Delhi in what is known as the ] during the next four days. The mobs acting with the support of ruling party leaders used the Election voting list to identify Sikhs and kill them. | |||
*In the 1987 and 1988 ], the ]i ] under ] and headed by ] launched ] against ] civilians in ]. The Iraqi government Massacred 100,000 to 182,000 non-combatant civilians including women and children;, and destroyed about 4,000 villages (out of 4,655) in Iraqi Kurdistan. Between April 1987 and August 1988, 250 towns and villages -were exposed to chemical weapons;, 1,754 schools were destroyed, along with 270 hospitals, 2,450 mosques, 27 churches; and around 90% of all Kurdish villages in the targeted areas were wiped out . | |||
* Between March 16–17, 1988, the ]i ] under ] carried out a ] in the ] town of ] in ]. Between 3,200 and 5,000 civilians died instantly, and between 7,000 and 10,000 civilians were injured, and thousands more would die in the following years from complications, diseases, and birth defects caused by the attack. | |||
].]] | |||
* * ] directed against ethnic ] by the ]n State resulted in the expulsion of some 360,000 ] to Turkey in 1989.<ref> Bulgaria MPs Move to Declare Revival Process as Ethnic Cleansing</ref><ref> Парламентът осъжда възродителния процес</ref> | |||
* The ] conflict has resulted in the displacement of populations from both sides. Among the displaced are 700,000 ] and several thousand Kurds from Armenian-controlled territories including ares of Nagorno-Karabakh,<ref></ref> and 185,000<ref name="autogenerated1">Building Security in Europe's New Borderlands, Renata Dwan, M.E. Sharpe (1999) p. 148</ref> to 250,000 Azerbaijanis,<ref></ref> 18,000 ] and 3,500 Russians fled from ] to Azerbaijan from 1987 to 1989.<ref>De Waal, ''Black Garden'', p. 285</ref> 280,000 to 304,000<ref name="autogenerated1" /> persons—virtually all ethnic ]—fled ] during the 1988–1993 war over the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref></ref> | |||
* Since April 1989, some 70,000 black Mauritanians—members of the ], ], ], ] and ] ethnic groups—have been expelled from ] by the Mauritanian government.<ref></ref> | |||
* In 1989, after bloody pogroms against the ] by ] in Central Asia's ], nearly 90,000 Meskhetian Turks left ].<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
====1990s==== | |||
] | |||
* In 1990, inter-ethnic tensions escalated in ], resulting in the flight of many ], or ethnic ]is, from Bhutan to Nepal, many of whom were expelled by the Bhutanese military. By 1996, over 100,000 ] were living in refugee camps in Nepal. Many have since been resettled in Western nations.<ref></ref> One reason for this expulsion was the desire of the Bhutanese government to remove a largely ] population and preserve it's ] culture and identity.<ref>". '']'' . April 20, 2008</ref> | |||
* In 1991, following a crackdown on ] Muslims in ], 250,000 refugees took shelter in the ] district of neighboring ].<ref>, BBC News</ref> | |||
* After the ] in 1991, ] conducted a ] against the Palestinians living in the country, who before the war had numbered 400,000. Some 200,000 who had fled during the Iraqi occupation were banned from returning, while the remaining 200,000 were pressured into leaving by the authorities, who conducted a campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure to get them to leave.<ref name=ppp>{{cite web|author=Steven J. Rosen|work=Middle East Quarterly|title=Kuwait Expels Thousands of Palestinians|url=http://www.meforum.org/3391/kuwait-expels-palestinians|year=2012|quote=From March to September 1991, about 200,000 Palestinians were expelled from the emirate in a systematic campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure while another 200,000 who fled during the Iraqi occupation were denied return.}}</ref> The Palestinians expelled from Kuwait moved to ], where they had citizenship.<ref>Yann Le Troquer and Rozenn Hommery al-Oudat (Spring 1999):". Journal of Palestine Studies. pp. 37–51</ref> The policy which partly led to this exodus was a response to the alignment of ] leader ] with ]. | |||
* As a result of the ], about 100,000 ethnic ] fled ] and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic ] fled South Ossetia and settled in other parts of ].<ref>Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, , May 1996.</ref> According to ], the campaign of ethnic-cleansing was orchestrated by the Ossetian militants, during the events of the ], which resulted in the ] of approximately 60,000 ] inhabitants from Prigorodny District.<ref>Russia: The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region (Paperback) by Human Rights Watch Helsinki Human Rights Watch (April 1996) ISBN 1-56432-165-7</ref> | |||
] | |||
* The widespread ethnic cleansing accompanying the ] that was committed by Serb-led JNA and rebel militia in the occupied areas of Croatia (self-proclaimed ]) (1991–1995). Large numbers of Croats and non-Serbs were removed, either by murder, deportation or by being forced to flee. According to the ICTY indictment against ], there was an expulsion of around 170,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1414322.stm|title=The legal battle ahead|date=February 8, 2002|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=September 26, 2011}}</ref> | |||
* Following the abrogation of Krajina, around 200,000 Serbs<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4747379.stm|title=Evicted Serbs remember Storm|last=Prodger|first=Matt|date=August 5, 2005|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=September 26, 2011}}</ref> fled ] during or after ], out of which at least 20,000 were deported, according to the ] verdict.<ref name="gotovina judgement">{{cite web |title=Judgement Summary for Gotovina et al.|location=The Hague|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/gotovina/tjug/en/110415_summary.pdf|publisher=] |date =April 15, 2011 |accessdate =April 15, 2011}}</ref> | |||
] in 1995.]] | |||
* Widespread ethnic cleansing accompanied the ] (1992–1995). Large numbers of ] and ] were forced to flee their homes by the ].<ref name="Foreign Relations 1992">Committee on Foreign Relations, US Senate, ''The Ethnic Cleansing of Bosnia-Hercegovina'', (US Government Printing Office, 1992)</ref> Beginning in 1991, political upheavals in the ] displaced about 2,700,000 people by mid-1992, of which over 700,000 sought asylum in Europe.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* Ethnic cleansing of non-Croats in the breakaway state the ] <ref name="icty.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/naletilic_martinovic/ind/en/nal-2ai010928.pdf|title=ICTY: Naletilic and Martinovic (IT-98-34-PT)}}</ref> | |||
* More than 800,000 ] fled their homes in ] between 1998 and 1999 during the ].<ref>{{cite news| publisher=BBC| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8687186.stm| author= | title= Uncovering Albania's role in the Kosovo war| date= 17 May 2010| accessdate= 31 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
* In the aftermath of ] between 200,000 and 250,000 ] and other non-Albanians fled ].<ref name="Political Parties of Eastern Europe">{{cite book|last=Bugajski|first=Janusz|title=Political Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-Communist Era|year=2002|publisher=The Center for Strategic and International Studies|location=New York|isbn=1-56324-676-7|page=479|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9gGKtLTQlUcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Political+Parties+of+Eastern+Europe:+A+Guide+to+Politics+in+the+Post&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9aJUUebACILM0QWwpIC4Bg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/03/18/serbia8129.htm|title=Kosovo/Serbia: Protect Minorities from Ethnic Violence|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>, Human rights watch</ref> At least one additional thousand of Serbs fled their homes during the ] and numerous religious and cultural object were burned down.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* The forced displacement and ] of more than 250,000 people, mostly ] but some others too, from ] during the conflict and after in 1993 and 1998.<ref>Bookman, Milica Zarkovic, "The Demographic Struggle for Power", (p. 131), Frank Cass and Co. Ltd. (UK), (1997) ISBN 0-7146-4732-2</ref> | |||
* The 1994 massacre of nearly 1,000,000 ] by ], known as the ]<ref>Leeder, Elaine J., "The Family in Global Perspective: A Gendered Journey", (p. 164-65), Sage Publications, (2004) ISBN 0-7619-2837-5</ref>{{Citation needed|date=May 2009|reason=citation needed that claims that this was ethnic cleansing.}} | |||
* The mass expulsion of southern ]s (Bhutanese of Nepalese origin) by the northern ] majority in ] in 1990.<ref></ref> The number of refugees is approximately 103,000.<ref></ref> | |||
* In October 1990, the militant ] (LTTE), forcibly ] the entire ] population (approx 65,000) from the Northern Province of ]. The Muslims were given 48 hours to vacate the premises of their homes while their properties were subsequently looted by ]. Those who refused to leave were killed. This act of ethnic cleansing was carried out so the ] could facilitate their goal of creating a ] Tamil state in Northern Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite news|last=Manivannan|first=Thirumalai|title=Analysis: Tamil-Muslim divide|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2070817.stm|accessdate=15 April 2012|publisher=BBC|date=27 June 2002}}</ref> | |||
* In ], a separatist insurgency has targeted the Hindu ] minority and 400,000 have been displaced, and 1,200 have been killed since 1991. Islamic terrorists infiltrated the region in 1989 and began an ethnic cleansing campaign to convert Kashmir to a Muslim state. Since that time, '''over 400,000 Kashmiri Hindus have either been murdered or forced from their homes'''.<ref>, ], February 15, 2006</ref> This has been condemned and labeled as ethnic cleansing in a 2006 resolution passed by the ].<ref>, ], February 15, 2006</ref> Also in 2009 the ] introduced a resolution to recognize September 14, 2007, as Martyrs Day to acknowledge the ethnic cleansing and the campaigns of terror inflicted on the non-Muslim minorities of ] by militants seeking to establish an independent Kashmir, and also to recognize the region as Indian territory rather than as a disputed territory - the resolution failed to pass.<ref></ref> | |||
* Separatist regime policy of proscription of non-] (mostly ]) from ] in the 1990s. Before the ] tens of thousands of people of non-Chechen ethnicity had left the republic, and thousands of other people were turned into slaves or killed. Since 1996 the violence against non-Chechens has continued and almost all of them have left Chechnya up to this moment.<ref>{{cite web|author=O.P. Orlov|author2=V.P. Cherkassov|url=http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/chechen/itogi/preface.htm#_VPID_2|title=Россия — Чечня: Цепь ошибок и преступлений|publisher=]|language=Russian}}</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref>{{YouTube|Ej48kv6nujo|Геноцид русских в Чечне (video)}}</ref> The tactics used to implement this policy of ethnic cleansing include the ignoring of widespread acts of lawlessness committed against non-Chechens (especially acts of violence committed against Russians) and they are accompanied by the distribution of nationalistic propaganda.<ref>Sokolov-Mitrich, Dmitryi. . Izvestia. Retrieved on July 17, 2002.</ref> | |||
* The ] targeted many ]s. Suffering from looting and arson many Chinese Indonesians fled from ].<ref>, August 29, 1998, CNN</ref><ref>, Business Week</ref> | |||
* There have been serious outbreaks of inter-ethnic violence on the island of Kalimantan since 1997, involving the indigenous ]s and immigrants from the island of ]. In 2001 in the Central ] town of Sampit, at least 500 ] were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese were forced to flee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of the ] tradition of the Dayaks of old.<ref></ref> | |||
===21st century=== | |||
==== 2000s ==== | |||
* In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of ] ], told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the ], his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. Makelo asked the ] to recognise ] as a crime against humanity and an act of ].<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* From the late 1990s to the early 2000s, ]n paramilitaries organized and armed by Indonesian military and police killed or expelled large numbers of civilians in ].<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref>James M. Lutz, Brenda J. Lutz, ''''</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> After the East Timorese people voted for independence in a 1999 referendum, Indonesian paramilitaries retaliated, murdering some supporters of independence and levelling most towns. More than 200,000 people either fled or were forcibly taken to Indonesia before East Timor achieved full independence.<ref>''The New Book of Knowledge'' (]), volume ''T'', p. 228 (2004)</ref> | |||
* Since the mid-1990s the central government of ] has been trying to move ] out of the ]. As of October 2005, the government has resumed its policy of forcing all Bushmen off their lands in the Game Reserve, using armed police and threats of violence or death.<ref name="Daily Telegraph">{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/botswana/1501756/Bushmen-forced-out-of-desert-after-living-off-land-for-thousands-of-years.html | |||
|title=Bushmen forced out of desert after living off land for thousands of years |work=The Daily Telegraph |accessdate=October 29, 2005 | location=London |first=Charles |last=Moore |date=October 29, 2005}}</ref> Many of the involuntarily displaced Bushmen live in squalid resettlement camps and some have resorted to prostitution and alcoholism, while about 250 others remain or have surreptitiously returned to the ] to resume their independent lifestyle.<ref></ref> "How can we continue to have ] creatures in an age of computers?" asked Botswana's president ].<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* Since 2003, ] has been accused of carrying out a ] against several black ethnic groups in ], in response to a rebellion by Africans alleging mistreatment. Sudanese irregular militia known as the ] and Sudanese military and police forces have killed an estimated 450,000, expelled around two million, and burned 800 villages.<ref>Collins, Robert O., "Civil Wars and Revolution in the Sudan: Essays on the Sudan, Southern Sudan, and Darfur, 1962–2004 | |||
", (p. 156), Tsehai Publishers (US), (2005) ISBN 0-9748198-7-5 .</ref><ref>Power, Samantha "Dying in Darfur: | |||
Can the ethnic cleansing in Sudan be stopped?", ''The New Yorker'', August 30, 2004. | |||
Human Rights Watch, (web site, retrieved May 24, 2006). | |||
Hilary Andersson, , BBC News, May 27, 2004.</ref> A July 14, 2007 article notes that in the past two months up to 75,000 Arabs from ] and ] crossed the border into Darfur. Most have been relocated by the Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab people. Some 450,000 have been killed and 2.5 million have now been forced to flee to ]s in ] after their homes and villages were destroyed.<ref></ref> Sudan refuses to allow their return, or to allow United Nations peacekeepers into Darfur. | |||
*Currently in the ] (2003 to present), entire neighborhoods in ] are being ethnically cleansed by ] and ] militias.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Some areas are being evacuated by every member of a particular group due to lack of security, moving into new areas because of fear of reprisal killings. As of June 21, 2007, the ] estimated that 2.2 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 2 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.<ref></ref><ref>. Alexander G. Higgins, ''],'' November 3, 2006.</ref><ref></ref> | |||
*Although ] represent less than 5% of the total Iraqi population, they make up 40% of the ] now living in nearby countries, according to ].<ref></ref><ref></ref> In the 16th century, Christians constituted half of Iraq's population.<ref></ref> In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians.<ref></ref> But as the ] has allowed the growth of militant ], Christians' total numbers slumped to about 500,000, of whom 250,000 live in Baghdad.<ref></ref> Furthermore, the ] and ] communities are at the risk of elimination due to the ongoing atrocities by ] extremists.<ref></ref><ref></ref> A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past 7 months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted ] in the United States.<ref>Ann McFeatters: . '']'' May 25, 2007.</ref> | |||
*In October 2006, ] announced that it would deport ] living in the ] region of eastern Niger to Chad.<ref></ref> This population numbered about 150,000.<ref></ref> Nigerien government forces forcibly rounded up Arabs in preparation for ], during which two girls died, reportedly after fleeing government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages. Niger's government eventually suspended the plan.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
*In 1950, the ] had become the largest of 20 minority groups participating in an insurgency against the ] in Burma. The conflict continues as of 2008. In 2004, the BBC, citing ], estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have been driven from their homes during decades of war, with 120,000 more refugees from Burma, mostly Karen, living in ]s on the Thai side of the border. Many accuse the military government of Burma of ethnic cleansing.<ref>, BBC News</ref> As a result of the ] in minority group areas more than two million people have fled Burma to ].<ref>, Refugees International</ref> | |||
*] erupted in December 2007.<ref></ref> By January 28, 2008, the death toll from the violence was at around 800.<ref></ref> The United Nations estimated that as many as 600,000 people have been displaced.<ref></ref><ref></ref> A government spokesman claimed that Odinga's supporters were "engaging in ethnic cleansing".<ref></ref> | |||
*The ] began on February 3, 2008. Incidences of violence against ]ns and their property were reported in ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Nearly 25,000 North Indian workers fled Pune,<ref name="IE_Pune_flee">{{cite news|url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/25-000-North-Indian-workers-leave-Pune/276576/3/|accessdate=April 6, 2008|title=25000 North Indian workers leave Pune|work=]}}</ref><ref name="TOI_Pune_flee">{{cite news|title=25000 North Indians leave, Pune realty projects hit|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-24/india/27771442_1_realty-projects-anti-north-indian-rhetoric-labourers|accessdate=April 4, 2008|work=]|date=February 24, 2008}}</ref> and another 15,000 fled Nashik in the wake of the attacks.<ref name="TOI_Nashik_flee">{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-14/india/27743183_1_mns-activists-maharashtra-navnirman-sena-activists-migrant-workers|accessdate=April 6, 2008|work=]|date=February 14, 2008|title=Maha exodus: 10,000 north Indians flee in fear}}</ref><ref name="Red_Nashik_flee">{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/feb/13nasik1.htm|accessdate=April 6, 2008|title=MNS violence: North Indians flee Nashik, industries hit|date=February 13, 2008|publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
*] erupted on May 11, 2008 within three weeks the death toll was , with 670 injured by the violence when South Africans ejected non-nationals in a nationwide ethnic cleansing/xenophobic outburst. The most affected foreigners have been ], ], ], ], Zimbabweans and ]ans. Local South Africans have also been caught up in the violence. Arvin Gupta, a senior UNHCR protection officer, said the UNHCR did not agree with the City of Cape Town that those displaced by the violence should be held at camps across the city.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/ethnic-cleansing-south-africas-shame-833897.html | location=London | work=The Independent | title=Ethnic cleansing: South Africa's shame | date=May 25, 2008}}</ref> During the 2010 FIFA world cup, rumors were reported that xenophobic attacks will be commenced after the final. A few incidents occurred where foreign individuals were targeted, but the South African police claims that these attacks can not be classified as xenophobic attacks but rather regular criminal activity in the townships. Elements of the South African Army were sent into the affected townships to assist the police in keeping order and preventing continued attacks. | |||
*In December 2008 200 Turkish intellectuals and academics issued an apology for the ] during ], an event that most Western historians view as amounting to a ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Birch |first=Nichola |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/turkish-academics-in-apology-to-armenians-1067066.html|title=Turkish academics in apology to Armenians|newspaper=The Independent|date=December 15, 2008|location=London}}</ref> At a conference of Hellenes victims of ethnic cleansing, held in February 2011 in Nicosia, an apology was demanded <ref>Alfred de Zayas "Turkey must apologise" Cyprus Weekly, February 25, 2011, p. 14</ref> | |||
*In August 2008, the ] broke out when ] launched a military offensive against ]n separatists, leading to military intervention by ], during which Georgian forces were expelled from the separatist territories of South Ossetia and ]. During the fighting, 15,000<ref></ref> ethnic ] living in South Ossetia were forced to flee to Georgia proper, and Ossetian militia burned their villages to prevent their return. | |||
==== 2010s ==== | |||
], January 19, 2014]] | |||
*The killings of hundreds of ethnic ] in Kyrgyzstan during the ] resulting in the flight of thousands of Uzbek refugees to ] have been called ethnic cleansing by the ] and international media.<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>. CSMonitor.com (2010-06-16). Retrieved on 2013-07-18.</ref> | |||
*]. The killings, ] and mass expulsions of ] workers, migrants and native black Libyans in ] by rebel forces who directly and indirectly accused them of being African mercenaries from neighboring countries of ], Niger or ] and pro-Gaddafi supporters.<ref>"". The Independent. September 1, 2011.</ref> The majority African Libyan town of ], 36 kilometers south of Libya's third largest city ] was ethnically cleansed of its inhabitants by members of the ] Brigade as a retaliation against supposed ] supporters.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} | |||
*Members of the ] gang, associated with the ], were accused of attempting a racial cleansing of African Americans in ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/latino-gang-charged-racial-cleansing-california-town/story?id=13794815#.T6fkGlI4SuJ|title=Latino Gang Charged With Racial Cleansing Attacks in California Town|last=Ng|first=Christina|date=9 June 2011|publisher=]|accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> | |||
*]. An estimated 90,000 people have been displaced in the recent ] between ] Muslims and Buddhists in ]'s western ].<ref name="myanmar">"". ''The New York Times''. July 12, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18517412 | title=Burma unrest: UN body says 90,000 displaced by violence |publisher=BBC | date=20 June 2012 }}</ref> | |||
*Approximately 400,000 people have been displaced in the ] between indigenous ] and ]-speaking Muslims in ], ].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/29/world/asia/after-tensions-in-indias-east-turn-deadly-claims-officials-turned-a-blind-eye.html?_r=1 | title=As Tensions in India Turn Deadly, Some Say Officials Ignored Warning Signs |work=The New York Times | date= July 28, 2012 | first=Gardiner | last=Harris}}</ref> | |||
*Sources inside the ] have reported an ongoing ] is being carried out by anti-government ]ist rebels.<ref>{{cite web|last=Putz |first=Ulrike |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/christians-flee-from-radical-rebels-in-syria-a-846180.html |title=Christians Flee from Radical Rebels in Syria - SPIEGEL ONLINE |publisher=Spiegel.de |date=2012-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/03/church-fears-ethnic-cleansing-of-christians-in-homs-syria.html | title=Church fears 'ethnic cleansing' of Christians in Homs, Syria |work=Los Angeles Times | date= March 23, 2012}}</ref> | |||
*].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://reliefweb.int/report/central-african-republic/100-day-plan-priority-humanitarian-action-central-african-republic | title=100 Day Plan for Priority Humanitarian Action in the Central African Republic, 24 December 2013 - 2 April 2014 |work=] | date= December 24, 2013 }}</ref> More than 1 million have been internally displaced. | |||
*]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/22/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-report/ | title=Rights group accuses Myanmar of 'ethnic cleansing' |work=CNN.com | date= April 22, 2013}}</ref> | |||
*].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2013/12/19/340859/south-sudan-hit-by-ethnic-cleaning-hrw/ | title=HRW accuses South Sudan, rebels of ethnic cleaning |work=Press TV | date= December 19, 2013}}</ref> More than 700,000 have been internally displaced. Part of ]. | |||
==Criticism of the term== | |||
], the founder of ], has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": as "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blum |first=Rony |last2=Stanton |first2=Gregory H. |last3=Sagi |first3=Shira |last4=Richter |first4=Elihu D. |title='Ethnic cleansing' bleaches the atrocities of genocide |journal=European Journal of Public Health |year=2007 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pmid=17513346 |pages=204–209 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckm011 }}</ref><ref>See also "'Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", Genocide Studies and Prevention 5, 1 (April 2010), Douglas Singleterry</ref> | |||
In 1992, the term "ethnic cleansing" ({{lang-de|Ethnische Säuberung}}) was named ] by the '']'' due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.<ref>]: ''Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort!'' (in German).]</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
{{Portal|Genocide}} | {{Portal|Genocide}} | ||
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==Explanatory notes== | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
== |
== Notes == | ||
{{ |
{{reflist}} | ||
* {{cite journal |doi=10.2307/20045626 |author=Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew |title=A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |year=1993 |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |jstor=20045626 |pages=110–121}} | |||
* {{cite book|author=Bowker, Robert P. G.|year=2003|title=Palestinian Refugees: Mythology, Identity, and the Search for Peace|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=1-58826-202-2}} | |||
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Nemesis at Potsdam'', Routledge, London 1977. | |||
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''A Terrible Revenge''. Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. ISBN 1-4039-7308-3. | |||
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Die deutschen Vertriebenen''. Leopold Stocker, Graz, 2006. ISBN 3-902475-15-3. | |||
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht''. Universitas, München 2001. ISBN 3-8004-1416-3. | |||
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: "The Right to One's Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", ''Criminal Law Forum'' (2005) | |||
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: "Forced Population Transfer" in Max Planck ''Encyclopedia of Public International Law'', Oxford online 2010. | |||
*{{cite book|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans: nationalism and the destruction of tradition|first1=Cathie|last1=Carmichael|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=0-415-27416-8 |id=ISBN 9780415274166}} | |||
* Douglas, R.M.: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0300166606. | |||
* {{cite book|title=The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A People's War|first1=Beverley|last1=Milton-Edwards|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2008|isbn=0-415-41043-6 |id=ISBN 9780415410434}} | |||
* {{cite book|title=The terrorist conjunction: the United States, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and al-Qā'ida|first1=Alfred G.|last2=Gerteiny|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2007|isbn=<!--0-275-99643-3, -->9780275996437|url=http://books.google.com/?id=yXCkz5OZ7-AC&pg=PA71&dq=%22ethnic+cleansing%22+palestinians&q=%22ethnic%20cleansing%22%20palestinians}} | |||
*{{cite book|title=Right and Wrong, and Palestine, 9-11, Iraq, 7-7 ...|first1=Ted|last1=Honderich|authorlink1=Ted Honderich|publisher=Seven Stories Press|year=2006|isbn=1-58322-736-9 |id=ISBN 9781583227367}} | |||
* {{cite journal |author=Jackson Preece, Jennifer |title=Ethnic Cleansing As An Instrument of Nation-State Creation |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=20 |issue=4 |year=1998 |page=359 |doi=10.1353/hrq.1998.0039}} | |||
*{{cite book|title=Bridging the barrier: Israeli unilateral disengagement|first1=Tami Amanda|last1=Jacoby|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|year=2007|isbn=0754649695 |id=ISBN 9780754649694}} | |||
* ], ''A History of Israel – From the Rise of Zionism to our Time'', Knopf, 2007. | |||
*{{cite book|title=Politicide: Ariel Sharon's war against the Palestinians|first1=Baruch|last1=Kimmerling|authorlink1=Baruch Kimmerling|publisher=Verso|year=2003|isbn=1-85984-517-7 |id=ISBN 9781859845172}} | |||
* {{cite book|author=McDowall, David|year=1989|title=Palestine and Israel: The Uprising and Beyond|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=1-85043-289-9}} | |||
* Naimark, Norman: Fires of Hatred. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001. | |||
* Prauser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon: The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second Century. Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004. | |||
* {{cite journal |author=Petrovic, Drazen |title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology |journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=4 |year=1998 |page=817 |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art3.pdf }} {{Dead link|date=January 2010}} | |||
* {{cite journal |author= Sundhaussen, Holm |title=Forced Ethnic Migration |journal=]| year=2010 |url= http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921728 }} | |||
*{{cite book|title=Domicide: the global destruction of home: "Top 250" Red Series Maps Series|first1=John Douglas|last1=Porteous|first2=Sandra Eileen|last2=Smith|edition=Illustrated|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|year=2001|isbn=<!--0-7735-2258-1, -->9780773522589|url=http://books.google.com/?id=6t_KSirfEnsC&pg=PA89&dq=%22ethnic+cleansing%22+palestinians&q=%22ethnic%20cleansing%22%20palestinians}} | |||
*{{cite book|title=Ethnocracy: land and identity politics in Israel/Palestine, Part 797|edition=Illustrated|first1=Oren|last1=Yiftachel|authorlink1=Oren Yiftachel|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2006|isbn=0-8122-3927-X |id=ISBN 9780812239270}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
== |
== References == | ||
* {{Cite journal|last=Baracetti|first=Gaia|date=2009|title=Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542981|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=44|issue=4|pages=657–674|doi=10.1177/0022009409339344|jstor=40542981|s2cid=159919208|issn=0022-0094}} | |||
{{commons category|ethnic cleansing}} | |||
* {{cite journal | |||
| doi=10.2307/20045626 | |||
| last=Bell-Fialkoff | first=Andrew | |||
| title=A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing | |||
| journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |year=1993 | |||
| url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html | |||
| jstor=20045626 |pages=110–121 |url-status=dead | |||
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203190219/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html | |||
| archive-date=February 3, 2004 }} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| first1 = Donald | |||
| last1 = Bloxham | |||
| author-link1 = Donald Bloxham | |||
| first2 = Anthony | |||
| last2 = Dirk Moses | |||
| author-link2 = A. Dirk Moses | |||
| editor-first1 = Donald | |||
| editor-last1 = Bloxham | |||
| editor-first2 = Robert | |||
| editor-last2 = Gerwarth | |||
| title = Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe | |||
| chapter = Genocide and ethnic cleansing | |||
| page = 125 | |||
| year = 2011 | |||
| publisher = Cambridge University Press | |||
| doi = 10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004 | |||
| isbn = 9781107005037 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book|language = en | |||
| location = Koper-Capodistria|date = 25 July 2000 | |||
| title = Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956 | |||
| url = https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm | |||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200223115751/https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm | |||
| archive-date = 23 February 2020 | |||
| chapter = Period 1941–1945 | |||
| chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201105021740/http://www.kozina.com/premik/poreng4.htm | |||
| ref={{harvid|Italian-Slovene commission}} | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| editor-first1 = Ota | |||
| editor-last1 = Konrád | |||
| editor-first2 = Boris | |||
| editor-last2 = Barth | |||
| editor-first3 = Jaromír | |||
| editor-last3 = Mrňka | |||
| title = Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48 | |||
| year = 2021 | |||
| publisher = Springer International Publishing | |||
| page = 20 | |||
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xXRREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 | |||
| isbn = 9783030783860 | |||
| access-date = 5 November 2022 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite journal | |||
| last=Petrovic |first=Drazen | |||
| title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology | |||
| journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=4 |year=1998 | |||
| page=817 |url=http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf }} | |||
* {{cite journal | |||
| last = Thum | first = Gregor | |||
| year = 2010 | |||
| title = Review: Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945 | |||
| journal= Contemporary European History | volume= 19 | issue=1 | pages= 75–81 | |||
| doi=10.1017/S0960777309990257 | s2cid = 145605508 | |||
}} | |||
* Vladimir Petrović (2007), (Ethnicisation of Cleansing), Hereticus 1/2007, 11–36 | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| first = Guido | |||
| last = Rumici | |||
| language = it | |||
| title = Infoibati (1943–1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti | |||
| year = 2002 | |||
| publisher = Ugo Mursia | |||
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x0ZnAAAAMAAJ&q=massacri+foibe+sloveni+croati+anticomunisti | |||
| isbn = 978-88-425-2999-6 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Weine |last2=Becker |last3=Vojvoda |last4=Hodzic |title=Individual change after genocide in Bosnian survivors of "ethnic cleansing": Assessing personality dysfunction |first1 = Stevan M. |first2= Daniel F. |first3=Dolores |first4=Emir |year=1998 |doi=10.1023/A:1024469418811 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pmid=9479683 |journal=] |pages=147–153 |s2cid=31419500 }} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
{{Library resources box}} | |||
{{refbegin|30em}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Andrew R. |title=Destroy Them Gradually: Displacement as Atrocity |date=2024 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-1-9788-3130-8 |language=en}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Bulutgil |first1=H. Zeynep |title=The Roots of Ethnic Cleansing in Europe |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-56528-5 |language=en}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Dahbour |first1=Omar |title=Nationalism and Human Rights: In Theory and Practice in the Middle East, Central Europe, and the Asia-Pacific |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-1-137-01202-9 |pages=97–122 |language=en |chapter=National Rights, Minority Rights, and Ethnic Cleansing}} | |||
*{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Neve|author-link=Neve Gordon |last2=Ram |first2=Moriel |title=Ethnic cleansing and the formation of settler colonial geographies |journal=Political Geography |date=2016 |volume=53 |pages=20–29 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.01.010|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/31016/1/Gordon_Ethnic%20cleansing%20and%20the%20formation%20of%20settler%20colonial%20geographies.pdf }} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Jenne |first1=Erin K. |title=The Routledge Handbook of Ethnic Conflict |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72042-5 |chapter=The causes and consequences of ethnic cleansing}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Benjamin |title=Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |date=2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3038-5 |language=en}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Pegorier |first1=Clotilde |title=Ethnic Cleansing: A Legal Qualification |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-06783-1 |language=en}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Rikhof |first1=Joseph |title=Serious International Crimes, Human Rights, and Forced Migration |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-09438-8 |chapter=Ethnic cleansing and exclusion}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Ther |first1=Philipp|author-link=Philipp Ther |title=The Dark Side of Nation-States |date=2014 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78238-303-1 |language=en |chapter=The Dark Side of Nation-States: Ethnic Cleansing in Modern Europe}} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
== External links == | |||
{{Commons category|Ethnic cleansing|lcfirst=yes}} | |||
{{wiktionary|ethnic cleansing}} | {{wiktionary|ethnic cleansing}} | ||
{{ethnicity}} | |||
* | |||
{{genocide topics}} | |||
* – Images of ethnic cleansing in Sudan | |||
{{nationalism}} | |||
* , Paper 951, 2006, ] School of Law (PDF) | |||
{{segregation by type}} | |||
* May 31, 2007, World Science | |||
{{racism topics|state=collapsed}}{{Discrimination}}{{Authority control}} | |||
* | |||
{{Racism topics|state=collapsed}} | |||
{{Ethnicity}} | |||
{{Segregation by type}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ethnic Cleansing}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:Ethnic Cleansing}} | ||
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Revision as of 21:07, 23 December 2024
Systematic removal of a certain ethnic or religious group For other uses, see Ethnic cleansing (disambiguation).
Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, or religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal such as deportation or population transfer, it also includes indirect methods aimed at forced migration by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction. Both the definition and charge of ethnic cleansing is often disputed, with some researchers including and others excluding coercive assimilation or mass killings as a means of depopulating an area of a particular group.
Although scholars do not agree on which events constitute ethnic cleansing, many instances have occurred throughout history. The term was first used to describe Albanian nationalist treatment of the Kosovo Serbs in the 1980s, and entered widespread use during the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s. Since then, the term has gained widespread acceptance due to journalism. Although research originally focused on deep-rooted animosities as an explanation for ethnic cleansing events, more recent studies depict ethnic cleansing as "a natural extension of the homogenizing tendencies of nation states" or emphasize security concerns and the effects of democratization, portraying ethnic tensions as a contributing factor. Research has also focused on the role of war as a causative or potentiating factor in ethnic cleansing. However, states in a similar strategic situation can have widely varying policies towards minority ethnic groups perceived as a security threat.
Ethnic cleansing has no legal definition under international criminal law, but the methods by which it is carried out are considered crimes against humanity and may also fall under the Genocide Convention.
Etymology
An antecedent to the term is the Greek word andrapodismos (ἀνδραποδισμός; lit. "enslavement"), which was used in ancient texts. e.g., to describe atrocities that accompanied Alexander the Great's conquest of Thebes in 335 BCE. The expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain between 1609 and 1614 is considered by some authors to be one of the first episodes of state-sponsored ethnic cleansing in the modern western world. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide", considered the displacement of Native Americans by American settlers as a historical example of genocide. Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term. Circassian genocide, also known as "Tsitsekun", is often regarded by various historians as the first large-scale ethnic cleansing campaign launched by a state during the 19th century industrial era. Imperial Russian general Nikolay Yevdakimov, who supervised the operations of Circassian genocide during 1860s, dehumanised Muslim Circassians as "a pestilence" to be expelled from their native lands. Russian objective was the annexation of land; and the Russian military operations that forcibly deported Circassians were designated by Yevdakimov as “ochishchenie” (cleansing).
In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs (očista), the Poles (czystki etniczne), the French (épuration) and the Germans (Säuberung). A 1913 Carnegie Endowment report condemning the actions of all participants in the Balkan Wars contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups.
During the Holocaust in World War II, Nazi Germany pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was "cleaned of Jews" (judenrein). The Nazi Generalplan Ost called for the genocide and ethnic cleansing of most Slavic people in central and eastern Europe for the purpose of providing more living space for the Germans. During the Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia, the euphemism čišćenje terena ("cleansing the terrain") was used by the Croatian Ustaše to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely systematically killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes. The term was also used in the December 20, 1941 directive of Serbian Chetniks in reference to the genocidal massacres they committed against Bosniaks and Croats between 1941 and 1945. The Russian phrase очистка границ (ochistka granits; lit. "cleansing of borders") was used in Soviet documents of the early 1930s to refer to the forced resettlement of Polish people from the 22-kilometre (14 mi) border zone in the Byelorussian and Ukrainian SSRs. This process of the population transfer in the Soviet Union was repeated on an even larger scale in 1939–1941, involving many other groups suspected of disloyalty.
In its complete form, the term appeared for the first time in the Romanian language (purificare etnică) in an address by Vice Prime Minister Mihai Antonescu to cabinet members in July 1941. After the beginning of the invasion by the Soviet Union, he concluded: "I do not know when the Romanians will have such chance for ethnic cleansing." In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term "etnicheskoye chishcheniye" which literally translates to "ethnic cleansing" to describe Azerbaijani efforts to drive Armenians away from Nagorno-Karabakh. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the Bosnian War (1992–1995).
In 1992, the German equivalent of ethnic cleansing (German: ethnische Säuberung, pronounced [ˈʔɛtnɪʃə ˈzɔɪ̯bəʁʊŋ] ) was named German Un-word of the Year by the Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.
Definitions
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 defined ethnic cleansing as:
a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas", " 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention.
The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or intimidation to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group." As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, "ethnic cleansing ... defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory."
Terry Martin has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end."
Gregory Stanton, the founder of Genocide Watch, has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": because "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.
As a crime under international law
There is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing; however, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense—the forcible deportation of a population—is defined as a crime against humanity under the statutes of both the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY). The gross human rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under public international law of crimes against humanity and in certain circumstances genocide. There are also situations, such as the expulsion of Germans after World War II, where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see Preussische Treuhand v. Poland). Timothy v. Waters argues that similar ethnic cleansing could go unpunished in the future.
Mutual ethnic cleansing
Mutual ethnic cleansing occurs when two groups commit ethnic cleansing against minority members of the other group within their own territories. For instance in the 1920s, Turkey expelled its Greek minority and Greece expelled its Turkish minority following the Greco-Turkish War. Other examples where mutual ethnic cleansing occurred include the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and the population transfers by the Soviets of Germans, Poles, and Ukrainians after World War II.
Causes
According to Michael Mann, in The Dark Side of Democracy (2004), murderous ethnic cleansing is strongly related to the creation of democracies. He argues that murderous ethnic cleansing is due to the rise of nationalism, which associates citizenship with a specific ethnic group. Democracy, therefore, is tied to ethnic and national forms of exclusion. Nevertheless, it is not democratic states that are more prone to commit ethnic cleansing, because minorities tend to have constitutional guarantees. Neither are stable authoritarian regimes (except the nazi and communist regimes) which are likely perpetrators of murderous ethnic cleansing, but those regimes that are in process of democratization. Ethnic hostility appears where ethnicity overshadows social classes as the primordial system of social stratification. Usually, in deeply divided societies, categories such as class and ethnicity are deeply intertwined, and when an ethnic group is seen as oppressor or exploitative of the other, serious ethnic conflict can develop. Michael Mann holds that when two ethnic groups claim sovereignty over the same territory and can feel threatened, their differences can lead to severe grievances and danger of ethnic cleansing. The perpetration of murderous ethnic cleansing tends to occur in unstable geopolitical environments and in contexts of war. As ethnic cleansing requires high levels of organisation and is usually directed by states or other authoritative powers, perpetrators are usually state powers or institutions with some coherence and capacity, not failed states as it is generally perceived. The perpetrator powers tend to get support by core constituencies that favour combinations of nationalism, statism, and violence.
Ethnic cleansing was prevalent during the Age of Nationalism in Europe (19th and 20th centuries). Multi-ethnic European engaged in ethnic cleansing against minorities in order to pre-empt their secession and the loss of territory. Ethnic cleansing was particularly prevalent during periods of interstate war.
Genocide
Ethnic cleansing has been described as part of a continuum of violence whose most extreme form is genocide. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced deportation or population transfer. While ethnic cleansing and genocide may share the same goal and methods (e.g., forced displacement), ethnic cleansing is intended to displace a persecuted population from a given territory, while genocide is intended to destroy a group.
Some academics consider genocide to be a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing". Norman Naimark writes that these concepts are different but related, for "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people." William Schabas states "ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser." Multiple genocide scholars have criticized distinguishing between ethnic cleansing and genocide, with Martin Shaw arguing that forced deportation necessarily results in the destruction of a group and this must be foreseen by the perpetrators.
As a military, political, and economic tactic
The foibe massacres (Italian: massacri delle foibe; Slovene: poboji v fojbah; Croatian: masakri fojbe), or simply "the foibe", refers to ethnic cleansing, mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after World War II, mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA in the then-Italian territories of Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities, and Italian, German, Croat and Slovene anti-communists against the regime of Josip Broz Tito, presumed to be associated with fascism, Nazism, collaboration with Axis and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which was the post-World War II exodus and departure of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa. From 1947, after the war, they were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration. In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).
The resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 9th and 7th centuries BC is considered by some scholars to be one of the first cases of ethnic cleansing.
During the 1980s, in Lebanon, ethnic cleansing was common during all phases of the conflict, notable incidents were seen in the early phase of the war, such as the Damour massacre, the Karantina massacre, the Siege of the Tel al-Zaatar Palestinian refugee camp, and during the 1982 Lebanon War such as the Sabra and Shatila Massacre committed by Lebanese Maronite forces backed by Israel against Palestinian refugees and Lebanese Shia civilians. After the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf, the Mountain War broke out, where ethnic cleansings (mostly in the form of tit-for-tat killings) occurred. During that time, the Syrian backed, mostly Druze dominated People's Liberation Army used a policy they called "territorial cleansing" to "drain" the Chouf of Maronite Christians in order to deny them of resisting the advance of the PSP. As a result, 163,670 Christian villagers were displaced due to these operations. In response to these massacres, the Lebanese Forces conducted a similar policy, which resulted in 20,000 Druze displaced.
Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, forced expulsion, or killing of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority.
According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb and Croat forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and Republic of Serbian Krajina by the Serbs; and Herzeg-Bosnia by the Croats).
Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.
Israeli herders have engaged in a systemic displacement of Palestinian herders in Area C of the West Bank as a form of nationalist and economic warfare.
When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the expulsion of Germans after World War II through the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany in its reduced borders after 1945, the forced population movements, constituting a type of ethnic cleansing, may contribute to long-term stability of a post-conflict nation. Some justifications may be made as to why the targeted group will be moved in the conflict resolution stages, as in the case of the ethnic Germans, some individuals of the large German population in Czechoslovakia and prewar Poland had encouraged Nazi jingoism before World War II, but this was forcibly resolved.
According to historian Norman Naimark, during an ethnic cleansing process, there may be destruction of physical symbols of the victims including temples, books, monuments, graveyards, and street names: "Ethnic cleansing involves not only the forced deportation of entire nations but the eradication of the memory of their presence." In many cases, the side perpetrating the alleged ethnic cleansing and its allies have fiercely disputed the charge.
Instances
For a more comprehensive list, see List of ethnic cleansing campaigns.See also
Main article: Outline of genocide studies- Cultural genocide
- Discrimination based on skin tone
- Ethnic conflict
- Ethnic violence
- Ethnocentrism
- Ethnocide
- Forced displacement
- Identity cleansing
- Identity politics
- Nativism (politics)
- Political cleansing of population
- Population cleansing
- Racial segregation
- Racism
- Redlining
- Religious persecution
- Religious discrimination
- Religious segregation
- Religious violence
- Sectarian violence
- Social cleansing
- Sundown town
- Supremacism
- Xenophobia
Explanatory notes
- "How could ‘forced deportation’ ever be achieved without extreme coercion, indeed violence? How, indeed, could deportation not be forced? How could people not resist? How could it not involve the destruction of a community, of the way of life that a group has enjoyed over a period of time? How could those who deported a group not intend this destruction? In what significant way is the forcible removal of a population from their homeland different from the destruction’ of a group? If the boundary between ‘cleansing’ and genocide is unreal, why police it?"
- Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace (1947).
Notes
- ^ "Ethnic cleansing". United Nations. United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Retrieved December 20, 2020.
- Walling, Carrie Booth (2000). "The history and politics of ethnic cleansing". The International Journal of Human Rights. 4 (3–4): 47–66. doi:10.1080/13642980008406892. S2CID 144001685.
Most frequently, however, the aim of ethnic cleansing is to expel the despised ethnic group through either indirect coercion or direct force, and to ensure that return is impossible. Terror is the fundamental method used to achieve this end.
Methods of indirect coercion can include: introducing repressive laws and discriminatory measures designed to make minority life difficult; the deliberate failure to prevent mob violence against ethnic minorities; using surrogates to inflict violence; the destruction of the physical infrastructure upon which minority life depends; the imprisonment of male members of the ethnic group; threats to rape female members, and threats to kill. If ineffective, these indirect methods are often escalated to coerced emigration, where the removal of the ethnic group from the territory is pressured by physical force. This typically includes physical harassment and the expropriation of property. Deportation is an escalated form of direct coercion in that the forcible removal of 'undesirables' from the state's territory is organised, directed and carried out by state agents. The most serious of the direct methods, excluding genocide, is murderous cleansing, which entails the brutal and often public murder of some few in order to compel flight of the remaining group members.13 Unlike during genocide, when murder is intended to be total and an end in itself, murderous cleansing is used as a tool towards the larger aim of expelling survivors from the territory. The process can be made complete by revoking the citizenship of those who emigrate or flee. - Schabas, William A. (2003). "'Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 3 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1163/221161104X00075.
The Commission considered techniques of ethnic cleansing to include murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extrajudicial executions, sexual assault, confinement of civilian populations in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian populations, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property.
- The danger of overstretching the term can be avoided...The goal of ethnic cleansing is to permanently remove a group from the area it inhabits...There is a popular dimension to ethnic cleansing because there are people needed to threaten with violence, to evict homes, organize mass transports, and to prevent the return of the unwanted...The main goal of ethnic cleansing was the removal of a group from a certain territory The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History. (2012). United Kingdom: OUP Oxford.
- Joireman, Sandra Fullerton. Peace, preference, and property : return migration after violent conflict. University of Michigan. p. 49.
Violent conflict changes communities. "Returnees painfully discover that in their period of absence the homeland communities and their identities have undergone transformation, and these ruptures and changes have serious implications for their ability to reclaim a sense of home upon homecoming." The first issue in terms of returning home is usually the restoration of property, specifically the return or rebuilding of homes. People want their property restored, often before they return. But home means more than property, it also refers to the nature of the community. Anthropological literature emphasizes that time and the experience of violence changes people's sense of home and desire to return, and the nature of their communities of origin. To sum up, previous research has identified factors that influence decisions to return: time, trauma, family characteristics and economic opportunities.
- Bulutgil 2018, p. 1136.
- ^ Garrity, Meghan M (September 27, 2023). "'Ethnic Cleansing': An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity". Political Science Quarterly. 138 (4): 469–489. doi:10.1093/psquar/qqad082.
- Kirby-McLemore, Jennifer (2021–2022). "Settling the Genocide v. Ethnic Cleansing Debate: Ending Misuse of the Euphemism Ethnic Cleansing". Denver Journal of International Law and Policy. 50: 115.
- "Who first coined the euphemism "ethnic cleansing" for racial murder and persecution? Surely it must have been a dictator? | Notes and Queries | guardian.co.uk". www.theguardian.com. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
- Howe, Marvine (July 12, 1982). "Exodus of Serbians stirs province in Yugoslavia". The New York Times. p. 8. Archived from the original on March 17, 2018.
- Thum 2010, p. 75: way. Despite its euphemistic character and its origin in the language of the perpetrators, 'ethnic cleansing' is now the widely accepted scholarly term used to describe the systematic and violent removal of undesired ethnic groups from a given territory.
- Bulutgil, H. Zeynep (2018). "The state of the field and debates on ethnic cleansing". Nationalities Papers. 46 (6): 1136–1145. doi:10.1080/00905992.2018.1457018. S2CID 158519257.
- Jones, Adam (2012). "'Ethnic cleansing' and genocide". Crimes Against Humanity: A Beginner's Guide. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-78074-146-8.
- Schabas, William A. (2003). "'Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 3 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1163/221161104X00075.
'Ethnic cleansing' is probably better described as a popular or journalistic expression, with no recognized legal meaning in a technical sense... 'ethnic cleansing' is equivalent to deportation,' a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions as well as a crime against humanity, and therefore a crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal.
- Akçam, Taner (2011). "Demographic Policy and the Annihilation of the Armenians". The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15333-9.
The thesis being proposed here is that the Armenian Genocide was not implemented solely as demographic engineering, but also as destruction and annihilation, and that the 5 to 10 percent principle was decisive in achieving this goal. Care was taken so that the number of Armenians deported to Syria, and those who remained behind, would not exceed 5 to 10 percent of the population of the places in which they were found. Such a result could be achieved only through annihilation... According to official Ottoman statistics, it was necessary to reduce the prewar population of 1.3 million Armenians to approximately 200,000.
- Booth Walling, Carrie (2012). "The History and Politics of Ethnic Cleansing". In Booth, Ken (ed.). The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions. London: Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-13633-476-4.
- Saldanha, Arun (2012). Deleuze and Race. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 51, 70. ISBN 978-0-7486-6961-5.
- McDonnell, M. A.; Moses, A. D. (2005). "Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas". Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 501–529. doi:10.1080/14623520500349951. S2CID 72663247.
- ^ Sousa, Ashley (2016). "Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson". Journal of Southern History. 82 (1): 135–136. doi:10.1353/soh.2016.0023. ISSN 2325-6893. S2CID 159731284.
- Richmond, Walter (2013). "3: From War to Genocide". The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8135-6068-7.
- Levene, Mark (2005). "6: Declining Powers". Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010. pp. 298–302. ISBN 1-84511-057-9.
- ^ Richmond, Walter (2013). "4: 1864". The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. pp. 96, 97. ISBN 978-0-8135-6068-7.
- Ther, Philipp (2004). "The Spell of the Homogeneous Nation State: Structural Factors and Agents of Ethnic Cleansing". In Munz, Rainer; Ohliger, Rainer (eds.). Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Russia in Comparative Perspective. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-13575-938-4. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
- Akhund, Nadine (December 31, 2012). "The Two Carnegie Reports: From the Balkan Expedition of 1913 to the Albanian Trip of 1921". Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires. XIVb (1–2). doi:10.4000/balkanologie.2365. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2017 – via balkanologie.revues.org.
- Fulbrooke, Mary (2004). A Concise History of Germany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-52154-071-1. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
- Eichholtz, Dietrich (September 2004). "'Generalplan Ost' zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker" ['General Plan East' for the enslavement of Eastern European peoples]. Utopie Kreativ (in German). 167: 800–808 – via Rosa Luxemburg Foundation.
- Toal, Gerard; Dahlman, Carl T. (2011). Bosnia Remade: Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-973036-0. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
- West, Richard (1994). Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia. New York: Carroll & Graf. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-7867-0332-6.
- Becirevic, Edina (2014). Genocide on the River Drina. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-3001-9258-2. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
- ^ Martin, Terry (1998). "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing" Archived July 24, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. The Journal of Modern History 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822
- "The Nakba did not start or end in 1948". Al Jazeera. May 23, 2017.
- Petrovic, Vladimir (2017). Ethnopolitical Temptations Reach Southeastern Europe: Wartime Policy Papers of Vasa Čubrilović and Sabin Manuilă. CEU Press.
- Allen, Tim, and Jean Seaton, eds. The media of conflict: War reporting and representations of ethnic violence. Zed Books, 1999. p. 152
- Feierstein, Daniel (April 4, 2023). "The Meaning of Concepts: Some Reflections on the Difficulties in Analysing State Crimes". HARM – Journal of Hostility, Aggression, Repression and Malice. 1. doi:10.46586/harm.2023.10453. ISSN 2940-3073.
The concept seems to have been borrowed from the Slavic expression etnicheskoye chishcheniye, first used by Soviet authorities in the 1980s to describe Azeri attempts to expel Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh area, and then immediately reappropriated by Serb nationalists to describe their policies in the central region of Yugoslavia.
- Cox, Caroline. "Nagorno Karabakh: Forgotten People in a Forgotten War." Contemporary Review 270 (1997): 8–13: "These operations were part of a policy designated `Operation Ring, comprising the proposed ethnic cleansing (a word used in relation to Azerbaijan's policy before it became familiar to the world in the context of the former Yugoslavia) of all Armenians from their ancient homeland of Karabakh."
- Gunkel, Christoph (October 31, 2010). "Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort!" [One year, one (un)word!]. Spiegel Online (in German). Archived from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
- "Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992)" (PDF). United Nations Security Council. May 27, 1994. p. 33. Paragraph 129
- "Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992)" (PDF). United Nations Security Council. May 27, 1994. p. 33. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2020.
Upon examination of reported information, specific studies and investigations, the Commission confirms its earlier view that 'ethnic cleansing' is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful driving sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups. This policy and the practices of warring factions are described separately in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 130. - Hayden, Robert M. (1996) "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers" Archived April 11, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Slavic Review 55 (4), 727–48.
- Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, "A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing" Archived February 3, 2004, at the Wayback Machine, Foreign Affairs 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.
- ^ Douglas Singleterry (April 2010), "Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", Genocide Studies and Prevention 5, 1
- Ferdinandusse, Ward (2004). "The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International Crimes" (PDF). The European Journal of International Law. 15 (5): 1042, note 7. doi:10.1093/ejil/15.5.1041. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 5, 2008.
- "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court" Archived January 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Article 7; Updated Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Archived August 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, Article 5.
- Shraga, Daphna; Zacklin, Ralph (2004). "The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia". The European Journal of International Law. 15 (3). Archived from the original on September 27, 2007.
- Timothy V. Waters, "On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing" Archived November 6, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, Paper 951, 2006, University of Mississippi School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13
- Pinxten, Rik; Dikomitis, Lisa (May 1, 2009). When God Comes to Town: Religious Traditions in Urban Contexts. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-920-8. Retrieved December 31, 2021.
- Cornell, Svante E. (September 1998). "Religion as a factor in Caucasian conflicts". Civil Wars. 1 (3): 46–64. doi:10.1080/13698249808402381. ISSN 1369-8249.
- Snyder, Timothy (July 11, 2004). The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10586-5. Retrieved December 31, 2021.
- Archived May 3, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Mann, Michael (2005), The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1 "The Argument," pp. 1–33.
- ^ Müller-Crepon, Carl; Schvitz, Guy; Cederman, Lars-Erik (2024). ""Right-Peopling" the State: Nationalism, Historical Legacies, and Ethnic Cleansing in Europe, 1886–2020". Journal of Conflict Resolution. doi:10.1177/00220027241227897. hdl:20.500.11850/657611. ISSN 0022-0027.
- Mylonas, Harris (2013). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139104005. ISBN 978-1-107-02045-0.
- International Association of Genocide Scholars (December 16, 2007). "Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 1, 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
- ^ Schabas, William (2000). Genocide in International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–201. ISBN 9780521787901. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
- Ethnic cleansing versus genocide:
- Lieberman, Benjamin (2010). "'Ethnic cleansing' versus genocide?". In Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923211-6.
Explaining the relationship between ethnic cleansing and genocide has caused controversy. Ethnic cleansing shares with genocide the goal of achieving purity but the two can differ in their ultimate aims: ethnic cleansing seeks the forced removal of an undesired group or groups where genocide pursues the group's 'destruction'. Ethnic cleansing and genocide therefore fall along a spectrum of violence against groups with genocide lying on the far end of the spectrum.
- Martin, Terry (1998). "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing". The Journal of Modern History. 70 (4): 813–861. doi:10.1086/235168. ISSN 0022-2801. JSTOR 10.1086/235168. S2CID 32917643.
When murder itself becomes the primary goal, it is typically called genocide... Ethnic cleansing is probably best understood as occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end. Given this continuum, there will always be ambiguity as to when ethnic cleansing shades into genocide
- Schabas, William A. (2003). "'Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 3 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1163/221161104X00075.
The crime of genocide is aimed at the intentional destruction of an ethnic group. 'Ethnic cleansing' would seem to be targeted at something different, the expulsion of a group with a view to encouraging or at least tolerating its survival elsewhere. Yet ethnic cleansing may well have the effect of rendering the continued existence of a group impossible, thereby effecting its destruction. In other words, forcible deportation may achieve the same result as extermination camps.
- Walling, Carrie Booth (2000). "The history and politics of ethnic cleansing". The International Journal of Human Rights. 4 (3–4): 47–66. doi:10.1080/13642980008406892. S2CID 144001685.
These methods are a part of a wider continuum ranging from genocide at one extreme to emigration under pressure at the other... It is important - politically and legally - to distinguish between genocide and ethnic cleansing. The goal of the former is extermination: the complete annihilation of an ethnic, national or racial group. It contains both a physical element (acts such as murder) and a mental element (those acts are undertaken to destroy, in whole or in part, the said group). Ethnic cleansing involves population expulsions, sometimes accompanied by murder, but its aim is consolidation of power over territory, not the destruction of a complete people.
- Naimark, Norman M. (2002). Fires of Hatred. Harvard University Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.
A new term was needed because ethnic cleansing and genocide two different activities, and the differences between them are important. As in the case of determining first-degree murder, intentionality is a critical distinction. Genocide is the intentional killing off of part or all of an ethnic, religious, or national group; the murder of a people or peoples (in German, Völkermord) is the objective. The intention of ethnic cleansing is to remove a people and often all traces of them from a concrete territory. The goal, in other words, is to get rid of the "alien" nationality, ethnic, or religious group and to seize control of the territory it had formerly inhabited. At one extreme of its spectrum, ethnic cleansing is closer to forced deportation or what has been called "population transfer"; the idea is to get people to move, and the means are meant to be legal and semi-legal. At the other extreme, however, ethnic cleansing and genocide are distinguishable only by the ultimate intent. Here, both literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people.
- Hayden, Robert M. (1996). "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers". Slavic Review. 55 (4): 727–748. doi:10.2307/2501233. ISSN 0037-6779. JSTOR 2501233. S2CID 232725375.
Hitler wanted the Jews utterly exterminated, not simply driven from particular places. Ethnic cleansing, on the other hand, involves removals rather than extermination and is not exceptional but rather common in particular circumstances.
- Lieberman, Benjamin (2010). "'Ethnic cleansing' versus genocide?". In Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923211-6.
- Mann, Michael (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780521538541. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
- Naimark, Norman (November 4, 2007). "Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016.
- ^ Shaw, Martin (2015b), What is Genocide, Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-8706-3 ‘Cleansing’ and genocide.
- Levene, Mark (2005). "6: Declining Powers". Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010. pp. 299–300. ISBN 1-84511-057-9.
- Jones, Adam (2016). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 108–110. ISBN 978-1-317-53386-3 – via Google Books.
- Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. pp. 97, 132. ISBN 978-0-8135-6068-7.
- Bloxham & Dirk Moses 2011.
- ^ Konrád, Barth & Mrňka 2021.
- Baracetti 2009, p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings".
- Baracetti 2009, "In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'".
- Troha, Nevenka (2014). "Nasilje vojnih in povojnih dni". www.sistory.si (in Slovenian). Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino. Retrieved June 4, 2023.
By this definition, among the 601 victims , 475 were members of armed formations and 126 were civilians.
- Rumici 2002, p. 350.
- Italian-Slovene commission.
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- "L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte" (in Italian). February 5, 2019. Retrieved January 24, 2023.
- Pamela Ballinger (April 7, 2009). Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation. Duke University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0822392361. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
- Tesser, L. (May 14, 2013). Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union – Page 136, Lynn Tesser. Springer. ISBN 9781137308771.
- Ballinger, Pamela (2003). History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans. Princeton University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0691086974.
- Anna C. Bramwell, University of Oxford, UK (1988). Refugees in the Age of Total War. Unwin Hyman. pp. 139, 143. ISBN 9780044451945.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Matjaž Klemenčič, The Effects of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia on Minority Rights: the Italian Minority in Post-Yugoslav Slovenia and Croatia. See "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - "12. Population by ethnicity, by towns/municipalities, census 2001". Census of Population, Households and Dwellings 2001. Zagreb: Croatian Bureau of Statistics. 2002. Retrieved June 10, 2017.
- "Popis 2002". Retrieved June 10, 2017.
- "Ethnic cleansing". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- "Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic, Ljubisa Beara, Drago Nikolic, Ljubomir Borovcanin, Radivoje Miletic, Milan Gvero, and Vinko Pandurevic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on December 11, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
In the Motion, the Prosecution submits that both the existence and implementation of the plan to create an ethnically pure Bosnian Serb state by Bosnian Serb political and military leaders are facts of common knowledge and have been held to be historical and accurate in a wide range of sources.
- "ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement". Archived from the original on April 14, 2009.
- "Tadic Case: The Verdict". Archived from the original on October 14, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
Importantly, the objectives remained the same: to create an ethnically pure Serb State by uniting Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina and extending that State from the FRY to the Croatian Krajina along the important logistics and supply line that went through opstina Prijedor, thereby necessitating the expulsion of the non-Serb population of the opstina.
- "Prosecutor v. Jadranko Prlic, Bruno Stojic, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petkovic, Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 5, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
Significantly, the Trial Chamber held that a reasonable Trial Chamber, could make a finding beyond any reasonable doubt that all of these acts were committed to carry out a plan aimed at changing the ethnic balance of the areas that formed Herceg-Bosna and mainly to deport the Muslim population and other non-Croat population out of Herceg-Bosna to create an ethnically pure Croatian territory within Herceg-Bosna.
- Weine et al. (1998), p. 147.
- Amira, Saad (2021). "The slow violence of Israeli settler-colonialism and the political ecology of ethnic cleansing in the West Bank". Settler Colonial Studies. 11 (4): 512–532. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2021.2007747. S2CID 244736676.
- Graham-Harrison, Emma; Kierszenbaum, Quique (October 21, 2023). "'The most successful land-grab strategy since 1967' as settlers push Bedouins off West Bank territory". The Guardian. Ein Rashash. Archived from the original on October 22, 2023.
- Ziv, Oren (October 19, 2023). "בעוד העיניים נשואות לדרום ולעזה, הטיהור האתני בגדה מואץ" [While the eyes are on the south and Gaza, the ethnic cleansing in the West Bank is accelerating]. Mekomit (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on October 22, 2023.
- ^ Judt, Tony (2005). Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. Penguin Press.
- Naimark, Norman M. (September 19, 2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. pp. 209–211. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.
References
- Baracetti, Gaia (2009). "Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5". Journal of Contemporary History. 44 (4): 657–674. doi:10.1177/0022009409339344. ISSN 0022-0094. JSTOR 40542981. S2CID 159919208.
- Bell-Fialkoff, Andrew (1993). "A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing". Foreign Affairs. 72 (3): 110–121. doi:10.2307/20045626. JSTOR 20045626. Archived from the original on February 3, 2004.
- Bloxham, Donald; Dirk Moses, Anthony (2011). "Genocide and ethnic cleansing". In Bloxham, Donald; Gerwarth, Robert (eds.). Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004. ISBN 9781107005037.
- "Period 1941–1945". Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956. Koper-Capodistria. July 25, 2000. Archived from the original on February 23, 2020.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Konrád, Ota; Barth, Boris; Mrňka, Jaromír, eds. (2021). Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48. Springer International Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 9783030783860. Retrieved November 5, 2022.
- Petrovic, Drazen (1998). "Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology" (PDF). European Journal of International Law. 5 (4): 817.
- Thum, Gregor (2010). "Review: Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945". Contemporary European History. 19 (1): 75–81. doi:10.1017/S0960777309990257. S2CID 145605508.
- Vladimir Petrović (2007), Etnicizacija čišćenja u reči i nedelu (Ethnicisation of Cleansing), Hereticus 1/2007, 11–36
- Rumici, Guido (2002). Infoibati (1943–1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti (in Italian). Ugo Mursia. ISBN 978-88-425-2999-6.
- Weine, Stevan M.; Becker, Daniel F.; Vojvoda, Dolores; Hodzic, Emir (1998). "Individual change after genocide in Bosnian survivors of "ethnic cleansing": Assessing personality dysfunction". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 11 (1): 147–153. doi:10.1023/A:1024469418811. PMID 9479683. S2CID 31419500.
Further reading
Library resources aboutEthnic cleansing
- Basso, Andrew R. (2024). Destroy Them Gradually: Displacement as Atrocity. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-9788-3130-8.
- Bulutgil, H. Zeynep (2016). The Roots of Ethnic Cleansing in Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-56528-5.
- Dahbour, Omar (2012). "National Rights, Minority Rights, and Ethnic Cleansing". Nationalism and Human Rights: In Theory and Practice in the Middle East, Central Europe, and the Asia-Pacific. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 97–122. ISBN 978-1-137-01202-9.
- Gordon, Neve; Ram, Moriel (2016). "Ethnic cleansing and the formation of settler colonial geographies" (PDF). Political Geography. 53: 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.01.010.
- Jenne, Erin K. (2016). "The causes and consequences of ethnic cleansing". The Routledge Handbook of Ethnic Conflict. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-72042-5.
- Lieberman, Benjamin (2013). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-3038-5.
- Pegorier, Clotilde (2013). Ethnic Cleansing: A Legal Qualification. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-06783-1.
- Rikhof, Joseph (2022). "Ethnic cleansing and exclusion". Serious International Crimes, Human Rights, and Forced Migration. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-09438-8.
- Ther, Philipp (2014). "The Dark Side of Nation-States: Ethnic Cleansing in Modern Europe". The Dark Side of Nation-States. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78238-303-1.
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