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{{short description|Systematic removal of a certain ethnic or religious group}}
{{About|the general process|the video game|Ethnic Cleansing (video game)}}
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'''Ethnic cleansing''' is the systematic forced removal of ], racial and/or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, often with the intent of making it ethnically ].<ref>{{cite book |first=James M. |last=Rubenstein |title=The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography |publisher=Pearson |year=2008 |isbn=9780131346819}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} The forces which may be applied may be various forms of ] (], ]), ], as well as ] and ].
] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]


'''Ethnic cleansing''' is the systematic forced removal of ], ], or ] groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically ]. Along with direct removal such as ] or ], it also includes indirect methods aimed at ] by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction.<ref name=UN/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walling |first1=Carrie Booth |title=The history and politics of ethnic cleansing |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights |date=2000 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=47–66 |doi=10.1080/13642980008406892 |s2cid=144001685 |quote=Most frequently, however, the aim of ethnic cleansing is to expel the despised ethnic group through either indirect coercion or direct force, and to ensure that return is impossible. Terror is the fundamental method used to achieve this end.<br />Methods of indirect coercion can include: introducing repressive laws and discriminatory measures designed to make minority life difficult; the deliberate failure to prevent mob violence against ethnic minorities; using surrogates to inflict violence; the destruction of the physical infrastructure upon which minority life depends; the imprisonment of male members of the ethnic group; threats to rape female members, and threats to kill. If ineffective, these indirect methods are often escalated to coerced emigration, where the removal of the ethnic group from the territory is pressured by physical force. This typically includes physical harassment and the expropriation of property. Deportation is an escalated form of direct coercion in that the forcible removal of 'undesirables' from the state's territory is organised, directed and carried out by state agents. The most serious of the direct methods, excluding genocide, is murderous cleansing, which entails the brutal and often public murder of some few in order to compel flight of the remaining group members.13 Unlike during genocide, when murder is intended to be total and an end in itself, murderous cleansing is used as a tool towards the larger aim of expelling survivors from the territory. The process can be made complete by revoking the citizenship of those who emigrate or flee.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schabas |first1=William A. |title='Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions |journal=European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online |date=2003 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/221161104X00075 |quote=The Commission considered techniques of ethnic cleansing to include murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extrajudicial executions, sexual assault, confinement of civilian populations in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian populations, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>The danger of overstretching the term can be avoided...The goal of ethnic cleansing is to permanently remove a group from the area it inhabits...There is a popular dimension to ethnic cleansing because there are people needed to threaten with violence, to evict homes, organize mass transports, and to prevent the return of the unwanted...The main goal of ethnic cleansing was the removal of a group from a certain territory ''The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History''. (2012). United Kingdom: OUP Oxford.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Joireman |first1=Sandra Fullerton |title=Peace, preference, and property : return migration after violent conflict |publisher=University of Michigan |page=49 |quote=Violent conflict changes communities. "Returnees painfully discover that in their period of absence the homeland communities and their identities have undergone transformation, and these ruptures and changes have serious implications for their ability to reclaim a sense of home upon homecoming." The first issue in terms of returning home is usually the restoration of property, specifically the return or rebuilding of homes. People want their property restored, often before they return. But home means more than property, it also refers to the nature of the community. Anthropological literature emphasizes that time and the experience of violence changes people's sense of home and desire to return, and the nature of their communities of origin. To sum up, previous research has identified factors that influence decisions to return: time, trauma, family characteristics and economic opportunities. |author-link=Sandra Joireman}}</ref> Both the definition and charge of ethnic cleansing is often disputed, with some researchers including and others excluding ] or mass killings as a means of depopulating an area of a particular group.{{sfn|Bulutgil|2018|p=1136}}<ref name=Garrity/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirby-McLemore |first1=Jennifer |title=Settling the Genocide v. Ethnic Cleansing Debate: Ending Misuse of the Euphemism Ethnic Cleansing |journal=Denver Journal of International Law and Policy |date=2021–2022 |volume=50 |page=115 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/denilp50&div=11&id=&page=}}</ref>
Ethnic cleansing is usually accompanied by efforts to remove physical and cultural evidence of the targeted group in the territory through the destruction of homes, social centers, farms, and infrastructure, as well as through the desecration of monuments, cemeteries, and places of worship.


Although scholars do not agree on which events constitute ethnic cleansing,<ref name=Garrity>{{cite journal |last1=Garrity |first1=Meghan M |title='Ethnic Cleansing': An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity |journal=Political Science Quarterly |date=27 September 2023 |volume=138 |issue=4 |pages=469–489 |doi=10.1093/psquar/qqad082}}</ref> ] throughout history. The term was first used to describe ] treatment of the ] in the 1980s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who first coined the euphemism "ethnic cleansing" for racial murder and persecution? Surely it must have been a dictator? {{!}} Notes and Queries {{!}} guardian.co.uk |url=https://www.theguardian.com/notesandqueries/query/0,,-2894,00.html |access-date=2024-09-13 |website=www.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Howe |first=Marvine |date=12 July 1982 |title=Exodus of Serbians stirs province in Yugoslavia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/12/world/exodus-of-serbians-stirs-province-in-yugoslavia.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180317141650/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/12/world/exodus-of-serbians-stirs-province-in-yugoslavia.html |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date= |work=The New York Times |pages=8}}</ref> and entered widespread use during the ] in the 1990s. Since then, the term has gained widespread acceptance due to journalism.{{sfn|Thum|2010|p=75|ps=: way. Despite its euphemistic character and its origin in the language of the perpetrators, 'ethnic cleansing' is now the widely accepted scholarly term used to describe the systematic and violent removal of undesired ethnic groups from a given territory.}} Although research originally focused on deep-rooted animosities as an explanation for ethnic cleansing events, more recent studies depict ethnic cleansing as "a natural extension of the homogenizing tendencies of ]" or emphasize security concerns and the effects of ], portraying ethnic tensions as a contributing factor. Research has also focused on the role of war as a causative or potentiating factor in ethnic cleansing. However, states in a similar strategic situation can have widely varying policies towards minority ethnic groups perceived as a security threat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bulutgil |first1=H. Zeynep |title=The state of the field and debates on ethnic cleansing |journal=Nationalities Papers |date=2018 |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=1136–1145 |doi=10.1080/00905992.2018.1457018|s2cid=158519257 }}</ref>
]s in ] during the ].]]


Ethnic cleansing has no legal definition under ], but the methods by which it is carried out are considered ] and may also fall under the ].<ref name=UN>{{cite web |publisher=United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect |title=Ethnic cleansing|url=https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/ethnic-cleansing.shtml |website=United Nations |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |title=Crimes Against Humanity: A Beginner's Guide |date=2012 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-146-8 |language=en |chapter='Ethnic cleansing' and genocide}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schabas |first1=William A. |title='Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions |journal=European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online |date=2003 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/221161104X00075 |quote='Ethnic cleansing' is probably better described as a popular or journalistic expression, with no recognized legal meaning in a technical sense... 'ethnic cleansing' is equivalent to deportation,' a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions as well as a crime against humanity, and therefore a crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal. |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Although ethnic cleansing has occurred long through history, the term was initially used by the perpetrators during the ] and cited in this context as a euphemism akin to that of Nazi Germany's "]", by the 1990s, and gained widespread acceptance due to journalism and the media's heightened use of the term in its generic meaning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Thum |first1= Gregor |year= 2006–2007 |title= Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945 |journal= Contemporary European History |volume= 19 |issue=1 |pages= 75–81 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309990257 |url= }}</ref>


== Etymology == == Etymology ==
]. The ] aimed to reduce the number of Armenians to below 5–10% of the population in any part of the ], which resulted in the elimination of a million Armenians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akçam |first1=Taner |author1-link=Taner Akcam |title=] |date=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15333-9 |language=en |chapter=Demographic Policy and the Annihilation of the Armenians|quote=The thesis being proposed here is that the Armenian Genocide was not implemented solely as demographic engineering, but also as destruction and annihilation, and that the 5 to 10 percent principle was decisive in achieving this goal. Care was taken so that the number of Armenians deported to Syria, and those who remained behind, would not exceed 5 to 10 percent of the population of the places in which they were found. Such a result could be achieved only through annihilation... According to official Ottoman statistics, it was necessary to reduce the prewar population of 1.3 million Armenians to approximately 200,000.}}</ref>]]
An antecedent to the term is the Greek word ''andrapodismos'' ({{lang-gr|ἀνδραποδισμός}}; lit. "enslavement"), which was used in ancient texts to describe atrocities that accompanied ]'s conquest of ] in 335 BC.<ref name="Booth">{{cite book|first=Ken |last=Booth|year=2012|title=The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1-13633-476-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4MsBgAAQBAJe|p=48}}</ref> In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs ''(očista)'', the Poles ''(czystki etniczne)'', the French ''(épuration)'' and the Germans ''(Säuberung)''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Philip |last=Ther |editor1=Rainer Munz |editor2=Rainer Ohliger |year=2004 |title=Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Russia in Comparative Perspective |chapter=The Spell of the Homogeneous Nation State: Structural Factors and Agents of Ethnic Cleansing |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-13575-938-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ |ref=harv |access-date=August 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110924/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ |archive-date=January 26, 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} A 1913 ] report condemning the actions of all participants in the ] contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|title=The Two Carnegie Reports: From the Balkan Expedition of 1913 to the Albanian Trip of 1921|first=Nadine|last=Akhund|date=December 31, 2012|journal=Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires|issue=Vol. XIV, n° 1–2|via=balkanologie.revues.org|access-date=April 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404043111/https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|archive-date=April 4, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
] leave ] in 1947 during the ], which followed the ]]]


An antecedent to the term is the Greek word {{lang|grc-Latn|andrapodismos}} ({{lang|grc|ἀνδραποδισμός}}; lit. "enslavement"), which was used in ancient texts. e.g., to describe atrocities that accompanied ]'s ] in 335 ].<ref name="Booth">{{cite book|year=2012|title=The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions|editor-last=Booth|editor-first=Ken |first=Carrie |last=Booth Walling |contribution=The History and Politics of Ethnic Cleansing|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1-13633-476-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4MsBgAAQBAJ|page=48}}</ref> The ] from Spain between 1609 and 1614 is considered by some authors to be one of the first episodes of state-sponsored ethnic cleansing in the modern western world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Saldanha |first1=Arun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bRvAAAAQBAJ&q=ethnic+cleansing&pg=PA51 |title=Deleuze and Race |date=2012 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-6961-5 |pages=51, 70 |language=en}}</ref> ], who coined the term "genocide", considered the ] by American settlers as a historical example of genocide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonnell |first1=M. A. |last2=Moses |first2=A. D. |author2-link=A. Dirk Moses |date=2005 |title=Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas |journal=] |volume=7 |pages=501–529 |doi=10.1080/14623520500349951 |s2cid=72663247 |number=4}}</ref> Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sousa |first=Ashley |date=2016 |title=Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/soh.2016.0023 |journal=Journal of Southern History |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=135–136 |doi=10.1353/soh.2016.0023 |s2cid=159731284 |issn=2325-6893}}</ref> Circassian genocide, also known as "]", is often regarded by various historians as the first large-scale ethnic cleansing campaign launched by a state during the 19th century ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA |pages=66|chapter=3: From War to Genocide}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |isbn= 1-84511-057-9 | title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide |year=2005|pages=298–302|chapter=6: Declining Powers |publisher=175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010}}</ref> ] general ], who supervised the operations of ] during 1860s, dehumanised Muslim Circassians as "a pestilence" to be expelled from their native lands. Russian objective was the annexation of land; and the Russian military operations that forcibly deported Circassians were designated by Yevdakimov as “''ochishchenie''” (cleansing).<ref name="Richmond 2013 96, 97"/>
] in 1943. Most ] of Volhynia (now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had fled the area.]]
During ], the euphemism ''čišćenje terena'' ("cleansing the terrain") was used by the Croatian ] to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes.<ref name="Toal">{{cite book|last1=Toal|first1=Gerard|last2=Dahlman|first2=Carl T.|title=Bosnia Remade: Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-973036-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|p=3|access-date=March 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706230527/http://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|archive-date=July 6, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> ], a senior Ustaše leader, was one of the first Croatian nationalists on record to use the term as a euphemism for committing atrocities against ].<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard |last=West|year=1994|title=Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7867-0332-6|p=93}}</ref> The term was later used in the internal memorandums of Serbian ] in reference to a number of retaliatory massacres they committed against ] and ] between 1941 and 1945.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edina|last=Becirevic|year=2014|title=Genocide on the River Drina|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-3001-9258-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|pp=22–23|access-date=August 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110928/https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|archive-date=January 26, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian phrase очистка границ (''ochistka granits''; lit. "cleansing of borders") was used in Soviet documents of the early 1930s to refer to the forced resettlement of Polish people from the {{convert|22|km|adj=on}} ] in the ] and ]. This process was repeated on an even larger scale in 1939–41, involving many other groups suspected of disloyalty towards the ].<ref name="martin"/> During ], ] pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was "cleansed of Jews" ''(])''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mary|last=Fulbrooke|year=2004|title=A Concise History of Germany|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-52154-071-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|p=197|access-date=August 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110933/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|archive-date=January 26, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>


In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs ({{lang|cs|očista}}), the Poles ({{lang|pl|czystki etniczne}}), the French ({{lang|fr|épuration}}) and the Germans ({{lang|de|Säuberung}}).<ref>{{cite book |first=Philipp |last=Ther |editor1-first=Rainer |editor1-last=Munz |editor2-first=Rainer |editor2-last=Ohliger |year=2004 |title=Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Russia in Comparative Perspective |chapter=The Spell of the Homogeneous Nation State: Structural Factors and Agents of Ethnic Cleansing |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-13575-938-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ |access-date=August 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110924/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ |archive-date=January 26, 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} A 1913 ] report condemning the actions of all participants in the ] contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|title=The Two Carnegie Reports: From the Balkan Expedition of 1913 to the Albanian Trip of 1921|first=Nadine|last=Akhund|date=December 31, 2012|journal=Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires|volume=XIVb|issue=1–2|doi=10.4000/balkanologie.2365|via=balkanologie.revues.org|access-date=April 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404043111/https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|archive-date=April 4, 2017|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In its complete form, the term appeared for the first time in the Romanian language (''purificare etnică'') in an address by Vice Prime Minister ] to cabinet members in July 1941. After the beginning of the invasion of the USSR,{{clarify|date=October 2017}} he concluded: “I do not know when the Romanians will have such chance for ethnic cleansing."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethnopolitical Temptations Reach Southeastern Europe: Wartime Policy Papers of Vasa Čubrilović and Sabin Manuilă|last=Petrovic|first=Vladimir|publisher=CEU Press|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term "ethnic cleansing" to describe the inter-ethnic violence in ].<ref name="Booth"/> At around the same time, the Yugoslav media used it to describe what they alleged was an Albanian nationalist plot to force all Serbs to leave ]. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the ] (1992–95). The first recorded mention of its use in the Western media can be traced back to an article in '']'' dated 15 April 1992, in a quote by an anonymous Western diplomat.<ref name="Toal"/>


] following the end of World War II]]
Synonyms include ''ethnic purification''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Drazen |last=Petrovic |url=http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf |title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology |journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |page=343 |access-date=May 20, 2006 |quote=In English, reference is also made to 'ethnic purification'. |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.ejil.a035875 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222164251/http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
During the ] in ], ] pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was "cleaned of Jews" ({{lang|de|]}}<!-- lower case because it's an adjective -->).<ref>{{cite book|first=Mary|last=Fulbrooke|year=2004|title=A Concise History of Germany|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-52154-071-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|page=197|access-date=August 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110933/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|archive-date=January 26, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The Nazi {{lang|de|]}} called for the genocide and ethnic cleansing of most ] in central and eastern Europe for the purpose of providing more ] for the Germans.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eichholtz |first=Dietrich |title='Generalplan Ost' zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker |trans-title='General Plan East' for the enslavement of Eastern European peoples |journal=Utopie Kreativ |volume=167 |date=September 2004 |via=] |pages=800–808 |language=de |url=https://www.rosalux.de/publikation/id/3303/utopie-kreativ-167/}}</ref> During the ], the euphemism {{lang|hr|čišćenje terena}} ("cleansing the terrain") was used by the Croatian ] to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely systematically killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes.<ref name="Toal">{{cite book|last1=Toal|first1=Gerard|last2=Dahlman|first2=Carl T.|title=Bosnia Remade: Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-973036-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|page=3|access-date=March 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706230527/http://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|archive-date=July 6, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Richard |last=West|year=1994|title=Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7867-0332-6|page=93}}</ref> The term was also used in the December 20, 1941 directive of Serbian ] in reference to the ] against ] and ] between 1941 and 1945.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edina|last=Becirevic|year=2014|title=Genocide on the River Drina|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-3001-9258-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|pages=22–23|access-date=August 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110928/https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|archive-date=January 26, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian phrase {{lang|ru|очистка границ}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|ochistka granits}}; lit. "cleansing of borders") was used in ] documents of the early 1930s to refer to the ] from the {{convert|22|km|adj=on}} ] in the ] and ].{{Citation needed|reason=Not in the source provided for the next sentence|date=August 2021}} This process of the ] was repeated on an even larger scale in 1939–1941, involving many other groups suspected of disloyalty.<ref name="martin"/>
], at least 750,000 Palestinians were ] from what is now Israel.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Nakba did not start or end in 1948 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/5/23/the-nakba-did-not-start-or-end-in-1948 |work=Al Jazeera |date=23 May 2017}}</ref>]]
In its complete form, the term appeared for the first time in the Romanian language ({{lang|ro|purificare etnică}}) in an address by Vice Prime Minister ] to cabinet members in July 1941. After the beginning of the ],{{clarify|date=October 2017}} he concluded: "I do not know when the Romanians will have such chance for ethnic cleansing."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethnopolitical Temptations Reach Southeastern Europe: Wartime Policy Papers of Vasa Čubrilović and Sabin Manuilă|last=Petrovic|first=Vladimir|publisher=CEU Press|year=2017}}</ref> In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term "etnicheskoye chishcheniye" which literally translates to "ethnic cleansing" to describe Azerbaijani efforts to drive Armenians away from ].<ref>Allen, Tim, and Jean Seaton, eds. ''The media of conflict: War reporting and representations of ethnic violence''. Zed Books, 1999. p. 152</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feierstein |first=Daniel |date=2023-04-04 |title=The Meaning of Concepts: Some Reflections on the Difficulties in Analysing State Crimes |url=https://ojs.ub.rub.de/index.php/HARM/article/view/10453 |journal=HARM – Journal of Hostility, Aggression, Repression and Malice |volume=1 |doi=10.46586/harm.2023.10453 |issn=2940-3073 |quote=The concept seems to have been borrowed from the Slavic expression etnicheskoye chishcheniye, first used by Soviet authorities in the 1980s to describe Azeri attempts to expel Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh area, and then immediately reappropriated by Serb nationalists to describe their policies in the central region of Yugoslavia.}}</ref><ref>Cox, Caroline. {{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Contemporary Review'' 270 (1997): 8–13: "These operations were part of a policy designated `Operation Ring, comprising the proposed ethnic cleansing (a word used in relation to Azerbaijan's policy before it became familiar to the world in the context of the former Yugoslavia) of all Armenians from their ancient homeland of Karabakh."</ref> It was widely popularized by the Western media during the ] (1992–1995).

In 1992, the German equivalent of ''ethnic cleansing'' ({{langx|de|ethnische Säuberung}}, {{IPA|de|ˈʔɛtnɪʃə ˈzɔɪ̯bəʁʊŋ|pron|De-ethnische Säuberung.ogg}}) was named ] by the '']'' due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.<ref>{{cite news |first=Christoph |last=Gunkel |date=October 31, 2010 |url=http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |work=] |title=Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort! |language=de |trans-title=One year, one (un)word! |access-date=February 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512233554/http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>


== Definitions == == Definitions ==
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to ] defined ethnic cleansing as:
] Murambi bodies]]
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to ] defined ethnic cleansing as "a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas".<ref name="SCRes780-Report-130">{{cite web |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |date=May 27, 1994 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1994/674 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |format=PDF |page=33 <!--paragraph 130--> |quote=Upon examination of reported information, specific studies and investigations, the Commission confirms its earlier view that 'ethnic cleansing' is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful driving sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups. This policy and the practices of warring factions are described separately in the following paragraphs. |access-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200247/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S%2F1994%2F674 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live }} Paragraph 130.</ref> In its previous, first interim report it noted, "ased on the many reports describing the policy and practices conducted in the former ], 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, ] and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute ] and can be assimilated to specific ]s. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the ]."<ref>{{cite web |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |date=May 27, 1994 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1994/674 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |format=PDF |page=33 |access-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200247/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S%2F1994%2F674 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live }} Paragraph 129</ref>


{{blockquote|a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas", ]] " 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, ], extra-judicial executions, ] and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute ] and can be assimilated to specific ]s. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the ].<ref>{{cite web |date=May 27, 1994 |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |url=https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unsc/1994/en/113325 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |publisher=United Nations Security Council |page=33 |format=PDF}} Paragraph 129</ref><ref name="SCRes780-Report-130">{{cite web |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |date=May 27, 1994 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1994/674 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |format=PDF |page=33 <!--paragraph 130--> |quote=Upon examination of reported information, specific studies and investigations, the Commission confirms its earlier view that 'ethnic cleansing' is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful driving sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups. This policy and the practices of warring factions are described separately in the following paragraphs. |access-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514200247/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S%2F1994%2F674 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live }} Paragraph 130.</ref>}}
The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or ] to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group".<ref>Hayden, Robert M. (1996) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411202522/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 |date=April 11, 2016 }}. '']'' 55 (4), 727–48.</ref>


As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of ]:<blockquote>thnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory''.<ref>Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203000000/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |date=February 3, 2004 }}, ''Foreign Affairs'' 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.</ref></blockquote> The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or ] to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group."<ref>Hayden, Robert M. (1996) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411202522/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 |date=April 11, 2016 }}. '']'' 55 (4), 727–48.</ref> As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of ], "ethnic cleansing ... defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory."<ref>Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203190219/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |date=February 3, 2004 }}, ''Foreign Affairs'' 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.</ref>


] has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end".<ref name="martin">Martin, Terry (1998). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724042805/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168 |date=July 24, 2019 }}. '']'' 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822</ref> Terry Martin has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end."<ref name="martin">Martin, Terry (1998). {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724042805/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168 |date=July 24, 2019}}. '']'' 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822</ref>


], the founder of ], has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": because "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2">Douglas Singleterry (April 2010), "Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", ''Genocide Studies and Prevention'' 5, 1</ref>
In reviewing the ] (ICJ) ] in the judgement of ] on July 12, 2007 the ] quoted from the ICJ ruling on the ''Bosnian Genocide Case'' to draw a distinction between ''ethnic cleansing'' and ''genocide'':
{{quote|The term 'ethnic cleansing' has frequently been employed to refer to the events in Bosnia and Herzegovina which are the subject of this case ... General Assembly resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to 'the abhorrent policy of "ethnic cleansing", which is a form of genocide', as being carried on in Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... It can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the Convention, if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. Neither the intent, as a matter of policy, to render an area "ethnically homogeneous", nor the operations that may be carried out to implement such policy, can ''as such'' be designated as genocide: the intent that characterizes genocide is "to destroy, in whole or in part" a particular group, and deportation or displacement of the members of a group, even if effected by force, is not necessarily equivalent to destruction of that group, nor is such destruction an automatic consequence of the displacement. This is not to say that acts described as 'ethnic cleansing' may never constitute genocide, if they are such as to be characterized as, for example, 'deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part', contrary to Article II, paragraph (c), of the Convention, provided such action is carried out with the necessary specific intent (''dolus specialis''), that is to say with a view to the destruction of the group, as distinct from its removal from the region. As the ICTY has observed, while 'there are obvious similarities between a genocidal policy and the policy commonly known as 'ethnic cleansing' (''Krstić'', IT-98-33-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 2 August 2001, para. 562), yet ' clear distinction must be drawn between physical destruction and mere dissolution of a group. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide.' |ECHR quoting the ICJ.<ref>] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920141650/https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-81608 |date=September 20, 2017 }} §45 citing ''Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro'' ("Case concerning application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide"), the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found under the heading of “intent and ‘ethnic cleansing’” (at § 190)</ref>}}


== As a crime under international law == === As a crime under international law ===
There is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing;<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ward |last=Ferdinandusse |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |title=The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International Crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705180121/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=5 |year=2004 |page=1042, note 7|doi=10.1093/ejil/15.5.1041 |doi-access=free }}</ref> however, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense—the forcible deportation of a population—is defined as a ] under the statutes of both the ] (ICC) and the ] (ICTY).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113100723/http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm |date=January 13, 2008 }}, Article 7; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806141633/http://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-e/index.htm |date=August 6, 2009 }}, Article 5.</ref> The gross human rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under public international law of ] and in certain circumstances ].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Daphna |last1=Shraga |first2=Ralph |last2=Zacklin |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |title=The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233818/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=3 |year=2004}}</ref> There are also situations, such as the ], where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see '']''). '']''<!-- a person, not a court case --> argues that similar ethnic cleansing could go unpunished in the future.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106100246/http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4600&context=expresso |date=November 6, 2018 }}, Paper 951, 2006, ] School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13</ref>
<!-- The emergence of ethnic cleansing as a distinct category of war crime has been a somewhat complex process. Each individual element of a programme of ethnic cleansing could be considered as an individual violation of humanitarian law—a killing here, a house-burning there—thus missing the systematic way in which such violations were perpetrated with a single aim in mind. International courts consider individual incidents in the light of a possible pattern of ethnic cleansing. In the Yugoslav case, the ICTY considers the widespread massacres and abuses of human rights in Bosnia and Kosovo as part of an overall "]" to carve out ethnically pure states in the region; however, many alleged "ethnic cleansings" in the past do not fit the modern definition of "crimes against humanity"; the post-World War II ] were sanctioned by the international agreement at ], requiring that the actions proceed humanely. -->


=== Mutual ethnic cleansing ===
There is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ward |last=Ferdinandusse |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |title=The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International Crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705180121/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=5 |year=2004 |p=1042, note 7.|doi=10.1093/ejil/15.5.1041 }}</ref> However, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense—the forcible deportation of a population—is defined as a ] under the statutes of both ] (ICC) and the ] (ICTY).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113100723/http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm |date=January 13, 2008 }}, Article 7; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806141633/http://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-e/index.htm |date=August 6, 2009 }}, Article 5.</ref> The gross human-rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under public international law of ] and in certain circumstances ].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Daphna |last=Shraga |first2=Ralph |last2=Zacklin |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |title=The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233818/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=3 |year=2004}}</ref>
'''Mutual ethnic cleansing''' occurs when two groups commit ethnic cleansing against minority members of the other group within their own territories. For instance in the 1920s, Turkey expelled its Greek minority and Greece expelled its Turkish minority following the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinxten |first1=Rik |last2=Dikomitis |first2=Lisa |title=When God Comes to Town: Religious Traditions in Urban Contexts |date=1 May 2009 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-84545-920-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMF-mjzt1fsC |access-date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Other examples where mutual ethnic cleansing occurred include the ]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cornell |first1=Svante E. |title=Religion as a factor in Caucasian conflicts |journal=Civil Wars |date=September 1998 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=46–64 |doi=10.1080/13698249808402381 |language=en |issn=1369-8249}}</ref> and the population transfers by the Soviets of Germans, Poles, and Ukrainians after ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=Timothy |title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |date=11 July 2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10586-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |access-date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>


== Causes ==
There are however situations, such as the ], where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see ]). ] argues therefore that similar ethnic cleansing could go unpunished in the future.<ref>Timothy V. Waters, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106100246/http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4600&context=expresso |date=November 6, 2018 }}, Paper 951, 2006, ] School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13</ref>
] in 1943. Most ] of Volhynia had either been murdered or had fled the area.]]
<!--
The emergence of ethnic cleansing as a distinct category of war crime has been a somewhat complex process. Each individual element of a programme of ethnic cleansing could be considered as an individual violation of humanitarian law - a killing here, a house-burning there – thus missing the systematic way in which such violations were perpetrated with a single aim in mind. International courts therefore consider individual incidents in the light of a possible pattern of ethnic cleansing. In the Yugoslav case, for instance, the ICTY considers the widespread massacres and abuses of human rights in Bosnia and Kosovo as part of an overall "joint criminal enterprise" to carve out ethnically pure states in the region.


According to ], in '']'' (2004), murderous ethnic cleansing is strongly related to the creation of democracies. He argues that murderous ethnic cleansing is due to the rise of ], which associates citizenship with a specific ]. Democracy, therefore, is tied to ethnic and national forms of exclusion. Nevertheless, it is not democratic states that are more prone to commit ethnic cleansing, because minorities tend to have constitutional guarantees. Neither are stable authoritarian regimes (except the nazi and communist regimes) which are likely perpetrators of murderous ethnic cleansing, but those regimes that are in process of democratization. Ethnic hostility appears where ethnicity overshadows social classes as the primordial system of social stratification. Usually, in deeply divided societies, categories such as class and ethnicity are deeply intertwined, and when an ethnic group is seen as oppressor or exploitative of the other, serious ethnic conflict can develop. Michael Mann holds that when two ethnic groups claim sovereignty over the same territory and can feel threatened, their differences can lead to severe grievances and danger of ethnic cleansing. The perpetration of murderous ethnic cleansing tends to occur in unstable geopolitical environments and in contexts of war. As ethnic cleansing requires high levels of organisation and is usually directed by states or other authoritative powers, perpetrators are usually state powers or institutions with some coherence and capacity, not failed states as it is generally perceived. The perpetrator powers tend to get support by core constituencies that favour combinations of ], ], and violence.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503062111/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/dark-side-of-democracy/7E75A132A188A2804E91F4F209B6FE1F|date=May 3, 2020}}, Mann, Michael (2005), The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1 "The Argument," pp. 1–33.</ref>
However, many alleged "ethnic cleansings" in the past do not fit the modern definition of "crimes against humanity". For example, the post-WWII ] were sanctioned by the international agreement at ], requiring that the actions proceed humanely.-->


Ethnic cleansing was prevalent during the ] in Europe (19th and 20th centuries).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Müller-Crepon |first1=Carl |last2=Schvitz |first2=Guy |last3=Cederman |first3=Lars-Erik |date=2024 |title="Right-Peopling" the State: Nationalism, Historical Legacies, and Ethnic Cleansing in Europe, 1886–2020 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00220027241227897 |journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |language=en |doi=10.1177/00220027241227897 |issn=0022-0027|hdl=20.500.11850/657611 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mylonas |first=Harris |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/politics-of-nationbuilding/C9E4A27E97D35705F0549C0FC1C03457 |title=The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02045-0 |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139104005}}</ref> Multi-ethnic European engaged in ethnic cleansing against minorities in order to pre-empt their secession and the loss of territory.<ref name=":0" /> Ethnic cleansing was particularly prevalent during periods of interstate war.<ref name=":0" />
== Causes ==
Some say that failed states see most mass killing, often in an anarchic manner. According to ], in ''The Dark Side of Democracy'' (2004), murderous ethnic cleansing is strongly related to the creation of democracies. He argues that murderous ethnic cleansing is due to the rise of ], which associates citizenship with a specific ]. Democracy, therefore, is tied to ethnic and national forms of exclusion. Nevertheless, it is not democratic states that are more prone to commit ethnic cleansing, because minorities tend to have constitutional guarantees. Neither are stable authoritarian regimes (except the nazi and communist regimes) which are likely perpetrators of muderous ethnic cleansing, but those regimes that are in process of democratization. Ethnic hostility appears where ethnicity overshadows social classes as the primordial system of social stratification. Usually, in deeply divided societies, categories such as class and ethnicity are deeply intertwined, and when an ethnic group is seen as oppressor or exploitative of the other, serious ethnic conflict can develop. Michael Mann holds that when two ethnic groups claim sovereignty over the same territory and can feel threatened, their differences can lead to severe grievances and danger of ethnic cleansing. The perpetration of murderous ethnic cleansing tends to occur in unstable geopolitical environments and in contexts of war. As ethnic cleansing requires high levels of organisation and is usually directed by states or other authoritative powers, perpetrators are usually state powers or institutions with some coherence and capacity, not failed states as it is generally perceived. The perpetrator powers tend to get support by core constituencies that favour combinations of ], ] and violence.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503062111/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/dark-side-of-democracy/7E75A132A188A2804E91F4F209B6FE1F |date=May 3, 2020 }}, Mann, Michael (2005), The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1 “The Argument,” pp. 1-33.</ref>


== Genocide == == Genocide ==
]. From 1914 until 1923, ] in ] and ] were subject to a campaign including massacres and deportations. The ] (IAGS) recognizes it as genocide and refers to the campaign as the '']''.<ref>{{cite web|author=International Association of Genocide Scholars|title=Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides|date=December 16, 2007|url=http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|access-date=15 August 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110601144026/http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2011}}</ref>]]
] victims]]
Academic discourse considers both ] and ethnic cleansing to exist in a ] of ]s on nations or religio-ethnic groups. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced ] or ] whereas genocide is the intentional ] of part or all of a particular ethnic, racial, religious, or national group. While ethnic cleansing and genocide may share the same goal and the acts which are used to perpetrate both crimes may often resemble each other, ethnic cleansing is intended to displace a persecuted population from a given territory, while genocide is intended to destroy a population.<ref name=Schabas>{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William |year=2000 |title=Genocide in International Law |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&printsec=frontcover |pages=199–201 |isbn=9780521787901 |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083003/https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=January 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>


Some academics consider genocide to be a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing".<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Michael |year=2005 |title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy#v=onepage&q=&f=false |page=17 |isbn=9780521538541 |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083003/https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy#v=onepage&q=&f=false |archive-date=January 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Thus, these concepts are different, but related, as Norman Naimark writes: "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people".<ref name=MassVio>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Naimark |first=Norman |date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |title=Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing |encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306173512/http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> William Schabas adds, "Ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser."<ref name="Schabas" /> Ethnic cleansing has been described as part of a continuum of violence whose most extreme form is ]. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced ] or ]. While ethnic cleansing and genocide may share the same goal and methods (e.g., ]), ethnic cleansing is intended to displace a persecuted population from a given territory, while genocide is intended to destroy a group.<ref name=Schabas>{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William |year=2000 |title=Genocide in International Law |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC |pages=199–201 |isbn=9780521787901 |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083003/https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=January 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Ethnic cleansing versus genocide:
* {{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Benjamin |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor1-first=Donald |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-first=A. Dirk |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923211-6 |chapter='Ethnic cleansing' versus genocide?|date= 2010 |quote=Explaining the relationship between ethnic cleansing and genocide has caused controversy. Ethnic cleansing shares with genocide the goal of achieving purity but the two can differ in their ultimate aims: ethnic cleansing seeks the forced removal of an undesired group or groups where genocide pursues the group's 'destruction'. Ethnic cleansing and genocide therefore fall along a spectrum of violence against groups with genocide lying on the far end of the spectrum.}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Terry |title=The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing |journal=The Journal of Modern History |date=1998 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=813–861 |doi=10.1086/235168 |jstor=10.1086/235168 |s2cid=32917643 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168 |issn=0022-2801 |quote=When murder itself becomes the primary goal, it is typically called genocide... Ethnic cleansing is probably best understood as occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end. Given this continuum, there will always be ambiguity as to when ethnic cleansing shades into genocide}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schabas |first1=William A. |title='Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions |journal=European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online |date=2003 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1163/221161104X00075 |quote=The crime of genocide is aimed at the intentional destruction of an ethnic group. 'Ethnic cleansing' would seem to be targeted at something different, the expulsion of a group with a view to encouraging or at least tolerating its survival elsewhere. Yet ethnic cleansing may well have the effect of rendering the continued existence of a group impossible, thereby effecting its destruction. In other words, forcible deportation may achieve the same result as extermination camps.|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Walling |first1=Carrie Booth |title=The history and politics of ethnic cleansing |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights |date=2000 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=47–66 |doi=10.1080/13642980008406892 |s2cid=144001685 |quote=These methods are a part of a wider continuum ranging from genocide at one extreme to emigration under pressure at the other... It is important - politically and legally - to distinguish between genocide and ethnic cleansing. The goal of the former is extermination: the complete annihilation of an ethnic, national or racial group. It contains both a physical element (acts such as murder) and a mental element (those acts are undertaken to destroy, in whole or in part, the said group). Ethnic cleansing involves population expulsions, sometimes accompanied by murder, but its aim is consolidation of power over territory, not the destruction of a complete people.}}
* {{cite book |last1=Naimark |first1=Norman M. |author1-link=Norman Naimark |title=Fires of Hatred |date=2002|url=https://www.hoover.org/research/fires-hatred |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00994-3 |pages=2–5 |quote=A new term was needed because ethnic cleansing and genocide two different activities, and the differences between them are important. As in the case of determining first-degree murder, intentionality is a critical distinction. Genocide is the intentional killing off of part or all of an ethnic, religious, or national group; the murder of a people or peoples (in German, ''Völkermord'') is the objective. The intention of ethnic cleansing is to remove a people and often all traces of them from a concrete territory. The goal, in other words, is to get rid of the "alien" nationality, ethnic, or religious group and to seize control of the territory it had formerly inhabited. At one extreme of its spectrum, ethnic cleansing is closer to forced deportation or what has been called "population transfer"; the idea is to get people to move, and the means are meant to be legal and semi-legal. At the other extreme, however, ethnic cleansing and genocide are distinguishable only by the ultimate intent. Here, both literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people.}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hayden |first1=Robert M. |title=Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers |journal=Slavic Review |date=1996 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=727–748 |doi=10.2307/2501233 |jstor=2501233 |s2cid=232725375 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 |issn=0037-6779 |quote=Hitler wanted the Jews utterly exterminated, not simply driven from particular places. Ethnic cleansing, on the other hand, involves removals rather than extermination and is not exceptional but rather common in particular circumstances.}}</ref>


Some academics consider genocide to be a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing".<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Michael |year=2005 |title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&q=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy |page=17 |isbn=9780521538541 |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083003/https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy |archive-date=January 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Norman Naimark writes that these concepts are different but related, for "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people."<ref name=MassVio>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Naimark |first=Norman |date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |title=Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing |encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306173512/http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> William Schabas states "ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser."<ref name="Schabas"/> Multiple genocide scholars have criticized distinguishing between ethnic cleansing and ], with ] arguing that forced deportation necessarily results in the destruction of a group and this must be foreseen by the perpetrators.{{efn| "How could ‘forced deportation’ ever be achieved without extreme coercion, indeed violence? How, indeed, could deportation not be forced? How could people not resist? How could it not involve the destruction of a community, of the way of life that a group has enjoyed over a period of time? How could those who deported a group not intend this destruction? In what significant way is the forcible removal of a population from their homeland different from the destruction’ of a group? If the boundary between ‘cleansing’ and genocide is unreal, why police it?"<ref name=shawcriti/>}}<ref name=shawcriti>Shaw, Martin (2015b), What is Genocide, Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-8706-3 ‘Cleansing’ and genocide.</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
== As a military, political and economic tactic ==
As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of systemic impacts. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support for resistance by eliminating the civilians—recognizing ]'s dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are fish in water, it removes the fish by draining the water{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the ] after 1945, it can contribute to long-term stability.<ref>Judt, Tony. ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945'' Penguin Press, 2005</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} Some individuals of the large German population in ] and prewar ] had encouraged Nazi ] before the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved.<ref>Tony Judt ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945'' Penguin Press, 2005.</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} It thus establishes "]"—radical demographic changes which can be very hard to reverse.


== As a military, political, and economic tactic ==
=== Silent ethnic cleansing ===
] victims]]
{{More citations needed|date=August 2017}}
]. Poles are led to trains under German army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the ] following ].]]
] from the ] close by ], Bosnia and Herzegovina that were forced out of their homes and villages by ] forces in 1993]]
] carried out by ] forces, part of the ]]]
], who organized the extermination campaigns of "]", designated Russian military operations targeting Circassian natives by the term “''ochishchenie''” (cleansing).<ref name="Richmond 2013 96, 97">{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA |pages=96, 97 |chapter=4: 1864}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |isbn= 1-84511-057-9 | title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide |year=2005|pages=299–300|chapter=6: Declining Powers |publisher=175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010}}</ref>]]
]. According to some authors, Russian military forces massacred and forcibly deported between 95 and 97% of all native Circassians during the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |year=2016 |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC8lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Yevdokimov+circassian+deportations+deaths&pg=PA110 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-317-53386-3 |pages=108–110|via=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA |pages= 97, 132}}</ref>]]


The ] ({{Langx|it|massacri delle foibe}}; {{Langx|sl|poboji v fojbah}}; {{Langx|hr|masakri fojbe}}), or simply "the foibe", refers to ethnic cleansing, mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after ], mainly committed by ] and ] in the ]{{efn|Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the ].}} of ] (] and ]), ] and ], against local Italians (] and ]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities,{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc=p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings"}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}}<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Troha|first=Nevenka|date=2014|title=Nasilje vojnih in povojnih dni|url=https://www.sistory.si/11686/www.sistory.si/11686/42309|access-date=4 June 2023|website=www.sistory.si|publisher=Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino|language=sl|quote=By this definition, among the 601 victims , 475 were members of armed formations and 126 were civilians.}}</ref> and ], ], ] and ] ] against the regime of ], presumed to be associated with ], ], collaboration with ]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of ]{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} The foibe massacres were followed by the ], which was the post-] exodus and departure of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) towards ], and in smaller numbers, towards the ], ] and ].<ref name="rainews">{{cite web|url=https://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/giorno-ricordo-10-febbraio-2004-2014-dieci-anni-strage-foibe-eccidio-tito-comunisti-slavi-esodo-giuliano-dalmata-77ba65a1-a1e5-460e-bb57-946819b4b905.html|title=Il Giorno del Ricordo|date=February 10, 2014 |access-date=16 October 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref name="ilgiornale">{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/lesodo-giuliano-dalmata-e-quegli-italiani-fuga-che-nacquero-1639585.html|title=L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte|date=February 5, 2019 |access-date=24 January 2023|language=it}}</ref> From 1947, after the war, they were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,<ref name="books.google.fr">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHnEI2m5tFIC&pg=PA309|title=Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation|page=295|author=Pamela Ballinger|date=7 April 2009|publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822392361|access-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> which gave them little option other than emigration.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia-qdCeUaXIC&pg=PA136 |title=Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union – Page 136, Lynn Tesser|isbn=9781137308771|last1=Tesser|first1=L.|date=14 May 2013|publisher=Springer }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC&pg=PA103 |title=History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans |page=103 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0691086974 |last1=Ballinger|first1=Pamela|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykMVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133|title=Refugees in the Age of Total War|pages=139, 143|author=Anna C. Bramwell, University of Oxford, UK|date=1988|publisher=Unwin Hyman |isbn=9780044451945}}</ref> In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II.<ref>Matjaž Klemenčič, ''The Effects of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia on Minority Rights: the Italian Minority in Post-Yugoslav Slovenia and Croatia.'' See {{cite web |url=http://www.cliohres.net/books/7/26.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724111950/http://www.cliohres.net/books/7/26.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> According to the census organized in ] in 2001 and that organized in ] in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former ] amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 ] and 19,636 ]).<ref name="dzs">{{Croatian Census 2001 | url=http://web.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/Popis/E01_02_02/E01_02_02.html | title=12. Population by ethnicity, by towns/municipalities, census 2001 |access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.si/Popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7|title=Popis 2002|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref>
The term silent ethnic cleansing was coined in the mid-1990s by some observers of the ]{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}. Apparently concerned with Western media representations of atrocities committed in the conflict—which generally focused on those perpetrated by the Serbs—atrocities committed against ] were dubbed "silent" on the grounds that they did not receive adequate coverage.<ref>Krauthammer, Charles: "When Serbs Are 'Cleansed,' Moralists Stay Silent", ''International Herald Tribune'', August 12, 1995.</ref>


The ] in the 9th and 7th centuries BC is considered by some scholars to be one of the first cases of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethnic cleansing |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethnic-cleansing |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref>
== Instances ==
{{Main|List of ethnic cleansing campaigns}}
In many cases where accusations of ethnic cleansing have circulated, partisans have fiercely disputed such an interpretation and the details of the events which have been described as ethnic cleansing by academic or legal experts. This often leads to the promotion of vastly different versions of the event in question. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thinkprogress.org/fake-news-human-rights-abuse-9695ded5dadd/|title=Governments are using Trump's fake news claim to hide 'ethnic cleansing'|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228065808/https://thinkprogress.org/fake-news-human-rights-abuse-9695ded5dadd/|archive-date=February 28, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>


During the 1980s, in ], ethnic cleansing was common during all phases of the conflict, notable incidents were seen in the early phase of the war, such as the ], the ], the ], and during the ] such as the ] committed by Lebanese Maronite forces backed by ] against ] and ] civilians. After the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf, the ] broke out, where ethnic cleansings (mostly in the form of tit-for-tat killings) occurred. During that time, the Syrian backed, mostly Druze dominated ] used a policy they called "territorial cleansing" to "drain" the ] of Maronite Christians in order to deny them of resisting the advance of the PSP. As a result, 163,670 Christian villagers were displaced due to these operations. In response to these massacres, the ] conducted a similar policy, which resulted in 20,000 Druze displaced.
=== Armenia, 1914–1923 ===
{{Main|Armenian Genocide|Armenia without Armenians}}
During the beginning of ] in 1914, following defeats by the Russian army due to a lack of proper leadership and preparation, the government of the ] banished all Armenian soldiers in desperation based on the belief that they were the ones to blame for the defeats.<ref name=":0">Suny, R. (2005). Ethnic cleansing: Armenia. In M. J. Gibney, & R. Hansen (Eds.), ''Immigration and asylum from 1900 to present'' (). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/abcmigrate/ethnic_cleansing_armenia/0</nowiki></ref> What began as a military tactic, eventually, lead to a brutal genocide of the ethnic Armenian population that was living in ] (Turkey) beginning with the execution of male Armenians and eventually ending with the forced deportation of Armenian women and children.<ref>Jones, A. (2010). The Armenian genocide. ''Genocide: A comprehensive introduction'' (). London, UK: Routledge. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/routgenocide/the_armenian_genocide/0</nowiki></ref> It is estimated that around 800,000 to 1 million ethnic Armenians living in Turkey were either executed or forcibly deported during World War I.<ref name=":0" /> The Armenian Genocide has been ] by most scholars and nations due to its deliberate targeting of ethnic Armenians and the brutal fashion in which it was implemented and it has also been viewed as an act of ethnic cleansing due to the Ottoman government's desire to remove a specific ethnicity from its territory.<ref>Frey, R. J. (2009). ''Genocide and international justice''. New York: Facts On File. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022300460&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</nowiki></ref>


Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, ], or ] of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority.
==== Greeks ====
The ] were also ethnically cleansed from ] during the same period. At least 350,000 Greek civilians were executed and over 1 million Greeks deported to Greece, leaving only a few thousand ] in their historic homeland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hellenicnews.com/genocide-ottoman-greeks-1914-1923/|title=The Genocide of Ottoman Greeks, 1914-1923|last=News|first=Hellenic|date=2016-05-17|website=Hellenic News of America|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228050017/https://hellenicnews.com/genocide-ottoman-greeks-1914-1923/|archive-date=December 28, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>


According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb<ref name="Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic, Ljubisa Beara, Drago Nikolic, Ljubomir Borovcanin, Radivoje Miletic, Milan Gvero, and Vinko Pandurevic">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/popovic/tdec/en/060926.pdf|title=Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic, Ljubisa Beara, Drago Nikolic, Ljubomir Borovcanin, Radivoje Miletic, Milan Gvero, and Vinko Pandurevic|quote=In the Motion, the Prosecution submits that both the existence and implementation of the plan to create an ethnically pure Bosnian Serb state by Bosnian Serb political and military leaders are facts of common knowledge and have been held to be historical and accurate in a wide range of sources.|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=11 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211023111/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/popovic/tdec/en/060926.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/index.htm |title=ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414072922/http://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/index.htm |archive-date=14 April 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Tadic Case: The Verdict">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/sid/7537|title=Tadic Case: The Verdict|quote=Importantly, the objectives remained the same: to create an ethnically pure Serb State by uniting Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina and extending that State from the FRY to the Croatian Krajina along the important logistics and supply line that went through opstina Prijedor, thereby necessitating the expulsion of the non-Serb population of the opstina.|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=14 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014175448/https://www.icty.org/sid/7537|url-status=live}}</ref> and Croat<ref name="Prosecuter v. Jadranko Prlic, Bruno Stojic, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petkovic and Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/prlic/acdec/en/080311.pdf|title=Prosecutor v. Jadranko Prlic, Bruno Stojic, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petkovic, Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic|quote=Significantly, the Trial Chamber held that a reasonable Trial Chamber, could make a finding beyond any reasonable doubt that all of these acts were committed to carry out a plan aimed at changing the ethnic balance of the areas that formed Herceg-Bosna and mainly to deport the Muslim population and other non-Croat population out of Herceg-Bosna to create an ethnically pure Croatian territory within Herceg-Bosna.|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905185823/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/prlic/acdec/en/080311.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (] and ] by the Serbs; and ] by the Croats).
=== Germany, 1933–1945 ===
{{Main|The Holocaust}}
Recognized as one of the most extreme cases of ], the Holocaust was the ]'s ] of about 6 million ] during ].<ref name=":1">Berenbaum, M. (2006). ''Theœ world must know'' (second edition ed.). Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.</ref> Accomplished in stages, the Holocaust began with ]. ] and ]s were then created to incarcerate and execute the millions of Jews who were living in Germany and most of them were either shot, killed in ]s, or ].<ref name=":1" /> Killing approximately 90 percent of the Jews who were living in Poland and 87 percent of the Jews who were living in Germany and Austria, the Nazi regime's motives, the horrific ways in which its victims were executed, and the number of ethnic Jews who were murdered make the Holocaust one of the clearest and least disputed cases of ethnic cleansing in history.<ref>Dawidowicz, L. S. (1986). ''Theœ war against the jews'' (10. anniversary ed. ed.). Toronto u.a: Bantam Books. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=000321857&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</nowiki></ref>


Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.{{sfnp|Weine|Becker|Vojvoda|Hodzic|1998|p=147}}
=== Expulsion of German-speakers from Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 ===
{{Main|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)}}
Following World War II, from 1944 to 1949, approximately 14 million Germans were forcibly removed from Central and Eastern Europe, from areas where Germans had been a minority since the ], as well as from specific regions, particularly, from present-day ], present-day western and north-eastern ] and the ] where Germans constituted the vast majority of the population.<ref>Hansen, R., & Ohliger, R. (2005). Ethnic cleansing: Germans from central and eastern Europe. In M. J. Gibney, & R. Hansen (Eds.), ''Immigration and asylum from 1900 to present'' (). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/abcmigrate/ethnic_cleansing_germans_from_central_and_eastern_europe/0</nowiki></ref> Although the removal primarily consisted of a forced migration, approximately 2 million Germans were killed during the migration either by starvation, poor weather conditions, or beatings and murder at the hands of troops and mobs that consisted of Russians, Poles, Czechs or other locals.<ref name=":2">Prauser, S. (2004). ''Theœ expulsion of the "German" communities from eastern Europe at the end of the second world war''. Badia Fiesolana, San Domenico (FI): European University Institute, Florence, Department of History and Civilization.</ref> The ethnic cleansing of Germans in Eastern and Central Europe was an outpouring of the hatred and negative sentiment towards Germans that was a result of the inhumane acts which the Nazi regime committed during the course of World War II and it was also motivated by the desire of European governments to turn their countries into more ethnically homogenous nation-states, <ref name=":2" /> and to this end, the post-war borders of ] comprised close to a ]. Many Germans, prior to their expulsion, were interned in ].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} While ethnic cleansing gained virulence due to Nazi Germany's policies, the ] is described as the largest scale of ethnic cleansing in history.<ref> {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=D3IDT1RmI38C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gregor+thum+uprooted#v=snippet&q=ethnic%20cleansing&f=false|title=Uprooted: How Breslau Became Wroclaw during the Century of Expulsions|first=Gregor|last= Thum|page=55| year=2011|isbn=978-1-40083-996-4|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>


] have engaged in a systemic displacement of Palestinian herders in ] as a form of nationalist and economic warfare.<ref>{{cite journal| first=Saad |last=Amira |year=2021 |title=The slow violence of Israeli settler-colonialism and the political ecology of ethnic cleansing in the West Bank |journal=Settler Colonial Studies |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=512–532 |doi=10.1080/2201473X.2021.2007747|s2cid=244736676 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/the-most-successful-land-grab-strategy-since-1967-as-settlers-push-bedouins-off-west-bank-territory |title='The most successful land-grab strategy since 1967' as settlers push Bedouins off West Bank territory |date= October 21, 2023|work=The Guardian |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231022174942/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/the-most-successful-land-grab-strategy-since-1967-as-settlers-push-bedouins-off-west-bank-territory |archive-date=22 Oct 2023 |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Kierszenbaum |first2=Quique |location=Ein Rashash}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=בעוד העיניים נשואות לדרום ולעזה, הטיהור האתני בגדה מואץ |language=he |url=https://www.mekomit.co.il/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%93-%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D-%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%94-%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95/ |date=19 Oct 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231022180318/https://www.mekomit.co.il/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%93-%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D-%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%96%D7%94-%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95/ |archive-date=22 Oct 2023 |work=Mekomit |last=Ziv |first=Oren |trans-title=While the eyes are on the south and Gaza, the ethnic cleansing in the West Bank is accelerating}}</ref>
{{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/684XQrlmk?url=http://www.icty.org/sid/7946 |date=31 May 2012 }}. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> The Croatian population suffered heavily, fleeing or evicted with numerous killings, leading to ethnic cleansing.<ref name="ICTY evidence"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109115648/https://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/Archive/2004/Jan/29-319268.html |date=9 November 2006 }}</ref> The bulk of the fighting occurred between August and December 1991 when approximately 80,000 Croats were expelled (and some were killed). The total number of exiled Croats and other non-Serbs range from 170,000 (ICTY)<ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/10/world/milosevic-indicted-again-is-charged-with-crimes-in-croatia.html?scp=1&sq=milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87%20170000&st=cse|title=Milosevic, Indicted Again, Is Charged With Crimes in Croatia|author=Marlise Simons|accessdate=26 December 2010|date=10 October 2001|work=New York Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520112601/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/10/world/milosevic-indicted-again-is-charged-with-crimes-in-croatia.html?scp=1&sq=milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87%20170000&st=cse|archive-date=20 May 2013|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}
</ref> up to a quarter of a million people (]).<ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2001/10/28/milosevic-important-new-charges-croatia|title=Milosevic: Important New Charges on Croatia|accessdate=29 October 2010|date=21 October 2001|publisher=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225134329/http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2001/10/28/milosevic-important-new-charges-croatia|archive-date=25 December 2010|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}
</ref>Meanwhile after ] about 300 000 serbs left the territory of Krajina. See more in ]
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Serbs
!%
|-
|1900<ref name="Kocsis">Karoly Kocsis, Eszter Kocsis-Hodosi: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505172921/http://www.mtafki.hu/konyvtar/kiadv/Ethnic_geography.pdf |date=May 5, 2014 }}, Simon Publications LLC, 2001, p. 171</ref>
|548,302
|17.35%
|-
|1910<ref name="Kocsis" />
|564,214
|16.60%
|-
|1921<ref name="Kocsis" />
|584,058
|16.94%
|-
|1931<ref name="Kocsis" />
|636,518
|16.81%
|-
|1948<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200358/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G1948/Pdf/G19484001.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }}, p. 3 {{in lang|sr}}</ref>
|543,795
|14.47%
|-
|1953<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170005/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G1953/Pdf/G19534001.pdf |date=March 3, 2016 }}, p. 35 {{in lang|sr}}</ref>
|588,411
|15.01%
|-
|1961<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220213157/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/G1961/Pdf/G19614001.pdf |date=December 20, 2013 }}, p. 12 {{in lang|sr}}</ref>
|624,956
|15.02%
|-
|1971<ref name="Kocsis" />
|626,789
|14.16%
|-
|1981<ref name="Kocsis" />
|531,502
|11.55%
|-
|1991<ref name="Kocsis" />
|581,663
|12.16%
|-
|2001
|201,631
|4.54%
|-
|2011
|186,633
|4.36%
|}
Serb population in Croatia.]]<br />], which was held in ] in 2005.]]


When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the ] through the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany in its reduced borders after 1945, the forced population movements, constituting a type of ethnic cleansing, may contribute to long-term stability of a post-conflict nation.<ref name="Judt, Tony 2005">Judt, Tony (2005). ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945''. Penguin Press.</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} Some justifications may be made as to why the targeted group will be moved in the conflict resolution stages, as in the case of the ethnic Germans, some individuals of the large German population in ] and prewar ] had encouraged Nazi ] before World War II, but this was forcibly resolved.<ref name="Judt, Tony 2005"/>{{page needed|date=September 2016}}
=== Bosnia & Herzegovina, 1990–1993 ===
{{Main|Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War}}
Widespread ethnic cleansing and ] accompanied the ] (1992–95), with estimated 2,700,000 people displaced within and out of the country. Large numbers of ] (Bosnian Muslims) and ] were forced to flee their homes and were expelled by ] and ].<ref name="Foreign Relations 1992">Committee on Foreign Relations, US Senate, ''The Ethnic Cleansing of Bosnia-Hercegovina'', (US Government Printing Office, 1992)</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r147.htm| date=18 December 1992| title=A/RES/47/147 Situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia| publisher=United Nations| quote=3. Condemns in the strongest possible terms the abhorrent practice of "ethnic cleansing" and recognises that the Serbian leadership in territories under their control in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav Army and the political leadership of the Republic of Serbia bear primary responsibility for this reprehensible practice| accessdate=25 July 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060124043558/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r147.htm| archive-date=January 24, 2006| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/bosnia2/|work=Human Rights Watch|title=War Crimes in Bosnia-Hercegovina: U.N. Cease-Fire Won't Help Banja Luka|4=|date=June 1994|accessdate=25 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313130026/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/bosnia2/|archive-date=March 13, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bb50.pdf | title=War and humanitarian action: Iraq and the Balkans | page=218 | work=UNHCR | date=2000 | accessdate=25 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112214622/http://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bb50.pdf | archive-date=January 12, 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref>
Some ] also carried out a similar campaign against Bosniaks and Serbs. While it was recorded that Bosniaks also engaged in grave breaches of the ] and other violations of ], they did not engage in systematic ethnic cleansing.<ref name="UN-Sec.Council-RCEEP780-AnnexIV-Cleansing-pg.21–para.111">{{cite web |author1=]: Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to ] (1992) |title='''ANNEX IV''': Policy of Ethnic Cleansing - Part Two: Ethnic Cleansing in BiH - I: Introduction |url=https://phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/IV.htm |page=21 para. 111 |accessdate=3 April 2020 |language= |date=27 May 1994 |quote=(''PDF'') UN doc. (1994) () '''''(pg.36 para.148.)''''' Bosnian Muslim forces have also engaged in practices which constitute grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and other violations of international humanitarian law. However, abuses by Bosnian Muslims have not been part of an «ethnic cleansing» campaign, and the number of reported violations is substantially lower than for those of the other warring factions. '''''(pg.37 para.149.)''''' The Commission is unable to determine the amount of harm and the exact number of violations committed by each of the warring factions. Nevertheless, it is clear that there is no factual basis for arguing that there is a "moral equivalence" between the warring factions. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328211111/http://www.phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/IV.htm |archive-date=March 28, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>


According to historian ], during an ethnic cleansing process, there may be destruction of physical symbols of the victims including ]s, books, monuments, graveyards, and street names: "Ethnic cleansing involves not only the forced deportation of entire nations but the eradication of the memory of their presence."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naimark |first=Norman M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-QLXnX16kAC |title=Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe |date=2002-09-19 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00994-3 |pages=209–211 |language=en}}</ref> In many cases, the side perpetrating the alleged ethnic cleansing and its allies have fiercely disputed the charge.{{Clarify|reason=please expand this|date=February 2024}}
The methods which were used during the Bosnian ethnic cleansing campaigns included "murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, the confinement of civilian populations in ghetto areas, the forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian populations, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and the wanton destruction of property".<ref>Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to ] (1992), 27 May 1994 (S/1994/674), English page=33, Paragraph 129</ref> Creating the largest flow of internally displaced citizens since World War II, the ethnic cleansing that occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 1990s is still apparent in the ethnically homogeneous regions of Bosnian Serbs, Croats, and Muslims that exist in modern-day Bosnia with politicians attempting to obstruct the undoing of the ethnic cleansing that took place during the war.<ref>Nielsen, C. (2005a). Ethnic cleansing: Bosnia-herzegovina. In M. J. Gibney, & R. Hansen (Eds.), ''Immigration and asylum from 1900 to present'' (). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/abcmigrate/ethnic_cleansing_bosnia_herzegovina/0</nowiki></ref>


=== Georgia, 1992–1993 === == Instances ==
{{main list|List of ethnic cleansing campaigns}}
{{Main|Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia}}
From 1992 through 1993, during the ], the armed ] ] insurgency implemented a campaign of ] against the large population of ethnic Georgians.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an NEUTRAL expert opinion this sentence is OR. Who says it was ethnic cleansing}} This was actually a case in which a minority was trying to drive out a majority, rather than a case in which a majority was trying to drive out a minority, because Georgians were the single largest ethnic group in pre-war Abkhazia, with a 45.7% plurality as of 1989.<ref>US State Department, ''Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993, Abkhazia case''.</ref> As a result of this deliberate campaign of ethnic cleansing by the Abkhaz separatists, more than 250,000 ethnic Georgians were forced to flee, and approximately 30,000 people were killed in incidents that involved massacres and expulsions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow|last=Chervonnaia|first=Svetlana Mikhailovna|publisher=Gothic Image Publications|year=1994|asin=B0029XE6WO}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}}<ref>US State Department,''Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993'', February 1994, Chapter 17.</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} This was recognized as ethnic cleansing by ] conventions, and was also mentioned in ] GA/10708.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/ga10708.doc.htm|title="General Assembly Adopts Resolution Recognizing Right Of Return By Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons To Abkhazia, Georgia"<!-- Bot generated title -->|publisher=|access-date=June 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917010019/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/ga10708.doc.htm|archive-date=September 17, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>] from ], March 2017]]

=== Kashmir, 1985-present ===
{{Main|Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus}}
The Hindus of the Kashmir Valley, were forced to flee the Kashmir valley as a result of being targeted by JKLF and Islamist insurgents during late 1989 and early 1990. Of the approximately 300,000 to 600,000 Hindus living in the Kashmir Valley in 1990 only 2,000–3,000 remain there in 2016.

=== Myanmar, 2016–present ===
{{Main|Rohingya persecution in Myanmar}}
Since 2016, ]'s military-dominated government has forced over 620,000 ethnic ] who live in ], northwest Myanmar to flee to neighboring ].<ref>Rohingya ethnic cleansing. (2018). In Helicon (Ed.), ''The hutchinson unabridged encyclopedia with atlas and weather guide'' (). Abington, UK: Helicon. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/heliconhe/rohingya_ethnic_cleansing/0</nowiki></ref> The Rohingya are a group of about 1 million people (mostly ]s and some ]) who live in ] but they are denied citizenship and considered ] and as a result, they have been subjected to ] by the government of Myanmar and Buddhist nationalists.<ref>"Myanmar seeking ethnic cleansing, says UN official as Rohingya flee persecution". ''The Guardian''. 24 November 2016. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.</ref> Myanmar's government has cracked down on the Rohingya people and forced them to migrate to Bangladesh through violent actions, with ], ], and murder being reported.<ref>Broomfield, Matt (10 December 2016). "UN calls on Burma's Aung San Suu Kyi to halt 'ethnic cleansing' of Rohingya Muslims". '']''. Archived from the original on 11 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.</ref> UN human rights chief Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein has stated that “The situation seems to be a textbook example of ethnic cleansing” while governments across the world have called on Myanmar's government to take control of the situation and stop the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya people.<ref>Stephanie Nebehay and Simon Lewis. "U.N. brands Myanmar violence a 'textbook' example of ethnic cleansing". ''Reuters''. Retrieved 14 September 2017.</ref>

=== Palestine, 1948 – present ===
For ] to create, not just a homeland in ] but a Jewish state, a Jewish demographic majority was and is needed. This requires the expulsion of non-jews – mainly the Palestinian Arab population. During the 1948 Palestine war, over 750,000 Palestinian Arabs population fled or were expelled from their homes. As refugees, they have the right of return as determined by UN General Assembly ]. Israel has refused to accept the principle and continues to introduce legislation to hinder Palestinians refugees from returning and reclaiming their land and confiscated property.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Muslih |first1=Muhammad |title=The Middle East in 2015 The Impact of Regional Trends on U.S. Strategic Planning |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=9781428961005 |pages=pp. 104–105}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibney |first1=Mathew |title=Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present |date=2005 |isbn=9781576077962 |pages=469–47}}</ref> The Klugman Committee report, an official Israeli government report, revealed serious corruption in the use of the controversial Absentee Property Law to transfer East Jerusalem properties from Palestinian to Jewish settler groups.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hasson |first1=Nir |title=How the State Helped Right-wing Groups Settle East Jerusalem |url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.5136031 |website=https://www.haaretz.com/ |publisher=Haaretz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Roiser |first1=Anna |title=The Jerusalem family at risk of losing their home |url=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-jerusalem-family-at-risk-of-losing-their-home-and-how-we-can-help/ |website=Jewish News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Settlements and National Parks |url=https://www.ir-amim.org.il/en/issue/settlements-and-national-parks |website=ir amim}}</ref>

== Criticism of the term ==
], the founder of ], has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": because "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blum |first=Rony |last2=Stanton |first2=Gregory H. |last3=Sagi |first3=Shira |last4=Richter |first4=Elihu D. |title='Ethnic cleansing' bleaches the atrocities of genocide |journal=European Journal of Public Health |year=2007 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pmid=17513346 |pages=204–209 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckm011 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>See also "Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", ''Genocide Studies and Prevention'' 5, 1 (April 2010), Douglas Singleterry</ref> Because of widespread acceptance after media influence, it has become a word used legally, but carries no legal repercussions. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://definitions.uslegal.com/e/ethnic-cleansing/|title=Ethnic Cleansing Law and Legal Definition {{!}} USLegal, Inc.|website=definitions.uslegal.com|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref>

In 1992, the German equivalent of "ethnic cleansing" ({{lang-de|Ethnische Säuberung}}) was named ] by the '']'' due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.<ref>{{cite news |first=Christoph |last=Gunkel |date=October 31, 2010 |url=http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |work=] |title=Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort! |language=de |trans-title=One year, one (un)word! |access-date=February 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512233554/http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>


== See also == == See also ==
{{Portal|Genocide}} {{Portal|Genocide}}
{{Main|Outline of genocide studies}}{{col div|colwidth=30em}}<!-- Please only list general topics, not any examples. That's for ] -->
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* '']'', a computer game
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* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
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==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}


== Notes == == Notes ==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}


== References == == References ==
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/20045626 |last=Bell-Fialkoff |first=Andrew |title=A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |year=1993 |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |jstor=20045626 |pages=110–121 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203190219/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |archive-date=February 3, 2004 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Baracetti|first=Gaia|date=2009|title=Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542981|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=44|issue=4|pages=657–674|doi=10.1177/0022009409339344|jstor=40542981|s2cid=159919208|issn=0022-0094}}
* {{cite journal
| doi=10.2307/20045626
| last=Bell-Fialkoff | first=Andrew
| title=A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing
| journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |year=1993
| url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html
| jstor=20045626 |pages=110–121 |url-status=dead
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203190219/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html
| archive-date=February 3, 2004 }}
* {{cite book
* {{cite journal |last=Petrovic |first=Drazen |title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology |journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=4 |year=1998 |page=817 |url=http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf }}
| first1 = Donald
| last1 = Bloxham
| author-link1 = Donald Bloxham
| first2 = Anthony
| last2 = Dirk Moses
| author-link2 = A. Dirk Moses
| editor-first1 = Donald
| editor-last1 = Bloxham
| editor-first2 = Robert
| editor-last2 = Gerwarth
| title = Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe
| chapter = Genocide and ethnic cleansing
| page = 125
| year = 2011
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| doi = 10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004
| isbn = 9781107005037
}}
* {{Cite book|language = en
| location = Koper-Capodistria|date = 25 July 2000
| title = Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956
| url = https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200223115751/https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm
| archive-date = 23 February 2020
| chapter = Period 1941–1945
| chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201105021740/http://www.kozina.com/premik/poreng4.htm
| ref={{harvid|Italian-Slovene commission}}
}}
* {{cite book
| editor-first1 = Ota
| editor-last1 = Konrád
| editor-first2 = Boris
| editor-last2 = Barth
| editor-first3 = Jaromír
| editor-last3 = Mrňka
| title = Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48
| year = 2021
| publisher = Springer International Publishing
| page = 20
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xXRREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20
| isbn = 9783030783860
| access-date = 5 November 2022
}}
* {{cite journal
| last=Petrovic |first=Drazen
| title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology
| journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=4 |year=1998
| page=817 |url=http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf }}
* {{cite journal
| last = Thum | first = Gregor
| year = 2010
| title = Review: Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945
| journal= Contemporary European History | volume= 19 | issue=1 | pages= 75–81
| doi=10.1017/S0960777309990257 | s2cid = 145605508
}}
* Vladimir Petrović (2007), (Ethnicisation of Cleansing), Hereticus 1/2007, 11–36 * Vladimir Petrović (2007), (Ethnicisation of Cleansing), Hereticus 1/2007, 11–36
* {{cite book
| first = Guido
| last = Rumici
| language = it
| title = Infoibati (1943–1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti
| year = 2002
| publisher = Ugo Mursia
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x0ZnAAAAMAAJ&q=massacri+foibe+sloveni+croati+anticomunisti
| isbn = 978-88-425-2999-6
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weine |last2=Becker |last3=Vojvoda |last4=Hodzic |title=Individual change after genocide in Bosnian survivors of "ethnic cleansing": Assessing personality dysfunction |first1 = Stevan M. |first2= Daniel F. |first3=Dolores |first4=Emir |year=1998 |doi=10.1023/A:1024469418811 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pmid=9479683 |journal=] |pages=147–153 |s2cid=31419500 }}


== Further reading == == Further reading ==
{{Library resources box}} {{Library resources box}}
{{refbegin|30em}}

*{{cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Andrew R. |title=Destroy Them Gradually: Displacement as Atrocity |date=2024 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-1-9788-3130-8 |language=en}}
* Anderson, Gary Clayton. ''Ethnic Cleansing and the Indians: The Crime that Should Haunt America''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
*{{cite book |last1=Bulutgil |first1=H. Zeynep |title=The Roots of Ethnic Cleansing in Europe |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-56528-5 |language=en}}
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Nemesis at Potsdam'', Routledge, London 1977.
*{{cite book |last1=Dahbour |first1=Omar |title=Nationalism and Human Rights: In Theory and Practice in the Middle East, Central Europe, and the Asia-Pacific |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-1-137-01202-9 |pages=97–122 |language=en |chapter=National Rights, Minority Rights, and Ethnic Cleansing}}
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''A Terrible Revenge''. Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. {{ISBN|1-4039-7308-3}}.
*{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Neve|author-link=Neve Gordon |last2=Ram |first2=Moriel |title=Ethnic cleansing and the formation of settler colonial geographies |journal=Political Geography |date=2016 |volume=53 |pages=20–29 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.01.010|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/31016/1/Gordon_Ethnic%20cleansing%20and%20the%20formation%20of%20settler%20colonial%20geographies.pdf }}
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Die deutschen Vertriebenen''. Leopold Stocker, Graz, 2006. {{ISBN|3-902475-15-3}}.
*{{cite book |last1=Jenne |first1=Erin K. |title=The Routledge Handbook of Ethnic Conflict |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72042-5 |chapter=The causes and consequences of ethnic cleansing}}
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht''. Universitas, München 2001. {{ISBN|3-8004-1416-3}}.
*{{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Benjamin |title=Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |date=2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3038-5 |language=en}}
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: "The Right to One's Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", ''Criminal Law Forum'' (2005)
*{{cite book |last1=Pegorier |first1=Clotilde |title=Ethnic Cleansing: A Legal Qualification |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-06783-1 |language=en}}
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: "Forced Population Transfer" in Max Planck ''Encyclopedia of Public International Law'', Oxford online 2010.
* {{cite book|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans: nationalism and the destruction of tradition|first1=Cathie|last1=Carmichael|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=0-415-27416-8 }} *{{cite book |last1=Rikhof |first1=Joseph |title=Serious International Crimes, Human Rights, and Forced Migration |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-09438-8 |chapter=Ethnic cleansing and exclusion}}
*{{cite book |last1=Ther |first1=Philipp|author-link=Philipp Ther |title=The Dark Side of Nation-States |date=2014 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78238-303-1 |language=en |chapter=The Dark Side of Nation-States: Ethnic Cleansing in Modern Europe}}
* Douglas, R. M.: ''Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012'' {{ISBN|978-0300166606}}.
{{refend}}
* Kamusella, Tomasz. 2018. ''Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War: The Forgotten 1989 Expulsion of Turks from Communist Bulgaria'' (Ser: Routledge Studies in Modern European History). London: Routledge, 328pp. {{ISBN|9781138480520}}.
* Prauser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon: ''The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second Century''. Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004.
* {{cite journal |last=Sundhaussen |first=Holm |title=Forced Ethnic Migration |journal=]| year=2010 |url= http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921728 }}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Štrbac|first=Savo|authorlink=Savo Štrbac|title=Gone with the Storm: A Chronicle of Ethnic Cleansing of Serbs from Croatia|year=2015|location=Knin-Banja Luka-Beograd|publisher=Grafid, DIC Veritas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSqBnQAACAAJ|isbn=9789995589806}}


== External links == == External links ==
{{Commons category|Ethnic cleansing|lcfirst=yes}} {{Commons category|Ethnic cleansing|lcfirst=yes}}
{{wiktionary|ethnic cleansing}} {{wiktionary|ethnic cleansing}}
{{ethnicity}}
*
{{genocide topics}}
* – Images of ethnic cleansing in Sudan
{{nationalism}}
* , Paper 951, 2006, ] School of Law (PDF)
{{segregation by type}}
* May 31, 2007, World Science
{{racism topics|state=collapsed}}{{Discrimination}}{{Authority control}}
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/kosovo2/307261.stm |title=Ethnic cleansing: Revival of an old tradition |first=Jan |last=Repa |date=March 29, 1999 |work=BBC News}}

{{Racism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Ethnicity}}
{{Segregation by type}}
{{Genocide topics}}
{{Nationalism}}


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Revision as of 21:07, 23 December 2024

Systematic removal of a certain ethnic or religious group For other uses, see Ethnic cleansing (disambiguation).

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Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, or religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal such as deportation or population transfer, it also includes indirect methods aimed at forced migration by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction. Both the definition and charge of ethnic cleansing is often disputed, with some researchers including and others excluding coercive assimilation or mass killings as a means of depopulating an area of a particular group.

Although scholars do not agree on which events constitute ethnic cleansing, many instances have occurred throughout history. The term was first used to describe Albanian nationalist treatment of the Kosovo Serbs in the 1980s, and entered widespread use during the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s. Since then, the term has gained widespread acceptance due to journalism. Although research originally focused on deep-rooted animosities as an explanation for ethnic cleansing events, more recent studies depict ethnic cleansing as "a natural extension of the homogenizing tendencies of nation states" or emphasize security concerns and the effects of democratization, portraying ethnic tensions as a contributing factor. Research has also focused on the role of war as a causative or potentiating factor in ethnic cleansing. However, states in a similar strategic situation can have widely varying policies towards minority ethnic groups perceived as a security threat.

Ethnic cleansing has no legal definition under international criminal law, but the methods by which it is carried out are considered crimes against humanity and may also fall under the Genocide Convention.

Etymology

Refugees at Taurus Pass during the Armenian genocide. The Young Turk triumvirate aimed to reduce the number of Armenians to below 5–10% of the population in any part of the Ottoman empire, which resulted in the elimination of a million Armenians.
Istrian Italians leave Pola in 1947 during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus, which followed the foibe massacres

An antecedent to the term is the Greek word andrapodismos (ἀνδραποδισμός; lit. "enslavement"), which was used in ancient texts. e.g., to describe atrocities that accompanied Alexander the Great's conquest of Thebes in 335 BCE. The expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain between 1609 and 1614 is considered by some authors to be one of the first episodes of state-sponsored ethnic cleansing in the modern western world. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide", considered the displacement of Native Americans by American settlers as a historical example of genocide. Others, like historian Gary Anderson, contend that genocide does not accurately characterize any aspect of American history, suggesting instead that ethnic cleansing is a more appropriate term. Circassian genocide, also known as "Tsitsekun", is often regarded by various historians as the first large-scale ethnic cleansing campaign launched by a state during the 19th century industrial era. Imperial Russian general Nikolay Yevdakimov, who supervised the operations of Circassian genocide during 1860s, dehumanised Muslim Circassians as "a pestilence" to be expelled from their native lands. Russian objective was the annexation of land; and the Russian military operations that forcibly deported Circassians were designated by Yevdakimov as “ochishchenie” (cleansing).

In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs (očista), the Poles (czystki etniczne), the French (épuration) and the Germans (Säuberung). A 1913 Carnegie Endowment report condemning the actions of all participants in the Balkan Wars contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups.

Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia following the end of World War II

During the Holocaust in World War II, Nazi Germany pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was "cleaned of Jews" (judenrein). The Nazi Generalplan Ost called for the genocide and ethnic cleansing of most Slavic people in central and eastern Europe for the purpose of providing more living space for the Germans. During the Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia, the euphemism čišćenje terena ("cleansing the terrain") was used by the Croatian Ustaše to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely systematically killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes. The term was also used in the December 20, 1941 directive of Serbian Chetniks in reference to the genocidal massacres they committed against Bosniaks and Croats between 1941 and 1945. The Russian phrase очистка границ (ochistka granits; lit. "cleansing of borders") was used in Soviet documents of the early 1930s to refer to the forced resettlement of Polish people from the 22-kilometre (14 mi) border zone in the Byelorussian and Ukrainian SSRs. This process of the population transfer in the Soviet Union was repeated on an even larger scale in 1939–1941, involving many other groups suspected of disloyalty.

Between 1947 and 1949, in an event called the Nakba, at least 750,000 Palestinians were expelled from their homes or forced to flee from what is now Israel.

In its complete form, the term appeared for the first time in the Romanian language (purificare etnică) in an address by Vice Prime Minister Mihai Antonescu to cabinet members in July 1941. After the beginning of the invasion by the Soviet Union, he concluded: "I do not know when the Romanians will have such chance for ethnic cleansing." In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term "etnicheskoye chishcheniye" which literally translates to "ethnic cleansing" to describe Azerbaijani efforts to drive Armenians away from Nagorno-Karabakh. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the Bosnian War (1992–1995).

In 1992, the German equivalent of ethnic cleansing (German: ethnische Säuberung, pronounced [ˈʔɛtnɪʃə ˈzɔɪ̯bəʁʊŋ] ) was named German Un-word of the Year by the Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.

Definitions

The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 defined ethnic cleansing as:

a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas", " 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention.

The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or intimidation to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group." As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, "ethnic cleansing ... defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory."

Terry Martin has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end."

Gregory Stanton, the founder of Genocide Watch, has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": because "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.

As a crime under international law

There is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing; however, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense—the forcible deportation of a population—is defined as a crime against humanity under the statutes of both the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY). The gross human rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under public international law of crimes against humanity and in certain circumstances genocide. There are also situations, such as the expulsion of Germans after World War II, where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see Preussische Treuhand v. Poland). Timothy v. Waters argues that similar ethnic cleansing could go unpunished in the future.

Mutual ethnic cleansing

Mutual ethnic cleansing occurs when two groups commit ethnic cleansing against minority members of the other group within their own territories. For instance in the 1920s, Turkey expelled its Greek minority and Greece expelled its Turkish minority following the Greco-Turkish War. Other examples where mutual ethnic cleansing occurred include the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and the population transfers by the Soviets of Germans, Poles, and Ukrainians after World War II.

Causes

Massacres of Poles in Volhynia in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia had either been murdered or had fled the area.

According to Michael Mann, in The Dark Side of Democracy (2004), murderous ethnic cleansing is strongly related to the creation of democracies. He argues that murderous ethnic cleansing is due to the rise of nationalism, which associates citizenship with a specific ethnic group. Democracy, therefore, is tied to ethnic and national forms of exclusion. Nevertheless, it is not democratic states that are more prone to commit ethnic cleansing, because minorities tend to have constitutional guarantees. Neither are stable authoritarian regimes (except the nazi and communist regimes) which are likely perpetrators of murderous ethnic cleansing, but those regimes that are in process of democratization. Ethnic hostility appears where ethnicity overshadows social classes as the primordial system of social stratification. Usually, in deeply divided societies, categories such as class and ethnicity are deeply intertwined, and when an ethnic group is seen as oppressor or exploitative of the other, serious ethnic conflict can develop. Michael Mann holds that when two ethnic groups claim sovereignty over the same territory and can feel threatened, their differences can lead to severe grievances and danger of ethnic cleansing. The perpetration of murderous ethnic cleansing tends to occur in unstable geopolitical environments and in contexts of war. As ethnic cleansing requires high levels of organisation and is usually directed by states or other authoritative powers, perpetrators are usually state powers or institutions with some coherence and capacity, not failed states as it is generally perceived. The perpetrator powers tend to get support by core constituencies that favour combinations of nationalism, statism, and violence.

Ethnic cleansing was prevalent during the Age of Nationalism in Europe (19th and 20th centuries). Multi-ethnic European engaged in ethnic cleansing against minorities in order to pre-empt their secession and the loss of territory. Ethnic cleansing was particularly prevalent during periods of interstate war.

Genocide

Photo taken after the burning of Smyrna. From 1914 until 1923, Ottoman Greeks in Thrace and Asia Minor were subject to a campaign including massacres and deportations. The International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) recognizes it as genocide and refers to the campaign as the Greek Genocide.

Ethnic cleansing has been described as part of a continuum of violence whose most extreme form is genocide. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced deportation or population transfer. While ethnic cleansing and genocide may share the same goal and methods (e.g., forced displacement), ethnic cleansing is intended to displace a persecuted population from a given territory, while genocide is intended to destroy a group.

Some academics consider genocide to be a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing". Norman Naimark writes that these concepts are different but related, for "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people." William Schabas states "ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser." Multiple genocide scholars have criticized distinguishing between ethnic cleansing and genocide, with Martin Shaw arguing that forced deportation necessarily results in the destruction of a group and this must be foreseen by the perpetrators.

As a military, political, and economic tactic

Italian foibe massacres victims
Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany. Poles are led to trains under German army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the German Reich following the invasion.
A group of Bosniaks from the Lašva Valley close by Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina that were forced out of their homes and villages by Croat forces in 1993
Exhumed victims of the Srebrenica massacre carried out by Serb forces, part of the ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War
Russian Count Nikolay Yevdokimov, who organized the extermination campaigns of "Tsitsekun", designated Russian military operations targeting Circassian natives by the term “ochishchenie” (cleansing).
Portrait of Circassian refugees evicting their towns and villages after the Russian invasion of Circassia. According to some authors, Russian military forces massacred and forcibly deported between 95 and 97% of all native Circassians during the Circassian genocide.

The foibe massacres (Italian: massacri delle foibe; Slovene: poboji v fojbah; Croatian: masakri fojbe), or simply "the foibe", refers to ethnic cleansing, mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after World War II, mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA in the then-Italian territories of Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities, and Italian, German, Croat and Slovene anti-communists against the regime of Josip Broz Tito, presumed to be associated with fascism, Nazism, collaboration with Axis and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which was the post-World War II exodus and departure of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa. From 1947, after the war, they were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration. In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).

The resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 9th and 7th centuries BC is considered by some scholars to be one of the first cases of ethnic cleansing.

During the 1980s, in Lebanon, ethnic cleansing was common during all phases of the conflict, notable incidents were seen in the early phase of the war, such as the Damour massacre, the Karantina massacre, the Siege of the Tel al-Zaatar Palestinian refugee camp, and during the 1982 Lebanon War such as the Sabra and Shatila Massacre committed by Lebanese Maronite forces backed by Israel against Palestinian refugees and Lebanese Shia civilians. After the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf, the Mountain War broke out, where ethnic cleansings (mostly in the form of tit-for-tat killings) occurred. During that time, the Syrian backed, mostly Druze dominated People's Liberation Army used a policy they called "territorial cleansing" to "drain" the Chouf of Maronite Christians in order to deny them of resisting the advance of the PSP. As a result, 163,670 Christian villagers were displaced due to these operations. In response to these massacres, the Lebanese Forces conducted a similar policy, which resulted in 20,000 Druze displaced.

Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, forced expulsion, or killing of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority.

According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb and Croat forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and Republic of Serbian Krajina by the Serbs; and Herzeg-Bosnia by the Croats).

Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.

Israeli herders have engaged in a systemic displacement of Palestinian herders in Area C of the West Bank as a form of nationalist and economic warfare.

When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the expulsion of Germans after World War II through the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany in its reduced borders after 1945, the forced population movements, constituting a type of ethnic cleansing, may contribute to long-term stability of a post-conflict nation. Some justifications may be made as to why the targeted group will be moved in the conflict resolution stages, as in the case of the ethnic Germans, some individuals of the large German population in Czechoslovakia and prewar Poland had encouraged Nazi jingoism before World War II, but this was forcibly resolved.

According to historian Norman Naimark, during an ethnic cleansing process, there may be destruction of physical symbols of the victims including temples, books, monuments, graveyards, and street names: "Ethnic cleansing involves not only the forced deportation of entire nations but the eradication of the memory of their presence." In many cases, the side perpetrating the alleged ethnic cleansing and its allies have fiercely disputed the charge.

Instances

For a more comprehensive list, see List of ethnic cleansing campaigns.

See also

Main article: Outline of genocide studies

Explanatory notes

  1. "How could ‘forced deportation’ ever be achieved without extreme coercion, indeed violence? How, indeed, could deportation not be forced? How could people not resist? How could it not involve the destruction of a community, of the way of life that a group has enjoyed over a period of time? How could those who deported a group not intend this destruction? In what significant way is the forcible removal of a population from their homeland different from the destruction’ of a group? If the boundary between ‘cleansing’ and genocide is unreal, why police it?"
  2. Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace (1947).

Notes

  1. ^ "Ethnic cleansing". United Nations. United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Retrieved December 20, 2020.
  2. Walling, Carrie Booth (2000). "The history and politics of ethnic cleansing". The International Journal of Human Rights. 4 (3–4): 47–66. doi:10.1080/13642980008406892. S2CID 144001685. Most frequently, however, the aim of ethnic cleansing is to expel the despised ethnic group through either indirect coercion or direct force, and to ensure that return is impossible. Terror is the fundamental method used to achieve this end.
    Methods of indirect coercion can include: introducing repressive laws and discriminatory measures designed to make minority life difficult; the deliberate failure to prevent mob violence against ethnic minorities; using surrogates to inflict violence; the destruction of the physical infrastructure upon which minority life depends; the imprisonment of male members of the ethnic group; threats to rape female members, and threats to kill. If ineffective, these indirect methods are often escalated to coerced emigration, where the removal of the ethnic group from the territory is pressured by physical force. This typically includes physical harassment and the expropriation of property. Deportation is an escalated form of direct coercion in that the forcible removal of 'undesirables' from the state's territory is organised, directed and carried out by state agents. The most serious of the direct methods, excluding genocide, is murderous cleansing, which entails the brutal and often public murder of some few in order to compel flight of the remaining group members.13 Unlike during genocide, when murder is intended to be total and an end in itself, murderous cleansing is used as a tool towards the larger aim of expelling survivors from the territory. The process can be made complete by revoking the citizenship of those who emigrate or flee.
  3. Schabas, William A. (2003). "'Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 3 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1163/221161104X00075. The Commission considered techniques of ethnic cleansing to include murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extrajudicial executions, sexual assault, confinement of civilian populations in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian populations, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property.
  4. The danger of overstretching the term can be avoided...The goal of ethnic cleansing is to permanently remove a group from the area it inhabits...There is a popular dimension to ethnic cleansing because there are people needed to threaten with violence, to evict homes, organize mass transports, and to prevent the return of the unwanted...The main goal of ethnic cleansing was the removal of a group from a certain territory The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History. (2012). United Kingdom: OUP Oxford.
  5. Joireman, Sandra Fullerton. Peace, preference, and property : return migration after violent conflict. University of Michigan. p. 49. Violent conflict changes communities. "Returnees painfully discover that in their period of absence the homeland communities and their identities have undergone transformation, and these ruptures and changes have serious implications for their ability to reclaim a sense of home upon homecoming." The first issue in terms of returning home is usually the restoration of property, specifically the return or rebuilding of homes. People want their property restored, often before they return. But home means more than property, it also refers to the nature of the community. Anthropological literature emphasizes that time and the experience of violence changes people's sense of home and desire to return, and the nature of their communities of origin. To sum up, previous research has identified factors that influence decisions to return: time, trauma, family characteristics and economic opportunities.
  6. Bulutgil 2018, p. 1136.
  7. ^ Garrity, Meghan M (September 27, 2023). "'Ethnic Cleansing': An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity". Political Science Quarterly. 138 (4): 469–489. doi:10.1093/psquar/qqad082.
  8. Kirby-McLemore, Jennifer (2021–2022). "Settling the Genocide v. Ethnic Cleansing Debate: Ending Misuse of the Euphemism Ethnic Cleansing". Denver Journal of International Law and Policy. 50: 115.
  9. "Who first coined the euphemism "ethnic cleansing" for racial murder and persecution? Surely it must have been a dictator? | Notes and Queries | guardian.co.uk". www.theguardian.com. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
  10. Howe, Marvine (July 12, 1982). "Exodus of Serbians stirs province in Yugoslavia". The New York Times. p. 8. Archived from the original on March 17, 2018.
  11. Thum 2010, p. 75: way. Despite its euphemistic character and its origin in the language of the perpetrators, 'ethnic cleansing' is now the widely accepted scholarly term used to describe the systematic and violent removal of undesired ethnic groups from a given territory.
  12. Bulutgil, H. Zeynep (2018). "The state of the field and debates on ethnic cleansing". Nationalities Papers. 46 (6): 1136–1145. doi:10.1080/00905992.2018.1457018. S2CID 158519257.
  13. Jones, Adam (2012). "'Ethnic cleansing' and genocide". Crimes Against Humanity: A Beginner's Guide. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-78074-146-8.
  14. Schabas, William A. (2003). "'Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 3 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1163/221161104X00075. 'Ethnic cleansing' is probably better described as a popular or journalistic expression, with no recognized legal meaning in a technical sense... 'ethnic cleansing' is equivalent to deportation,' a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions as well as a crime against humanity, and therefore a crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal.
  15. Akçam, Taner (2011). "Demographic Policy and the Annihilation of the Armenians". The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15333-9. The thesis being proposed here is that the Armenian Genocide was not implemented solely as demographic engineering, but also as destruction and annihilation, and that the 5 to 10 percent principle was decisive in achieving this goal. Care was taken so that the number of Armenians deported to Syria, and those who remained behind, would not exceed 5 to 10 percent of the population of the places in which they were found. Such a result could be achieved only through annihilation... According to official Ottoman statistics, it was necessary to reduce the prewar population of 1.3 million Armenians to approximately 200,000.
  16. Booth Walling, Carrie (2012). "The History and Politics of Ethnic Cleansing". In Booth, Ken (ed.). The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions. London: Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-13633-476-4.
  17. Saldanha, Arun (2012). Deleuze and Race. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 51, 70. ISBN 978-0-7486-6961-5.
  18. McDonnell, M. A.; Moses, A. D. (2005). "Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas". Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 501–529. doi:10.1080/14623520500349951. S2CID 72663247.
  19. ^ Sousa, Ashley (2016). "Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson". Journal of Southern History. 82 (1): 135–136. doi:10.1353/soh.2016.0023. ISSN 2325-6893. S2CID 159731284.
  20. Richmond, Walter (2013). "3: From War to Genocide". The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8135-6068-7.
  21. Levene, Mark (2005). "6: Declining Powers". Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010. pp. 298–302. ISBN 1-84511-057-9.
  22. ^ Richmond, Walter (2013). "4: 1864". The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. pp. 96, 97. ISBN 978-0-8135-6068-7.
  23. Ther, Philipp (2004). "The Spell of the Homogeneous Nation State: Structural Factors and Agents of Ethnic Cleansing". In Munz, Rainer; Ohliger, Rainer (eds.). Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Russia in Comparative Perspective. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-13575-938-4. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  24. Akhund, Nadine (December 31, 2012). "The Two Carnegie Reports: From the Balkan Expedition of 1913 to the Albanian Trip of 1921". Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires. XIVb (1–2). doi:10.4000/balkanologie.2365. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2017 – via balkanologie.revues.org.
  25. Fulbrooke, Mary (2004). A Concise History of Germany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-52154-071-1. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  26. Eichholtz, Dietrich (September 2004). "'Generalplan Ost' zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker" ['General Plan East' for the enslavement of Eastern European peoples]. Utopie Kreativ (in German). 167: 800–808 – via Rosa Luxemburg Foundation.
  27. Toal, Gerard; Dahlman, Carl T. (2011). Bosnia Remade: Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-973036-0. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
  28. West, Richard (1994). Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia. New York: Carroll & Graf. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-7867-0332-6.
  29. Becirevic, Edina (2014). Genocide on the River Drina. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-3001-9258-2. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  30. ^ Martin, Terry (1998). "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing" Archived July 24, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. The Journal of Modern History 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822
  31. "The Nakba did not start or end in 1948". Al Jazeera. May 23, 2017.
  32. Petrovic, Vladimir (2017). Ethnopolitical Temptations Reach Southeastern Europe: Wartime Policy Papers of Vasa Čubrilović and Sabin Manuilă. CEU Press.
  33. Allen, Tim, and Jean Seaton, eds. The media of conflict: War reporting and representations of ethnic violence. Zed Books, 1999. p. 152
  34. Feierstein, Daniel (April 4, 2023). "The Meaning of Concepts: Some Reflections on the Difficulties in Analysing State Crimes". HARM – Journal of Hostility, Aggression, Repression and Malice. 1. doi:10.46586/harm.2023.10453. ISSN 2940-3073. The concept seems to have been borrowed from the Slavic expression etnicheskoye chishcheniye, first used by Soviet authorities in the 1980s to describe Azeri attempts to expel Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh area, and then immediately reappropriated by Serb nationalists to describe their policies in the central region of Yugoslavia.
  35. Cox, Caroline. "Nagorno Karabakh: Forgotten People in a Forgotten War." Contemporary Review 270 (1997): 8–13: "These operations were part of a policy designated `Operation Ring, comprising the proposed ethnic cleansing (a word used in relation to Azerbaijan's policy before it became familiar to the world in the context of the former Yugoslavia) of all Armenians from their ancient homeland of Karabakh."
  36. Gunkel, Christoph (October 31, 2010). "Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort!" [One year, one (un)word!]. Spiegel Online (in German). Archived from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
  37. "Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992)" (PDF). United Nations Security Council. May 27, 1994. p. 33. Paragraph 129
  38. "Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992)" (PDF). United Nations Security Council. May 27, 1994. p. 33. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2020. Upon examination of reported information, specific studies and investigations, the Commission confirms its earlier view that 'ethnic cleansing' is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful driving sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups. This policy and the practices of warring factions are described separately in the following paragraphs. Paragraph 130.
  39. Hayden, Robert M. (1996) "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers" Archived April 11, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Slavic Review 55 (4), 727–48.
  40. Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, "A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing" Archived February 3, 2004, at the Wayback Machine, Foreign Affairs 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.
  41. ^ Douglas Singleterry (April 2010), "Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", Genocide Studies and Prevention 5, 1
  42. Ferdinandusse, Ward (2004). "The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International Crimes" (PDF). The European Journal of International Law. 15 (5): 1042, note 7. doi:10.1093/ejil/15.5.1041. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 5, 2008.
  43. "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court" Archived January 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Article 7; Updated Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Archived August 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, Article 5.
  44. Shraga, Daphna; Zacklin, Ralph (2004). "The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia". The European Journal of International Law. 15 (3). Archived from the original on September 27, 2007.
  45. Timothy V. Waters, "On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing" Archived November 6, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, Paper 951, 2006, University of Mississippi School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13
  46. Pinxten, Rik; Dikomitis, Lisa (May 1, 2009). When God Comes to Town: Religious Traditions in Urban Contexts. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-920-8. Retrieved December 31, 2021.
  47. Cornell, Svante E. (September 1998). "Religion as a factor in Caucasian conflicts". Civil Wars. 1 (3): 46–64. doi:10.1080/13698249808402381. ISSN 1369-8249.
  48. Snyder, Timothy (July 11, 2004). The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10586-5. Retrieved December 31, 2021.
  49. Archived May 3, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Mann, Michael (2005), The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Ch. 1 "The Argument," pp. 1–33.
  50. ^ Müller-Crepon, Carl; Schvitz, Guy; Cederman, Lars-Erik (2024). ""Right-Peopling" the State: Nationalism, Historical Legacies, and Ethnic Cleansing in Europe, 1886–2020". Journal of Conflict Resolution. doi:10.1177/00220027241227897. hdl:20.500.11850/657611. ISSN 0022-0027.
  51. Mylonas, Harris (2013). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139104005. ISBN 978-1-107-02045-0.
  52. International Association of Genocide Scholars (December 16, 2007). "Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 1, 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2011.
  53. ^ Schabas, William (2000). Genocide in International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–201. ISBN 9780521787901. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
  54. Ethnic cleansing versus genocide:
    • Lieberman, Benjamin (2010). "'Ethnic cleansing' versus genocide?". In Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923211-6. Explaining the relationship between ethnic cleansing and genocide has caused controversy. Ethnic cleansing shares with genocide the goal of achieving purity but the two can differ in their ultimate aims: ethnic cleansing seeks the forced removal of an undesired group or groups where genocide pursues the group's 'destruction'. Ethnic cleansing and genocide therefore fall along a spectrum of violence against groups with genocide lying on the far end of the spectrum.
    • Martin, Terry (1998). "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing". The Journal of Modern History. 70 (4): 813–861. doi:10.1086/235168. ISSN 0022-2801. JSTOR 10.1086/235168. S2CID 32917643. When murder itself becomes the primary goal, it is typically called genocide... Ethnic cleansing is probably best understood as occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end. Given this continuum, there will always be ambiguity as to when ethnic cleansing shades into genocide
    • Schabas, William A. (2003). "'Ethnic Cleansing' and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 3 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1163/221161104X00075. The crime of genocide is aimed at the intentional destruction of an ethnic group. 'Ethnic cleansing' would seem to be targeted at something different, the expulsion of a group with a view to encouraging or at least tolerating its survival elsewhere. Yet ethnic cleansing may well have the effect of rendering the continued existence of a group impossible, thereby effecting its destruction. In other words, forcible deportation may achieve the same result as extermination camps.
    • Walling, Carrie Booth (2000). "The history and politics of ethnic cleansing". The International Journal of Human Rights. 4 (3–4): 47–66. doi:10.1080/13642980008406892. S2CID 144001685. These methods are a part of a wider continuum ranging from genocide at one extreme to emigration under pressure at the other... It is important - politically and legally - to distinguish between genocide and ethnic cleansing. The goal of the former is extermination: the complete annihilation of an ethnic, national or racial group. It contains both a physical element (acts such as murder) and a mental element (those acts are undertaken to destroy, in whole or in part, the said group). Ethnic cleansing involves population expulsions, sometimes accompanied by murder, but its aim is consolidation of power over territory, not the destruction of a complete people.
    • Naimark, Norman M. (2002). Fires of Hatred. Harvard University Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3. A new term was needed because ethnic cleansing and genocide two different activities, and the differences between them are important. As in the case of determining first-degree murder, intentionality is a critical distinction. Genocide is the intentional killing off of part or all of an ethnic, religious, or national group; the murder of a people or peoples (in German, Völkermord) is the objective. The intention of ethnic cleansing is to remove a people and often all traces of them from a concrete territory. The goal, in other words, is to get rid of the "alien" nationality, ethnic, or religious group and to seize control of the territory it had formerly inhabited. At one extreme of its spectrum, ethnic cleansing is closer to forced deportation or what has been called "population transfer"; the idea is to get people to move, and the means are meant to be legal and semi-legal. At the other extreme, however, ethnic cleansing and genocide are distinguishable only by the ultimate intent. Here, both literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people.
    • Hayden, Robert M. (1996). "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers". Slavic Review. 55 (4): 727–748. doi:10.2307/2501233. ISSN 0037-6779. JSTOR 2501233. S2CID 232725375. Hitler wanted the Jews utterly exterminated, not simply driven from particular places. Ethnic cleansing, on the other hand, involves removals rather than extermination and is not exceptional but rather common in particular circumstances.
  55. Mann, Michael (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780521538541. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
  56. Naimark, Norman (November 4, 2007). "Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016.
  57. ^ Shaw, Martin (2015b), What is Genocide, Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-8706-3 ‘Cleansing’ and genocide.
  58. Levene, Mark (2005). "6: Declining Powers". Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State Volume II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010. pp. 299–300. ISBN 1-84511-057-9.
  59. Jones, Adam (2016). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 108–110. ISBN 978-1-317-53386-3 – via Google Books.
  60. Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press. pp. 97, 132. ISBN 978-0-8135-6068-7.
  61. Bloxham & Dirk Moses 2011.
  62. ^ Konrád, Barth & Mrňka 2021.
  63. Baracetti 2009, p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings".
  64. Baracetti 2009, "In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'".
  65. Troha, Nevenka (2014). "Nasilje vojnih in povojnih dni". www.sistory.si (in Slovenian). Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino. Retrieved June 4, 2023. By this definition, among the 601 victims , 475 were members of armed formations and 126 were civilians.
  66. Rumici 2002, p. 350.
  67. Italian-Slovene commission.
  68. "Il Giorno del Ricordo" (in Italian). February 10, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2021.
  69. "L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte" (in Italian). February 5, 2019. Retrieved January 24, 2023.
  70. Pamela Ballinger (April 7, 2009). Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation. Duke University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0822392361. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
  71. Tesser, L. (May 14, 2013). Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union – Page 136, Lynn Tesser. Springer. ISBN 9781137308771.
  72. Ballinger, Pamela (2003). History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans. Princeton University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0691086974.
  73. Anna C. Bramwell, University of Oxford, UK (1988). Refugees in the Age of Total War. Unwin Hyman. pp. 139, 143. ISBN 9780044451945.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. Matjaž Klemenčič, The Effects of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia on Minority Rights: the Italian Minority in Post-Yugoslav Slovenia and Croatia. See "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  75. "12. Population by ethnicity, by towns/municipalities, census 2001". Census of Population, Households and Dwellings 2001. Zagreb: Croatian Bureau of Statistics. 2002. Retrieved June 10, 2017.
  76. "Popis 2002". Retrieved June 10, 2017.
  77. "Ethnic cleansing". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  78. "Prosecutor v. Vujadin Popovic, Ljubisa Beara, Drago Nikolic, Ljubomir Borovcanin, Radivoje Miletic, Milan Gvero, and Vinko Pandurevic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on December 11, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2023. In the Motion, the Prosecution submits that both the existence and implementation of the plan to create an ethnically pure Bosnian Serb state by Bosnian Serb political and military leaders are facts of common knowledge and have been held to be historical and accurate in a wide range of sources.
  79. "ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin judgement". Archived from the original on April 14, 2009.
  80. "Tadic Case: The Verdict". Archived from the original on October 14, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2023. Importantly, the objectives remained the same: to create an ethnically pure Serb State by uniting Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina and extending that State from the FRY to the Croatian Krajina along the important logistics and supply line that went through opstina Prijedor, thereby necessitating the expulsion of the non-Serb population of the opstina.
  81. "Prosecutor v. Jadranko Prlic, Bruno Stojic, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petkovic, Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 5, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2023. Significantly, the Trial Chamber held that a reasonable Trial Chamber, could make a finding beyond any reasonable doubt that all of these acts were committed to carry out a plan aimed at changing the ethnic balance of the areas that formed Herceg-Bosna and mainly to deport the Muslim population and other non-Croat population out of Herceg-Bosna to create an ethnically pure Croatian territory within Herceg-Bosna.
  82. Weine et al. (1998), p. 147.
  83. Amira, Saad (2021). "The slow violence of Israeli settler-colonialism and the political ecology of ethnic cleansing in the West Bank". Settler Colonial Studies. 11 (4): 512–532. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2021.2007747. S2CID 244736676.
  84. Graham-Harrison, Emma; Kierszenbaum, Quique (October 21, 2023). "'The most successful land-grab strategy since 1967' as settlers push Bedouins off West Bank territory". The Guardian. Ein Rashash. Archived from the original on October 22, 2023.
  85. Ziv, Oren (October 19, 2023). "בעוד העיניים נשואות לדרום ולעזה, הטיהור האתני בגדה מואץ" [While the eyes are on the south and Gaza, the ethnic cleansing in the West Bank is accelerating]. Mekomit (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on October 22, 2023.
  86. ^ Judt, Tony (2005). Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. Penguin Press.
  87. Naimark, Norman M. (September 19, 2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. pp. 209–211. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.

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