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{{Short description|Muhammad's third wife (c. 613/4 – 678)}} {{Short description|Muhammad's third wife (c. 613/614 – 678)}}
{{Other uses|Aisha (given name)|Aisha (disambiguation)}} {{Other uses|Aisha (given name)|Aisha (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{infobox person {{infobox person
| name = Aisha<br>{{small|]}} | name = Aisha<br/>{{small|]}}
| image = Aisha.svg | native_name = {{lang|ar|عائشة}}
| caption = Aisha's name in ]
| native_name = {{lang|ar|عائشة}}
| birth_date = {{circa|613/614}} | birth_date = {{circa|613/614}}
| birth_place = {{longitem|], ], ]}} | birth_place = ], ], ]
| death_date = {{circa|July 678}} (aged 63–65) | death_date = {{circa|July 678}} (aged 63–65)
| death_place = ], ] | death_place = ], ] {{small|(present-day ])}}
| resting_place = ], Medina | resting_place = ], Medina
| parents = ] (father)<br />] (mother) | parents = ] (father)<br />] (mother)
| spouse = ] ({{abbr|m.|married}} 620; died 632) | spouse = ] ({{abbr|m.|married}} 620; died 632)
| family = {{ubl|] <small>(by birth)</small>|] <small>(by marriage)</small>}} | family = {{ubl|] (by birth)|] (by marriage){{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=157}}}}
}} }}


'''Aisha''' ({{lang-ar|{{Script|Arab|عائشة بنت أبي بكر}}|translit=ʿĀʾisha bint Abī Bakr}}; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|iː|ʃ|ɑː}},<ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|Aisha|access-date=6 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aisha |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aisha |access-date=6 May 2019 |work=] |publisher=]}}</ref> <small>also</small> {{IPAc-en|US|-|ʃ|ə|,_|aɪ|ˈ|iː|ʃ|ə}},<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Āishah|access-date=6 May 2019}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|UK|ɑː|ˈ|(|j|)|iː|ʃ|ə}};<ref> (US) and {{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Ayesha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715143040/https://www.lexico.com/definition/ayesha |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-07-15 |title=Ayesha |dictionary=] UK English Dictionary |publisher=]}}</ref> {{circa|613/614 – July 678}}) was ]'s third and youngest wife.{{sfn|Esposito|2004a}}{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}} In Islamic writings, her name is thus often prefixed by the title "Mother of the Believers" ({{lang-ar|links=no|{{Script|Arab|أمّ المؤمنين}}|ʾumm al-]}}), referring to the description of ] in the ].<ref>{{qref|33|6|b=y}}</ref>{{sfn|Brockelmann|1947}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p={{pn|date=November 2022}}}} '''Aisha bint Abi Bakr'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|iː|ʃ|ɑː}} {{respell|AH|ee|shah}},<ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|Aisha|access-date=6 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aisha |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aisha |access-date=6 May 2019 |work=] |publisher=]}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|USalso|-|ʃ|ə|,_|aɪ|ˈ|iː|ʃ|ə}} {{respell|-|shə|,_|eye|EE|shə}};<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Āishah|access-date=6 May 2019}}</ref> {{langx|ar|عائشة بنت أبي بكر|translit=ʿĀʾisha bint Abī Bakr}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈʕaːʔiʃa|pron}}. Like other wives of Muhammad, her name is sometimes prefixed by the honorific "Mother of the Believers" ({{langx|ar|links=no|أمّ المؤمنين|ʾumm al-]}}).<ref>{{qref|33|6|b=y}}</ref>{{sfn|Brockelmann|1947}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p={{pn|date=November 2022}}}}}} ({{circa|613/{{CE|614}} – July 678}}) was a sixth century commander,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aisha, Widow of the Prophet Muhammad, at the Battle of the Camel, from a dispersed Assembly of Histories (Majma’ al-Tawarikh) manuscript {{!}} Yale University Art Gallery |url=https://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/91386 |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=artgallery.yale.edu}}</ref> politician,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spellberg |first=D. A. |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/politics-gender-and-the-islamic-past/9780231079990 |title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha bint Abi Bakr |date=February 1995 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07998-3}}</ref> ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gendering the Hadith Tradition Recentering the Authority of Aisha, Mother of the Believers |url=https://campusstore.miamioh.edu/gendering-hadith-tradition-recentering/bk/9780192865984 |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=campusstore.miamioh.edu}}</ref> and the third and youngest wife of ].{{sfn|Esposito|2004a}}{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}}


Little is known about the early life of Aisha. A preponderance of classical sources converge on Aisha being six or seven years old at the time of her marriage, and nine at the consummation; her age has become a source of ideological friction in modern times.{{sfn|Spellberg|1996|pp=39–40}} Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. In ] tradition, Aisha is portrayed as scholarly and inquisitive. She contributed to the spread of Muhammad's message and served the Muslim community for 44 years after his death.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781434323576 |last=Aleem|first=Shamim|title=Prophet Muhammad(s) and His Family: A Sociological Perspective|date=2007|page=130}}</ref> She is also known for narrating 2,210 ]s,<ref>Islamyat: a core text for students</ref> not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as ], ], and ].<ref name=Asma>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9781107031586| last = Sayeed| first = Asma| title = Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam| date = 6 August 2013 | pages=27–9}}</ref> Her intellect and knowledge in various subjects, including poetry and medicine, were highly praised by early luminaries such as ] and her student ].<ref name=Asma /> Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. In ] tradition, Aisha is portrayed as scholarly, intelligent and inquisitive. She contributed to the spread of Muhammad's message and served the ] community for 44 years after his death.{{sfn|Aleem|2007|p=130}}


Aisha narrated 2,210 ]s throughout her life,<ref>Islamyat: a core text for students.{{fcn|date=November 2022}}</ref> not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as ], ], prayer, and ].{{sfn|Sayeed|2013|pp=27–29}} Her intellect and knowledge in various subjects, including poetry and medicine, were highly praised by early scholars and luminaries such as ] and her student ].{{sfn|Sayeed|2013|pp=27–29}}
Her father, ] ({{Reign|632|634}}), became the first ] to succeed Muhammad, and after two years was succeeded by ] ({{Reign|634|644}}). During the time of the third caliph ] ({{Reign|644|656}}), Aisha had a leading part in the opposition that grew against him, though she did not agree either with those responsible for his assassination or with the party of ] ({{Reign|656|661}}).{{sfn|Watt|1960}} During the reign of Ali, she wanted to avenge Uthman's death, which she attempted to do in the ]. She participated in the battle by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination left a lasting impression.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p={{pn|date=November 2022}}}} Because of her involvement in this battle, ] have a generally ]. Afterward, she lived quietly in ] for more than twenty years, took no part in politics, became reconciled to Ali and did not oppose caliph ] ({{Reign|661|680}}).{{sfn|Watt|1960}}


Her father, ] ({{Reign|632|634}}), became the first ] to succeed Muhammad, and after two years was succeeded by ] ({{Reign|634|644}}). Aisha played a leading role in opposing some policies of the third caliph ] ({{Reign|644|656}}), though she also opposed those responsible for his assassination.{{sfn|Watt|1960}} She refused to recognize Uthman's successor ] ({{Reign|656|661}}) and joined ] and ]. She was defeated in ] during the ], after which she retired in Medina, became reconciled to Ali and did not oppose caliph ] ({{Reign|661|680}}).{{sfn|Watt|1960}} She participated in the Battle of the Camel by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p={{pn|date=November 2022}}}} Because of her involvement in this battle, ] have a generally ] despite her subsequent reconciliation with Ali. In ], Aisha is viewed as a leading ] and a teacher of several ] and the {{Transliteration|ar|]}}.
==Sources==
Biographical information on Muhammad and his companions are recorded in ] and ]. Hadiths were initially narrated orally before being collected and compiled by ].{{sfn|Saeed|2008|p=54}} In Islam, hadiths are regarded as fundamental sources second only to the ].{{sfn|Esposito|2004b|p=101}} However, the historical reliability of both hadith and sira has been a topic of debate among some academic circles.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |date=29 January 2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11074-9 |pages=6 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2114 |title=Arabs in history |date=1950 |pages=36–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |date=1999 |title=The Authenticity of Prophetic Ḥadîth: A Pseudo-Problem |journal=Studia Islamica |issue=89 |pages=75–90 |doi=10.2307/1596086 |jstor=1596086 |issn=0585-5292}}</ref>


==Early life== ==Early life==
Aisha was born in ] in {{circa|613}} or early 614.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=1}}<ref name=MuhammadSaad>{{harvnb|Ibn Sa'd|1995|p=55}}<br/>"Aisha was born at the beginning of the fourth year of prophethood"<br/>i.e., the year 613–614</ref> She was the daughter of ] and ], two of Muhammad's most trusted ].{{sfn|Esposito|2004a}} No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.{{sfn|Watt|1961|p=102}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=7}} Aisha was born in ] {{circa|613–614}}.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=1}}<ref>{{harvnb|Ibn Sa'd|1995|p=55}}<br />"Aisha was born at the beginning of the fourth year of prophethood"<br />i.e., the year 613–614</ref> She was the daughter of Abu Bakr and ], two of Muhammad's most trusted ].{{sfn|Esposito|2004a}} No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.{{sfn|Watt|1961|p=102}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=7}} Some classical sources converge on Aisha being six or seven years old at the time of her marriage, which followed a failed engagement with another man, and nine at the ]. The age has been contested, however, and is a source of disagreement.{{sfn|Spellberg|1996|pp=39–40}}


===Marriage to Muhammad=== ===Marriage and Consummation===
Before her engagement to Muhammad, Aisha was engaged to ]'s son ], an early opponent of Islam, at the age of five, following the custom of early marriage in sixth-century Arabia. The engagement failed due to concerns from Aisha's family.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-07-13 |title=Misunderstanding About Ayesha’s Age When She Married Prophet |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/300593 |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> According to ], Aisha was then engaged to Muhammad a year later at six years of age.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=39}} Some Islamic sources of the classical era list Aisha's age as six at the time of engagement and nine or ten at its consummation; other scholars contest this age<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-27 |title=On the Age of A’isha when she married Prophet Muhammad. |url=https://aobm.org/on-the-age-of-aisha-when-she-married-prophet-muhammad/ |access-date=2024-12-03 |website=The Association of British Muslims |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ali |first=Rashad |date=2023-06-30 |title=Why Scholars of Islam Disagree About the Age of the Prophet Muhammad's Youngest Wife |url=https://newlinesmag.com/essays/why-scholars-of-islam-disagree-about-the-age-of-the-prophet-muhammads-youngest-wife/ |access-date=2024-12-03 |website=New Lines Magazine |language=en}}</ref> due to inconsistencies in narrations about her youth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Age of Aisha (ra): Rejecting Historical Revisionism and Modernist Presumptions |url=https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/the-age-of-aisha-ra-rejecting-historical-revisionism-and-modernist-presumptions |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research |language=en}}</ref> Muhammad said that he had twice seen Aisha in his dreams, being carried in a silk cloth by an angel who told him that she would be his wife; he concluded that if the dreams were from God, they would come true.{{sfn|Leaman|2005|p=22}}{{sfn|Neil|2021|p=144}} Following the death of his first wife, ], his aunt ] suggested that he marry Aisha.{{sfn|Samadi|2021|p=72}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=3}} Aisha's father ] was at first unsure about marrying his daughter to Muhammad; he thought they were brothers. Muhammad clarified that they were merely brothers in religion, and it was legal for him to marry Aisha.{{sfn|Samadi|2021|p=73}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=3}} Aisha's engagement to Jubayr was then annulled.{{sfn|Turner|2003|p=52}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=3}} Orientalist ] suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr;{{sfn|Watt|1960}} the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.{{sfn|Sonbol|2003|pp=3–9}}
The idea to match Aisha with Muhammad was suggested by ] after the death of Muhammad's first wife, ].{{sfn|Ahmed|1992}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=3}} After this, the previous agreement regarding the marriage of Aisha with ] was put aside by common consent. Abu Bakr was uncertain at first "as to the propriety or even legality of marrying his daughter to his 'brother'." Muhammad responded that they were brothers only in religion.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=3}} Orientalist ] suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr;{{sfn|Watt|1960}} the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.{{sfn|Sonbol|2003|pp=3–9}}


]'s biography holds her age at the time of marriage as between six and seven, and gives her age at consummation to be nine while ]'s biography of Muhammad suggests she may have been ten years old at consummation.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=40}} ] notes Aisha to have stayed with her parents after the marriage and consummated the relationship at nine years of age since she was young and sexually immature at the time of marriage; however, elsewhere Tabari appears to suggest that she was born during the ] (before {{CE|610}}), which would translate to an age of about twelve or more at marriage.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=197-198 (Note 4)}}{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=189-190}}
All extant hadiths agree that Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca but the marriage was consummated only in the month of ] after his '']'' to Medina (April 623).<ref name=":2">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=ʿĀʾisha |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |publisher=Brill |last=Bahramian |first=Ali |editor-last=Madelung |editor-first=Wilferd |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0235}}</ref> Some classical sources have Aisha speak of the marriage to have been executed in Medina itself without referencing to any delay.<ref name=":2" />


All extant hadiths agree that Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca but the marriage was consummated only in the month of ] after his '']'' to Medina (April 623).{{sfn|Bahramian|2015}} Some classical sources have Aisha speak of the marriage to have been executed in Medina itself without reference to any delay.{{sfn|Bahramian|2015}}
====Age at time of marriage====
{{See also|Criticism of Muhammad#Aisha}}


In Islamic literature, the young age of her marriage did not draw any significant discourse; nonetheless, Spellberg and Ali find the very mention of her age to be atypical of early Muslim biographers, and hypothesize a connotation to her religious purity.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=40}}{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=157-158}}{{efn|Ibn Sa'd notes Aisha to have boasted of her being the only virgin-wife before Muhammad himself.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=39}}}} Her age did not interest later Muslim scholars either, and went unremarked-upon even by medieval and early-modern Christian polemicists.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=158}} Early ] writers, even in their condescending approach towards Muhammad and Islam, were primarily concerned with Muhammad's embrace of polygamy and the ethics of marrying for political causes;{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=158-159, 161-162}} the few who discussed Aisha's age chose to explain the age-gap by citing the contemporary understanding of the Orient as a ''hot'' place, that promulgated sexually deviant practices.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=164-165}}
Islamic sources of the classical era list Aisha's age at the time of her marriage as six or seven and nine or ten at its consummation. In a hadith from ], Aisha recollects having been married at six years of age.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=39}} ]'s biography holds her age at the time of marriage as between six and seven, and gives her age at consummation to be nine while ]'s biography of Muhammad suggests she may have been ten years old at consummation.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=40}} ] notes Aisha to have stayed with her parents after the marriage and consummated the relationship at nine years of age since she was young and sexually immature at the time of marriage; however, elsewhere Tabari appears to suggest that she was born during the ] (before 610 C.E), which would translate to an age of about twelve or more at marriage.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=197-198 (Note 4)}}{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=189-190}}


Beginning in the late nineteenth century, with the East and its alleged immoralities subject to increasing opprobrium,{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=172}} the colonizing powers sought to regulate the ]. As such efforts ran into conflicts with local forms of '']'', Aisha's age at marriage — and the involved Prophetic precedent — became the predominant explanation in explaining "the backwardness of Muslim societies and their reticence to reforms."{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=167-168, 170-171}} In response, some Muslims{{efn|] in Egypt and others}} chose to align themselves with the projects of modernization and re-calculated her age — using deft stratagems of omission and commission — to fix it at early adolescence, but conservatives rejected such revisionist readings since they flew in the face of '']''.{{sfn|Brown|2014|p=}}
In Islamic literature, the young age of her marriage did not draw any significant discourse; nonetheless, Spellberg and Ali find the very mention of her age to be atypical of early Muslim biographers, and hypothesize a connotation to her virginity and religious purity.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=40}}{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=157-158}}{{efn|Ibn Sa'd notes Aisha to have boasted of her being the only virgin-wife before Muhammad himself.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=39}}}} Her age did not interest later Muslim scholars either, and even went unremarked-upon by medieval and early-modern Christian polemicists.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=158}} Early ] writers—despite taking a condescending approach towards Muhammad and Islam—did not focus on Aisha's age but instead on Muhammad's engaging in polygamy, the ethics of marrying for political causes, etc.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=158-159, 161-162}} A few, however chose to explain the age-gap—passively and without any condemnation—, citing the contemporary understanding of the Orient as a ''hot'' place, that promulgated sexually deviant practices.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=164-165}}


Criticism of Aisha's age, which was standard for marriages in sixth-century Arabia,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sulaimani |first=Faryal |date=1986 |title=The Changing Position of Women in Arabia Under Islam in the Early 7th Century |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=e00dd6abbf276cc74ad7de5bc044c6b85b93beae |access-date=30 November 2024 |website=University of Salford}}</ref> has prompted many{{efn|Ali finds an exception in "traditional S. Asian biographers" who maintain outright frankness in noting the "practicalities" of marrying a virgin girl.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=173}}}} modern Muslim scholars to contextualize the traditionally accepted age of Aisha with renewed vigor emphasizing cultural relativism, anachronism, the political dimensions of the marriage, Aisha's non-ordinary physique etc.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=173, 175-178}}{{efn|Ali notes the polarizing environment to have prompted even scholars and popular authors from the West to incorporate apologetics premised on anachronism and political implications, often at the cost of historical accuracy.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=174, 188-189}}}} Since the late-twentieth century, polemicists have used Aisha's age to accuse Muhammad of ] and to explain a reported higher prevalence of ] in Muslim societies.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=187, 190-191}}
Beginning in the late nineteenth century, with the East and its alleged immoralities subject to increasing opprobrium,{{Efn|Scholars note the formation of an unprecedented political consciousness in Europe around the time, that created a moral imperative for the Western elites to rescue the victims of Eastern barbarity. Additionally, these reforms were especially palatable to the colonial governments since they fostered the penetration of bureaucracy into hitherto-private affairs and aided in the construction of a governable nation-state.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=172}}}} the colonizing powers sought to regulate the ]. As such efforts ran into conflicts with local forms of '']'', pointers to Aisha's age at marriage (and the associated Prophetic precedent) proliferated across the archives in explaining the backwardness of Muslim societies and their reticence to reforms.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=167-168, 170-171}} In response, some Muslims{{efn|] in Egypt and others like .}} chose to align themselves with the projects of modernization and re-calculated her age—using deft stratagems of omission and commission—to fix it at early adolescence, but conservatives rejected such revisionist readings since they flew in the face of '']''.{{sfn|Brown|2014|p=}}

In the mid-20th century, amidst growing concerns of Islamic extremism, as Muslim societies and Islam itself came under scrutiny, pointed criticisms of Aisha's young age at marriage began to appear; this has since prompted many{{efn|Ali finds an exception in "traditional S. Asian biographers" who maintain outright frankness in noting the "practicalities" of marrying a virgin girl.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=173}}}} Muslim scholars to contextualize the traditionally accepted age of Aisha with renewed vigor, emphasizing cultural relativism, anachronism, the political dimensions of the marriage, Aisha's non-ordinary physique, etc.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=173, 175-178}}{{efn|Ali notes the polarizing environment to have prompted even scholars and popular authors from the West to incorporate apologetics premised on anachronism and political implications, often at the cost of historical accuracy.{{sfn|Ali|2014|p=174, 188-189}}}} In the late-twentieth century and early twenty-first century, Aisha's age has become a tool of Islamophobic polemicists to accuse Muhammad of ]—not as a diagnostic category but as the highest category of evil—and reason for the apparently higher prevalence of child marriage in Muslim societies, among other ills.{{Sfn|Ali|2014|p=187, 190-191}}


==Personal life== ==Personal life==


===Relationship with Muhammad=== === Relationship with Muhammad ===
] ]
In most ], ] is described as Muhammad's most beloved and favored wife; Sunni tradition places Aisha as second only to Khadija.<ref name=ahmed51>{{harvnb|Ahmed|1992|p=51}}</ref>{{sfn|Roded|1994|p=36}}{{sfn|Roded|2008|p=23}}<ref name="Joseph">{{harvnb|Joseph|2007|p=227}}</ref><ref name="McAuliffe">{{harvnb|McAuliffe|2001|p=55}}</ref> There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, "who is the person you love most in the world?" he responded, "Aisha."{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=65}} Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha's apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque,{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=107}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=25}} and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations.{{sfn|Roded|1994|p=28}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=46}} They bathed in the same water and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him.{{sfn|Shaikh|2003|p=33}} In most ], ] is described as Muhammad's most beloved and favored wife; Sunni tradition places Aisha as second only to Khadija.{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|p=51}}{{sfn|Roded|1994|p=36}}{{sfn|Roded|2008|p=23}}{{sfn|Joseph|2007|p=227}}{{sfn|McAuliffe|2001|p=55}} There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, "who is the person you love most in the world?" he responded, "Aisha."{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=65}} Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha's apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque,{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=107}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=25}} and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations.{{sfn|Roded|1994|p=28}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=46}} They bathed in the same water, and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him.{{sfn|Shaikh|2003|p=33}}

Various traditions reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion, he would even join them.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=8}}{{sfn|Lings|1983|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Haykal|1976|pp=183–184}} "Aisha must have felt reasonably equal to and unawed by this prophet of God, for his announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed other men drew from her the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'"{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|pp=51–52}} Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship.{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=104}} Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her.{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=78}}{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|p=121}}


===The Necklace Incident===
Various traditions reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion, he would even join them.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=8}}{{sfn|Lings|1983|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Haykal|1976|pp=183–184}} Additionally, they were close enough that each was able to discern the mood of the other, as many stories relate.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Lings|1983|p=371}} It is also important to note that there exists evidence that Muhammad did not view himself as entirely superior to Aisha, at least not enough to prevent Aisha from speaking her mind, even at the risk of angering Muhammad. On one such instance, Muhammad's "announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed to other men drew from her the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'"<ref name=ahmed5152>{{harvnb|Ahmed|1992|pp=51–52}}</ref> Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship.{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=104}} Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her.{{sfn|Mernissi|1988|p=78}}{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|p=121}}
{{Main|The Necklace Incident}}


When ] and his followers carried out a raid on the ] tribe, he brought along Aisha, who was 13 years old at the time. She was carried in a closed ] on the back of a camel. Aisha recounted that when the raiding party was resting at night on the way home to ] from the successful operation, she went out to relieve herself. After doing so and returning to her litter, she realized that her necklace was missing, so she traced her way back to look for it. By the time she found it, the convoy had already left, thinking she was in the litter. Assuming that they would notice her absence and return to look for her, Aisha decided to stay where she was.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=199–200}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=66}}
Aisha was jealous of Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad's first wife, saying, "I did not feel jealous of any of the wives of the Prophet as much as I did of Khadija though I did not see her, the Prophet used to mention her very often, and whenever he slaughtered a sheep, he would cut its parts and send them to the women friends of Khadija. When I sometimes said to him, "(You treat Khadija in such a way) as if there is no woman on earth except Khadija," he would say, "Khadija was such-and-such, and from her I had children."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/63/44|title=Hadith – Book of Merits of the Helpers in Madinah (Ansaar) – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|website=sunnah.com|access-date=25 December 2019}}</ref>


Aisha related that ], a young Muslim from the raiding party, had lagged behind for some reason. On his solo return journey to Medina, he came across Aisha sleeping on the ground by herself.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=200–1}}{{sfn|al-Bukhari|1997|p=232|loc=vol. 6, no. 4750}} He addressed her, let her ride on his camel while he guided it, and escorted her home to Medina. It was not until the morning that Muhammad's convoy realized that Aisha was not in her litter.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=200–1}} And later, when they were taking a break from the hot midday sun, Aisha and Safwan ran into them.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=264}}{{sfn|al-Bukhari|1997|p=232|loc=vol. 6, no. 4750}} A rumor accusing Aisha of committing adultery with Safwan was spread by Abdullah Ibn Ubayy Ibn Salool.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smirna Si |url=http://archive.org/details/TheCommentaryOnTheQuranVol.1ByAlTabari |title=The Commentary on the Quran, vol. 1, by al-Tabari |language=English}}</ref> Moreover, it was said that she had conversed with him several times before. This rumor of adultery, if true, could have led to Aisha being ].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=200–1}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=67}}
Aisha and Muhammad would often have races with each other, "I had a race with him (the Prophet) and I outstripped him on my feet. When I became fleshy, (again) I raced with him (the Prophet) and he outstripped me. He said: This is for that outstripping."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sunnah.com/abudawud/15/102|title=Hadith – Book of Jihad (Kitab Al-Jihad) – Sunan Abi Dawud – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|website=sunnah.com|access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>


Upon their arrival in Medina, Aisha fell ill and sensed that Muhammad was uncharacteristically cold toward her. She only learned of the rumor some three weeks later when Umm Mistah told her on their way back from defecating in an open field at night, as was customary for Muslim women at that time. Aisha subsequently went to her mother, asking what the people were talking about, and she replied, "Daughter, be at peace, for I swear by God that no beautiful woman is married to a man who has other wives, but that these other wives would find fault with her." So Aisha cried all night long.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=201–2}}{{sfn|al-Shati|2006|p=87}}{{sfn|al-Bukhari|1997|p=232|loc=vol. 6, no. 4750}}
===Accusation of adultery===
The story of the accusation of adultery levied against Aisha, also known as the '''Event of Ifk''',<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sohail|first=Ustadh Abu Haneefah|date=30 January 2015|title=Al-Ifk: Lessons from the heinous lie against 'Ā'isha (radiyAllau 'anha), Mother of the Believers|url=https://www.islam21c.com/islamic-thought/al-ifk-lessons-from-the-heinous-lie-against-aisha-radiyallau-anha-mother-of-the-believers/|access-date=8 June 2020|website=Islam21c|language=en-GB}}</ref> can be traced to '']'' (chapter) '']'' of the ]. As the story goes, Aisha left her '']'' in order to search for a missing necklace. Her slaves mounted the ''howdah'' and prepared it for travel without noticing any difference in weight without Aisha's presence. Hence the caravan accidentally departed without her. She remained at the camp until the next morning, when ], a nomad and member of Muhammad's army, found her and brought her back to Muhammad at the army's next camp. Rumours that Aisha and Safwan had committed adultery were spread, particularly by ], ], Mistah ibn Uthatha and ] (sister of ], another of Muhammad's wives). ], son of ], defended Aisha's reputation; while ] advised: "Women are plentiful, and you can easily change one for another." Muhammad came to speak directly with Aisha about the rumours. He was still sitting in her house when he announced that he had received a revelation from ] confirming Aisha's innocence. Surah 24 details the Islamic laws and punishment regarding ] and slander. Aisha's accusers were subjected to punishments of 80 lashes.<ref>The story is told multiple times in the early traditions, nearly all of the versions being ultimately derived from Aisha's account. Typical examples can be found in {{Href|bukhari|4141|b=yl}}, {{Href|muslim|2770a}} and {{harvnb|Ibn Ishaq|1955|pp=494–499}}.</ref>


Muhammad, despite his fondness for Aisha, was unsure of her innocence. He asked ] and ] for their opinions. Usama vouched for Aisha's innocence,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=201–2}}{{sfn|Forward|1997|p=90}} but Ali said, "Women abound; you can easily find a substitute. Ask her slave; she might reveal the truth."{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=70}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265}}{{sfn|al-Shati|2006|p=88}}{{sfn|Forward|1997|p=90}} When the slave girl arrived, Ali beat her severely and said, "Mind you tell the apostle the truth."{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265}} But her answer was that she knew only good things about Aisha, with the single exception that when Aisha was entrusted with watching over a dough, she dozed off and allowed a sheep to eat it.{{sfn|al-Shati|2006|p=88}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265}}
===Story of the honey===
After the daily '']'' prayer, Muhammad would visit each of his wives' apartments to inquire about their well-being. Muhammad was just in the amount of time he spent with them and attention he gave to them.<ref>
{{Cite web |url=http://www.islamswomen.com/articles/zaynab_bint_jahsh.php |title=Great Women of Islam – Zaynab bint Jahsh |access-date=7 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015004735/http://islamswomen.com/articles/zaynab_bint_jahsh.php |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=live}}
</ref> Once, Muhammad's fifth wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, received some honey from a relative which Muhammad took a particular liking to. As a result, every time Zaynab offered some of this honey to him he would spend a long time in her apartment. This did not sit well with Aisha and ].
{{Blockquote|Hafsa and I decided that when the Prophet entered upon either of us, she would say, "I smell in you the bad smell of Maghafir (a bad smelling raisin). Have you eaten Maghafir?" When he entered upon one of us, she said that to him. He replied (to her), "No, but I have drunk honey in the house of Zainab bint Jahsh, and I will never drink it again."..."But I have drunk honey." Hisham said: It also meant his saying, "I will not drink anymore, and I have taken an oath, so do not inform anybody of that'|{{Href|bukhari|6691|b=yl}}}}


Muhammad later visited Aisha at her parents' house and advised her to confess if she had sinned, as God was merciful towards those who seek repentance.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=202–3}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265}} It had been more than a month since Aisha had returned alone with Safwan.{{sfn|al-Bukhari|1997|p=285|loc=vol. 5, no. 4141}} Despite Muhammad's advice, Aisha refused to apologize as it would indicate guilt. She told Muhammad that she could find no better parallel for her current situation than that of ]'s father, who had endured disbelief despite telling the truth and had no other choice but to remain patient. Shortly thereafter, Muhammad experienced a trance and received verses (Quran 24:11–15) that confirmed Aisha's innocence.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=202–3}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265}}{{sfn|al-Shati|2006|p=89–90}}
Soon after this event, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God. Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for ], which opens with the following verses: {{Blockquote|O Prophet! Why do you prohibit ˹yourself˺ from what ] has made lawful to you, seeking to please your wives? And Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.<br />Allah has already ordained for you ˹believers˺ the way to absolve yourselves from your oaths. For Allah is your Guardian. And He is the All-Knowing, All-Wise.|{{Qref|66|1-2|c=y}}}} Word spread to the small ] that Muhammad's wives were speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. ‘Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they agreed to "speak correct and courteous words"{{sfn|Ibn Sa'd|1995|pp=132–133}} and to focus on the ].<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|3|43|648}}</ref>


===Death of Muhammad=== ===Death of Muhammad===
Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in the arms of Aisha, his second most beloved wife.<ref name=ahmed58>{{harvnb|Ahmed|1992|p=58}}</ref>{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=69}}{{sfn|Lings|1983|p=339}}<ref name="Haykal">{{harvnb|Haykal|1976|pp=502–503}}</ref><ref name="Guillaume">{{harvnb|Ibn Ishaq|1955|p=679 and 682}}</ref> Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in Aisha's arms.{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|p=58}}{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=69}}{{sfn|Lings|1983|p=339}}{{sfn|Haykal|1976|pp=502–503}}{{sfn|Ibn Ishaq|1955|p=679 & 682}}


==Political career== ==Political career==
Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam.{{sfn|Elsadda|2001}} Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected or wanted to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in a war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|p=51}}{{Additional citation needed|date=August 2016}}
After Muhammad's death, which ended Aisha and Muhammad's 14-year-long marriage, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran and the '']'' of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsa bint Umar and ]) who memorized the Qur'an. Like Hafsa, Aisha had her script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death.<ref name="jannah.org">
{{cite web |url=http://www.jannah.org/sisters/aishah.html |title=Aishah bint Abu Bakr |publisher=Jannah.org |access-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726000817/http://www.jannah.org/sisters/aishah.html |archive-date=26 July 2011 |url-status=live }}
</ref> During Aisha's life many prominent customs of Islam, such as ]ing of women, began.

Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam.<ref name="Elsadda" /> Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected or wanted, to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in a war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.<ref name=ahmed51 />{{Additional citation needed|date=August 2016}}


===Role during caliphate=== ===Role during caliphate===


====Role during first and second caliphates==== ====Role during first and second caliphates====
After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the ] who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Aghaie|2005}} Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as a father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.<ref name=spellberg45>{{harvnb|Spellberg|1994|pp=4–5}}</ref> After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the ] who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Aghaie|2005}} Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as a father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=4–5}}


Aisha garnered more special privileges in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of ''al-siddiqa bint al-Siddiq'', meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man',{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=34–40}} a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the ].{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=33}} Aisha garnered more special privileges in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of ''al-siddiqa bint al-Siddiq'', meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man',{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=34–40}} a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the ].{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=33}}


In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Before his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=34–40}} Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=34–40}} In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Before his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=34–40}} Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|pp=34–40}}

====Role during the third caliphate====
After ‘Umar died, ‘Uthmān was chosen to be the third caliph. He wanted to promote the interests of the ]. Aisha had little involvement with ‘Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually, she found a way into the politics of his reign. She eventually grew to despise ‘Uthmān, and many are unsure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards him. A prominent opposition that arose towards him was when ‘Uthmān mistreated ‘] (companion of Muhammad) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly, saying, "How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!".{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=108}}

As time continued issues of antipathy towards ‘Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance of opposition arose when the people came to Aisha after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid ibn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other, Uthmān eventually commented on why Aisha had come and how she was "ordered to stay at home".{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=111}} Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha and for that matter women, still could be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split: "some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had a better right than Aisha in such matters".{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=111}}

The caliphate took a turn for the worse when ] was governed by ]. Abbott reports that ] of Egypt, an opponent of ‘Uthmān, forged letters in the Mothers of the Believers' names to the conspirators against ‘Uthmān. The people cut off ‘Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbott notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd "would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammad".{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=122}} This refers to when ] (one of Muhammad's wives) tried to help ‘Uthmān and was taken by the crowd. ] then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to "command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their ]";{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=122}} she also claimed she did not write the letters.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p=123}} The city continued to oppose ‘Uthmān, but as for Aisha, her journey to Mecca was approaching. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. ‘Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay because she influenced the people, but this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey.{{sfn|Abbott|1942|p={{pn|date=November 2022}}}}


===First Fitna=== ===First Fitna===
Line 103: Line 84:
{{legend|#5200FA|Region under the control of ] during the ]}}]] {{legend|#5200FA|Region under the control of ] during the ]}}]]


In 655, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the ].<ref>See: In 656, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the ].<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Lapidus|2002|p=47}} * {{harvnb|Lapidus|2002|p=47}}
* {{harvnb|Holt|1977|pp=70–72}} * {{harvnb|Holt|1977|pp=70–72}}
Line 109: Line 90:
* {{harvnb|al-Athir|1231|p=19}}P.19</ref> After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports.{{sfn|Holt|1977|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=107 & 111}} Ali reportedly initially refused the ], agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted. * {{harvnb|al-Athir|1231|p=19}}P.19</ref> After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports.{{sfn|Holt|1977|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=107 & 111}} Ali reportedly initially refused the ], agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted.


When Ali could not execute those merely accused of Uthman's murder, Aisha delivered a fiery speech against him for not avenging the death of Uthman. The first to respond to Aisha was Abdullah ibn Aamar al-Hadhrami, the governor of Mecca during the reign of Uthman, and prominent members of the ]. With the funds from the "Yemeni Treasury" Aisha set out on a campaign against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}} When Ali could not execute those merely accused of Uthman's murder, Aisha delivered a fiery speech against him for not avenging the death of Uthman. The first to respond to Aisha were Abdullah ibn Aamar al-Hadhrami, the governor of Mecca during the reign of Uthman, and prominent members of the ].


Aisha, along with an army including ] and ], confronted Ali's army, demanding the prosecution of Uthman's killers who had mingled with his army outside the city of ]. When her forces captured Basra she ordered the execution of 600 Muslims and 40 others, including Hakim ibn Jabala, who were put to death in the Grand Mosque of Basra.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KAL/48/3 |title=Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ayesha's Occupation of Basra (Hakim b Jabala) |publisher=Alim.org |access-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115083505/http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KAL/48/3%23 |archive-date=15 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="DrMI">{{cite journal | last1 = Ishaq | first1 = Mohammad | title = Hakim bin Jabala — An heroic personality of early islam |journal = Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society | volume = 3 | issue = 1 |date=1955 |pages=138–150}}</ref>{{sfn|Razwy|2001}} Aisha's forces are also known to have tortured and imprisoned ] a ] and the governor of Basra appointed by Ali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KAL/48/2 |title=Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ayesha's Occupation of Basra (War in Basra)|publisher=Alim.org |access-date=31 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115231717/http://www.alim.org/library/biography/khalifa/content/KAL/48/2|archive-date=15 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Aisha, along with an army including ] and ], confronted Ali's army, demanding the prosecution of Uthman's killers who had mingled with his army outside the city of ]. When her forces captured Basra she ordered the execution of 600 Muslims and 40 others, including Hakim ibn Jabala, who were put to death in the Grand Mosque of Basra.{{sfn|Ishaq|1955}}{{sfn|Razwy|2001}}
] ]


Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the ], after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a ] on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle,{{sfn|Glubb|1963|p=320}} considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims.<ref name="Goodwin">{{harvnb|Goodwin|1994}}</ref> Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the Battle of the Camel, after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a ] on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle,{{sfn|Glubb|1963|p=320}} considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims.{{sfn|Goodwin|1994}}


After 110 days of the conflict, Ali met Aisha with reconciliation. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother ], one of Ali's commanders. She subsequently retired to Medina with no more interference with the affairs of the state. She was also awarded a pension by Ali.<ref name="Caliphate, ch xxxv">{{harvnb|Muir|1892|p=261}}</ref> After 110 days of the conflict, Ali met Aisha with reconciliation. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother ], one of Ali's commanders. She subsequently retired to Medina with no more interference with the affairs of the state. She was also awarded a pension by Ali.{{sfn|Muir|1892|p=261}}


Although she retired to Medina, her forsaken efforts against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali did not end the First Fitna.{{sfn|Black|1994|p=34}} Although she retired to Medina, her forsaken efforts against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali did not end the First Fitna.{{sfn|Black|1994|p=34}}


===Contributions to Islam and influence=== ===Contributions to Islam and influence===
After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of ], marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsa's fathers, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb, respectively.<ref name="Aslan">{{harvnb|Aslan|2005|pp=58–136}}</ref> After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of ], marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's father, Abu Bakr, and Hafsa's father, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb.{{sfn|Aslan|2005|pp=58–136}}


Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. Being Muhammad's favorite wife, Aisha occupied an important position in his life.<ref name="Elsadda">{{harvnb|Elsadda|2001|pp=37–64}}</ref> When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."<ref name="Anwar">{{cite web|url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62 |title=History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life |publisher=Pacific News Service |work=Muslims Weekly |date=4 April 2005 |access-date=19 June 2012 |author=Anwar, Jawed |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114121/http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62 |archive-date=24 December 2013 }}</ref> After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of hadiths, due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.<ref name="Elsadda" /> Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.{{sfn|Geissinger|2011|pp=37–49}} Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. Being Muhammad's favorite wife after the late Khadija, Aisha occupied an important position in his life.{{sfn|Elsadda|2001}} When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."{{sfn|Anwar|2005}} After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of hadiths, due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.{{sfn|Elsadda|2001}} Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.{{sfn|Geissinger|2011|pp=37–49}}


According to ]:{{sfn|Aslan|2005|p=136}} According to ]:{{sfn|Aslan|2005|p=136}}
{{Blockquote|The so-called Muslim women's movement is predicated on the idea that Muslim men, not Islam, have been responsible for the suppression of women's rights. For this reason, Muslim feminists throughout the world are advocating a return to the society Muhammad originally envisioned for his followers. Despite differences in culture, nationalities, and beliefs, these women believe that the lesson to be learned from Muhammad in Medina is that Islam is above all an egalitarian religion. Their Medina is a society in which Muhammad designated women like Umm Waraqa as spiritual guides for the Ummah; in which the Prophet himself was sometimes publicly rebuked by his wives; in which women prayed and fought alongside the men; in which women like Aisha and Umm Salamah acted not only as religious but also as political—and on at least one occasion military—leaders; and in which the call to gather for prayer, bellowed from the rooftop of Muhammad's house, brought men and women together to kneel side by side and be blessed as a single undivided community.}} {{Blockquote|The so-called Muslim women's movement is predicated on the idea that Muslim men, not Islam, have been responsible for the suppression of women's rights. For this reason, Muslim feminists throughout the world are advocating a return to the society Muhammad originally envisioned for his followers. Despite differences in culture, nationalities, and beliefs, these women believe that the lesson to be learned from Muhammad in Medina is that Islam is above all an egalitarian religion. Their Medina is a society in which Muhammad designated women like Umm Waraqa as spiritual guides for the Ummah; in which the Prophet himself was sometimes publicly rebuked by his wives; in which women prayed and fought alongside the men; in which women like Aisha and Umm Salamah acted not only as religious but also as political—and on at least one occasion military—leaders; and in which the call to gather for prayer, bellowed from the rooftop of Muhammad's house, brought men and women together to kneel side by side and be blessed as a single undivided community.}}


Not only was Aisha supportive of Muhammad, but she contributed scholarly intellect to the development of Islam.<ref name="Anwar" /> She was given the title ''al-Siddiqah'', meaning 'the one who affirms the truth'. Aisha was known for her "...expertise in the Quran, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, ], ], Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine."<ref name="Anwar" /> Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.<ref name=ahmed4775>{{harvnb|Ahmed|1992|pp=47–75}}</ref> After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith.<ref name="Anwar" /> Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for the development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran.<ref name=ahmed51 /> Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|pp=47–75}} After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith.{{sfn|Anwar|2005}} Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for the development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran.{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|p=51}}

During Aisha's entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women, especially in law and the teachings of Islam. She was known for establishing the first '']'' for women in her home.<ref name="Anwar" />{{Additional citation needed|date=August 2016}} Attending Aisha's classes were various family relatives and orphaned children. Men also attended Aisha's classes, with a simple curtain separating the male and female students.<ref name="Anwar" />{{Additional citation needed|date=August 2016}}


===Political influence=== ===Political influence===
Spellberg argues that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}} Spellberg argues that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}}


After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}} Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Among the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions.{{sfn|Geissinger|2011|p=42}} Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the ], a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact those in Islam.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}} After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}} Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Among the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions.{{sfn|Geissinger|2011|p=42}} Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the ], a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact Muslims.{{sfn|Spellberg|1994|p=3}}


==Death== ==Death==
Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 ] 58 AH (16 July 678).{{efn|This is the generally accepted date, although the actual date of death is not known for certain.{{sfn|Haylamaz|2013|pp=192–193}}}} She was 67 years old.<ref name=Siddiqui>{{harvnb|Nasa'i|1994|p=108}}<br/>"‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya..."</ref> ] led her funeral prayer after the '']'' (night) prayer, and she was buried at ].{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|p=97}} Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 ] 58 AH (16 July 678).{{efn|This is the generally accepted date, although the actual date of death is not known for certain.{{sfn|Haylamaz|2013|pp=192–193}}}} She was 67 years old.<ref>{{harvnb|Nasa'i|1994|p=108}}<br/>"‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya..."</ref> ] led her funeral prayer after the {{Transliteration|ar|]}} (night) prayer, and she was buried at ].{{sfn|Ibn Kathir|p=97}}

==Views==

===Sunni view of Aisha===
Sunnis believe she was Muhammad's favorite wife after ]. They consider her (among other wives) to be ''Umm al-Mu’minin'' and among the members of the ], or Muhammad's family. According to Sunni hadith reports, Muhammad saw Aisha in two dreams<ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard Crandall|title=Islam: The Enemy|date=2008|publisher=Xulon Press|page=129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Kelly Bulkeley|author2=Kate Adams|author3=Patricia M. Davis|title=Dreaming in Christianity and Islam: Culture, Conflict, and Creativity|date=2009|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=9780813546100|page=87|chapter=6 (Dreaming in the Life of the Prophet Muhammad)}}</ref> in which he was shown that he would marry her.<ref>{{cite book|author1=M. Fethullah Gülen|author-link1=Fethullah Gülen|title=Questions and Answers About Islam Vol. 1|date=2014|publisher=Işık Yayıncılık Ticaret|isbn=9781597846189|quote=4.4 (Why Was The Prophet Polygamous?) This is surely why the Prophet was told in a dream that he would marry Aisha.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Book of Marriage |url=http://www.sahihalbukhari.com/sps/sbk/sahihalbukhari.cfm?scn=dspbookfull&BookID=62 |website=SahihalBukhari.Com |publisher=SalafiPublications.Comlocation=Hadeeth No. 4745 & 4787 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123211533/http://www.sahihalbukhari.com/sps/sbk/sahihalbukhari.cfm?scn=dspbookfull&BookID=62 |archive-date=23 November 2015 }}</ref>

===Shia view of Aisha===
{{main|Shia view of Aisha}}
The ] view Aisha is different than Sunni. They criticize her for opposing Ali during his caliphate in the ], when she fought men from Ali's army in ].<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.shiapen.com/comprehensive/ayesha/objections-to-shia-criticisms.html |title=Objections to the Shia criticisms leveled at Ayesha |publisher=Shiapen.com |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220084551/http://www.shiapen.com/comprehensive/ayesha/objections-to-shia-criticisms.html |archive-date=20 December 2013 |url-status=live }}
</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
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* ] * ]
* '']'' (fictional work based loosely on Aisha's existence) * '']'' (fictional work based loosely on Aisha's existence)
* ]
* ]
* ]


==References== ==References==
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===Sources=== ===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}} {{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite journal|last1=Aghaie|first1=Kamran Scot |title=The Origins of the Sunnite-Shiite Divide and the Emergence of the Ta'ziyeh Tradition|date=Winter 2005|doi=10.1162/105420405774763032|journal=]|volume=49|issue=4 (T188)|pages=42–47 |s2cid=57564760 }} * {{cite journal|last1=Aghaie|first1=Kamran Scot |title=The Origins of the Sunnite-Shiite Divide and the Emergence of the Ta'ziyeh Tradition|date=Winter 2005|doi=10.1162/105420405774763032|journal=]|volume=49|issue=4 (T188)|pages=42–47 |s2cid=57564760 }}
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* {{cite book|last1=al-Athir|first1=Ali ibn|author1-link=Ali ibn al-Athir|title=The Complete History|year=1231|volume=2|title-link=The Complete History}} * {{cite book|last1=al-Athir|first1=Ali ibn|author1-link=Ali ibn al-Athir|title=The Complete History|year=1231|volume=2|title-link=The Complete History}}
* {{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|author1-link=Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|title=Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk|trans-title=History of the Prophets and Kings|title-link=History of the Prophets and Kings}} * {{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|author1-link=Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|title=Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk|trans-title=History of the Prophets and Kings|title-link=History of the Prophets and Kings}}
** {{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The Foundation of The Community|translator1=]|translator2=M. V. McDonald|volume=7|language=ar |url=http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1094745.files/Tabari%20Vol%207-8.pdf|year=1987 |publisher=]|isbn=978-0887063442|access-date=10 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519212015/http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1094745.files/Tabari%20Vol%207-8.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|url-status=dead}} ** {{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The Foundation of The Community|translator1=]|translator2=M. V. McDonald|volume=7|language=ar|url=http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1094745.files/Tabari%20Vol%207-8.pdf|year=1987|publisher=]|isbn=978-0887063442|access-date=10 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519212015/http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1094745.files/Tabari%20Vol%207-8.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|url-status=dead}}
** {{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The Last Years of the Prophet|translator=] |language=ar|url=http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1094745.files/Tabari%20Vol%209.pdf|year=1990 |publisher=]|isbn=978-0887066917|volume=9}}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ** {{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The Last Years of the Prophet|translator=]|language=ar|url=http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1094745.files/Tabari%20Vol%209.pdf|year=1990|publisher=]|isbn=978-0887066917|volume=9}}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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*{{Cite book |last=Ali |first=Kecia |title=The lives of Muhammad |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2014 |isbn=9780674050600 |location=Harvard |pages=133, 155–199 |language=en |chapter=Mother of the Faithful |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zyh9BAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book|last1=Ali|first1=Muhammad|author1-link=Muhammad Ali (writer)|title=Muhammad the Prophet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=od6dAQKgK-YC&pg=PT150|year=1997|publisher=Ahamadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam|isbn=978-0913321072}} * {{cite book|last1=Ali|first1=Muhammad|author1-link=Muhammad Ali (writer)|title=Muhammad the Prophet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=od6dAQKgK-YC&pg=PT150|year=1997|publisher=Ahamadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam|isbn=978-0913321072}}
* {{cite web |last=Anwar |first=Jawed |url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62 |title=History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life |work=Muslims Weekly |date=4 April 2005 |access-date=19 June 2012 |via=New America Media |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114121/http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62 |archive-date=24 December 2013 |url-status=usurped }}
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* {{cite book|last1=Aslan|first1=Reza|author1-link=Reza Aslan|title=No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam|year=2005|publisher=]|isbn=978-0385739757|location=New York|title-link=No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam}} * {{cite book|last1=Aslan|first1=Reza|author1-link=Reza Aslan|title=No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam|year=2005|publisher=]|isbn=978-0385739757|location=New York|title-link=No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bahramian |first=Ali |editor-last=Madelung |editor-first=Wilferd |year=2015 |title=ʿĀʾisha |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0235}}
* {{cite book|last1=Barlas|first1=Asma|author1-link=Asma Barlas|title=Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0292709041|title-link=Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an}}
* {{cite book|last1=Barlas|first1=Asma|author1-link=Asma Barlas|title=Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0292709041|title-link=Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an}} Read pages , , , and online.
* {{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Edwin|author1-link=Edwin Black|title=Banking on Baghdad: Inside Iraq's 7,000-year History of War, Profit, and Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVScQYzhx5oC&q=Ali+20,000+battle+of+the+camel&pg=PA34|year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-0914153122|access-date=31 December 2013}} * {{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Edwin|author1-link=Edwin Black|title=Banking on Baghdad: Inside Iraq's 7,000-year History of War, Profit, and Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVScQYzhx5oC&q=Ali+20,000+battle+of+the+camel&pg=PA34|year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-0914153122|access-date=31 December 2013}}
* {{cite book|last1=Brockelmann|first1=Carl|author1-link=Carl Brockelmann|title=Geschichte der Islamischen Volker und Staaten|trans-title=History of the Islamic Peoples, with a Review of Events, 1939–1947 |translator=Joel Carmichael and Moshe Perlmann|language=de|year=1947|publisher=]}} * {{cite book|last1=Brockelmann|first1=Carl|author1-link=Carl Brockelmann|title=Geschichte der Islamischen Volker und Staaten|trans-title=History of the Islamic Peoples, with a Review of Events, 1939–1947 |translator=Joel Carmichael and Moshe Perlmann|language=de|year=1947|publisher=]}}
*{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Jonathan A.C. |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |publisher=] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1780744209 |pages=142–148 |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow}} *{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Jonathan A.C. |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |publisher=] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1780744209 |pages=142–148 |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Elsadda|first1=Hoda |author-link1=Hoda Elsadda|title=Discourses on Women's Biographies and Cultural Identity: Twentieth-Century Representations of the Life of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr|date=Spring 2001|jstor=3178448|journal=]|volume=27|issue=1|pages=37–64 |doi=10.2307/3178448 }} * {{cite journal|last1=Elsadda|first1=Hoda |author-link1=Hoda Elsadda|title=Discourses on Women's Biographies and Cultural Identity: Twentieth-Century Representations of the Life of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr|date=Spring 2001|jstor=3178448|journal=]|volume=27|issue=1|pages=37–64 |doi=10.2307/3178448 |hdl=2027/spo.0499697.0027.105|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=John L.|author-link1=John Esposito |title=A'ishah in the Islamic World: Past and Present |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e14 |access-date=12 November 2012 |journal=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904081445/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e14?_hi=2&_pos=1 |archive-date=4 September 2018 |url-status=dead |date=2004a}} * {{cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |author-link1=John Esposito |title=A'ishah in the Islamic World: Past and Present |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e14 |access-date=12 November 2012 |journal=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904081445/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e14?_hi=2&_pos=1 |archive-date=4 September 2018 |url-status=dead |date=2004a }}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |year=2004b |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |pages=101}} * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |year=2004b |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |pages=101 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Geissinger|first1=Aisha|title='A'isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition|date=January 2011|journal=Religion Compass|volume=5|issue=1|pages=37–49|doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00260.x}} * {{cite journal|last1=Geissinger|first1=Aisha|title='A'isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition|date=January 2011|journal=Religion Compass|volume=5|issue=1|pages=37–49|doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00260.x}}
* {{cite book|last1=Glubb|first1=John Bagot|author1-link=John Bagot Glubb|title=The Great Arab Conquests|year=1963|publisher=]|isbn=978-0340009383}} * {{cite book|last1=Glubb|first1=John Bagot|author1-link=John Bagot Glubb|title=The Great Arab Conquests|year=1963|publisher=]|isbn=978-0340009383}}
* {{cite book|last1=Goodwin|first1=Jan|author1-link=Jan Goodwin|title=Price of Honor: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Islamic World|url=https://archive.org/details/priceofhonormusl00good|url-access=registration |year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-0452283770}} * {{cite book|last1=Goodwin|first1=Jan|author1-link=Jan Goodwin|title=Price of Honor: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Islamic World|url=https://archive.org/details/priceofhonormusl00good|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-0452283770}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |date=1999 |title=The Authenticity of Prophetic Ḥadîth: A Pseudo-Problem |journal=Studia Islamica |issue=89 |pages=75–90 |doi=10.2307/1596086 |jstor=1596086 |issn=0585-5292}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haykal|first1=Muhammad Husayn|author1-link=Muhammad Husayn Haykal|title=The Life of Muhammad|translator=Isma'il Ragi Al-Faruqi|language=ar|year=1976|publisher=]|isbn=978-0892591374}} * {{cite book|last1=Haykal|first1=Muhammad Husayn|author1-link=Muhammad Husayn Haykal|title=The Life of Muhammad|translator=Isma'il Ragi Al-Faruqi|language=ar|year=1976|publisher=]|isbn=978-0892591374}}
* {{cite book |last=Haylamaz |first=Resit |title=Aisha: The Wife, The Companion, The Scholar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxVRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |date=1 March 2013 |publisher=Tughra Books |isbn=9781597846554}} * {{cite book |last=Haylamaz |first=Resit |title=Aisha: The Wife, The Companion, The Scholar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxVRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |date=1 March 2013 |publisher=Tughra Books |isbn=9781597846554 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Peter Malcolm |editor1-first=Peter Malcolm |editor1-last=Holt |editor2-first=Ann K. S. |editor2-last=Lambton |editor2-link=Ann Lambton |editor3-first=Bernard |editor3-last=Lewis |editor3-link=Bernard Lewis |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2A |year=1977 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |pages=327–344 |chapter=The Nilotic Sudan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA327}} * {{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Peter Malcolm |editor1-first=Peter Malcolm |editor1-last=Holt |editor2-first=Ann K. S. |editor2-last=Lambton |editor2-link=Ann Lambton |editor3-first=Bernard |editor3-last=Lewis |editor3-link=Bernard Lewis |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2A |year=1977 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |pages=327–344 |chapter=The Nilotic Sudan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA327 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Ibn Ishaq|author1-link=Ibn Ishaq|title=Sirat Rasul Allah|trans-title=The Life of Muhammad|translator=]|year=1955|publisher=Oxford University|isbn=978-0196360348 |language=ar |url=https://archive.org/details/TheLifeOfMohammedGuillaume}} * {{cite book|last1=Ibn Ishaq|author1-link=Ibn Ishaq|title=Sirat Rasul Allah|trans-title=The Life of Muhammad|translator=]|year=1955|publisher=Oxford University|isbn=978-0196360348|language=ar|url=https://archive.org/details/TheLifeOfMohammedGuillaume}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ishaq |first1=Mohammad |title=Hakim bin Jabala — An heroic personality of early islam |journal=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=1955 |pages=138–150}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ibn Kathir|author1-link=Ibn Kathir|title=Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya|trans-title=The Beginning and the End |language=ar|chapter=book 4, chapter 7|title-link=Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya}} * {{cite book|last1=Ibn Kathir|author1-link=Ibn Kathir|title=Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya|trans-title=The Beginning and the End |language=ar|chapter=book 4, chapter 7|title-link=Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ibn Sa'd|author1-link=Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi|title=Women of Madina|translator=Aisha Bewley|language=ar|year=1995|publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers|isbn=978-1897940242|volume=8}} * {{cite book|last1=Ibn Sa'd|author1-link=Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi|title=Women of Madina|translator=Aisha Bewley|language=ar|year=1995|publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers|isbn=978-1897940242|volume=8}}
* {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Volume 5 – Practices, Interpretations and Representations|editor1-last=Joseph|editor1-first=Suad|editor-link=Suad Joseph|year=2007 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004132474|title-link=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures}} * {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Volume 5 – Practices, Interpretations and Representations|editor1-last=Joseph|editor1-first=Suad|editor-link=Suad Joseph|year=2007 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004132474|title-link=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Lings|first1=Martin|author1-link=Martin Lings|title=Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources|url=https://archive.org/details/MartinLings-MuhammadHisLifeBasedOnTheEarliestSources |year=1983|publisher=]|isbn=978-1594771538}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2114 |title=Arabs in history |year=1950 }}
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* {{cite book|last1=Madelung|first1=Wilferd|author1-link=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad|year=1997|publisher=]|isbn=978-0521646963|title-link=The Succession to Muhammad (book)}} * {{cite book|last1=Madelung|first1=Wilferd|author1-link=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad|year=1997|publisher=]|isbn=978-0521646963|title-link=The Succession to Muhammad (book)}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Mernissi|first1=Fatema|author1-link=Fatema Mernissi|trans-title=The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation Of Women's Rights In Islam|translator=Mary Jo Lakeland|title=Le Harem Politique |language=fr|year=1988|publisher=]|isbn=978-0201632217|url=https://archive.org/details/veilmaleelite00mern}} * {{cite book|last1=Mernissi|first1=Fatema|author1-link=Fatema Mernissi|trans-title=The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation Of Women's Rights In Islam|translator=Mary Jo Lakeland|title=Le Harem Politique|language=fr|year=1988|publisher=]|isbn=978-0201632217|url=https://archive.org/details/veilmaleelite00mern}}
* {{cite book|last1=Muir|first1=William|author1-link=William Muir|title=The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline And Fall from Original Sources|url=https://archive.org/details/caliphateitsris00muirgoog|year=1892 |publisher=]}} * {{cite book|last1=Muir|first1=William|author1-link=William Muir|title=The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline And Fall from Original Sources|url=https://archive.org/details/caliphateitsris00muirgoog|year=1892|publisher=]}}
* {{cite book |title=Sunan Nasa'i: English translation with Arabic Text |editor-first=Imam Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Ahmad |editor-last=Nasa'i |translator-first= Muhammad Iqbal |translator-last=Siddiqui |publisher=Kazi Publication |location=Lahore |year=1994 |volume=1}} * {{cite book |title=Sunan Nasa'i: English translation with Arabic Text |editor-first=Imam Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Ahmad |editor-last=Nasa'i |translator-first= Muhammad Iqbal |translator-last=Siddiqui |publisher=Kazi Publication |location=Lahore |year=1994 |volume=1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ramadan|first1=Tariq|author1-link=Tariq Ramadan|title= In The Footsteps of The Prophet|url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-530880-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |date=29 January 2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11074-9 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Ramadan|first1=Tariq|author1-link=Tariq Ramadan|title=In The Footsteps of The Prophet|url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-530880-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Razwy|first1=Ali Ashgar|title=A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims|url=http://www.al-islam.org/restatement-history-islam-and-muslims-sayyid-ali-ashgar-razwy|year=2001|publisher=World Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Muslim Communities|isbn=978-0950987910|chapter=The Battle of Basra (the battle of Camel)|chapter-url=http://www.al-islam.org/restatement-history-islam-and-muslims-sayyid-ali-ashgar-razwy/battle-basra-battle-camel}} * {{cite book|last1=Razwy|first1=Ali Ashgar|title=A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims|url=http://www.al-islam.org/restatement-history-islam-and-muslims-sayyid-ali-ashgar-razwy|year=2001|publisher=World Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Muslim Communities|isbn=978-0950987910|chapter=The Battle of Basra (the battle of Camel)|chapter-url=http://www.al-islam.org/restatement-history-islam-and-muslims-sayyid-ali-ashgar-razwy/battle-basra-battle-camel}}
* {{cite book|last1=Roded|first1=Ruth|title=Women in Islamic Biographical Collections: From Ibn Sa'd to Who's Who |year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-1555874421}} * {{cite book|last1=Roded|first1=Ruth|title=Women in Islamic Biographical Collections: From Ibn Sa'd to Who's Who |year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-1555874421}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Saeed |first=Abdullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Y8dBUO5FAIC |title=The Qur'an: An Introduction |date=2008-01-15 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-10294-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Saeed |first=Abdullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Y8dBUO5FAIC |title=The Qur'an: An Introduction |date=2008-01-15 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-10294-5 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Shaikh|first1=Sa‘diyya |title=Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World |year=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference|isbn=978-0028656038}} * {{cite book|last1=Shaikh|first1=Sa‘diyya |title=Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World |year=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference|isbn=978-0028656038}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|first=Amira|last=Sonbol|title=Rise of Islam: 6th to 9th century |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopedia-of-women-and-islamic-cultures |editor1-last=Joseph|editor1-first=Suad |editor-link=Suad Joseph|year=2003|publisher=] |isbn=978-9004113800|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures|url-access=subscription |volume=1}} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Amira|last=Sonbol|title=Rise of Islam: 6th to 9th century |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopedia-of-women-and-islamic-cultures |editor1-last=Joseph|editor1-first=Suad |editor-link=Suad Joseph|year=2003|publisher=] |isbn=978-9004113800|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures|url-access=subscription |volume=1}}
*{{Cite book |last=Wherry |first=E. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Wa4Zt1szLUC |title=A Comprehensive Commentary on the Quran: Comprising Sale's Translation and Preliminary Discourse: Volume IV |date=2013-07-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-39281-8 |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last1=Spellberg|first1=Denise|author1-link=Denise Spellberg|title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr|year=1994|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231079990 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsgenderis0000spel |via=archive.org |url-access=subscription}}
*{{Cite book |last=Bagley |first=F. R. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cu8SP9mMYosC |title=Twenty-three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad |date=2013-02-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-03041-4 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hekmat |first=Anwar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdTXAAAAMAAJ |title=Women and the Koran: The Status of Women in Islam |date=1997 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-57392-162-6 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Diane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6oHDEAAAQBAJ |title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice |date=12 November 2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-36026-8 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Irving |first=Washington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-4f5m2oHlcC |title=Mohammed |date=2007 |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |isbn=978-1-84022-573-0 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hassan |first=Riaz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QErrlgEACAAJ |title=Islam and Society: Sociological Explorations |date=2013 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-522-86256-0 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume VI (Mahk-Mid): |date=1991 |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/1956 |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=C. E. |access-date=20 Dec 2023 |publisher=Brill |language=en |editor2-last=Donzel |editor2-first=E. van |editor3-last=Lewis |editor3-first= B. |editor4-last=Pellat |editor4-first=Ch.|isbn=978-90-04-08112-3| ref = {{harvid|Bosworth et al.|1991}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Spellberg|first1=Denise|author1-link=Denise Spellberg|title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr|year=1994|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231079990|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsgenderis0000spel|via=archive.org|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Spellberg |first=Denise A. |title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-231-07999-0 |author-link=Denise Spellberg}} * {{Cite book |last=Spellberg |first=Denise A. |title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-231-07999-0 |author-link=Denise Spellberg}}
* {{Cite book|last=Sayeed|first=Asma|date=6 August 2013|title=Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107031586}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tabatabaei|first1=Muhammad Husayn|title=Shi'ite Islam|translator=]|language=ar|year=1979|publisher=]|isbn=978-0873952729}} * {{cite book|last1=Tabatabaei|first1=Muhammad Husayn|title=Shi'ite Islam|translator=]|language=ar|year=1979|publisher=]|isbn=978-0873952729}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vaglieri|first1=Laura Veccia|author1-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|editor1-first=Peter M.|editor1-last=Holt|editor-link1=Peter M. Holt|editor2-last=Lambton|editor2-first=Ann|editor2-link=Ann Lambton|editor3-last=Lewis|editor3-first=Bernard|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|year=1977|publisher=]|isbn=978-1139055024 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521219464|volume=1|chapter=4}} * {{cite book|last1=Vaglieri|first1=Laura Veccia|author1-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|editor1-first=Peter M.|editor1-last=Holt|editor-link1=Peter M. Holt|editor2-last=Lambton|editor2-first=Ann|editor2-link=Ann Lambton|editor3-last=Lewis|editor3-first=Bernard|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|year=1977|publisher=]|isbn=978-1139055024 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521219464|volume=1|chapter=4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=William Montgomery|author1-link=William Montgomery Watt|title=ʿĀʾis̲h̲a Bint Abī Bakr|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/aisha-bint-abi-bakr-SIM_0440 |year=1960|publisher=] Online|isbn=978-9004161214|edition=2nd}} * {{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=William Montgomery|author1-link=William Montgomery Watt|title=ʿĀʾis̲h̲a Bint Abī Bakr|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/aisha-bint-abi-bakr-SIM_0440|year=1960|publisher=] Online|isbn=978-9004161214|edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=William Montgomery|author1-link=William Montgomery Watt|title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman|year=1961|publisher=]|isbn=978-0198810780 |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt}} * {{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=William Montgomery|author1-link=William Montgomery Watt|title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman|year=1961|publisher=]|isbn=978-0198810780|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt}}
{{refend}} {{refend}}


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
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Latest revision as of 23:30, 23 December 2024

Muhammad's third wife (c. 613/614 – 678) For other uses, see Aisha (given name) and Aisha (disambiguation).

Aisha
Mother of the Believers
عائشة
Bornc. 613/614
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Diedc. July 678 (aged 63–65)
Medina, Umayyad Caliphate (present-day Saudi Arabia)
Resting placeAl-Baqi Cemetery, Medina
SpouseMuhammad (m. 620; died 632)
Parent(s)Abu Bakr (father)
Umm Ruman (mother)
Family

Aisha bint Abi Bakr (c. 613/614 CE – July 678) was a sixth century commander, politician, muhadditha, and the third and youngest wife of prophet Muhammad.

Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. In Sunni tradition, Aisha is portrayed as scholarly, intelligent and inquisitive. She contributed to the spread of Muhammad's message and served the Muslim community for 44 years after his death.

Aisha narrated 2,210 hadiths throughout her life, not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as inheritance, pilgrimage, prayer, and eschatology. Her intellect and knowledge in various subjects, including poetry and medicine, were highly praised by early scholars and luminaries such as al-Zuhri and her student Urwa ibn al-Zubayr.

Her father, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), became the first caliph to succeed Muhammad, and after two years was succeeded by Umar (r. 634–644). Aisha played a leading role in opposing some policies of the third caliph Uthman (r. 644–656), though she also opposed those responsible for his assassination. She refused to recognize Uthman's successor Ali (r. 656–661) and joined al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah. She was defeated in Battle of the Camel during the First Fitna, after which she retired in Medina, became reconciled to Ali and did not oppose caliph Mu'awiya (r. 661–680). She participated in the Battle of the Camel by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel. Because of her involvement in this battle, Shia Muslims have a generally negative view of Aisha despite her subsequent reconciliation with Ali. In Sunni Islam, Aisha is viewed as a leading Islamic scholar and a teacher of several companions and the tabi'in.

Early life

Aisha was born in Mecca c. 613–614. She was the daughter of Abu Bakr and Umm Ruman, two of Muhammad's most trusted companions. No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years. Some classical sources converge on Aisha being six or seven years old at the time of her marriage, which followed a failed engagement with another man, and nine at the consummation. The age has been contested, however, and is a source of disagreement.

Marriage and Consummation

Before her engagement to Muhammad, Aisha was engaged to Mutʿim ibn ʿAdi's son Jubayr ibn Mut'im, an early opponent of Islam, at the age of five, following the custom of early marriage in sixth-century Arabia. The engagement failed due to concerns from Aisha's family. According to Sahih al-Bukhari, Aisha was then engaged to Muhammad a year later at six years of age. Some Islamic sources of the classical era list Aisha's age as six at the time of engagement and nine or ten at its consummation; other scholars contest this age due to inconsistencies in narrations about her youth. Muhammad said that he had twice seen Aisha in his dreams, being carried in a silk cloth by an angel who told him that she would be his wife; he concluded that if the dreams were from God, they would come true. Following the death of his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, his aunt Khawlah bint Hakim suggested that he marry Aisha. Aisha's father Abu Bakr was at first unsure about marrying his daughter to Muhammad; he thought they were brothers. Muhammad clarified that they were merely brothers in religion, and it was legal for him to marry Aisha. Aisha's engagement to Jubayr was then annulled. Orientalist W. Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr; the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.

Ibn Sa'd's biography holds her age at the time of marriage as between six and seven, and gives her age at consummation to be nine while Ibn Hisham's biography of Muhammad suggests she may have been ten years old at consummation. Al-Tabari notes Aisha to have stayed with her parents after the marriage and consummated the relationship at nine years of age since she was young and sexually immature at the time of marriage; however, elsewhere Tabari appears to suggest that she was born during the Jahiliyyah (before 610 CE), which would translate to an age of about twelve or more at marriage.

All extant hadiths agree that Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca but the marriage was consummated only in the month of Shawwal after his hijrah to Medina (April 623). Some classical sources have Aisha speak of the marriage to have been executed in Medina itself without reference to any delay.

In Islamic literature, the young age of her marriage did not draw any significant discourse; nonetheless, Spellberg and Ali find the very mention of her age to be atypical of early Muslim biographers, and hypothesize a connotation to her religious purity. Her age did not interest later Muslim scholars either, and went unremarked-upon even by medieval and early-modern Christian polemicists. Early Orientalist writers, even in their condescending approach towards Muhammad and Islam, were primarily concerned with Muhammad's embrace of polygamy and the ethics of marrying for political causes; the few who discussed Aisha's age chose to explain the age-gap by citing the contemporary understanding of the Orient as a hot place, that promulgated sexually deviant practices.

Beginning in the late nineteenth century, with the East and its alleged immoralities subject to increasing opprobrium, the colonizing powers sought to regulate the age of consent. As such efforts ran into conflicts with local forms of Sharia, Aisha's age at marriage — and the involved Prophetic precedent — became the predominant explanation in explaining "the backwardness of Muslim societies and their reticence to reforms." In response, some Muslims chose to align themselves with the projects of modernization and re-calculated her age — using deft stratagems of omission and commission — to fix it at early adolescence, but conservatives rejected such revisionist readings since they flew in the face of ʻilm al-ḥadīth.

Criticism of Aisha's age, which was standard for marriages in sixth-century Arabia, has prompted many modern Muslim scholars to contextualize the traditionally accepted age of Aisha with renewed vigor emphasizing cultural relativism, anachronism, the political dimensions of the marriage, Aisha's non-ordinary physique etc. Since the late-twentieth century, polemicists have used Aisha's age to accuse Muhammad of pedophilia and to explain a reported higher prevalence of child marriage in Muslim societies.

Personal life

Relationship with Muhammad

Muhammad and Aisha freeing the daughter of a tribal chief

In most Muslim traditions, Khadija bint Khuwaylid is described as Muhammad's most beloved and favored wife; Sunni tradition places Aisha as second only to Khadija. There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, "who is the person you love most in the world?" he responded, "Aisha." Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha's apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque, and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations. They bathed in the same water, and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him.

Various traditions reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion, he would even join them. "Aisha must have felt reasonably equal to and unawed by this prophet of God, for his announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed other men drew from her the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'" Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship. Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her.

The Necklace Incident

Main article: The Necklace Incident

When Muhammad and his followers carried out a raid on the Banu Mustaliq tribe, he brought along Aisha, who was 13 years old at the time. She was carried in a closed litter on the back of a camel. Aisha recounted that when the raiding party was resting at night on the way home to Medina from the successful operation, she went out to relieve herself. After doing so and returning to her litter, she realized that her necklace was missing, so she traced her way back to look for it. By the time she found it, the convoy had already left, thinking she was in the litter. Assuming that they would notice her absence and return to look for her, Aisha decided to stay where she was.

Aisha related that Safwan ibn Muattal, a young Muslim from the raiding party, had lagged behind for some reason. On his solo return journey to Medina, he came across Aisha sleeping on the ground by herself. He addressed her, let her ride on his camel while he guided it, and escorted her home to Medina. It was not until the morning that Muhammad's convoy realized that Aisha was not in her litter. And later, when they were taking a break from the hot midday sun, Aisha and Safwan ran into them. A rumor accusing Aisha of committing adultery with Safwan was spread by Abdullah Ibn Ubayy Ibn Salool. Moreover, it was said that she had conversed with him several times before. This rumor of adultery, if true, could have led to Aisha being stoned to death.

Upon their arrival in Medina, Aisha fell ill and sensed that Muhammad was uncharacteristically cold toward her. She only learned of the rumor some three weeks later when Umm Mistah told her on their way back from defecating in an open field at night, as was customary for Muslim women at that time. Aisha subsequently went to her mother, asking what the people were talking about, and she replied, "Daughter, be at peace, for I swear by God that no beautiful woman is married to a man who has other wives, but that these other wives would find fault with her." So Aisha cried all night long.

Muhammad, despite his fondness for Aisha, was unsure of her innocence. He asked Usama ibn Zayd and Ali for their opinions. Usama vouched for Aisha's innocence, but Ali said, "Women abound; you can easily find a substitute. Ask her slave; she might reveal the truth." When the slave girl arrived, Ali beat her severely and said, "Mind you tell the apostle the truth." But her answer was that she knew only good things about Aisha, with the single exception that when Aisha was entrusted with watching over a dough, she dozed off and allowed a sheep to eat it.

Muhammad later visited Aisha at her parents' house and advised her to confess if she had sinned, as God was merciful towards those who seek repentance. It had been more than a month since Aisha had returned alone with Safwan. Despite Muhammad's advice, Aisha refused to apologize as it would indicate guilt. She told Muhammad that she could find no better parallel for her current situation than that of Joseph's father, who had endured disbelief despite telling the truth and had no other choice but to remain patient. Shortly thereafter, Muhammad experienced a trance and received verses (Quran 24:11–15) that confirmed Aisha's innocence.

Death of Muhammad

Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in Aisha's arms.

Political career

Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam. Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected or wanted to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in a war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.

Role during caliphate

Role during first and second caliphates

After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shia who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as a father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.

Aisha garnered more special privileges in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of al-siddiqa bint al-Siddiq, meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man', a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the Isra and Mi'raj.

In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Before his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph. Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.

First Fitna

Main article: Battle of the Camel
Domains of Rashidun Caliphate under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna.   Strongholds of the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna   Region under the control of Muawiyah I during the First Fitna   Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during the First Fitna

In 656, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the First Fitna. After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports. Ali reportedly initially refused the caliphate, agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted.

When Ali could not execute those merely accused of Uthman's murder, Aisha delivered a fiery speech against him for not avenging the death of Uthman. The first to respond to Aisha were Abdullah ibn Aamar al-Hadhrami, the governor of Mecca during the reign of Uthman, and prominent members of the Banu Umayya.

Aisha, along with an army including al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, confronted Ali's army, demanding the prosecution of Uthman's killers who had mingled with his army outside the city of Basra. When her forces captured Basra she ordered the execution of 600 Muslims and 40 others, including Hakim ibn Jabala, who were put to death in the Grand Mosque of Basra.

Aisha battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel

Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the Battle of the Camel, after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a howdah on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle, considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims.

After 110 days of the conflict, Ali met Aisha with reconciliation. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of Ali's commanders. She subsequently retired to Medina with no more interference with the affairs of the state. She was also awarded a pension by Ali.

Although she retired to Medina, her forsaken efforts against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali did not end the First Fitna.

Contributions to Islam and influence

After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of polygyny, marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's father, Abu Bakr, and Hafsa's father, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb.

Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. Being Muhammad's favorite wife after the late Khadija, Aisha occupied an important position in his life. When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women." After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of hadiths, due to her qualities of intelligence and memory. Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.

According to Reza Aslan:

The so-called Muslim women's movement is predicated on the idea that Muslim men, not Islam, have been responsible for the suppression of women's rights. For this reason, Muslim feminists throughout the world are advocating a return to the society Muhammad originally envisioned for his followers. Despite differences in culture, nationalities, and beliefs, these women believe that the lesson to be learned from Muhammad in Medina is that Islam is above all an egalitarian religion. Their Medina is a society in which Muhammad designated women like Umm Waraqa as spiritual guides for the Ummah; in which the Prophet himself was sometimes publicly rebuked by his wives; in which women prayed and fought alongside the men; in which women like Aisha and Umm Salamah acted not only as religious but also as political—and on at least one occasion military—leaders; and in which the call to gather for prayer, bellowed from the rooftop of Muhammad's house, brought men and women together to kneel side by side and be blessed as a single undivided community.

Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam. After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith. Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for the development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran.

Political influence

Spellberg argues that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death.

After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher. Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Among the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions. Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact Muslims.

Death

Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 Ramadan 58 AH (16 July 678). She was 67 years old. Abu Hurayra led her funeral prayer after the tahajjud (night) prayer, and she was buried at al-Baqi cemetery.

See also

References

Notes

  1. /ˈɑːiːʃɑː/ AH-ee-shah, US also /-ʃə, aɪˈiːʃə/ -⁠shə, eye-EE-shə; Arabic: عائشة بنت أبي بكر, romanizedʿĀʾisha bint Abī Bakr, pronounced [ˈʕaːʔiʃa]. Like other wives of Muhammad, her name is sometimes prefixed by the honorific "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين, romanized: ʾumm al-muʾminīn).
  2. Ibn Sa'd notes Aisha to have boasted of her being the only virgin-wife before Muhammad himself.
  3. Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad in Egypt and others
  4. Ali finds an exception in "traditional S. Asian biographers" who maintain outright frankness in noting the "practicalities" of marrying a virgin girl.
  5. Ali notes the polarizing environment to have prompted even scholars and popular authors from the West to incorporate apologetics premised on anachronism and political implications, often at the cost of historical accuracy.
  6. This is the generally accepted date, although the actual date of death is not known for certain.

Citations

  1. Spellberg 1994, p. 157.
  2. "Aisha". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  3. "Aisha". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  4. "Āishah". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  5. Quran 33:6
  6. Brockelmann 1947.
  7. ^ Abbott 1942, p. .
  8. "Aisha, Widow of the Prophet Muhammad, at the Battle of the Camel, from a dispersed Assembly of Histories (Majma' al-Tawarikh) manuscript | Yale University Art Gallery". artgallery.yale.edu. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  9. Spellberg, D. A. (February 1995). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha bint Abi Bakr. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-07998-3.
  10. "Gendering the Hadith Tradition Recentering the Authority of Aisha, Mother of the Believers". campusstore.miamioh.edu. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  11. ^ Esposito 2004a.
  12. ^ Spellberg 1994, p. 3.
  13. Aleem 2007, p. 130.
  14. Islamyat: a core text for students.
  15. ^ Sayeed 2013, pp. 27–29.
  16. ^ Watt 1960.
  17. Abbott 1942, p. 1.
  18. Ibn Sa'd 1995, p. 55
    "Aisha was born at the beginning of the fourth year of prophethood"
    i.e., the year 613–614
  19. Watt 1961, p. 102.
  20. Abbott 1942, p. 7.
  21. Spellberg 1996, pp. 39–40.
  22. "Misunderstanding About Ayesha's Age When She Married Prophet". Arab News. 13 July 2007. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  23. ^ Spellberg 1994, p. 39.
  24. "On the Age of A'isha when she married Prophet Muhammad". The Association of British Muslims. 27 October 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2024.
  25. Ali, Rashad (30 June 2023). "Why Scholars of Islam Disagree About the Age of the Prophet Muhammad's Youngest Wife". New Lines Magazine. Retrieved 3 December 2024.
  26. "The Age of Aisha (ra): Rejecting Historical Revisionism and Modernist Presumptions". Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  27. Leaman 2005, p. 22.
  28. Neil 2021, p. 144.
  29. Samadi 2021, p. 72.
  30. ^ Abbott 1942, p. 3.
  31. Samadi 2021, p. 73.
  32. Turner 2003, p. 52.
  33. Sonbol 2003, pp. 3–9.
  34. ^ Spellberg 1994, p. 40.
  35. Spellberg 1994, p. 197-198 (Note 4).
  36. Ali 2014, p. 189-190.
  37. ^ Bahramian 2015.
  38. Ali 2014, p. 157-158.
  39. Ali 2014, p. 158.
  40. Ali 2014, p. 158-159, 161-162.
  41. Ali 2014, p. 164-165.
  42. Ali 2014, p. 172.
  43. Ali 2014, p. 167-168, 170-171.
  44. Brown 2014.
  45. Sulaimani, Faryal (1986). "The Changing Position of Women in Arabia Under Islam in the Early 7th Century". University of Salford. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
  46. Ali 2014, p. 173.
  47. Ali 2014, p. 173, 175-178.
  48. Ali 2014, p. 174, 188-189.
  49. Ali 2014, p. 187, 190-191.
  50. ^ Ahmed 1992, p. 51.
  51. Roded 1994, p. 36.
  52. Roded 2008, p. 23.
  53. Joseph 2007, p. 227.
  54. McAuliffe 2001, p. 55.
  55. Mernissi 1988, p. 65.
  56. Mernissi 1988, p. 107.
  57. Abbott 1942, p. 25.
  58. Roded 1994, p. 28.
  59. Abbott 1942, p. 46.
  60. Shaikh 2003, p. 33.
  61. Abbott 1942, p. 8.
  62. Lings 1983, pp. 133–134.
  63. Haykal 1976, pp. 183–184.
  64. Ahmed 1992, pp. 51–52.
  65. Mernissi 1988, p. 104.
  66. Mernissi 1988, p. 78.
  67. Ramadan 2007, p. 121.
  68. Rodinson 2021, p. 199–200.
  69. Rodgers 2012, p. 66.
  70. ^ Rodinson 2021, p. 200–1.
  71. ^ al-Bukhari 1997, p. 232, vol. 6, no. 4750.
  72. Glubb 2001, p. 264.
  73. Smirna Si. The Commentary on the Quran, vol. 1, by al-Tabari.
  74. Rodgers 2012, p. 67.
  75. ^ Rodinson 2021, p. 201–2.
  76. al-Shati 2006, p. 87.
  77. ^ Forward 1997, p. 90.
  78. Spellberg 1994, p. 70.
  79. ^ Glubb 2001, p. 265.
  80. ^ al-Shati 2006, p. 88.
  81. ^ Rodinson 2021, p. 202–3.
  82. al-Bukhari 1997, p. 285, vol. 5, no. 4141.
  83. al-Shati 2006, p. 89–90.
  84. Ahmed 1992, p. 58.
  85. Abbott 1942, p. 69.
  86. Lings 1983, p. 339.
  87. Haykal 1976, pp. 502–503.
  88. Ibn Ishaq 1955, p. 679 & 682.
  89. ^ Elsadda 2001.
  90. Aghaie 2005.
  91. Spellberg 1994, pp. 4–5.
  92. ^ Spellberg 1994, pp. 34–40.
  93. Spellberg 1994, p. 33.
  94. See:
  95. Holt 1977, pp. 67–68.
  96. Madelung 1997, p. 107 & 111.
  97. Ishaq 1955.
  98. Razwy 2001.
  99. Glubb 1963, p. 320.
  100. Goodwin 1994.
  101. Muir 1892, p. 261.
  102. Black 1994, p. 34.
  103. Aslan 2005, pp. 58–136.
  104. ^ Anwar 2005.
  105. Geissinger 2011, pp. 37–49.
  106. Aslan 2005, p. 136.
  107. Ahmed 1992, pp. 47–75.
  108. Geissinger 2011, p. 42.
  109. Haylamaz 2013, pp. 192–193.
  110. Nasa'i 1994, p. 108
    "‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya..."
  111. Ibn Kathir, p. 97.

Sources

Further reading

Wives of Muhammad
Islamic honored women
Generations of Adam
Generations of Ibrāhīm and his sons
Generation of Mūsa
Reign of Kings
House of Imran
Time of Muhammad
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