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{{Short description|Indian religion}}
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'''Hinduism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɪ|n|d|u|ˌ|ɪ|z|əm}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Hinduism |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref> is an ]{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}{{sfn|Flood|2022|p=339}}{{efn|name="umbrella-term"}} for a range of ] and ] (]){{Sfnmp|Holberg|2000|1p=316|Nicholson|2013|2pp=2–5|McDaniel|2007|3pp=52–53|Michaels|2004|4p=21}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} that are unified by adherence to the concept of '']'', a ] maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living,{{sfn|Flood|2003a|p=9}}{{sfn|Thomas|2012|p=175}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006}}{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"}} as first expounded in the ].{{efn|name="vedas_dharma"|{{harvtxt|Flood|2003a|p=4}}: "This revelation of the Veda, verses believed to have been revealed to and heard by (sruti) the ancient sages (rsi), as symbol and legitimizing reference if not actual text, is central as a constraining influence on later traditions, providing the authority for tradition (Oberhammer 1997: 21–31). Some would argue that this is a defining feature of Hinduism.}} The word ''Hindu'' is an ],{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}} and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world,{{refn|name="oldest religion"|group=note}} it has also been described by the modern term '']'' ({{lit|eternal dharma}}) emphasizing its eternal nature.{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"}} Another ] for Hinduism is '']'' ({{lit|Vedic dharma}}).{{r|group=web|"VD"}}
'''Hinduism''' (known as '''{{IAST|Hindū Dharma}}''' in some modern Indian languages<ref>such as ], ] and other contemporary ], as well as in several Dravidian tongues like ] and ]</ref>) is a ] that originated on the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also referred to as '''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}''' ({{lang|sa|सनातन धर्म}}), a ] phrase meaning "eternal ]".<ref>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term can be traced to late 19th century ] (J. Zavos, ''Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India'', Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," ''Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism'', edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).</ref>


Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared ] that discuss ], ], among other topics in ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Hindu texts have been classified into ] ({{Literal translation|heard}}) and ] ({{Literal translation|remembered}}). The major Hindu scriptures are the ], the ], the ], the '']'' (including the '']''), the '']'', and the ].{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1992|pp=1–7}} Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include '']'' (action, intent and consequences),{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} ] (the cycle of death and rebirth) and the four ]s, proper goals or aims of human life, namely: '']'' (ethics/duties), '']'' (prosperity/work), '']'' (desires/passions) and '']'' (liberation/freedom from passions and ultimately ''saṃsāra'').{{sfn|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}{{sfn|Koller|1968}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=7}} Hindu religious practices include devotion ('']''), worship (]), sacrificial rites ('']''), and meditation (]) and ].<ref name="ellinger70" /> Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many Hindus do not claim to belong to any denomination.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} However, scholarly studies notify four major denominations: '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} The six ] schools of ] that recognise the authority of the Vedas are: ], ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}
With its origins in the ] and ], it has no known founder,<ref>Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005.</ref><ref> Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994;</ref> being itself a conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. It is considered the world's oldest extant religion, <ref>e.g. in by ], ], 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7</ref><ref> - National Geographic</ref> and has approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 890 million live in ],<ref>, Adherents.com (2005 figure)</ref> placing it as the world's ] after ] and ]. Other ] include ], ], ], ] and ].


While the traditional ] and its derived ] present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} or synthesis{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"}} of ]{{refn|group=note|name="Brahmanism"}} with various Indian cultures,{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} having diverse roots{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} and no specific founder.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}} This ] emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} to 200{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} ], and {{Circa|300 CE}},{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} in the period of the ] and the early ] when the ] and the first Purānas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} It flourished in the ], with the ].{{sfn|Larson|1995|pp=109–111}} Since the 19th century, ], influenced by ], has acquired a great appeal in ], most notably reflected in the popularisation of yoga and various sects such as ] and the ].
Hinduism provides a vast body of scriptures. Divided as ] and ] and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on a broad of range of theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of ] (religious living). Among such texts, Hindus revere the '']'' and the '']'' and consider these as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the ] and the sectarian ], the '']'' and the ] '']'' and '']''. The '']'', a treatise excerpted from the ''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''.<ref>Swami Chidbhavananda. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. pp. 67-74. The ''Gita Dhyanam'' is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the ''Bhagavad Gita''. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them.</ref>


Hinduism is the ] religion, with approximately 1.20 billion followers, or around 15% of the global population, known as ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023|title=Hindu Countries 2023|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/hindu-countries|access-date=31 December 2023|website=World Population Review|archive-date=11 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311182726/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/hindu-countries|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group="web" name="pewforum_Hinduism" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu" group="web" /> It is the most widely professed faith in ],{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} ], ], and in ], ].{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in the countries of ], in ], in the ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vertovec |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |title=The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-36705-2 |pages=1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143 |access-date=18 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155539/https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Hindus|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|archive-date=9 February 2020|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}
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</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010)|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201224548/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-date=1 February 2013|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}
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==Etymology== == Etymology ==
{{further|Hindu}}
The ] term '']'' comes from the ] '']'', i.e. the ].<ref name=Hindu> </ref> In the ], the ] mention their land as ''Sapta Sindhu'' (the land of the seven rivers of the northwestern ], one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to ''Hapta-Hendu'' in the '']'' (''Vendidad: Fargard'' 1.18)—the sacred scripture of ] of ]. The term was used for people who lived in the Indian subcontinent beyond the "Sindhu".<ref>See ] for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"</ref>
The word ''Hindū'' is an ],{{sfn|Siemens|Roodt|2009|p=546}}{{sfn|Leaf|2014|p=36}} and is derived from the ]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=3-6}} root ''Sindhu'',{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 1"}} believed to be the name of the ] in the northwestern part of the ].{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=433}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|The Indo-Aryan word ''Sindhu'' means "river", "ocean".{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=3}} It is frequently being used in the ]. The Sindhu-area is part of ], "the land of the Aryans".}}


The ] sound change ''*s'' > ''h'' occurred between 850 and 600 BCE.<ref>{{harvp|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 9"}}: "In Iranian languages, Proto-Iranian *s became h before a following vowel at a relatively late period, perhaps around 850–600 BCE."</ref> According to ], "The actual term ''Hindu'' first occurs as a ] geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of ] (550–486 BCE).{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} The term ''Hindu'' in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} The word ''Hindu'' is found as ''heptahindu'' in ] – equivalent to Rigvedic ''sapta sindhu'', while ''hndstn'' (pronounced ''Hindustan'') is found in a ] inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |title=Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 |page=}}</ref> In Arabic texts, ''al-Hind'' referred to the land beyond the Indus<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|2004|p=38}}: "...in Arab sources, ''al-Hind'' (the land beyond the Indus)."</ref> and therefore, all the people in that land were Hindus.<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|1989|p=222}}: "Al-Hind was therefore a geographical identity and the Hindus were all the people who lived on this land." {{harvnb|Thapar|1993|p=77}}</ref> This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term ''Hindū''. By the 13th century, '']'' emerged as a popular alternative ], meaning the "land of Hindus".{{sfn|Thompson Platts|1884}}
==Beliefs==
===Core concepts===
Hinduism originates from the ancient ] tradition and other ] beliefs, incorporated over time. Prominent themes in Hinduism include '']'' (ethics and duties), '']'' (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), '']'' (action and subsequent reaction), and '']'' (liberation from the cycle of ''samsara''). ], ] and ] share traits with Hinduism, because these religions originated in India and focus on self-improvement with the general aim of attaining personal (]), spiritual experiences. They along with Hinduism are collectively known as ]s.


Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Record of the Western Regions'' by ],{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} and 14th-century Persian text ''Futuhu's-salatin'' by 'Abd al-Malik ].{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}} Some 16–18th century ] ] texts mention ''Hindu'' and ''Hindu dharma'' to distinguish from Muslims without positively defining these terms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Conell |first=Joseph T. |year=1973 |title=The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts |volume=93 |pages=340–344 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/599467 |jstor=599467| issn=0003-0279 }}</ref> In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of ] collectively as Hindus.<ref name="amp.scroll.in">{{Cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism|title=A short note on the short history of Hinduism|first=Mukul|last=Dube|website=Scroll.in|date=10 January 2016|access-date=28 November 2022|archive-date=28 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128182331/https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Sweetman2003>{{Cite book |last=Sweetman |first=Will |title=Mapping Hinduism: 'Hinduism' and the Study of Indian Religions, 1600–1776 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-931479-49-7 |pages=163, 154–168}}</ref>{{Refn|In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practicing or '']''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bryan|last=Turner|year=2010|title=The New Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Religion|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-8852-4|pages= 424–425}}</ref> The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as ''Sarnaism''.<ref>{{cite book|first=James|last=Minahan|year=2012|title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia|isbn=978-1-59884-659-1|pages=97–99|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states ], to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=8}}|group=note}} The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction. It was apparently coined (with the original spelling "Hindooism") by ] in 1787, who used it along with "Hindu religion". The first Indian to use "Hinduism" may have been ] in 1816–17.{{sfn|Truschke|2023|p=262}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=433}} By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2010|p=17}}{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=5}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=5}} Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, ], ], occupation, and sect.{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|In ]'s essay ''Looking for a Hindu identity'', he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity."<ref name="amp.scroll.in"/> He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Short note on the short history of Hinduism|date=10 January 2016|url=https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism|access-date=13 November 2021|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113220512/https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
===Concept of God===
Hinduism is sometimes considered to be a ], but such a view tends to oversimplify a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning ], ],<ref name= "EBpolytheism"> , ], 2007 </ref> ], ] and even ]. For instance, the ] school holds that there is only one causal entity (]), which manifests itself to humans in multiple forms<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> while many scholars consider the ] school of thought to have had atheistic leanings.


== Definitions ==
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Brahman </span>'''
"Hinduism" is an umbrella-term,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}{{sfn|Flood|2022|p=339}} referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions.{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}}{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} According to Sweetman, the term "Hinduism" was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century<ref name="Sweetman2003" />{{refn|group=note|''Hinduism'' is derived from Persian ''hindu-'' and the '']'' suffix. It is first recorded in 1786, in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".<ref group=web>{{etymonline|Hinduism}}</ref>}} and refers to the fusion,{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} or synthesis,{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"|{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads ({{Circa|500 BCE}}) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."}}{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=193}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,<ref name="various cultures">{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} and no founder.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}} This ] emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and {{Circa|300 CE}},{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} in the period of the ] and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the ] and the first Puranas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} It flourished in the ], with the ].{{sfn|Larson|1995|pp=109–111}} Hinduism's variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.{{sfn|Turner|1996a|p=275}}
{{main|Brahman}}


Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on ] and traditions; Hindus can be ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] or ].<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{harvnb|Lipner|2009|p=8}} Quote: " one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, henotheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-369503-1 |editor-last=Kurtz |editor-first=Lester}}</ref> According to ], "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu".<ref>MK Gandhi, '''' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724045756/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf |date=24 July 2015 }}, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3</ref> According to ], "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even ] – are subjects of debate, not ]."{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=3}}
According to the monistic/panentheistic theologies of Hinduism, ] (the greater Self or ]) is in the highest sense One and nondifferentiated from the world and its beings (hence 'nondualist'). In connoting Brahman's absolutely unparalleled nature, it is also called ''Parambrahman'', where the Sanskrit prefix ''param-'' denotes "ultimate". Brahman is also sometimes seen as synonymous with the concept of '']'' (Supreme Spirit). Beyond time and space, both immanent and transcendent,<ref name="baskar1">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility''</ref><ref></ref> ''Brahman'' is often described succinctly as ''sacchidananda'', meaning 'Truth-Consciousness-Bliss', not only possessing the qualities but also being their very essence. Advaita philosophy declares that ultimately Brahman (the impersonal God) is beyond mere intellectual description and can be understood only through direct spiritual experience, where the 'knower' and the 'known' are subsumed into the act of 'knowing'. The goal is to "wake up" and realize that one's ], or soul, is really identical to ], the uber-soul.<ref>See generally, ''Complete Works of ]'' ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref><ref>The presence of God within the heart of every living being is mentioned in the '']'' at 9.29, 15.15 and 18.61, which says that God is the source of inner direction and that it is through God's power alone that we have consciousness.</ref>


Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=117}} Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life".{{sfn|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term ''(Hindu) dharma'' is used, which is broader than the Western term "religion," and refers to the religious attitudes and behaviours, the 'right way to live', as preserved and transmitted in the various traditions collectively referred to as "Hinduism."{{sfn|Flood|2003a|p=9}}{{sfn|Thomas|2012|p=175}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006}}{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"}}
On the other hand, monotheistic (typically ]) and related devotional (]) schools, understand ] as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with ], ] or ] depending on the sect. Brahman is seen as fundamentally separate from its reliant souls (humanity) so, in achieving liberation, individual beings experience God as an independent being, a living personality, and retain their individual identities.
] representing the Hindu ]: ], ] and ].]]
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Ishvara </span>'''
{{main|Ishvara}}


The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{sfn|King|1999}} Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{Refn|group=note|Sweetman mentions:
When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called '']'' ("The Lord";<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."> Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary</ref>), '']'' ("The Auspicious One";<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>), or ''Parameshwara'' ("The Supreme Lord"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>). ''Ishvara'' thus refers to the personal aspect of God in general; it is not specific to a particular deity. ''Ishvara'' transcends gender, yet can be looked upon as father, mother, friend, child, or even as sweetheart.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5"/> Some schools of Hindu philosophy do not believe in ''Ishvara'', while others interpret ''Ishvara'' in different ways.<ref name="ISBN 81-208-2144-0">See generally, Sinha, H.P. (1993), ''Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā'' (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ. ISBN 81-208-2144-0.</ref><ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Some schools do not distinguish between ''Ishvara'' and ''Brahman''. The ] school holds that ''Ishvara'' is not ],<ref name="ISBN 81-208-2144-0"/> but is infinite and a personal being.
* {{harvnb|Halbfass|1988}}, ''India and Europe''
* {{harvnb|Sontheimer|1989}}, ''Hinduism Reconsidered''
* ], ''Imagining India''
* ] and ], ''Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament''
* ] and ], ''Representing Hinduism''
* ], ''The Heathen in his Blindness...''
* ], ''Aryans and British India''
* {{harvnb|King|1999}}, ''Orientalism and religion''}} and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.{{sfn|Nussbaum|2009}}{{refn|group=note|See ] and ] for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, ], and ].}}


=== Typology ===
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Devas and devis </span>'''
], a stylised letter of the ] script, used as a religious symbol in Hinduism]]
{{main|Deva (Hinduism)}}
{{Main|Hindu denominations}}


Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six ] (philosophies), two schools, ] and ], are currently the most prominent.{{sfn|Clarke|2011|p=28}}
The Hindu scriptures also speak about many celestial entities, called '']'' ("The shining ones",<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> also called ''{{IAST|devatās}}''). The word ''Devas'' may be translated into English as gods,<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> demigods,<ref></ref> deities,<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> celestial spirits<ref></ref> or angels.<ref></ref> The feminine of ''deva'' is ''{{Unicode|devī}}''.
The six ] schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are: ], ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}


Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are ] (Vishnu), ] (Shiva), ] (Devi) and ] (five deities treated as equals).{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or ], while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=14}} Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ] (self), ] of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.
The '']s'' and '']'' depict traditional stories about individual devas. The latter lauds the ] of ''{{Unicode|Mahādevas}}'' ("Great Gods"), which are the three aspects of God, Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva.<ref>C.J. Fuller, ''The Camphor Flame'' 32 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X</ref> Numerous other Devas have been worshipped throughout Hinduism's history. The ''devas'' are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in ], ] and through ]s. In their personal religious practices, Hindus worship primarily one or another of these deities, known as their ''i{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}a devatā'', or chosen ideal.<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 80 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref>Louis Renou, ''The Nature of Hinduism'' 55 (New York 1962)</ref> The particular form of God worshipped as one's chosen ideal is a matter of individual preference and needs,<ref>Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 106 in ''Contemporary Hinduism'', Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> influenced by regional and family traditions.<ref>Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 104 in ''Contemporary Hinduism'', Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref>


June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus.{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}} The major kinds, according to McDaniel are ], based on local traditions and cults of local ] and is the oldest, non-literate system; ] based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the ]s, including ], emphasising knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of ] emphasising introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and ] or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}}
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Avataras </span>'''
{{main|Avatar}}
]) of Vishnu, with his consort ]]] Many denominations of Hinduism teach that from time to time God descends to Earth in corporeal form to help humans along in their struggle toward enlightenment in the form of '']'' or liberation from rebirth known as '']''. In a related capacity, God's incarnations bring the dharmic order back into balance whenever necessary. Such an incarnation of God is called an ]. The most famous avatars are of Vishnu, the two most popular being ], whose life is depicted in the ], and ], who is a central figure in the ] and whose life is depicted in the ].


Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}} The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} ],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} ],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} and "heroism", which is rooted in ]. These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, ], believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of RAMAISM|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ramaism|access-date=28 October 2020|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174144/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ramaism|url-status=live}}</ref> and parts of ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} "Heroism" is also called ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practising or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasise ] (Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=21–22}} He includes among "founded religions" ], ], Sikhism that are now distinct religions, ] movements such as ] and the ], as well as various "]-isms" and new religious movements such as ],
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Atheism </span>'''
] and ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=22–23}}
{{main|Atheism in Hinduism}}
Mainstream Hindu philosophy talks about the existence of God, being heavily influenced by the ] school, the dominant philosophical school of Hinduism. Nonetheless, there were earlier atheistic schools such as ], which did not acknowledge the existence of God.


Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.<ref name=ronaldinden127 /> Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.<ref name=ronaldinden127 /> From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of ]. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.<ref name="ronaldinden127">Ronald Inden (2001), ''Imagining India'', Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-253-21358-7}}, pp. 117–122, 127–130</ref>
===Atman===
{{main|Ātman}}
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the ], is eternal;<ref name="monierwilliams1">Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 27 (New Delhi 1974)</ref> as is Brahman, which may be seen as either the greater Self or as God, depending on the outlook. According to the ] (non-dualist) schools of philosophy, the individual self and greater Self are not fundamentally distinct. They argue that the core spirit, or "Self", of every individual person is identical with the greater Spirit. Referring to 'brahman' unequivocally as God may reveal problems of semantics, where certain traditions understand God to be a motivating agency with personality and others that it is without personality and form, beyond any sort of definition and thus non-equivalent to the 'God' as understood by dualist schools of Hinduism or Abrahamic understandings of God.<ref name="monierwilliams1"/> According to the ], whoever gains insight into the depths of his own nature and becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of his own Self will realize his identity with Brahman and will thereby reach Moksha.<ref name="monierwilliams1"/><ref name="ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 p 7">Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 37 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2; See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).</ref> According to the ] (dualist) school, (often associated with ]), the ātman is not identical with Brahman, which is seen as being God with personality (though not limited); instead, the ātman is dependent on God. Moksha depends on the cultivation of love for God and on God's grace.<ref name="ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 p 7"/>


Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea ] has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferro-Luzzi |title=Hinduism Reconsidered |publisher=Manohar |year=1991 |editor-last=Sontheimer |editor-first=G.D. |location=Delhi |pages=187–195 |chapter=The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism |editor-last2=Kulke |editor-first2=H.}}</ref>
===Karma, samsara and moksha ===
{{main|Karma in Hinduism}}


=== {{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}} ===
''Karma'' translates literally as action, work or deed<ref>Vaman S. Apte, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, (Nag Publishers, 1997)</ref> and is often described as the "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>Huston Smith, The World's Religions, pg 64 (HarperSanFrancisco 1991) ISBN 0-06-250799-0</ref> According to the ], an individual, known as the ''jiva-atma'', develops ]s (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.<ref> S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy - Vol.1, pg. 254 (Oxford University Press, 1996) ISBN 0 19 563819 0</ref> Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to ] as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of ] and ].
{{See also|Sanātanī}}


], dedicated to the ] deity ], is said to be worshiped by ] (and the descendants of ]).<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya kanda, sarga 6, sloka 1, 2 and 3</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Srirangam-temple-rich-with-elaborate-details/article59829979.ece|title=Srirangam temple rich with elaborate details|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 April 2014|accessdate=28 August 2023|via=www.thehindu.com|archive-date=16 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816200421/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Srirangam-temple-rich-with-elaborate-details/article59829979.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|title=Was Ram born in Ayodhya?|website=Mumbai Mirror|accessdate=28 August 2023|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814150318/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
This cycle of ''action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth'' is a continuum called ]. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in much of Hindu thought. The ] states that:


To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Insoll |first=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35 |title=Archaeology and world religion |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-22155-9 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174124/https://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism as '']'', "the eternal law" or the "eternal way".<ref>{{harvnb|Bowker|2000}}; {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}</ref>{{sfn|Vivekjivandas|2010|p=1}} Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The ], as narrated in the ], ], and the ], envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before{{Weasel inline|date=February 2024}} 3000 BCE. The word ''dharma'' is used here to mean '']'' similar to modern ], rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (''artha''), fulfilment of desires (''kama''), and attaining liberation (''moksha''), are viewed here as part of "dharma", which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=111}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Dharma in Hinduism |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |year=2006 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=479–496 |doi=10.1007/s10781-006-9002-4|s2cid=170922678 }}</ref> The use of the term ''Sanātana Dharma'' for Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in the ].{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=3, 5, 117}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000}}{{sfn|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=3}}{{Clarify|reason=Not clear what is revaalex in Hindu texts.|date=February 2024}}
<blockquote>As a person puts on new clothes, discarding old and torn clothes,
similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)<ref> Bhagavad Gita 2.22</ref></blockquote>


''Sanātana Dharma'' refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and traditions with origins beyond human history– truths divinely revealed (]) in the ], the most ancient of the world's scriptures.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=3}} To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era. The Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}{{refn|group=note|The term ''sanatana dharma'' and its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as the ] and the ]. These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that it to be similar to Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOyYCgAAQBAJ |title=The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Religions: Volume 1: A – L; Volume 2: M – Z |last2=Case |first2=Frederick I. |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-252-09433-0 |pages=902–903 |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155559/https://books.google.com/books?id=XOyYCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However only escaping the world of samsara through ] (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness or peace.<ref>See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20</ref><ref>See Swami Vivekananda, ''Jnana Yoga'' 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)</ref> It is thought that after several reincarnations, an ''atman'' eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).


''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}'' historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings ('']''), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with ], one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (''varṇa'') and stage in life (]).<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sanatana dharma {{!}} Hinduism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503143650/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma |url-status=live }}</ref> In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma" group="web" />
The ultimate goal of life, referred to as '']'', '']'' or '']'', is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires.
Such a realization liberates one from ''samsara'' and ends the cycle of rebirth.<ref>Rinehart, Robin, ed., ''Contemporary Hinduism''19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref><ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism, 79-86 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, ] holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as part of Brahman. The followers of ] schools such as ] on the other hand, expect to spend eternity in a ], or heaven,<ref>The concepts of ] and ] do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as ] (the abode of Vishnu) or ''loka'' are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. </ref> in the company of their chosen form of ''Ishvara''. Thus, it is said, the followers of ''dvaita'' wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."<ref>Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9</ref>


===The goals of life=== === ''Vaidika dharma'' ===
{{See also|Historical Vedic religion|Vedic period}}
{{main|Purusharthas}}
Some have referred to Hinduism as the ''Vaidika dharma''.{{sfn|Sharma|Sharma|2004|pp=1–2}} The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'.<ref name="MW_Vaidika dharma" group="web">{{Cite web|last=Monier-Williams|first=Monier|author-link=Monier Monier-Williams|year=1988|title=Sanskrit English Dictionary|url=http://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/http://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|archive-date=29 December 2020|access-date=24 July 2018|website=sanskritdictionary.com}}</ref> Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2014|p=2}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007b|p=7}} According to ], the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term ''vaidika dharma'' or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE.<ref name="Sharma1985a">{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=A|author-link=Arvind Sharma|year=1985|title=Did the Hindus have a name for their own religion?|url=https://josa-publications.sydney.edu.au/chronological-index-1960-2002/|journal=The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia|volume=17|issue=1|pages=94–98 |access-date=17 March 2021|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304042137/https://josa-publications.sydney.edu.au/chronological-index-1960-2002/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Brian K. Smith, "t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term ''Vaidika Dharma'' cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."{{sfn|Smith|1998}}
Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma.


Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic ] – 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, the '']'' considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some ] groups like the ] and ] to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).<ref>Valpey, Kenneth Russell; Gupta, Ravi Mohan (2013). ''The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, sacred text and living tradition'', p. 146. Columbia University Press.</ref>
The ] ] recognize four goals as noble; these are known as the '']'', and they are:


According to ], the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of ] Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> Some in the ] school of Hindu philosophy considered the '']'' such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma.<ref group=web name="sandersonpart1">{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=March 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part One |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174134/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=May 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Two |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-two-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174151/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-two-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref> The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas.<ref group=web name="sandersonpart3">{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=July 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Three |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-three-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174219/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-three-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref> However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, and that as such they are man's sole means of valid knowledge ".<ref group=web name="sandersonpart3" />
# '']'': Sensual pleasure and enjoyment
# '']'': Worldly prosperity and success
# '']'': Following the laws and rule that an individual lives under
# '']'': Liberation from the cycle of samsara<ref name="ISBN 0-7007-0279-2">Werner, Karel, ''"A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism"'', Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref name="essenhinuism7">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 7 </ref>


The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}} The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}} To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}
Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role:<ref name="essenhinuism7"/> dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon.


Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself a Hindu,"{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), ''The sacred tread'', p. 5.}} and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<ref>{{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=18}}; see also {{harvnb|Lipner|2009|p=77}}; and {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |title=Sacred Texts and Authority |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2008 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |page=101 |chapter=Hinduism}}</ref> Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}
The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described ], the Grihasthi eventually enters this dharma as an eventual stage of life. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in.


===Yoga: multiple paths to the goal === === Legal definition ===
] gave the following definition in ''Gita Rahasya'' (1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".<ref name=Tilak2>Kohli Hari Dev (2010), ''Supreme Court On Hindu Law'', p.251</ref><ref name=Tilak>Ved P. Nanda (ed.)(2016), ''Compassion in the 4 Dharmic Traditions'', p.71</ref> It was quoted by the Indian Supreme Court in 1966,<ref name=Tilak2/><ref name=Tilak/> and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition,"<ref>Peter Beyer, ''Religions in Global Society''</ref> and is still the legal definition of a Hindu today.{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=20}}
] is traditionally a part of a practice that included meditation, pranayama, and right action&mdash;unlike the popular modern approach that emphasizes the physical aspect.]]
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (]) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Someone who practices yoga is called a '']''. The chief texts dedicated to Yoga are the ], the ], the ] and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the ]. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (], ], or ]) include:
* ] (the path of love and devotion),
* ] (the path of right action),
* ] (the path of meditation) and
* ] (the path of wisdom).<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5"/>


== Diversity and unity ==
An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some followers of the ] school hold that ] ("devotion") is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for the majority of people, based on their belief that the earth is currently in the age of ] (one of four stages, or epochs, that are part of the ] cycle).<ref> "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." </ref> Practice of one yoga does not exclude the others. In fact, many schools believe that the different yogas naturally imply, blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of ''jnana yoga'', is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of ''bhakti yoga''), and vice versa.<ref> "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are."</ref> Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in ''raja yoga'') must embody the core principles of ''karma yoga'', ''jnana yoga'' and ''bhakti yoga'', whether directly or indirectly.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5"/><ref> See Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 116 (New Delhi 1974)</ref>


=== Diversity ===
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Bhakti Yoga </span>'''
{{See also|Hindu denominations}}
] celebrating ]]]


Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Hinduism |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism |access-date=23 April 2020 |website=History.com |date=30 September 2019 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174138/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism |url-status=live }}</ref> Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Basics of Hinduism |publisher=Kauai's Hindu Monastery |url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/fourteen-questions/ |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174156/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/fourteen-questions/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Surendranath |title=A history of Indian philosophy (part 1) |last2=Banarsidass |first2=Motilall |year=1992 |page=70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chande |first=M.B. |title=Indian Philosophy in Modern Times |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist. |year=2000 |page=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Culp |first=John |date= 2008 |entry=Panentheism |editor=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Summer 2017 |entry-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/ |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174122/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2004 |title=Is Hinduism monotheistic? |website=The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies |url=https://ochs.org.uk/news/hinduism-monotheistic |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/https://ochs.org.uk/news/hinduism-monotheistic |url-status=live }}</ref> Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a ]",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.{{efn|name="umbrella-term"|{{harvtxt|Smith|1963|loc=pp. 65–66}}: "My point, and I think that this is the first step that one must take towards understanding something of the vision of Hindus, is that the mass of religious phenomena that we shelter under the umbrella of that term, is not a unity and does not aspire to be."}}{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|pp=1–22}} According to the ],
{{main|Bhakti yoga}}
The ] traditions emphasize cultivation of love and ] for God as the path to perfection. Followers of ] typically worship God as a divine personal being or ], such as ] or ]. Followers of the bhakti path strive to purify their minds and activities through the chanting of God's names (]), ], devotional hymns (]) and treating all living creatures with compassion. Bhakti followers seek to enjoy a loving relationship with God, rather than seek to merge their consciousness with ] as the followers of jnana yoga and raja yoga do.


{{blockquote|Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}}}
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Karma Yoga </span>'''
], shown here practicing ], was a Hindu '']'' (teacher) recognized for his inspiring lectures on topics such as ].]]
{{main|Karma yoga}}
The followers of karma yoga seek to achieve freedom by acting without attachment to the results of their actions. According to Hinduism, action is inevitable, and has one great disadvantage&mdash;any act done with attachment to its fruits generates karmic or psychological bondage.<ref name="ISBN 978-0949027047">Sivananda, Swami, ''Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda)''. Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047.</ref> Followers of karma yoga follow the injunction in the ]:
<blockquote>
Without being attached to the fruits of activities, one should act as a matter of duty; for by working without attachment, one attains the Supreme.<ref>Bhagavad Gita 3:19</ref>
</blockquote>
Many followers of karma yoga offer the results of every action to God, thus combining karma yoga with ]. However, it is possible for even an ] to follow karma yoga by remaining mentally detached from the fruits of their actions. Benefits of karma yoga include purification of the heart, freedom from bondage to the ego, humility, and the growing understanding that Brahman is in all people.<ref name="ISBN 978-0949027047"/>


Part of the problem with a single definition of the term ''Hinduism'' is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=1, 7}} It is a synthesis of various traditions,<ref>{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}</ref> the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Raja Yoga </span>'''


] is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ] of creation, other ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Quack |first1=Johannes |last2=Binder |first2=Stefan |date=22 February 2018 |title=Atheism and Rationalism in Hinduism |journal=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0196}}</ref>
{{main|Raja yoga}}
The followers of Raja yoga seek direct experience of spiritual truth through ] and yoga practices. Raja yoga is based on the ] of ],<ref name="ISBN 81-85301-75-1-V1-29">''Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms'' II.29, English translation & commentary (side-by-side with original Sanskrit) in ''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' Vol. I, 29 ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> which has eight 'limbs' that describe the stages a yogi must pass through to reach the goal of ''samadhi''.<ref name="ISBN 978-1565892194"/> The eight limbs begin with right action ('']'' and '']'') and perfect meditative posture ('']''), and continue with control of the body's life force ('']''). From there, the yogi practices techniques of meditation that take him through the progressive stages of interiorization ('']''), concentration ('']'') and meditation ('']'').<ref name="ISBN 978-1425359829">Sivananda, Swami, ''Raja Yoga'', Divine Life Society.</ref><ref name="ISBN 978-1565892194">Kriyananda, Swami, ''The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: Explained by Paramhansa Yogananda, As Remembered by His Disciple, Swami Kriyananda''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1565892194</ref> The final goal of the raja yogi&mdash;and the eighth limb of Patanjali's Sutras&mdash;is '']'', or oneness with Brahman.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-03-3">Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''Meditation, Mind, and Patanjali's Yoga'' (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3</ref>


=== Sense of unity ===
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Jnana Yoga </span>'''
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or ], the Vedas,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} although there are exceptions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=35}} These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus,<ref name=andreapinkney /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haines |first=Jeffrey |title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-60029-3 |page=80}}</ref> though ] stated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".<ref name="andreapinkney">{{Cite book |last=Pinkney |first=Andrea |title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-63503-5 |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=Bryan |pages=31–32 |editor-last2=Salemink |editor-first2=Oscar}}</ref>{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1}}
], yogi, teacher, and founder of the ] in Rishikesh]]
{{main|Jnana yoga}}
Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom, or true knowledge, and appeals to people with an intellectual nature.<ref name="ISBN 978-8120818767">Kriyananda, Swami, ''Art and Science of Raja Yoga''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-8120818767</ref> The jnana yogi typically practices the four interrelated means to liberation:


Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}}
# ''Viveka'': discrimination between what is real (the immortal Atman, or true self), and unreal (the changing universe)
# ''Vairāgya'', dispassion for the pleasures of this world.
# ''Shad-Sampat'', the ''six virtues'', which bring about mental control and discipline.
# ''Mumukshutva'', intense desire for liberation.<ref name=jnana>Sivananda, Swami, ''Jnana Yoga''. Divine Life Society, 1982.</ref>


==== Classical Hinduism ====
These practices lead to the unfoldment of wisdom (intuitive perception), rather than mere intellectual knowledge.<ref name="ISBN 978-1565891364">Kriyananda, Swami, ''Awaken to Superconsciousness''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1565891364</ref> Through discrimination and introspection, the jnana yogi eventually realizes the highest truth, that "I am Brahman, the pure, all-pervading Consciousness."<ref name=jnana/>
]s played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=99–100}} In the post-] Vedanta developed in southern India, where ] and the Hindu culture were preserved,{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=100–101}} building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda the multiple demands of Hinduism."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=101}}


==== Medieval developments ====
==History==
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|pp=1–36}}</ref> Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=36}} Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other".{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=648}} According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=648}} is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|pp=648, 655}}
{{main|History of Hinduism}}


] in ], dedicated to the ] deity ] as the lord of all beings]]
===Origins===
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism dates back as far as the late ], to the ] period (ca. 5500–3300 BCE).<ref name=History> The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the ] as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".</ref> The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (ca. 1500-500 BCE) are called the "]". The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the ], which is dated to between 1700&ndash;1100 BCE based on ] and philological evidence.<ref>T. Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. </ref>


According to the Indologist ], before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain ] tantric movements.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 />
===The Vedic period===
{{main|Historical Vedic religion}}
] in ] is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.]]
Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas. The earliest of these, the '']'', centers on worship of deities such as '']'', '']'' and '']'', and on the '']'' ritual. The early Indo-Aryans performed fire-sacrifices, called '']'' and chanted Vedic mantras. However, they built no ]s or ]s. Animals were sacrificed in larger ''{{Unicode|yajñas}}'' as claimed by Buddhist and ] texts. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to ], as well as to other ] religions.<ref>The '']'' deity ''Dyaus'', regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically ] with ]—the king of the gods in ], ] (''gen. of'' Jupiter) —the king of the gods in ], and ] in ]. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other ] speaking peoples' mythologies; see ].</ref>


According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by ].{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Hacker called this "inclusivism"{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|pp=24–33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}}{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|pp=26–27}} Michaels notes:
===Epic and Puranic periods===
{{blockquote|As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=44}}}}
The epic poems ] and ] were written roughly from 400 BCE to 200 CE, although they were transmitted orally for hundreds of years prior to this period.<ref>Robin Rinehart, ''Contemporary Hinduism'' 28 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> The Ramayana and Mahabharata contain secular and mythological stories of the rulers and wars of ancient India as well as on the ]s Rama and Krishna respectively. They are interspersed with treatises on various Hindu philosophical concepts and themes, including the nature of the ], karma, dharma, moksha, and the organisation of society and government. The later ] recount tales about ], their interactions with humans and their battles against ].


====Colonial views====
===The age of Mahajanapadas===
The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"{{sfn|King|1999|pp=100–102}} was also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.{{sfn|King|1999|pp=100–102}}<ref name=ronaldinden127 />{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|pp=14–15}} These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,{{refn|group=note|Pennington{{sfn|Pennington|2005|pp=76–77}} describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings . Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."}} while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the ''Vedas'', '']'', '']'' and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature".{{sfn|King|1999|p=169}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sweetman"}} Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.{{sfn|Pennington|2005|loc=pp. 4–5 and Chapter 6}} He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.{{sfn|Pennington|2005|loc=pp. 4–5 and Chapter 6}}{{refn|group=note|Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
{{main|Mahajanapadas}}
* Klaus Witz<ref>{{Cite book |last=Witz |first=Klaus G |title=The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1573-5 |pages=10–11|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}</ref> states that Hindu ] ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
During the ], several schools of thought arose and developed in ] such as ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Three key revolutions underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought: these were the spiritual upheaval initiated by the Upanishads, and the arrival of ] (founder of ]) and the ] (founder of ]). ], the leader of an atheistic materialist school, also came to the fore in ] in the sixth century BCE.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"> A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9</ref> The ], ] and ] taught that to achieve ] or ], one did not have to accept the authority of the ] or the caste system; the Buddha went a step further and claimed that even the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.<ref> Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)</ref> In this intellectual ferment, many Hindus became followers of Buddhism while others were influenced by Buddhist and Jain teachings.<ref> Olivelle, Patrick, ''"The renouncer tradition"'', pp. 273-274; in "''Blackwell companion to Hinduism"'', Ed. Flood,Gavin, Blackwell Publ., 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2 </ref>
* John Henderson<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henderson |first=John |title=Scripture, Canon and Commentary |url=https://archive.org/details/scripturecanonco0000hend |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-691-60172-4 |page=}}</ref> states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognised attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
* Patrick Olivelle<ref name=Olivelle2014p3q>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |author-link=Patrick Olivelle |title=The Early Upanisads |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-535242-9 |page=3 |quote=Even though theoretically the whole of Vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth , in reality it is the ]s that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.}}</ref> and others<ref>{{harvnb|Doniger|1990|pp=2–3}}: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref name=McDowell>{{Cite book |last1=McDowell |first1=Michael |title=World Religions |last2=Brown |first2=Nathan |publisher=Penguin |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-59257-846-7 |pages=208–210}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dissanayake |first=Wiman |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1080-6 |editor-last=Kasulis |editor-first=Thomas P. |page=39 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.}}


===Islam and Bhakti === ==== Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta ====
] was a key figure in introducing ] and Yoga in Europe and the United States,{{sfn|Feuerstein|2002|p=600}} raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.{{sfn|Clarke|2006|p=209}}]]
Beginning around 1173 CE, successive waves of armies from ] countries invaded and to varying degrees, gained control over North India.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and many Hindus converted to ]. Some Muslim rulers such as ] destroyed Hindu temples and otherwise persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as ], were more tolerant.
{{Quote box
|quote = All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.
|author = — ]<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_5/epistles_first_series/039_alasinga.htm|title=Complete-Works/Volume 5/Epistles - First Series|access-date=2024-01-27|website=ramakrishnavivekananda.info|archive-date=27 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127095409/https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_5/epistles_first_series/039_alasinga.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|width = 30%
|align = right|salign=right
}}
{{See also|Hindu reform movements}}


{{See also|Orientalism|Neo-Vedanta}}
Hinduism underwent one of the most profound changes in its history, due in large part to the influence of the prominent teachers ], ], and ].<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> Followers of the ] movement moved away from the abstract concept of ], which was consolidated by the philosopher ] a few centuries before, to a focus on the more accessible ]s, especially Krishna and Rama.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> A new attitude toward God—emotional, passionate love—replaced the old approaches of sacrificial rite and meditation on the formless Brahman.<ref>J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9</ref>
This inclusivism<ref>Hackel in {{harvnb|Nicholson|2010}}.</ref> was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by ] and Neo-Vedanta,{{sfn|King|2001}} and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}


Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,{{sfn|King|1999}} meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements{{sfn|Lorenzen|2002|p=33}} and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.{{sfn|King|1999}} This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.{{sfn|King|1999}} Major representatives of ]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} are ], ], ] and ].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=256–261}}
===The 19th to 20th Centuries===
This period saw largely unprecedented interaction between Hinduism and European thought (in the form of ] religions and ]). These intercultural conversations catalyzed developments in ], formations of new schools of Hindu thought, the spread of Hinduism across the world, and changes in many areas of Hindu society. At the same time, many traditional systems of Hinduism witnessed revivals or new developments that flourished independently of the globalization trend.


Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the ].<ref name="hindu1">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Serinity |title=Hinduism |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-2116-0 |page= |quote=Rammohun Roy Father of Hindu Renaissance. |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduism0000youn |access-date=19 February 2015 |url-access=registration}}</ref> He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=257}} Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=259}} Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=249}}
] as an academic discipline studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by ] and ]. They brought much of the ], ] and ] literature, philosophy, religion, and practice back to European and ] universities. At the same time, societies such as the ] and the ] attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform.
] temple, in ], India]]
This period also saw the emergence of diverse movements which were more traditional in origin, though nevertheless innovative, sometimes based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with ] and ]. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including ] and ] (founder of ]) translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as ], ], ] and ] have been instrumental in raising the profiles of traditional ] and ] in the West.


This "Global Hinduism"{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} or the ],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=267–268}}
In the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism is still practised by the majority of India's inhabitants although the number in the areas of modern ] and ] have dwindled due to the ]. Hinduism is also the official religion of the Kingdom of Nepal, which is thus the world's only Hindu state.<ref>, Government of Nepal website. Accessed: ], ]</ref><ref>, CIA Factbook.Accessed: ], ]</ref> Indonesia has experienced a ] in recent years, due to the efforts of ].


==== Modern India and the world ====
{{see also|British Raj|Brahmo Samaj|Arya Samaj|ISKCON|Ramakrishna Math}}
] group at the ] in ]]]
The ] movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hansen|first=Thomas Blom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India|year=1999|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-4008-2305-5|page=|language=en|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180224/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|url-status=live}}</ref> And there are assumptions of political dominance of ] in ], also known as '<nowiki/>''Neo-Hindutva''<nowiki/>'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Edward|last2=Longkumer|first2=Arkotong|date=2 October 2018|title='Neo-Hindutva': evolving forms, spaces, and expressions of Hindu nationalism|journal=Contemporary South Asia|volume=26|issue=4|pages=371–377|doi=10.1080/09584935.2018.1548576|issn=0958-4935|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/8da58c02-ac36-46f1-a4f6-71ad6be1be09|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chacko|first=Priya|date=2019c|title=Marketizing Hindutva: The state, society, and markets in Hindu nationalism|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/marketizing-hindutva-the-state-society-and-markets-in-hindu-nationalism/92243742C585CD73910BA63030F6A655|journal=Modern Asian Studies|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=377–410|doi=10.1017/S0026749X17000051|hdl=2440/117274|s2cid=149588748|issn=0026-749X|hdl-access=free|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307235100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/marketizing-hindutva-the-state-society-and-markets-in-hindu-nationalism/92243742C585CD73910BA63030F6A655|url-status=live}}</ref> There have also been increase in pre-dominance of ] in ], similar to that of ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?|url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/24085/will-an-incident-of-anti-muslim-violence-upend-nepals-bid-for-inclusivity|access-date=2 March 2021|website=www.worldpoliticsreview.com|date=30 January 2018|language=en|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413000033/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/24085/will-an-incident-of-anti-muslim-violence-upend-nepals-bid-for-inclusivity|url-status=live}}</ref> The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such as ] and ] by many missionaries organisations, especially by ] and this is also due to the migration of ] to the other nations of the world.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|p=239}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berg|first1=Travis Vande|last2=Kniss|first2=Fred|date=2008|title=ISKCON and Immigrants: The Rise, Decline, and Rise Again of a New Religious Movement|journal=]|volume=49|issue=1|pages=79–104|doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00107.x|issn=0038-0253|jstor=40220058|s2cid=146169730}}</ref> Hinduism is growing fast in many ] and in some ].{{Refn|* Hinduism is the fastest growing religion in ], ] and ]. This was due to the influence of the ] and the migration of ] in these nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/700557/how-iskcon-took-hinduism-to-the-us-heartland|title=How ISKCON took Hinduism to the US heartland|access-date=9 April 2021|website=scroll.in|date=17 January 2015|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511101216/https://scroll.in/article/700557/how-iskcon-took-hinduism-to-the-us-heartland|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ], the ''growth of Hinduism'' has been very fast and is the second fastest growing religion in ], after ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.erg.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.329209.1492613166!/menu/standard/file/Hinduism%20in%20Europe_Abstracts.pdf|title=Hinduism in Europe|website=]|date=28 April 2017|access-date=9 April 2021|archive-date=23 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523082912/https://www.erg.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.329209.1492613166!/menu/standard/file/Hinduism%20in%20Europe_Abstracts.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=ty78|group=note}}


== Main traditions ==
==Scriptures and theology==
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."<ref> Complete Works of ] Vol III. 118-120; Vol. I. 6-7.</ref>
The scriptures were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.<ref>Sargeant, Winthrop, Introduction to ''The Bhagavad Gita'' at 3 (New York, 1984) ISBN 0-87395-831-4</ref><ref name="ISBN 0-911206-15-9-E5-V1-3">Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 3 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref> Over many centuries, the teachings were refined by other sages, and the canon expanded. The majority of the ] are composed in the ]. Sanskrit continues to be used today in religious and literary settings. The scripture are collectively referred to as '']s'' and are classified into two classes: ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti''.


===Shruti: Vedic literature=== === Denominations ===
{{Further|Hindu denominations}}
{{main|Śruti}}
] ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): ] (centre) with ] (top left), ] (top right), ] (bottom left) and ] (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.]]
]'' is one of the oldest ]. Shown here is a Rig Veda ] in ], early nineteenth century.]]
''Shruti'' (lit: that which has been heard) refers to the ''Vedas'' ({{Unicode|वेद}}, Knowledge) which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While they have not been dated with much certainty, even the most conservative estimates date their origin to 1200 BCE or earlier.<ref>Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 7 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref><ref>Coulson, Michael, ''Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language'' (2d Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-8442-3825-2</ref><ref></ref>


Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'', ''Smartism'', and ''Vaishnavism''.{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the ] outlook.<ref name="sskumar">SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=371–375}}
Hindus revere the ] as eternal truths, revealed to ancient sages ('']s'') through meditation.<ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118.</ref> Many of these sages were women, called ''Ṛṣikās''.<ref > {{cite web|url=http://hinduwisdom.info/Women_in_Hinduism.htm|title=Hindu Wisdom - Women in Hinduism|accessdate=2006-01-02}}</ref> Most Hindus do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.<ref>Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, and are not eternal.</ref><ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I. 6-7.</ref><ref>Swami Harshananda, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas," in ''Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World'' (2d Ed.) ISBN 81-7120-121-0</ref>


There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ |date=9 February 2020}}, Pew Research (2012)</ref> Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252&nbsp;million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30&nbsp;million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25&nbsp;million or 2.6%.{{sfn|Johnson|Grim|2013|p=400}}<ref>See also {{harv|Klostermaier|2007|p=199}}</ref> In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{dubious|date=February 2022}}}}
There are four Vedas (called ''Rik-, Sāma- Yajus- ''and ''Atharva-''). The '']'' is the first and the most important Veda.<ref>Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest ] texts. See: </ref> Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the ''Veda proper'', being the '']'', which contains sacred ''mantras'' in verse. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose, which are historically believed to be slightly later in age than the ''Saṃhitā''. These are: the '']'', '']'', and the ]s. The first two parts are called the ''Karmakāṇḍa'' (the ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''Jñānakāṇḍa'' (the knowledge portion).<ref name="hinduwebsite"></ref><ref name="Shivananda"></ref><ref name="Vedah">, Vedah.com</ref>


Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu{{Refn|group=note|sometimes with ], the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=65 and Chapter 5}}}} and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=15–17}} The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" ''Krishna'' and other Vishnu avatars.<ref name=sskumar /> These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of ]s and ]s, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nettl |first1=Bruno |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia: the Indian subcontinent |last2=Stone |first2=Ruth M. |last3=Porter |first3=James |last4=Rice |first4=Timothy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |pages=246–247 |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011163910/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.<ref>{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|pp=1441, 376}}</ref>
The Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophy whereas the Vedas focus on rituals. These texts constitute a major portion of the Jnāna Kānda,<ref name="ISBN 0-911206-15-9-E5-V1-3"/> and contain much of the Vedas' philosophical teachings. The Upanishads discuss ] and ].<ref>See Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' 166 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Life and Thought in India'' 25-41 (New Delhi 1974)</ref>
While the ''Vedas'' are not read by most ] Hindus, they are yet revered as the eternal knowledge whose sacred sounds help bring spiritual and material benefits. Theologically, they take precedence over the ''Smriti''.<ref></ref>


Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.<ref name=sskumar /> Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.<ref name="lancenelson">{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|year=2007|pp=562–563}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=209}} Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (]). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.<ref name=lancenelson /> Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the ].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2010), ''God's Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-538614-1}}</ref> Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.{{sfn|Isaeva|1995|pp=141–145}}
''See also: ]''


Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,<ref name=sskumar /> and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as ] and ]. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like ], the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like ] and ]. Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with ] practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scaligero |first=Massimo |year=1955 |title=The Tantra and the Spirit of the West |journal=East and West |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=291–296 |jstor=29753633}}</ref> Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.<ref>'''History:''' Hans Koester (1929), The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol 23, Part 1, pp. 1–18;<br />'''Modern practices:''' June McDaniel (2010), ''Goddesses in World Culture'', Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), {{ISBN|978-0-313-35465-6}}, Chapter 2</ref>
===Smriti: non-Vedic literature===
{{main|Smriti}}
]'' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi resting on ]. The sage ] and ] are also pictured.]]
Hindu texts other than the ''Shrutis'' are collectively called the ''Smritis'' (memory).<ref name=Smritis> by Swami Sivananda</ref>


] centers its worship simultaneously on all the major ]: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, ] and ].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996}} The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards ] as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (]) as a journey towards ultimately realising God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).<ref name="williamw">{{Cite book |last=Wainwright |first=William |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |publisher=Stanford University |year=2012 |chapter=Concepts of God |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323084508/http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Murthy |first=U |title=Samskara |url=https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-561079-6 |page=}}</ref> The term ''Smartism'' is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref name="williamsonp89">{{cite book|first=L |last=Williamson |year=2010 |title=Transcendent in America: Hindu-inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9450-0 |page=89}}</ref> This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Murray |title=Status and Sacredness |url=https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-508489-4 |pages=–197}}</ref>
The most notable of the smritis are the '']'' (]s), which consist of the '']'' and the '']''. ] is an integral part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical sermons told by ''Krishna'', an incarnation of ''Vishnu'', to the '']'' prince ] on the eve of a great war. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas.''<ref>''{{Unicode|Sarvopaniṣado}} gāvo,'' etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', ''cited in'' Introduction to .</ref>


=== Ethnicities ===
Also widely known are the '']s'' ("ancient histories"), which illustrate Vedic ideas through vivid narratives dealing with deities, and their interactions with humans. Other key texts are the ''{{IAST|Devī Mahātmya}}'', the '']'', the '']'' as well as the ''{{Unicode|Mahanirvāṇa Tantra}}'', '']'' and '']''. Another important set of scriptures with a more sectarian nature are the '']'', which dedicate to rituals and worship associated with ''Vishnu'', ''Shiva'' and ''{{Unicode|Devī}}''. A more controversial text, the '']'' or "Code of Manu", is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the Brahminical caste system.
] Hindu temple complex built in the 9th century, ], Indonesia]]
] at ], one of the most significant ] temples]]
{{See also|Hinduism in South Asia|Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism in Java|Hinduism in Vietnam|Hinduism in the West|label 2=Southeast Asia|label 3=Bali|l4=Java|l5=Vietnam|l6=West}}


Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or ] religion. On the ], it is widespread among many ], ] and other ],{{sfn|West|2010}} for example, the ] (] ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state ]).{{sfn|Singh|2004}}
Most Hindu scriptures, especially the epics and Puranas, are not typically interpreted literally and more importance is attached to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings derived from them.<ref>''See'' Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 8 (5th ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref> Hindu exegesis leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones.


In addition, in antiquity and the ], Hinduism was the ] in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the '']''{{snd}}from Afghanistan (]) in the West and including almost all of ] in the East (], ], ], partly ]){{snd}}and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam,{{sfnm|1a1=Cœdès|1y=1968|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=|3a1=Acri|3a2=Creese|3a3=Griffiths|3y=2011|3p=}}<ref name="spread">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific|encyclopedia=] Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|url-status=live}}</ref> except several still Hindu minor ] ethnic groups, such as the ]{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} and ]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in Indonesia, and the ] in Vietnam.{{sfnm|1a1=Phuong|1a2=Lockhart|1y=2011|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=231}} Also, a small community of the Afghan ] who migrated to India after ] remain committed to Hinduism.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |title=Tattooed 'blue-skinned' Hindu Pushtuns look back at their roots |author=Haider, Suhasini |date=3 February 2018 |website=] |access-date=9 February 2020 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822082221/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
==="Many scriptures, many paths"===
In contrast to the scriptural canons in some other religions, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed even today. Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.<ref>''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' II.374 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> Some Hindus even venerate the scriptures of other religions, since they believe that God reveals itself in innumerable ways. One much-quoted verse from the ''Rigveda'' that emphasizes the diversity of paths to the one goal is:
:''{{IAST|ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadanty}}''
:Truth is one, the wise call it in many different ways
:—<small>].164.46</small></blockquote>


The Indo-Aryan ] in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which is closely related to ancient Indo-Iranian religion, and resembles the ancient Vedic religion.{{sfn|Michael|2004}} While it has been related to Greek religion, due to an origin-narrative which says that the Kalash descend from Alexander the Great's Greek soldiers, the Kalash speak an Indo-Aryan language, and their religion is closer to Hinduism than to the religion of Alexander's army.{{sfn|West|2010|p=|loc=quote: "The Kalasha religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies."}}
This openness means that there is little theological quarrel between Hindu denominations<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' </ref> although these denominations may view God in a different form or sense.<ref>See Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 64, 66 (New Delhi 1974)</ref>


There are many new ethnic ] in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of ] and ]<ref name="Joshi">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10401741.stm |title=Ghana's unique African-Hindu temple |author=] |website=BBC News |date= |access-date= |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231013628/https://www.bbc.com/news/10401741 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), ], ] and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.{{sfn|Carney|2020}}
===Schools of philosophy===
{{main|Hindu philosophy}}
The six ''{{Unicode|Āstika}}'' or orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas, are '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' (also called ''{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsā}}''), and '']'' (also called ''{{Unicode|Vedānta}}'').<ref name="Philosophy"></ref> The Heterodox ''{{Unicode|Nāstika}}'' schools, which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas, are ], ] and '']''. Although these philosophies are studied formally mainly by scholars, they influence the beliefs of average Hindus.


==Practices== == Scriptures ==
{{Main|List of Hindu texts}}
Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. According to ]:
{{See also|Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism}}
<blockquote>
]'' is the first among four Vedas<ref group="note">Rigveda is not only the oldest among the Vedas, but is one of the earliest ] texts.</ref> and is one of the oldest ]. This Rigveda ] is in ].]]
"The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like best, and then see Him in another. So on you go&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Take your time and you will achieve your end."<ref>Swami Vivekananda, ''Vedanta: Voice of Freedom'', Ed. Swami Chetanananda (1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9</ref>
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are initially in ] and later in classical Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: ] and ]. Shruti is '']'', ({{literal translation|not made of a man}}) but revealed by the '']'' ({{literal translation|seers}}), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=202}} They are the two highest ], the other two being '']'' ({{literal translation|conduct of noble people}}) and finally '']'' ({{literal translation|what is pleasing to oneself}}).{{refn|group=note|According to ], Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7, there are four ]: '']'' (Vedas), '']'' (Dharmaśāstras, Puranas), '']'' (conduct of noble people) and finally '']'' (Self satisfaction). From the sloka:
</blockquote>
: {{lang|sa|वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedagyana.info/maha-puranas-telugu/bhavishya-purana/brahma-parva/?chapter=7 |script-title=te:ఏడవ అధ్యాయము – 7. వివాహ ధర్మ వర్ణనము |trans-title=Chapter 7 – 7. Description of Marriage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610234713/http://www.vedagyana.info/maha-puranas-telugu/bhavishya-purana/brahma-parva/?chapter=7 |archive-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>
:''{{IAST|vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah<br />etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam}}''
:– Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7
The meaning is ''vedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's Self (conscience), the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma''.}}


Hindu scriptures were composed, memorised and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.{{sfn|Flood|2003|loc=See ] quote|pp=68–69}}{{sfn|Sargeant|Chapple|1984|p=3}} Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}
===Puja (worship)===
{{main|Puja}}
Hindus may engage in some type of formal worship (]: {{IAST|pūjā}}, worship or veneration<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Veneration may involve offering food, water, or flowers and may be expressed through the burning of incense, lighting of candles or oil-lamps, ringing a bell, waving a fan, or sounding a conch-shell. Other practices of Puja include ], the chanting of mantras, and the recitation of scriptures.


''Shruti'' ({{literal translation|that which is heard}}){{sfn|Rinehart|2004|p=68}} primarily refers to the ''Vedas'', which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (''rishis'').{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=4}} There are four ''Vedas'' – '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the ]s (mantras and benedictions), the ] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the ] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the ] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=35–39}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|pp=8–14}}<ref>George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-533261-2}}, p. 285</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1975), ''Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas)'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}</ref> The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the ''{{IAST|Karmakāṇḍa}}'' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''{{IAST|Jñānakāṇḍa}}'' (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).<ref>{{harvnb|Roer|1908|pp=1–5}}; "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) {{IAST|pūrva-kāṇḍa}}, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the {{IAST|jñāna-kāṇḍa}}, the part which contains knowledge, also named {{IAST|uttarra-kāṇḍa}} or posterior part and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal Self."</ref>{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=10, 58, 66}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=25–41}}<ref name="Olivelle1998Introduction">{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |year=1998 |title=Upaniṣads |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-282292-5 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>
] and ], heavily laden with garlands, taken during a Hindu prayer ceremony.]]


The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.<ref name="wendydoniger" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dissanayake |first=Wiman |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1080-6 |editor-last=Kasulis |editor-first=Thomas P. |page=39 |quote=The Upanishads form the '''foundations of Hindu philosophical thought''' and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref name="McDowell" /> Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.<ref name="wendydoniger">{{harvnb|Doniger|1990|pp=2–3}}: "The Upanishads supply the '''basis of later Hindu philosophy'''; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref name="Olivelle2014p3q" /> Indian philosopher ] states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |year=1951 |title=The Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/PrincipalUpanishads/129481965-The-Principal-Upanishads-by-S-Radhakrishnan#page/n19/mode/2up |publisher=George Allen & Co. |isbn=978-81-7223-124-8 |edition=reprint |pages=17–19}}</ref> There are 108 ] Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as ].<ref name="Olivelle1998Introduction" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Thirteen Principal Upanishads |year=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |translator-last=Hume |translator-first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n1/mode/2up}}</ref>
] is an important part of ''bhakti''. Devotional singing occurs in temples, in ]s, on the banks of holy rivers, at home and elsewhere. Hymns are in ] or in modern Indian languages such as ], ], ] or ]. Musical instruments accompanying devotional singing include the ], ], ], and ]. Another form of community worship is ] (fellowship), the practice of gathering for study or discussion of scriptures and religious topics as well as chanting ''mantras''.<ref></ref>


{{multiple image
Vedic rites of icon-less fire-oblation (]), with traditional Vedic chanting, are now only occasional practices although they are highly revered in theory. In a Hindu wedding ceremony, however, the presence of sacred fire as the divine witness, the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic mantras is still the norm.<ref></ref><ref></ref>
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The most notable of the Smritis ({{literal translation|that which is remembered}}) are the Hindu epics and the '']'' ({{literal translation|that which is ancient}}). The epics consist of the '']'' and the '']''. The '']'' is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.<ref>''Sarvopaniṣado gāvo'', etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', cited in {{cite book |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/introduction/ |title=Bhagavad-gītā |trans-title=As It Is |via=Bhaktivedanta VedaBase |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174201/https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/introduction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is sometimes called ''Gitopanishad'', then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being Upanishadic in content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coburn |first=Thomas B. |date=September 1984 |title="Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life |journal=] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=435–459 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435 }}</ref> The ''Puranas'', which started to be composed of {{Circa|300 CE}} onward,{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=655}} contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The '']'' is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained renewed popularity in the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michelis |first=Elizabeth De |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHBBDq_Ul3sC |title=A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism |date=2005 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-8772-8 |access-date=14 October 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155602/https://books.google.com/books?id=sHBBDq_Ul3sC |url-status=live }}</ref>
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Worship of God through icons </span>'''
{{main|Murti}}
<!-- ], known as ].]] -->
Hindus may worship God through ]s (]), such as statues or paintings symbolic of God's power and glory. The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God.<ref> Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 137 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Another view is that the image is a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The ] states that the ''{{IAST|mūrti}}'' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.<ref>''arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.''</ref> A few Hindu sects, such as the ], do not believe in worshiping God through icons.


Since the 19th century, Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements{{sfn|Lorenzen|2002|p=33}} and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987|loc=Volume I|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Harshananda|1989}}
===Temples===
{{main|Mandir}}
Hindu temples are a place of worship for Hindus. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities. However, some temples are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the '']'' and many are sites of pilgrimage. An important element of temple architecture and many Hindu households in general is ], the science of aesthetic and auspicious design.


] are the religious scriptures that give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition, ], ], ], and ] are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balfour |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U0OAAAAQAAJ&dq=worship+radha&pg=PA62 |title=The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures |date=1885 |publisher=B. Quaritch |pages=60 |language=en |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320150436/https://books.google.com/books?id=3U0OAAAAQAAJ&dq=worship+radha&pg=PA62 |url-status=live }}</ref> The '']'' in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=13}} while ''Nigamas'' refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=13}} In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhavamony |first=Mariasusai |title=Hindu Spirituality |publisher=Gregorian University and Biblical Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |pages=31–34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=David |title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India |url=https://archive.org/details/danceofsivarelig0000smit |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-48234-9 |page=}}</ref>
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5 p 157">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 157 (Viveka Press 1994)</ref> Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals, though others do so more regularly. Temples are not used for funerals, or as social hubs but some are used for weddings(e.g. temple of ] at ], ]). Many Hindus view the four ]s (the abbots of the monasteries of ], ], ] and ] — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at ] is also added) as the ]s of Hinduism.


=== Hindu iconography === == Beliefs ==
] in ], representing the ]: ], ] and ]]]
{{main|Hindu iconography}}
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) ] (ethics/duties), ] (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices).{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterised by a belief in an ], with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as ]. ] once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.<ref name="A.M. Boyer 1901">A.M. Boyer: ''Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.'' Journal Asiatique, (1901), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451–453, 459–468</ref><ref name="Yuvraj Krishan 1997">Yuvraj Krishan: ''Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan'', 1997, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref><ref name="Laumakis">{{Cite book |last=Laumakis |first=Stephen J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC |title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46966-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155520/https://books.google.co.ma/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hayakawa 2014">{{Cite book |last=Hayakawa |first=Atsushi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7LtAgAAQBAJ |title=Circulation of Fire in the Veda |date=2014 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90472-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sayers">{{Cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor Worship in Ancient India |year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="repositories.lib.utexas.edu">{{Cite thesis |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |date=May 2008 |degree=Thesis |first=Matthew R. |last=Sayers |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sayers 182–197">{{Cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=June 2015 |title=The Śrāddha : The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism: The Śrāddha |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |journal=Religion Compass |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=182–197 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12155 |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119210615/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |url-status=live }}</ref>
]]]
Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The symbols ] (which represents the ''Parabrahman''), ] (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings like ] identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, ] and ], with particular ''devas''. These associations distinguish the physical representations of the deities in sculptural or printed form and are based upon allegorical references in Hindu mythology. While most representations of deities are largely anthropomorphic there are exceptions. For instance the deity Shiva is worshipped in the form of a pillar-like stone called a '']''.


===The guru-disciple tradition=== === Purusharthas ===
{{Main|Puruṣārtha}}
{{main|Guru-shishya tradition}}
{{See also|Diksha|l1=Diksha|Dharma|l2=Dharma|Artha|l3=Artha|Kama|l4=Kāma|Moksha#Hinduism|l5=Mokṣa}}
In many Hindu sects, spiritual aspirants are encouraged to adopt a personal spiritual teacher, called a ]. Traditionally, during ] (see ]) a Guru taught a disciple all things necessary to lead a ] life. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to have a spiritual life. The guru's recompense paid by the student is known as ]; in many traditions,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} this may not be monetary.
Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103">{{harvnb|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}; see also {{harvnb|Koller|1968}}.</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1997|p=11}}


==== Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics) ====
===Japa and mantra===
{{main|Japa|Mantra}} {{Main|Dharma}}
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=The Fruits of Our Desiring |year=1996a |isbn=978-1-896209-30-2 |editor-last=Lipner |editor-first=Julius |pages=16–21 |chapter=The meaning and context of the Purusarthas |publisher=Bayeux |author-link=Gavin Flood}}</ref> The concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with ], the order that makes life and universe possible,<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926234045/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 |date=26 September 2016 }}, The '']'': "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name="tce">{{Cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5 |edition=6th |chapter=Dharma}}</ref> Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce /> Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.<ref name="vanbuitenen">{{Cite journal |last=Van Buitenen |first=J. A. B. |date=April–July 1957 |title=Dharma and Moksa |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.2307/1396832 |jstor=1396832}}</ref> The ] states it as:
]s are prayers or chants that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a person focus their mind on holy thoughts or to express devotion to God. Mantras are meant to give courage in exigent times and invoke one's inner spiritual strength.


{{blockquote|Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|]|1.4.xiv<ref>], The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, {{ISBN|978-1-4959-4653-0}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505</ref><ref>Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), "From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Vol 32, pp. 423–448, (2004)</ref>}}
After the ] or "fundamental" mantra of "]", one of the most revered mantras in Hinduism is the ]. Hindus are initiated into this most sacred mantra at the time of their ] (thread ceremony). Many Hindus perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri or ] mantras.


In the ], ] defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word ''Sanātana'' means ''eternal'', ''perennial'', or ''forever''; thus, ''Sanātana Dharma'' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Prabhupādā |first=A. C. Bhaktivedanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither%20beginning%20nor%20end%22&pg=PA16 |title=Bhagavad-gītā as it is |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-89213-268-3 |page=16 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174159/https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither+beginning+nor+end%22&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref>
] (ritualistic chanting) is extolled as the greatest duty for the ] (what Hindus believe to be the current age), in the epic ]. Following this direction, many Hindu traditions adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. The ] tradition chanting the ] mantra is one such example.


==== Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life) ====
===Pilgrimage===
{{Main|Artha}}
] at one of the Hindu Holy city ] (]).]]
Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.{{sfn|Koller|1968}} The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=55–56}}<ref name="bruces">Bruce Sullivan (1997), ''Historical Dictionary of Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-8108-3327-2}}, pp. 29–30</ref>


A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.<ref>John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), pp. 315–319</ref>
] is not mandatory in Hinduism. Nevertheless, many Hindus undertake one or more pilgrimages during their lifetimes. There are many Hindu holy places in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of ]. Other holy places in India include ] and ] in the ], the ] temple at ], ] and ] in the foothills of the Himalayas, ] (today Allahabad), ] in the South and ] in the east. The largest single gathering of pilgrims is during the annual ] fair held in one of four different cities on a rotating basis.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Another important "set" of pilgrimages are the 51 "]," where ] is worshipped, two principal ones being ] and ], which are incidentally major points of confluence for practitioners of ] and those who seek their guidance. ], the ] temple near ], ] is the second most visited religious shrine in India, after ] Mandir.<ref>
{{ cite web |
title = More pilgrim rush to Vaishno Devi this year |
url = http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/33424 |date=October 08, 2006|
publisher = |
}}</ref>


==== Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure) ====
===Hindu festivals===
{{main|Hindu festivals}} {{Main|Kama}}
Kāma (Sanskrit, ]: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of the ], the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Macy |first=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.2307/3269765 |jstor=3269765}}</ref><ref name="mmwse">Monier Williams, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211540/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html |date=19 October 2017 }} ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary'', p. 271, see 3rd column</ref>
Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. Their dates are usually prescribed by the ] and typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes and occasions of importance in an agrarian society. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the ].
] depiction of loving embrace at a temple relief of ], ], India - a ] ]]]


In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian ] the ] describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).<ref>R. Prasad (2008), ''History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization'', Volume 12, Part 1, {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, Chapter 10, particularly pp. 252–255</ref>
Some widely observed ] are,
*], or ], celebrates events from Hindu mythology symbolizing the triumph of good over evil;
*], the festival of lights;
*], the festival celebrating ];
*], the festival dedicated to Shiva;
*], celebrates the birth of Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu;
*], celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu;
*], a spring festival of colors and light;
*], a harvest festival of India


In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.<ref>See:
===Cremation===
*"The Hindu Kama Shastra Society" (1925), '''', University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8;
On death, ] is considered obligatory for all except ]s, ], and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a ]. Manikarnika Ghat, in ], is a famous site where bodies are cremated by the side of the river, in full view of the public. Those not cremated may be simply wrapped in cloth, weighted with stones and cast into a river.
*A. Sharma (1982), ''The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology'', Michigan State University, {{ISBN|978-99936-24-31-8}}, pp. 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (July 1984), pp. 140–142;
*A. Sharma (1999), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174154/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 |date=29 December 2020 }}, ''The Journal of Religious Ethics'', Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
*Chris Bartley (2001), ''Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'', Editor: Oliver Learman, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, p. 443</ref>


==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering) ====
Hinduism obliges the closest male relative (son, father, husband, etc.) of the deceased to immerse the cremated remains in the holy river ] (]), preferably at the holy city of ], India. The cremated remains may also be entombed, in case the deceased was a well-known person.
{{Main|Moksha}}
Moksha ({{Langx|sa|मोक्ष|translit=mokṣa}}) or mukti ({{Langx|sa|मुक्ति|links=no}}) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from ] (a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.<ref name="vanbuitenen" />{{sfn|Rinehart|2004|pp=19–21}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Long|first=J. Bruce|title=The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata|publisher=University of California Press|year=1980|isbn=978-0-520-03923-0|editor-last=O'Flaherty|editor-first=Wendy D.|chapter=2 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions}}</ref>


] in ], ], considered one of the focal pilgrimage places for liberation (] or ])]]
==Society==
===Denominations===
{{main|Hindu denominations}}
] in ] is regarded as one of the most sacred places in ].]]


Due to the belief in Hinduism that the ] is eternal, and the concept of ] (the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness),<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Far East and Australasia, 2003 – Regional surveys of the world |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85743-133-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |page=39 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174155/https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |url-status=live }}</ref> death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |title=Hindu spirituality – Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia |publisher=Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |page=1 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229001010/https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |url-status=live }}</ref>
Many Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all.<ref>Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 73 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: ], ], ] and ]. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that God.


===== Differing views on the nature of moksha =====
] worship ''{{IAST|Viṣhṇu}}''; ] worship ''Shiva''; ] worship '']'' (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, '']''; while ] believe in the essential sameness of all deities and that they are all Brahman.
The meaning of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.


] holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to ].<ref name=karlpotter /><ref name=klausklost />
There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami ]'s '']'', which condemns image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire sacrifices ('']''). In ], the Goddess is considered the power of ''Shiva'', and thus represents a combination of the Shaiva and shakta denominations.


The followers of ] (dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife moksha state, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha they expect to spend eternity in a ] (heaven).{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. ] is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.<ref> ''India and Hinduism - Background of relativism''</ref>


More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter">{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Karl H.|date=1958|title=Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=8|issue=1/2|pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1397421|jstor=1397421|issn=0031-8221}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ingalls|first=Daniel H. H.|date=1957d|title=Dharma and Moksha|url=https://cup.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Philosophies-of-Happiness-Supplementary-Notes.pdf|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=7|issue=2|pages=41–48|doi=10.2307/1396833|jstor=1396833}}{{dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="danielingails">{{Cite book|last=Pal|first=Jagat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|title=Karma, Dharma and Moksha: Conceptual Essays on Indian Ethics|date=2004|publisher=Abhijeet Publications|isbn=978-81-88683-23-9|language=en|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164240/https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="klausklost">{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|title=Philosophy East & West|date=1985|publisher=]|pages=61–71|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Ashramas: Stages of Grihastha Life===
{{main|Ashrama}}
Traditionally, the life of a male Hindu was divided into four '']s'' ("phases" or "stages"; unrelated meanings of āshrama include "monastery" or "refuge").


According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter" /><ref name="danielingails" /> ''Moksha'' when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests ],<ref name="klausklost" /> implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.<ref name="klausklost" />
The first part of one's life, ''Brahmacharya,'' the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a ], building up the mind for the realization of truth.


Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the ] separates this into two views – '']'' (liberation in this life) and '']'' (liberation after death).<ref name="klausklost" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Brück |first=M. |year=1986 |title=Imitation or Identification? |journal=Indian Theological Studies |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=95–105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fort|first=Andrew O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation|title=Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta|date=1998|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-7914-3904-3|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164245/https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation#v=snippet&q=Jivanmukti%20in%20Transformation&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
''Grihastha'' is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies '']'' and '']'' within one's married and professional life respectively (see the ]). Among the moral obligations of a Hindu householder are the duties to support one's parents, children, guests, priests (''Brahmins''), and monks (''sanyāsis'').


=== Karma and saṃsāra ===
''{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}},'' the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages.
{{Main|Karma}}
''Karma'' translates literally as ''action'', ''work'', or ''deed'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman S |url=https://archive.org/details/studentsenglishs00apte_271 |title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-0300-8 |edition=New |location=Delhi}}</ref> and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |year=1991 |title=The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-06-250799-0 |page=64 |author-link=Huston Smith |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsreligions000smit}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1964), "The Naturalistic Principle of Karma", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (April 1964), pp. 39–49</ref> The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicisation, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.<ref name="wdointro">Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. xi–xxv (Introduction) and 3–37</ref> Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives.<ref name=wdointro /><ref>Karl Potter (1980), in ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'' (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. 241–267</ref> This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called '']''. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting ] and ].{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |title=Jnana Yoga |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4254-8288-6 |author-link=Swami Vivekananda |pages=301–302}} (8th Printing 1993)</ref> Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chapple|first=Christopher Key|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity|title=Karma and Creativity|date=1986|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-88706-250-6|pages=60–64|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity#v=snippet&q=Karma%20and%20Creativity&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The idea of ], or ], is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boyer |first=A. M. |year=1901 |title=Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=451–453, 459–468}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Krishan |first=Yuvraj |title=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1997 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref> The later layers of the ''Rigveda'' do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.{{sfn|Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ranade |first=R. D. |url=https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926#page/n181/mode/2up |title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1926 |pages=147–148 |quote=...&nbsp;in certain other places , an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.}}</ref> According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as ''sraddha'' (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the ''Aranyakas'' and the ''Upanisads'' show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |pages=1–9 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first=Matthew Rae |last=Sayers |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Texas |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |page=12 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=1 November 2015 |editor-last=McGovern |editor-first=Nathan |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=336–338 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hiv034 |issn=1756-4255 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204170604/https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |url-status=live }}</ref> The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the ] of the late ], predating the ] and the ].<ref name="damienkeown32">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |title=Buddhism: A very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966383-5 |pages=28, 32–38 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164154/https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}}


=== Concept of God ===
Finally, in ''{{Unicode|Sannyāsa}}'', the stage of ], one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).<ref name="ISBN 1-57607-905-8 p 165-68">S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", 165-68, ''in'' Contemporary Hinduism (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref>
{{Main|Ishvara|God in Hinduism}}


Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs<!--systems listed at 'Definitions' above--><ref name="Lipner2009p8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakravarti |first=Sitansu |title=Hinduism, a way of life |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-208-0899-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |page=71 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413105302/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Smart |first=Ninian |year=2007 |title=Polytheism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |access-date=5 July 2007 |archive-date=5 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040843/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469156/polytheism |url-status=live }}</ref> its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and ] followed. It is sometimes referred to as ] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gill |first=N.S |title=Henotheism |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317151629/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-date=17 March 2007 |access-date=5 July 2007 |publisher=]}}</ref>
===Monasticism===
{{main|Sannyasa}}
In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of ] (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5 p 112">Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"The Essentials of Hinduism"'', Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> A Hindu monk is called a s''anyāsī, ]'', or '']''.<ref>R.S. McGregor, ''The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary'' (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 0-19-563846-8</ref> A female renunciate is called a ''sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref> It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus, or any brahmana, with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5 p 112"/>


{{Rquote|left|"Who really knows?<br />Who will here proclaim it? <br />Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?<br />The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.<br />Who then knows whence it has arisen?"|], concerns the ], ], ''10:129–6''{{sfn|Kramer|1986|pp=}}{{sfn|Christian|2011|pp=}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=}}}}
===Varnas and the caste system===
The '']'' (''Creation Hymn'') of the '']'' is one of the earliest texts{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=226}} which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|pp=20–21}}</ref><ref name="3translations">* Original Sanskrit: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145645/https://sa.wikisource.org/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%3A_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF |date=25 May 2017 }} Wikisource;
{{main|Varnashrama dharma}}
* '''Translation 1''': {{harvnb|Muller|1859|pp=559–565}}
Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called ''Varnas'' (''Sanskrit'': "color, form, appearance");<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>. It is argued that in ancient times, the ''Varṇas'' were merely labels based upon occupation (as opposed to the hereditary ] currently present in India) —
* '''Translation 2''': {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|p=}}
* the '']s'': teachers and priests;
* '''Translation 3''': {{harvnb|Christian|2011|pp=–}}</ref> The ''Rig Veda'' praises various ], none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Muller |first=Max |author-link=Max Muller |year=1878 |title=Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India |publisher=Longmans Green & Co |pages=260–271}}<br />{{cite book |last=Wilkins |first=William Joseph |year=1882 |title=Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic |publisher=London Missionary Society |location=Calcutta |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8 |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164250/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The hymns repeatedly refer to ]. The "One Truth" of ], in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raghavendrachar |first=H.N. |year=1944 |title=Monism in the Vedas |journal=The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University |department=Section A – Arts |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=137–152 |url=http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206070146/http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2015}}<br />{{cite journal |last=Werner |first=K. |year=1982 |title=Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=14–24|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00158575 |s2cid=163754819 }}<br />{{cite journal |last=Coward |first=H. |year=1995 |department=Book Review |title=The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas |journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=45–47 |doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1116 |quote=There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* the '']s'': warriors and kings;
* the '']s'': farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
* the '']s'': servants and labourers.


{{multiple image
Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref><ref name=castesystem> View of Scholars</ref> Although the scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the ''Varna'' system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion, and both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the ''Vedas,'' place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it rarely and in a cursory manner. A verse from the ] indicates that a person's caste was not necessarily determined by that of his family:
| caption_align = center
<blockquote>"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)<ref>Later scriptures, however, such as the '']'' () state that the four ''{{IAST|varṇa}}'' divisions are created by God, and the '']'' categorizes the different castes. 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the ''Gītā'' says that one's ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage '']'' was a king of the '']'' caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, '']'', once a low-caste robber, ''became'' a sage. '']'', another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem. . Page 21).
| total_width = 300
</ref>
| perrow = 2
</blockquote>
| title = ] in Hinduism
In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the ''Shudras'' (which later on became the low-castes) listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.<ref>White Yajurveda 26.2</ref>
| image1 = The Hindu God Vishnu LACMA M.70.5.1 (1 of 12).jpg
| alt1 = Vishnu
| caption1 = ]
| image2 = Brahma on hamsa.jpg
| alt2 = Brahma
| caption2 = ]
| image3 = MurudeshwarStatue.JPG
| alt3 = Shiva
| caption3 = ]
| image4 = Durga idol 2011 Burdwan.jpg
| alt4 = Shakti
| caption4 = ]
}}


Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the '']''. The Self is believed to be eternal.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}} According to the monistic/pantheistic (]) theologies of Hinduism (such as ]), this ] is indistinct from ], the supreme spirit or ].<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvnb | Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the ], is to realise that ] is identical to ], that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987}}<ref>John Koller (2012), ''Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'' (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pp. 99–107</ref><ref>Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in ''Living Liberation in Hindu Thought'' (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pp. 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref> ] schools (] and ]) understand ] as a Supreme Being separate from ].<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), ''A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals'', Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pp. 345–347</ref> They worship the Supreme Being variously as ], ], ], or ], depending upon the sect. God is called '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' or '']'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.{{sfn|Eliade|2009|pp=73–76}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|pp=37–39, 401–403, 498–503}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|2001}}
Mobility and flexibility within the varnas belie allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists.<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{cite journal
|author = James Silverberg
|date = November 1969
|year = 1969
|month = Nov
|title = Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium
|journal = The American Journal of Sociology
|volume = 75
|issue = 3
|pages = 443-444
}}</ref><ref>''Social Structure & Mobility in Economic Development'', By Neil J. Smelser, Seymour Martin Lipset, Published 2005</ref> Several prominent Hindu figures who were born as Shudras became Brahmins through various actions. For example ], author of the ], was originally a thief.


Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berntsen |first=Maxine |url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell |title=The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88706-662-7 |pages=–19 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref> Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pp. 281–282;<br />Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 229–231</ref> It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the ] foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from ], in which all things are themselves divine.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, ], etc. The ] view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.<ref name="Wallin1999p64">{{Cite book |last1=Buttimer |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |title=Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective |last2=Wallin |first2=L. |publisher=Springer |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7923-5651-6 |pages=64–68 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162533/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mabry |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |title=Noticing the Divine: An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance |publisher=New York: Morehouse |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8192-2238-1 |pages=32–33 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160602/https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Samovar |first1=Larry A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |title=Communication Between Cultures |last2=Porter |first2=Richard E. |last3=McDaniel |first3=Edwin R. |publisher=Cengage |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-305-88806-7 |pages=140–144 |display-authors=etal |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Many social reformers, including ] and ], criticized caste discrimination.<ref>Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," ''in Contemporary Hinduism'', Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> The religious teacher ] (1836-1886) taught that
<blockquote>"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through ] (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."<ref> M, ''Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna'', Translation by Swami Nikhilananda 155 (Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 8th Printing 1992)</ref>
</blockquote>


The ] name celestial entities called '']'' (or ''{{IAST|]}}'' in feminine form), which may be translated into English as ''gods'' or ''heavenly beings''.{{refn|group=note|For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.}} The ] are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, ] and through ], and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the ]. They are, however, often distinguished from ], a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping ] in one of its particular manifestations as their ''{{IAST|]}}'', or chosen ideal.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=9, 15, 49, 54, 86}}{{sfn|Renou|1964|p=55}} The choice is a matter of individual preference,<ref name="harman1">{{harvnb|Harman|2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and of regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1 />{{refn|group=note|Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called '']'' or '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harlan |first=Lindsey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-07339-5 |pages=19–20, 48 with footnotes |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The multitude of Devas is considered manifestations of Brahman.<ref name=avatars>* {{harvnb|Hark|DeLisser|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "Three gods or ], ], ], and ], and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of ]."
However, it is not only in the modern era that major figures of Hinduism have aggressively denied casteism. ], who lived some time in the 5th century CE, was outspoken against caste, frequently citing scripture in defense of his then heterodox viewpoint.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} The ] that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox Hinduism between the 8th and 11th centuries CE<ref>Flood, Gavin, "The Śaiva Traditions" in: Flood (2005; paperback edition of Flood 2003) p.208</ref> also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and caste distinction. However it would be an overgeneralization to say that the Tantrics did away with all caste restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains:
* {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities is understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality."
* {{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The ] are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas."</ref>


] (centre) surrounded by his ], namely ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ], and ]]]
<blockquote>
The word '']'' does not appear in the ];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bassuk |first=Daniel E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=2–4 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160747/https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> It appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=1978 |isbn=978-3-447-04860-6 |editor-last=Schmithausen |editor-first=Lambert |pages=424, also 405–409, 414–417 |language=de}}</ref> Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the ''avatars'' of Hindu god ], though the idea has been applied to other deities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |edition=Second |volume=2 |pages=707–708}}</ref> Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten ] of the '']'' and the twenty-two avatars in the '']'', though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18}} The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based ], avatars of the ] are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same ]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDaniel |first=June |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC&pg=PA90 |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |pages=90–91}}</ref> and ] ''(energy)''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawley |first1=John Stratton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |title=The life of Hinduism |last2=Narayanan |first2=Vasudha |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24914-1 |page=174 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174125/https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1522-3 |pages=115–119 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160534/https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |url-status=live }}</ref> While avatars of other deities such as ] and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.<ref>"Shiva" in {{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=635}}</ref>
"For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the caste system but in the later Tantras caste elements are pronounced. This is due to the fact that although many of our known Tantric teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were Brāhmaṇas who could not give up their caste prejudices notwithstanding their conversion to Tantrism."<ref>N. N. Bhattacharyya. ''History of the Tantric Religion'', p. 44-5.</ref>
</blockquote>


Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early ] school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist,<ref>John Clayton (2010), ''Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, page 150</ref> but later ] school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.<ref>Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0365-7}}, pp. 209–210</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichenbach |first=Bruce R. |date=April 1989 |title=Karma, causation, and divine intervention |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=135–149 |doi=10.2307/1399374 |jstor=1399374 |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |access-date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027070413/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |archive-date=27 October 2009}}</ref> Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajadhyaksha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |title=The six systems of Indian philosophy |year=1959 |page=95 |quote=Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mimamsa<ref name=Coward2008p114>{{harvnb|Coward|2008|p=114}}: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</ref> and ] schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".<ref group="web"> I.92.</ref>{{sfn|Sen Gupta|1986|p=viii}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neville |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |title=Religious truth |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7914-4778-9 |page=51 |publisher=SUNY Press |quote=Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |url-status=live }}</ref> Its ] school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.<ref>A Goel (1984), ''Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science'', Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0-86590-278-7}}, pp. 149–151</ref><ref>Collins, Randall (2000), ''The sociology of philosophies'', Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00187-9}}, p. 836</ref>{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=337–338}} The ] school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-64887-5 |pages=39–41 |author-link=Mikel Burley}};<br />{{Cite book |last=Pflueger |first=Lloyd |title=Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-208-3232-9 |editor-last=Knut Jacobsen |pages=38–39}};<br />{{Cite book |last=Behanan |first=K. T. |title=Yoga: Its Scientific Basis |publisher=Dover |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-486-41792-9 |pages=56–58 |author-link1=K. T. Behanan}}</ref> Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), ''Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pp. 77–78</ref> Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347" />
Discrimination based on caste, including ] against the so-called low castes, is criminalized by the ].


], showing both feminine and masculine aspect of god in Hinduism]]
===Ahimsa and vegetarianism===
God in Hinduism is often represented having both the ] aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati (]), ] accompanied by Lakshmi, ] with ] and ] with ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rankin|first=John|date=1 June 1984|title=Teaching Hinduism: Some Key Ideas|journal=British Journal of Religious Education|volume=6|issue=3|pages=133–160|doi=10.1080/0141620840060306|issn=0141-6200}}</ref>
{{main|Ahimsa|Sacred cow|Vegetarianism and religion}}


According to ], Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=441}} The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric ].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=200–203}}
Hindus advocate the practice of ''ahiṃsā'' (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants, insects, and non-human animals.<ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' (New Delhi, 1974 edition)</ref> There is no sharp distinction between humans and other forms of life. The term ''ahiṃsā'' first appears in the ]s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'' (eternal vows/restraints) in ].


=== Authority ===
In accordance with ''ahiṃsā'', many Hindus embrace ] to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement of Hinduism, it is recommended for a '']'' (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of ]s in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.<ref name = "veg"> Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: , and . Results indicate that even Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. </ref> The food habits usually vary with the community and region, with some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.<ref>Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.</ref><ref name=Food_habits_of_a_nation>{{cite news | author = Yadav, Y.| coauthors= Kumar, S|title = The food habits of a nation| url = http://www.thehindu.com/2006/08/14/stories/2006081403771200.htm | work = The Hindu | date = ], ]|accessdate = 2006-11-17 }}</ref> Some Hindus avoid even ] and ], which are regarded as '']ic'' foods. Some avoid meat on specific holy days.
{{Anchor|Questioning authority}}
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.<ref name="frazier1415">{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies |date=2011 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |location=London |pages=–15, 321–325 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.<ref name=frazier1415 /> But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason."<ref name=frazier1415 /> Narratives in the ] present characters questioning persons of authority.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The ] repeatedly asks ''kena'', 'by what' power something is the case.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The ] and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers.<ref name=frazier1415 /> In the ], Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.<ref name=frazier1415 /> Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.<ref name=frazier1415 /> ]'s ] presents criticism via ].<ref name=frazier1415 />


== Practices ==
Observant ] who do eat meat almost always abstain from ]. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for ]-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus, it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. While most contemporary Hindus do not worship the cow, it holds an honored place in Hindu society as a symbol of unselfish giving among all animals. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.<ref name=beef_without_borders>{{cite news | first = R. | last = Krishnakumar | title = Beef without borders | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2018/stories/20030912004703100.htm | work = Frontline | publisher = Narasimhan Ram|date = ]-], ] | accessdate = 2006-10-07 }}</ref>


===Conversion=== === Rituals ===
{{Main|Puja (Hinduism)|Arti (Hinduism)|Abhisheka|Japa|Havan|Yajna|Hindu wedding}}
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of ], the question of whether Hindus should ] is open to interpretation.<ref name="conversion">{{cite web | url = http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/hbh/hbh_ch-5.html | title = Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers? | accessdate = 2006-11-14}}</ref> Those who see Hinduism mainly as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and considering oneself a Hindu.<ref name="conversion"/> Some view Hinduism as more of an ethnicity than a religion and believe being born a Hindu makes one a Hindu for life. These people tend to believe that there is an assumption that one is Hindu when they come from India.<ref> ''The eternal religion's defining moment in time''</ref> The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' </ref>
] is solemnised before Vedic ] ritual (shown).{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=427}}]]
Most Hindus observe ].<ref>{{harvnb|Muesse|2011|p=}}. "rituals daily prescribe routine"</ref> The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, ], chanting mantras and others.{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=145–146}}


Vedic rituals of fire-oblation ('']'') and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=A |year=1985 |title=Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition |journal=Journal of Ecumenical Studies |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=69–80}}</ref> Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic ]s.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 |url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm |access-date=25 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605133731/http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm |archive-date=5 June 2007}}</ref>
There is no formal process for conversion to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called ''dīkshā'' ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. Most Hindu sects do not actively recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion. Examples include the ], ], ], ] and the ].


The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346–347}} and "do not constitute ]."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become ] sounds, "means to an end."{{refn|group=note|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified ]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), , p.4.}} In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the ''mantras'' will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}}<ref name="Coward2008p114" />
==Notes==
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{{reflist|3}}


=== ''Sādhanā'' ===
==References==
{{Main|Sādhanā}}
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Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realisation of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=36–37}}<ref>NK Brahma, Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā, {{ISBN|978-8120333062}}, pp. ix–x</ref>
Only references that are actually used and cited in the article should be
placed here. Mainly list only books, and journals (not websites, newspapers ).
List in alphabetical order, by first author's last name.
Try maintaining a standard formatting style and add ISBN numbers if possible.
See http://en.wikipedia.org/Wikipedia:Cite_sources for further details.
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{{refbegin|2}}
* Basham, A.L., (Ed.), ''"A Cultural History of India"'', ], 1999. ISBN 0-19-563921-9
* Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"The Essentials of Hinduism"'', Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5
* Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga"'', Viveka Press, 2001. ISBN 1-884852-03-3
* Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility"''
* Bhattacharyya, N. N. ''History of the Tantric Religion'', Manohar Publications, Second Revised Edition, 1999. ISBN 81-7304-025-7
* Bhatia V.P., ''"Secularisation of a Martyrdom"'', Organiser, 11-11998.
* Chidbhavananda, Swami. ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam, 1997.
* Coulson, Michael, ''"Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language"'', ], 1992. ISBN 0-8442-3825-2
* Bowes, Pratima,''"The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach"'', Allied Pub., 1976. ISBN 0710086687
* ],
* Flood, Gavin (Ed.), "''Blackwell companion to Hinduism"'', ], 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
* ], '''', Voice of India, 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7
* Fox, Michael Allen, ''"Deep Vegetarianism"'', Temple University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-566397-05-7
* Fuller, C.J., ''"The Camphor Flame"'', ], 2004. ISBN 0-691-12048-X
* Harshananda, Swami, ''"A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas"'' in ''"Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World"'' (2d Ed.). ISBN 81-7120-121-0
* Kriyananda, Swami, ''Awaken to Superconsciousness''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1565891364
* Kriyananda, Swami, ''The Art and Science of Raja Yoga''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-8120818767
* Kriyananda, Swami, ''The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: Explained by Paramhansa Yogananda, As Remembered by His Disciple, Swami Kriyananda''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1565892194
* Klostermaier, K, ''"A Survey of Hinduism"'', SUNY Press, 1994.
* Mani, Vettam, ''"Puranic Encyclopedia"'', ], Delhi, 1998. ISBN 81-208-0597-6
* McGregor, R.S., ''"The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary"'', ], 5th ed., 1999. ISBN 0-19-563846-8
* Michaels, Alex, ''"Hinduism: Past and Present"'', ], 2004. ISBN 0-691-08953-1
* ], ''"Brahmanism and Hinduism"'', New York, 1891.
* ], ''"Religious thought and life in India"'', Oriental Books Reprint, 1974.
* ], ''"Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary"'', Nataraj Books, 2006, ISBN 18-81338-58-4
* ], ''"The Upanishads: A New Translation"'', Vol. I (5th Ed) 1990. ISBN 0-911206-15-9
* ] (trans.), ''"Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna"'', 1992. ISBN 0-911206-01-9
* Oberlies, T, ''"Die Religion des Rgveda"'', Vienna 1998.
* Osborne, E, ''"Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream."'', Folens Limited, 2005.
* ] (trans.), ''"Bhagvada Gita"'', ], 1995. ISBN 1-855384-57-4
* Renou, Louis, ''"The Nature of Hinduism"'', Walker, 1964.
* Rinehart, Robin (Ed.), ''"Contemporary Hinduism"'', 2004. ISBN 1-57607-905-8
* Sargeant, Winthrop, ''"Introduction to 'The Bhagavad Gita' "'', New York, 1984. ISBN 0-87395-831-4
* Sinha, H.P., ''"Bharatiya darshan ki ruparekha"'' (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ., 1993. ISBN 81-208-2144-0
* Sivananda, Swami, ''Jnana Yoga''. Divine Life Society, 1982.
* Sivananda, Swami, ''Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda)''. Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047
* ], ''''.
* ], ''"Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda"''. ISBN 81-85301-75-1
* ], ''"Vedanta, Voice of Freedom:'', Ed. Swami Chetanananda, 1990. ISBN 0-916356-63-9
* ], ''"Jnana Yoga"'', Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-425482-88-0
* Werner, Karel, ''"A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism"'', Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
{{refend}}


=== Life-cycle rites of passage ===
==Further reading ==
{{Main|Saṃskāra}}
<div class="references-small">
Major life stage milestones are celebrated as ''sanskara'' (''saṃskāra'', ]) in Hinduism.<ref name="pandey">{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=R |title=Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1969 |isbn=978-81-208-0434-0 |edition=2nd |location=Delhi}}</ref><ref name="knipe">{{Cite book |last=Knipe |first=David |title=Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-939769-3 |page=52}}</ref> The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally.<ref name="pvkanesamsk">{{Cite book |last=Kane |first=PV |title=History of Dharmasastras |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |series=Part I |volume=II |pages=190–417 |chapter=Saṁskāra |year=1941 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofdharmas029210mbp#page/n248/mode/2up}}</ref> Gautama ]s composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras,<ref name="patrick" /> while ] and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras.<ref name="pandey" /><ref name="carlolson">{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=Carl |title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9 |pages=93–94}}</ref> The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as ] towards all living beings and positive attitude.<ref name="patrick">{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=Dharmasutras – The Law Codes of Ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955537-6 |pages=90–91}}</ref>
* ], "''Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines''", 2001 (first french edition 1921), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-74-8
* ], "''Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta''", Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-62-4
* ], "''Studies in Hinduism''", Sophia Perennis
</div>


The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include<ref name="pvkanesamsk" /> ] (pregnancy), ] (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), ] (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), ''Jatakarman'' (rite celebrating the new born baby), ''Namakarana'' (naming the child), ''Nishkramana'' (baby's first outing from home into the world), ''Annaprashana'' (baby's first feeding of solid food), ''Chudakarana'' (baby's first haircut, tonsure), ''Karnavedha'' (ear piercing), ''Vidyarambha'' (baby's start with knowledge), ] (entry into a school rite),<ref>For Vedic school, see: {{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |year=1986 |title=Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India |journal=Numen |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=65–89 |doi=10.2307/3270127 |jstor=3270127}}</ref><ref>For music school, see: {{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=Alison |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |volume=5 |page=459 |display-authors=etal}} For sculpture, crafts and other professions, see: {{cite book|first=Heather |last=Elgood |year=2000 |title=Hinduism and the religious arts |isbn=978-0-304-70739-3 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=32–134}}</ref> ''Keshanta'' and ''Ritusuddhi'' (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), ] (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), ''Vratas'' (fasting, spiritual studies) and ] (cremation for an adult, burial for a child).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Siqueira |first=Thomas N. |date=March 1935 |title=The Vedic Sacraments |journal=Thought |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.5840/thought1935945}}</ref> In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these ] are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as '']'' (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practised.<ref name="pvkanesamsk" />{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=146–148}}
==See also==
{{Hinduism portal}}
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Hinduism </span>'''
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=== Bhakti (worship) ===
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''Bhakti'' refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.<ref name="encyclopediabrit" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Bhakti |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174330/https://www.britannica.com/topic/bhakti |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="karen">{{Cite book |last=Pechelis |first=Karen |title=The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |editor-last=Frazier |editor-first=Jessica |pages=–121 |chapter=Bhakti Traditions |editor-last2=Flood |editor-first2=Gavin}}</ref> ''Bhakti-marga'' is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha.<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=98–100}}; also see articles on karmamārga and jnanamārga</ref> The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are ''Jnana-marga'' (path of knowledge), ''Karma-marga'' (path of works), ''Rāja-marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).<ref name="johnmartin">{{Cite book |last=Sahajananda |first=John Martin |year=2014 |title=Fully Human Fully Divine |publisher=Partridge India |isbn=978-1-4828-1955-7 |page=60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Kedar Nath |title=Comparative Religion |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-208-0293-3 |page=31}}</ref>
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Bhakti is practised in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, ]s (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Huyler |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cnNcDn36VHcC |title=Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devotion |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-08905-9 |pages=10–11, 71 |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161119/https://books.google.com/books?id=cnNcDn36VHcC |url-status=live }}</ref> or in a temple before a ] or sacred image of a deity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gonda |first=Jan |year=1963 |title=The Indian Mantra |journal=Oriens |volume=16 |pages=244–297 |doi=10.1163/18778372-01601016}}</ref>{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=41–50}} ]s and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism.<ref name="Foulston2012p20">{{Cite book|last=Foulston|first=Lynn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3N4mGlbutbgC|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-135-18978-5|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|pages=21–22, 868|display-editors=etal|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161120/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N4mGlbutbgC|url-status=live}}</ref> While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.<ref name="Foulston2012p20" />
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One form of daily worship is ], or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman's+tale|title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804220-4|page=401|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174158/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman%27s+tale|url-status=live}}</ref> Notable aaratis include ], a ] prayer to ], and ], a ] prayer to ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ganesh, the benevolent|date=1995|publisher=Marg Publications|editor=Pal, Pratapaditya |isbn=81-85026-31-9|location=Bombay|oclc=34752006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Raj|first=Dhooleka S.|title=Where Are You From?: Middle-Class Migrants in the Modern World|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23382-9 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pn917}}</ref> Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to "human exemplar".<ref name=":0" /> For instance, Aarti is offered to ], a devotee of God, in many temples, including ], where the primary deity is an incarnation of ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman's+tale|title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804220-4|pages=23, 262|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174126/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman%27s+tale|url-status=live}}</ref> In ] temples and home shrines, aarati is offered to ], considered by followers to be ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond Brady|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdqDwAAQBAJ&q=an+introduction+to+swaminarayan+hinduism|title=Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism|year= 2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-42114-0|pages=84, 153–154|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174204/https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdqDwAAQBAJ&q=an+introduction+to+swaminarayan+hinduism|url-status=live}}</ref>
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Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarati,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=51}} kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees.<ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title=Puja |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174151/https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=DeNapoli |first=Antoinette |title=Real Sadhus Sing to God |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-994003-5 |pages=19–24}}</ref> While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reinhart |first=Robin |title=Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryhind0000unse_x1k0 |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |pages=–47|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman.{{sfn|Prentiss|2014}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=72–75}}<ref name="avatars" /> Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalising god.{{sfn|Prentiss|2014|pp=22–29}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |volume=2 |pages=856–857}}</ref> While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (''saguna Brahman'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Bob |title=Hindus meeting Christians |publisher=OCMS |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-870345-39-2 |pages=288–295 |postscript=;}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Vroom |first=Hendrick |title=No Other Gods |url=https://archive.org/details/noothergodschris0000vroo |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-4097-4 |location=Cambridge |pages=–69}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smart |first=Ninian |title=The Yogi and the Devotee |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-68499-6 |pages=52–80}}</ref> Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes ('']''), and god within oneself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ardley |first=Jane |title=Spirituality and Politics: Gandhian and Tibetan cases, in The Tibetan Independence Movement |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-86264-7 |pages=ix, 98–99, 112–113 |postscript=;}}<br />{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Helen |title=Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-285-19712-8 |pages=188–189|publisher=Cengage Learning }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhavasar |first=SN |title=Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-208-1937-5 |editor-last=Sundararajan |editor-first=K. R. |pages=28–29 |editor-last2=Mukerji |editor-first2=Bithika}}</ref>
'''<span style="font-size:120%"> Related systems and religions </span>'''
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=== Festivals ===
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], is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.]]
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] being celebrated at the ] in ] (2013)]]
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Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: ''Utsava''; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.<ref name="sandrarobinson" /><ref name="yustf">{{Cite book |last=Yust |first=Karen-Marie |title=Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-4463-5 |page=234 |chapter=Sacred Celebrations, see also Chapter 18.}}</ref> Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar ], many coinciding with either the full moon (''Holi'') or the new moon (''Diwali''), often with seasonal changes.<ref name="denisecushf">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |editor-last=Cush |editor-first=Denise |page=907 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as ''Holi'' and ''Diwali'' are pan-Hindu.<ref name="denisecushf" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Foulston |first1=Lynn |title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul |last2=Abbott |first2=Stuart |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8 |page=}}</ref>
* ]
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the ''Raksha Bandhan'' (or ]) festival.<ref name="yustf" /><ref>{{harvnb|Holberg|2000|loc=''Festival calendar of India'', p. 120}}: "Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection."</ref> The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, ] rituals and feasts.<ref name="sandrarobinson">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |editor-last=Cush |editor-first=Denise |pages=908–912 |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4725-1151-5 |pages=255, 271–273}}</ref>


Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
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=== Pilgrimage ===
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{{See also|Tirtha (Hinduism)|Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India|l2=Tirtha locations|Yatra}}
* ]
Many adherents undertake ]s, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.{{Sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=204–05}} Pilgrimage sites are called '']'', ''Kshetra'', ''Gopitha'' or ''Mahalaya''.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|pp=698–699}}{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013|pp=4, 22, 27, 140–148, 157–158}} The process or journey associated with ''Tirtha'' is called ''Tirtha-yatra''.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=2}} According to the Hindu text '']'', Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a ], a ], a ]; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Krishan |last2=Sinha |first2=Anil Kishore |last3=Banerjee |first3=Bijon Gopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC |title=Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-89091-09-5 |pages=3–5 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161616/https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maw |first=Geoffrey Waring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ |title=Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas |publisher=Sessions Book Trust |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-85072-190-1 |page=7 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=16 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216202914/https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Tīrtha-yatra'' is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013|pp=157–158}}{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=288–289}}
* ]
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Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the ].{{Sfn|Kane|1953|p=561}}{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=7–9}} Most Puranas include large sections on ''Tirtha Mahatmya'' along with tourist guides,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-971825-2 |page=146 |quote=The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas'' . |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161546/https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |url-status=live }}</ref> which describe sacred sites and places to visit.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|pp=559–560}}{{sfn|Holm|Bowker|2001|p=68}}{{sfn|Rocher|1986|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}} In these texts, ] (Benares, Kashi), ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], twelve ] and ] have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (''sangam'') or join the sea.{{Sfn|Kane|1953 |pp=553–556, 560–561}}{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=7–9}} ] is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival ]. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: ] at the confluence of the ] and ] rivers, ] near source of the ], ] on the ] river and ] on the bank of the ] river.{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}} This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event.{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}}{{Sfn|Klostermaier |2010|p=553, note 55}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last=Taylor |first=Alan |date=14 January 2013 |title=Kumbh Mela: The Largest Gathering on Earth |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/01/kumbh-mela-the-largest-gathering-on-earth/100438/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174128/https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/01/kumbh-mela-the-largest-gathering-on-earth/100438/ |url-status=live }}<br />{{Cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |date=14 January 2013 |title=Biggest Gathering On Earth' Begins In India; Kumbh Mela May Draw 100 Million |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/14/169313222/biggest-gathering-on-earth-begins-in-india-kumbh-mela-may-draw-100-million |website=NPR |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174326/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/14/169313222/biggest-gathering-on-earth-begins-in-india-kumbh-mela-may-draw-100-million |url-status=live }}</ref> At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river,{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}} a tradition attributed to ].{{Sfn|Dalal|2010|loc=chapter Kumbh Mela}}
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]
Some pilgrimages are part of a ''Vrata'' (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=9–11}}{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=6}} It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a ] such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bharati |first=Agehananda |year=1963 |title=Pilgrimage in the Indian Tradition |journal=History of Religions |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=135–167 |doi=10.1086/462476|s2cid=162220544 }}</ref> It may also be the result of prayers answered.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}} An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}} This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honour the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}}{{refn|group=note|The cremation ashes are called ''phool'' (flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called ''asthi sanchayana'', then dispersed during ''asthi visarjana''. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maclean |first=Kama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HznRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228 |title=Pilgrimage and Power: The Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765–1954 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-971335-6 |pages=228–229 |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161603/https://books.google.com/books?id=HznRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=68}}}}

Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by travelling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|pp=3–5}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amazzone |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5 |pages=43–45 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111153836/https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Holm|Bowker|2001|pp=69–77}} Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.{{Sfn|Lingat|1973|pp=98–99}}{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=4}} The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|p=573}} The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from travelling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|pp=576–577}}

== Culture ==
The term "]" refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as ] and dress codes followed by the ] which is mainly can be inspired from the ] and ].

=== Architecture ===
{{Excerpt|Hindu architecture}}

=== Art ===
{{Main|Hindu art}}
]s]]

] encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

=== Calendar ===
{{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar}}
{{Main|Hindu calendar}}
The Hindu calendar, Panchanga ({{Langx|sa|पञ्चाङ्ग}}) or Panjika is one of various ]s that are traditionally used in the ] and ], with further regional variations for social and ] religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on ] for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.<ref name="richmond80">{{Cite book |author=B. Richmond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ |title=Time Measurement and Calendar Construction |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1956 |pages=80–82 |access-date=18 September 2011 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328165207/https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the ] (Based on the ], also the ]) found in the ] of Southern India and the ] (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of ] – both of which emphasise the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasised and this is called the ] (though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and ] and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="richmond80" /><ref name="Fuller2004p109">{{cite book |author=Christopher John Fuller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-69112-04-85 |pages=109–110 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162536/https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |url-status=live }}</ref> A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as ] (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as ] in Eastern India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Klaus K. Klostermaier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490 |title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |page=490 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161801/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the ], the ], and the ], but different from the Gregorian calendar.<ref name="nesbittbc">{{cite book |author=Eleanor Nesbitt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title=Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-874557-0 |pages=122–123 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415073742/https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)<ref>{{cite book |author=Orazio Marucchi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoBjBYdzrkQC&pg=PA289 |title=Christian Epigraphy: An Elementary Treatise with a Collection of Ancient Christian Inscriptions Mainly of Roman Origin |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-23594-5 |page=289}}, Quote: "the lunar year consists of 354 days".</ref> and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.<ref name="nesbittbc" /><ref name="Fuller2004p109" />

The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the ]s all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local ]s. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anita Ganeri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-EawToG-6YC&pg=PT11 |title=Buddhist Festivals Through the Year |publisher=BRB |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58340-375-4 |pages=11–12}}</ref> The ] and the traditional lunisolar calendars of ], ], ], ] and ] are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient ] traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.{{Sfn|Long|2013|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{cite book |author=John E. Cort |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip7mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513234-2 |pages=142–146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |page=156}}</ref>

The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as ].<ref>{{cite web |date=22 May 2017 |title=Ekadasi: Why Ekadasi is celebrated in Hinduism?-by Dr Bharti Raizada |url=https://www.newsgram.com/ekadasi-importance-hinduism/ |website=NewsGram }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Person and society ==

=== Varnas ===
{{Main|Varna (Hinduism)}}
], in ]. It is one of the temples in India, where ''Kalyanam'' is done everyday throughout the year.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}|left]]
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called ]. They are the '']s'': ] teachers and priests; the '']s'': warriors and kings; the '']s'': farmers and merchants; and the '']s'': servants and labourers.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=132–180}}
The '']'' links the varṇa to an individual's duty (''svadharma''), inborn nature (''svabhāva''), and natural tendencies ('']'').{{sfn|Halbfass|1995|p=264}} The '']'' categorises the different ].<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Manu Smriti Laws of Manu |at=1.87–1.91 |url=http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528064608/http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2010}}</ref>
Some mobility and flexibility within the ] challenge allegations of social discrimination in the ], as has been pointed out by several sociologists,<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{Harvnb|Silverberg|1969|pp=442–443}}</ref>{{sfn|Smelser|Lipset|2005}} although some other scholars disagree.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld00smit_1 |title=The Illustrated World's Religions |publisher=Harper Collins |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067440-3 |location=New York |chapter=Hinduism: The Stations of Life |author-link=Huston Smith |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld00smit_1 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Scholars debate whether the so-called '']'' is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=188–197}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last=V |first=Jayaram |title=The Hindu Caste System |url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp |access-date=28 November 2012 |website=Hinduwebsite |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902004553/https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of ] that divinity is inherent in all beings."<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last1=Venkataraman |first1=Swaminathan |last2=Deshpande |first2=Pawan |title=Hinduism: Not Cast In Caste |url=http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202101032/http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report |archive-date=2 December 2012 |access-date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Hindu American Foundation}}</ref>}} And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Zwart |first=Frank |date=July 2000 |title=The Logic of Affirmative Action: Caste, Class and Quotas in India |journal=Acta Sociologica |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=235–249 |doi=10.1177/000169930004300304 |jstor=4201209|s2cid=220432103 }}</ref>

A ] man of knowledge is usually called ''Varṇatita'' or "beyond all varṇas" in ] works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like ] affirm that not only is ] beyond all ], the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jhingran |first=Saral |title=Aspects of Hindu Morality |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsofhindumo0000jhin |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-208-0574-3 |location=Delhi |page= |oclc=905765957}}</ref>

=== Yoga ===
] in yogic meditation]]
{{Main|Yoga}}
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that ] have taught for reaching that goal. ] is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, ], and spiritual insight.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Suresh |title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7625-039-9 |edition=1st |location=New Delhi |page=178 |oclc=40479929}}</ref> Texts dedicated to ] include the '']'', the '']'', the '']'' and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the ]. ] is means, and the four major ''marga'' (paths) of Hinduism are: ] (the path of love and devotion), ] (the path of right action), ] (the path of meditation), and ] (the path of wisdom)<ref name="bhaskaressentgeneral">{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of ] (traditionally ]) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.{{sfn|Jain|2015|pp=130–157}}

=== Symbolism ===
] (left) and the ] (right)]]
Hinduism has a developed system of ] to represent the sacred in art, architecture, ] and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable '']'' (which represents the '']'' and ]) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the ] (from the ]: स्वस्तिक, <small>]:</small> ''svastika) a'' sign that represents auspiciousness,{{sfn|Doniger|2000|p=1041}} and '']'' (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Napier |first=A David |title=Masks, Transformation, and Paradox |publisher=University of California Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-520-04533-0 |pages=186–187}}</ref> marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=SD |title=Rice: Origin, Antiquity and History |publisher=CRC Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-57808-680-1 |pages=68–70}}</ref> Elaborate ''Tilaka'' with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric ] drawings, objects, ], idols are all part of ] in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao |first=TA Gopinath |title=Elements of Hindu iconography |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2 |pages=1–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerjea |first=JN |title=The Development of Hindu Iconography |date=September 2004 |publisher=Kessinger |isbn=978-1-4179-5008-9 |pages=247–248, 472–508}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Babary, Abrar |author2=Zeeshan, Mahwish |title=Reminiscent of Hinduism: An Insight of Katas Raj Mandir |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37458369/EJSS__30_REMINISCENT_OF_HINDUISM_AN_INSIGHT_OF_KATAS_RAJ_MANDIR_Aftab_Chaudhrys_conflicted_copy_2015-04-29-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1669503265&Signature=I~TyyMPSWigzUm~PSf6wtc9ZkJonPeGFd9TNfh3RWD7xfeNBXX1oBsuba0VIRR~yn4TbjllmNc2EIdjmc3PRPv5UXKaUNSrbjs4HA6ULwg6FInDXfVjOdSAkAk62Yp06Q7S~dRr52ao1euNu8YUNY8tp-KUkJzlOJxwQSgZhJz78Ql388BwiXHmrRf1ApJE87J98awqVlzRfo9wufG-xeDfCzQ4jkrpXpKeYFup0mFlcJg9phn5YF35CrQ2rnVxuuN3xRBKwbkGR3iSR1wLrjoyJxKqrQNDyM6upOiddLPRHDVZd2YiwfC5Ep4F3l77KUzicDuavMds6JhUdFSLQbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |journal=The Explorer: Journal of Social Sciences |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=122 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126215653/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37458369/EJSS__30_REMINISCENT_OF_HINDUISM_AN_INSIGHT_OF_KATAS_RAJ_MANDIR_Aftab_Chaudhrys_conflicted_copy_2015-04-29-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1669503265&Signature=I~TyyMPSWigzUm~PSf6wtc9ZkJonPeGFd9TNfh3RWD7xfeNBXX1oBsuba0VIRR~yn4TbjllmNc2EIdjmc3PRPv5UXKaUNSrbjs4HA6ULwg6FInDXfVjOdSAkAk62Yp06Q7S~dRr52ao1euNu8YUNY8tp-KUkJzlOJxwQSgZhJz78Ql388BwiXHmrRf1ApJE87J98awqVlzRfo9wufG-xeDfCzQ4jkrpXpKeYFup0mFlcJg9phn5YF35CrQ2rnVxuuN3xRBKwbkGR3iSR1wLrjoyJxKqrQNDyM6upOiddLPRHDVZd2YiwfC5Ep4F3l77KUzicDuavMds6JhUdFSLQbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Clear left|left}}

=== Ahiṃsā and food customs ===
{{Main|Ahimsa|Diet in Hinduism|Sattvic diet|Mitahara|Jhatka}}
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Gosala in Guntur, India.jpg
| caption1 = A ] or cow shelter at ]
| image2 = '8' A Thali, a traditional style of serving meal in India.jpg
| caption2 = A vegetarian '']''
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Hindus advocate the practice of {{IAST|]}} (]) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974}} The term ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' appears in the ],<ref name="Radhakrishnan">{{Cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |year=1929 |edition=2nd |series=Muirhead library of philosophy |location=London |page=148 |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan}}</ref> the epic ]<ref>For ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the {{IAST|]}} see: {{Cite book |last=Brockington |first=John |title=Flood |year=2003 |page=125 |chapter=The Sanskrit Epics}}</ref> and {{IAST|ahiṃsā}} is the first of the five ] (vows of self-restraint) in ].<ref>For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ''{{IAST|yama}}'' as "vow of self-restraint", see: {{Cite book |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |title=The Science of Yoga |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |year=1961 |isbn=978-81-7059-212-9 |location=Adyar, India |page=206 |author-link=I. K. Taimni}}</ref>

In accordance with {{IAST|]}}, many Hindus embrace ] to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict ]s in ] (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.<ref name="veg">Surveys studying food habits of Indians include:
* {{Cite web |ref=none |last1=Delgado |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Narrod |first2=Claire A. |last3=Tiongco |first3=Marites |date=24 July 2003 |title=Growth and Concentration in India |website=Policy, Technical, and Environmental Determinants and Implications of the Scaling-Up of Livestock Production in Four Fast-Growing Developing Countries: A Synthesis |url=http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e09.htm |quote=An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174129/http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e09.htm |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |ref=none |last=Goldammer |first=Ted |title=Passage to India |publisher=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619160055/http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf |archive-date=19 June 2009 }}
* {{cite web |ref=none |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/February04/Features/ElephantJogs.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228214808/http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/february04/features/elephantjogs.htm |archive-date=28 December 2006 |title=The Elephant Is Jogging: New Pressures for Agricultural Reform in India |last=Landes |first=Maurice R. |date=February 2004 |website=Amber Waves |quote=Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. }}</ref> Those who eat meat seek ] (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike ] (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Neville |title=Animal Welfare and Meat Production |last2=Grandin |first2=Temple |publisher=CABI |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84593-215-2 |pages=206–208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Veena |title=The Oxford India companion to sociology and social anthropology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-564582-8 |volume=1 |pages=151–152}}</ref> The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in ], or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grover |first1=Neelam |title=Cultural Geography, Form and Process, Concept |last2=Singh |first2=Kashi N. |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-8069-074-7 |page=366|publisher=Concept Publishing Company }}</ref> Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jagannathan |first=Maithily |title=South Indian Hindu Festivals and Traditions |publisher=Abhinav |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-7017-415-8 |pages=53, 69 |postscript=;}} {{cite book|first=Pyong Gap |last=Min |year=2010 |title=Preserving Ethnicity through Religion in America |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9586-6 |page=1}}</ref> Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considers ] to be sacred.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3390/ani8050064|title=The Sheltering of Unwanted Cattle, Experiences in India and Implications for Cattle Industries Elsewhere|author=Uttara Kennedy, Arvind Sharma and Clive J.C. Philips|journal=Animals|year=2018|volume=8|issue=5|page=64|pmid=29701646|pmc=5981275|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India's scared cow|url=http://spraakdata.gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf|author=Marvin Harris|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907031005/http://spraakdata.gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/preliminary_literature_review_on_sacred_species__3_.pdf|title=Preliminary Literature Review On Scared Species|author=Gloria Pungetti, Anna Maclvor|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724135557/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/preliminary_literature_review_on_sacred_species__3_.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,{{sfn|Walker|1968|p=257}} and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving,{{sfn|Richman|1988|p=272}} selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance.<ref name="ajai16P pg62">{{cite journal|title=Stewards of Creation Covenant: Hinduism and the Environment|last=Mansingh|first=Ajai|journal=Caribbean Quarterly|year=2016|volume=41|issue=1|publisher=A Journal of Caribbean Culture|page=62|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|doi=10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907185105/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|url-status=live}}</ref>
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict ] diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |title=An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge |page=|isbn=978-0521652797 }}</ref> Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs.<ref name="Vasudha">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=Vasudha |title=A Concise Introduction to World Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseintroduct00oxto |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |editor-last=Oxtoby |editor-first=Willard G. |location=New York |chapter=The Hindu Tradition |isbn=978-0-19-542207-8 |editor-last2=Segal |editor-first2=Alan F.}}</ref><ref name="Rosen">{{Cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven |title=Essential Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialhinduis00stev |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2006 |edition=1st |location=Westport |page=}}</ref> Hindu texts such as ]<ref name="KN Aiyar 1914 pages 173-176">{{Cite book |last=Aiyar |first=KN |title=Thirty Minor Upanishads |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=1914 |isbn=978-1-164-02641-9 |pages=173–176 |chapter=22}}</ref> and ]<ref name="svatmaram">{{Cite book |last1=Svatmarama |url=https://archive.org/stream/hathayogapradipika/hatha_yoga_pradipika#page/n219/mode/2up |title=The Hathayogapradīpikā of Svātmārāma |last2=Brahmananda |year=2014 |at=verse 1.58–63, pp. 19–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/kapalikaskalamuk0000lore/page/186 |title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas |date=1972 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01842-6 |pages=}}</ref> recommend ] (eating in moderation) as one of the ] (virtuous Self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.<ref name="ckc">{{Cite book |last=Chapple |first=Christopher Key |title=The Bhagavad Gita|edition=25th Anniversary |url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitatwen00sarg |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4384-2842-0 |pages=–643}}</ref>

Some Hindus such as those belonging to the ] tradition,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Harold F. |title=Outline of Hinduism |date=2007 |publisher=Read Books |isbn=978-1-4067-8944-7 |chapter=12}}</ref> and Hindus in regions such as ] and ]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=83|loc="Chapter 4"}}<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Gouyon |editor-first=Anne |title=The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference |first=Bumi Kita |last=Yayasan |year= 2005 |publisher=Equinox Publishing (Asia) |isbn=978-979-3780-00-9 |page=51 |chapter=The Hidden Life of Bali |access-date=12 August 2010 |chapter-url=http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002 |archive-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726113644/http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002 |url-status=live }}</ref> practise ].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=83|loc="Chapter 4"}} The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gwynne |first=Paul |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT75 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |page=5 footnote 16}}</ref> In contrast, the ] Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olcott |first=H.S. |title=The Theosophist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jKBVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146 |publisher=Theosophical Publishing House |year=1906 |volume=XXVII |pages=146 with footnote |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162108/https://books.google.com/books?id=jKBVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}, Quote: "It is well known that Vaishnavas abhor animal sacrifice. In this province, like nearly all Bengalis, they celebrate ], but their ceremonies are bloodless".</ref>{{sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=101–102, Quote: "Blood sacrifice was a clear case in point, (,,,) sacrifice was a barbarity inconsistent with Hinduism's central tenet of non-violence. Contemporary opposition to animal sacrifice rests on an old foundation, although it also stems from the very widespread influence of reformism, whose antipathy to ritual killing has spread well beyond the self-consciously nationalist political classes".}} The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=169}}, Quote: "The acceptance of the principle of non-violence has been so through that animal sacrifice among Hindus today is uncommon, and many Indians are of the opinion that such things as cow slaughter were never practiced in ]".</ref> and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bekoff |first=Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AmgYIBQ-XKkC&pg=PA482 |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare |edition=2nd |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-313-35256-0 |page=482 |access-date=11 October 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162252/https://books.google.com/books?id=AmgYIBQ-XKkC&pg=PA482 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Institutions ==

=== Temple ===
{{Main|Hindu temple|Murti|Hindu iconography|Hindu architecture}}
{{For|list of temples|List of Hindu temples}}
{{multipleimage
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| footer = Clockwise from top-left: ], ]; ], ]; ], ];], ]; ], ]; ], ], ].
| image1 = Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg
| image2 = Somanathapura Keshava temple altered.JPG
| image3 = Shri Jagannatha Temple.jpg
| image4 =
| image5 = Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple Thiruvananthapuram, kerala.jpg
| image6 = Vadtal-temple.jpg
| header = Illustration of ]s in Asia
}}

A ] is a house of god(s).{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=61–65}} It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.<ref name="stellakvol1">{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=1–16}}</ref> A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing ] – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=161–169}} the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting ], ], ], ] and ].{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976b|pp=346–357, 423–424}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007a|pp=268–277}} The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.<ref name="stellakvol1" /> Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, ] rituals, and community celebrations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stein |first=Burton |date=February 1960 |title=The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.2307/2943547 |jstor=2943547|s2cid=162283012 }}</ref>{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=58–65}}

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boner |first=Alice |title=Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0705-1 |at=Introduction and pp. 36–37}}</ref> Two major styles of Hindu temples include the ] style found in south India, and ] style found in north India.<ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Gopura |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura |access-date=16 June 2015 |date= |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819003114/https://www.britannica.com/technology/gopura |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nagara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Indian-temple-architecture |access-date=16 June 2015 |date= |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174235/https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Indian-temple-architecture |url-status=live }}</ref> Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |year=1981 |title=Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān |journal=Archives of Asian Art |volume=34 |pages=56–73 |jstor=20111117}}</ref> Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.<ref name="stellakvol1" />

Many temples feature one or more idols (]s). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (''darsana'', a sight) in a Hindu temple.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=8–9}} In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the ] (]), the universal essence.<ref name="stellakvol1" />

=== Asrama ===
] in ] in Hawaii is the only Hindu monastery in the North American continent.]]
{{Main|Āśrama (stage)}}

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution |url=https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |pages=–29, 84–111 |isbn=978-0-19-508327-9 |oclc=466428084}}</ref> The four ashramas are: ] (student), ] (householder), ] (retired) and ] (renunciation).<ref name="rks">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=RK |title=Indian Society, Institutions and Change |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-7156-665-5 |page=28|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist }}</ref>
Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.<ref name="rks" /> Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.<ref name="alnu">{{Cite book |last=Nugteren |first=Albertina |title=Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India |publisher=Brill Academic |year=2005 |isbn=978-90-04-14601-3 |pages=13–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saraswathi |title=Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-538343-0 |editor-last=Jensen |editor-first=Lene Arnett |pages=280–286 |chapter=Reconceptualizing Lifespan Development through a Hindu Perspective |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1922}}</ref><ref name="DP Bhawuk 2011 pages 93-110">{{Cite book |last=Bhawuk |first=DP |title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/spiritualityindi00bhaw |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4419-8109-7 |pages=–110 |chapter=The Paths of Bondage and Liberation}}</ref>

The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} Combined with four proper goals of human life (]), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara |title=The Hindu World |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-21527-5 |editor-last=Mittal |editor-first=Sushil |page= |chapter=Dharma |editor-last2=Thursby |editor-first2=Gene}}</ref> Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-534478-3}}</ref>

=== Monasticism ===
], India]]
{{Main|Sannyasa}}
Some Hindus choose to live a ] life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection.<ref name="ellinger70">{{Cite book |last=Ellinger |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ |title=Hinduism |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-56338-161-4 |pages=69–70 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162258/https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation.<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential112">{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=112}}</ref> A Hindu monk is called a '']'', ''Sādhu'', or ''Swāmi''. A female renunciate is called a ''Sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ]-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism.<ref name="DP Bhawuk 2011 pages 93-110" /> Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=316}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Hinduism}}
] depiction of Kali from the 12th century]]

Hinduism's varied history{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the ], with some of its traditions tracing back to ]s such as those of the Bronze Age ]. While the traditional ] and the ] derived from it present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a ]{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}} and no single founder,{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}}{{refn|group=note| Among its roots are the ]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of the late ] and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–53}} but also the religions of the ],{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} the śramaṇa{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of ],{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or ]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}}} which emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} ] and {{Circa|300 CE}}.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the ] with the ], starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=32–36}}{{refn|group=note|There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|1995|pp=3–4}} Flood mentions 1500 BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=21}}}} The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} and a formative period for Hinduism, ] and ]. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from {{Circa|200 BCE}} to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism ({{Circa|320–650 CE}}), which coincides with the ]. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Monotheistic sects like ] and ] developed during this same period through the ]. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and ]'s influential consolidation of ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=J. J. Navone|first=S. J.|date=1956|title=Sankara and the Vedic Tradition|journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research|volume=17|issue=2|pages=248–255|doi=10.2307/2104222|issn=0031-8205|jstor=2104222}}</ref>

] at ] was built by ].|left]]
Hinduism under both Hindu and ] rulers from {{Circa|{{CE|1250–1750}}}},<ref>Blackwell's History of India; Stein 2010, page 107</ref><ref>Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, R.P.Tripathi, 1956, p. 24</ref> saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. Historic persecutions of ] happened under ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Kishori Saran|title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|year=1999|isbn=978-81-86471-72-2|pages=90–145|author-link=K. S. Lal}}</ref> and also by ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Priolkar|first=Anand Kakba|title=The Goa Inquisition|year=1992|publisher=South Asia Books|pages=2–67, 184|author-link=Anant Priolkar|isbn=978-0-8364-2753-0}}</ref> In ], the ] by ] is also considered one of the most brutal ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Souza|first=Teotonio R. De|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtf1eRE8FC8C&q=persecution|title=Discoveries, Missionary Expansion, and Asian Cultures|date=1994|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-497-6|page=|language=en}}</ref> The ] saw the emergence of various ] partly inspired by western movements, such as ] and ].{{sfn|Sharma|2002|p=27}} In the ], the ] by ] was accompanied by the Hinduization of the ] and continued till the {{Circa|1950s}}.<ref name="Vir 1988 https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56">{{Cite book|last=Vir|first=Dharam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56|title=Education and Polity in Nepal: An Asian Experiment|date=1988|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-85119-39-7|pages=|language=en}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=June 2022}} ] were hired as plantation labourers in ] such as ], ], ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Younger |first1=Paul |title=New homelands: Hindu communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0195391640 |pages=3–17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oI8DwAAQBAJ |access-date=4 June 2022}}</ref> The ] in 1947 was along religious lines, with the ] emerging with a Hindu majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Sharma|1y=2003|1pp=176–189|2a1=Thapar|2y=1993|2pp=239–241}} Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls and Casualty Statistics for Wars, Dictatorships and Genocides|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c300k.htm|access-date=5 March 2021|website=necrometrics.com}}</ref> During the 20th century, due to the ], Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the ],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The remarkable political influence of the Indian diaspora in the US|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/remarkable-political-influence-indian-diaspora-us|access-date=17 March 2021|website=www.lowyinstitute.org}}</ref> and the ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2006|title=UK Hindu population to be studied|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/uk-hindu-population-to-be-studied/story-QBEF77yew4tdgiEEICZgHM.html|access-date=17 March 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal,{{sfn|Kim, Sebastian|2005|pp=1–29}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Masud|first=Muhammad Khalid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPzXAAAAMAAJ|title=Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-597911-4|pages=193–203|jstor=846021|jstor-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Barua|2015|loc=Ch. 2 and 8}} and in Indonesia,{{sfn|Ramstedt|2004|pp=93–108|loc=Robert Hefner. ''Hindu Reform in an Islamising Java: Pluralism and Peril''}}{{refn|group=note|According to Sharma, the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.<ref name="arvindmr">{{harvnb|Sharma|2011|pp=31–53}}</ref>}} in the 20th–21st century, many missionary organisations such as ], ], ] have been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India.{{Refn||name=ty78|group=note}} Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the ] launched '']'' movement to proselytise and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism,<ref name="csadcock">{{Cite book |last=Adcock |first=CS |title=The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/limitsoftoleranc0000adco |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-999544-8 |pages=–35, 115–168}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |title=Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-88706-572-9 |pages=49–60}}</ref> while those such as the ] suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion.<ref name=arvindmr /> All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytisation activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.<ref name=arvindmr /><ref name=csadcock /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Viswanathan |first=Gauri |title=Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-691-05899-3 |pages=153–176}}</ref> There have also been an increase of ] in politics, mostly in ], ] and ] in the form of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_ltAAAAMAAJ |title=Decolonizing the Hindu Mind: Ideological Development of Hindu Revivalism |year=2001 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-7167-519-7 |author-link=Koenraad Elst}}</ref> The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations like ], ] and other organisations of ] in India, while there are also many ] such as ] and ] in ], ] in ], etc.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pradhan|first=K. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PP1yElRzIUC|title=Thapa Politics in Nepal: With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839|date=2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-813-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Vir 1988 https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56" />

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Hinduism by country}}
], implements, vajra weapon, vegetable, fruits, mala, mouse, wish fulfilling jewels]]
Hinduism is a major ]. Hinduism was followed by around 80% of the country's population of 1.21&nbsp;billion (]) (966&nbsp;million adherents).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> India contains 94% of the global Hindu population.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ | title=Hindus | date=18 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=By 2050, India to have world's largest populations of Hindus and Muslims|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/|access-date=17 November 2020|website=Pew Research Center|date=21 April 2015 |language=en-US|archive-date=22 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422192233/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/|url-status=live}}</ref> Other ] are found in Nepal (23&nbsp;million), Bangladesh (13&nbsp;million) and the ] island of ] (3.9&nbsp;million).<ref name="bps">{{Cite web |url=https://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=321&wid=0 |title=Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut |trans-title=Population by Region and Religion Adhered to |publisher=] |language=id |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174150/https://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=321&wid=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> A significant population of Hindus are also present in Pakistan (5.2 million).<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Religious Demographics of Pakistan 2023 |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf |access-date=21 July 2024 |website=pbs.gov.pk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240722151443/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2024}}</ref> The majority of the Indonesian ]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in ] and the Vietnamese ] also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams in ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2002 |title=Vietnam |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35433.htm |access-date=17 June 2014 |website=State.gov}}</ref>

Demographically, Hinduism is the ], after ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2015 |title=The Future of World Religions |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506113049/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2015 |website=Pew Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwarz |first=John |title=What's Christianity All About? |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4982-2537-3 |page=176}}</ref> Hinduism is the ] in the world after ] and ], with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wormald|first=Benjamin|date=2 April 2015|title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/|access-date=4 March 2021|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US}}</ref>

<!-- Only add nations where the percentage of Hindus is more than 2% of the total population of the nation. -->
]

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

{{div col start|colwidth=20em}}
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Nepal}}{{Spaced en dash}}81.3%<ref>{{Cite web |year=2012 |title=2011 Nepal Census Report |url=http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/National%20Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525062716/http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/National%20Report.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|India}}{{Spaced en dash}}80.0%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population of India Today |url=https://www.livepopulation.com/country/india.html |access-date=5 August 2018 |website=livepopulation.com |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403015935/https://www.livepopulation.com/country/india.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Mauritius}}{{Spaced en dash}}48.5%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Resident population by religion and sex |url=http://www.gov.mu/portal/goc/cso/file/2011VolIIPC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016141533/http://www.gov.mu/portal/goc/cso/file/2011VolIIPC.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2013 |access-date=1 November 2012 |publisher=] |page=68}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Guyana}}{{Spaced en dash}}31%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?REGION=0&u=102c&u=100c&u=96c|title=National Profiles &#124; World Religion|website=www.thearda.com}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Fiji}}{{Spaced en dash}}27.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |access-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Trinidad and Tobago}}{{Spaced en dash}}24.3%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?REGION=0&u=224c&u=23r|title=National Profiles; World Religion|website=www.thearda.com}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bhutan}}{{Spaced en dash}}22.6%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhutan |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031858/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm |archive-date=30 November 2009 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Suriname}}{{Spaced en dash}}22.3%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suriname |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031911/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm |archive-date=30 November 2009 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Qatar}}{{Spaced en dash}}15.9%<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qatar - The World Factbook|date=May 2024 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/qatar/}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Sri Lanka}}{{Spaced en dash}}12.6%<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |website=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211239/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bahrain}}{{Spaced en dash}}9.8%<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Marsh|2015|pp=67–94}}.</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bangladesh}}{{Spaced en dash}}7.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=SVRS 2010 |url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113153533/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2012 |access-date=2 September 2012 |publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |page=176 (Table P–14)}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Réunion}}{{spaced en dash}}6.8%{{refn|group=note|] is not a country, but an independent ].}}
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in the|United Arab Emirates}}{{Spaced en dash}}6.6%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90223.htm|title=United Arab Emirates|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Malaysia}}{{Spaced en dash}}6.3%<ref name="cia.gov">{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malaysia/ |access-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Kuwait}}{{Spaced en dash}}6%<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pew-Templeton: Global Religious Futures Project|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/|access-date=18 March 2021|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|archive-date=3 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503083508/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Oman}}{{Spaced en dash}}5.5%<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/|title= Middle East OMAN|date= 22 September 2021|publisher= CIA The World Factbook}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Seychelles}}{{Spaced en dash}}5.4% <ref name=2022Census>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2024 |title=Seychelles Population and Housing Census 2022 |url=https://www.nbs.gov.sc/downloads/1555-seychelles-population-and-housing-census-2022 |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles |language=en-gb}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Singapore}}{{Spaced en dash}}5%<ref name="2010 census Full report">{{Cite web |last=Singapore Department of Statistics |date=12 January 2011 |title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion |url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2011 |access-date=16 January 2011}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Indonesia}}{{Spaced en dash}}3.9%<ref>{{cite web|date=2011|title=Indonesia: Religious Freedoms Report 2010|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168356.htm|access-date=4 March 2021|publisher=]|quote=The Ministry of Religious Affairs estimates that 10 million Hindus live in the country and account for approximately 90 percent of the population in Bali. Hindu minorities also reside in Central and East Kalimantan, the city of Medan (North Sumatra), South and Central Sulawesi, and Lombok (West Nusa Tenggara). Hindu groups such as Hare Krishna and followers of the Indian spiritual leader Sai Baba are present in small numbers. Some indigenous religious groups, including the "Naurus" on Seram Island in Maluku Province, incorporate Hindu and animist beliefs, and many have also adopted some Protestant teachings.}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|New Zealand}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Table 26, 2018 Census Data – Tables |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |format=xlsx |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185957/https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Australia}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.7%<ref>{{Cite web |last=Statistics |first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of |date=18 January 2018 |title=Media Release – Census reveals Australia's religious diversity on World Religion Day |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/8497F7A8E7DB5BEFCA25821800203DA4?OpenDocument |access-date=4 June 2023 |website=www.abs.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Pakistan}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.2%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf|title=Population by religion in Pakistan}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, {{As of|2010|lc=y}})<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 2012 |title=Chapter 1 Global Religious Populations |url=http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref>{{Disputed inline|date=January 2024}}
|-
! cyrus="col" | Tradition
! scope="col" | Followers
! scope="col" | % of the Hindu population
! scope="col" | % of the world population
! scope="col" | Follower dynamics
! scope="col" | World dynamics
|-
| align="center" | ]
| align="center" | 640,806,845
| align="center" | 67.6
| align="center" | 9.3
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" | ]
| align="center" | 252,200,000
| align="center" | 26.6
| align="center" | 3.7
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |]
| align="center" | 30,000,000
| align="center" | 3.2
| align="center" | 0.4
| align="center" | {{steady}} Stable
| align="center" | {{decrease}} Declining
|-
| align="center" |]
| align="center" | 20,300,000
| align="center" | 2.1
| align="center" | 0.3
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |]
| align="center" | 5,200,000
| align="center" | 0.5
| align="center" | 0.1
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
! Cumulative
! 948,575,000
! 100
! 13.8
! {{increase}} Growing
! {{increase}} Growing
|}

== See also ==
{{For outline|Outline of Hinduism}}
; Hinduism
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; Related systems and religions
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* ]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note|30em|refs=
<!-- B -->
<!-- "Brahmanism" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Brahmanism"|See:
* {{harvnb|Samuel|2008|p=194}}: "The Brahmanical pattern"
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative{{'"}}
* {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}: "Brahmanical synthesis"
According to {{harvnb|Heesterman|2005}}, Brahmanism developed out of the ]; "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." According to {{harvnb|Witzel|1995}}, this development started around 1000 BCE in the ], with the Brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the Kuru kings.}}
<!-- D -->
<!-- "definition" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="definition"|Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "way of life" {{harv|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}, etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in {{harvnb|Flood|2003|pp=1–17}}.}}
<!-- F -->
<!-- "fusion" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"|See also:
* {{harvnb|Ghurye|1980|pp=3–4}}: "He considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."
* {{harvnb|Zimmer|1951|pp=218–219}}.
* {{harvnb|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}. Quote: ; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."
* {{harvnb|Sjoberg|1990}}.
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence to ''varnasramadharma''."
* {{harvnb|Nath|2001}}.
* {{harvnb|Werner|1998}}.
* {{harvnb|Werner|2005|pp=8–9}}.
* {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}.
* {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002}}.
* {{harvnb|Hopfe|Woodward|2008|p=79}}: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
* {{harvnb|Samuel|2010}}.}}
<!-- H -->
<!-- "Hindu_term" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"|There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}} states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."
* {{harvnb|Sharma|2002}} and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar ], whose 17-year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in the Chinese language, uses the transliterated term ''In-tu'' whose "connotation overflows in the religious".{{harv|Sharma|2002}} Xuanzang describes ] of the early 7th century CE, worship of ] deity and ], his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at ]. See also {{harvnb|Gosch|Stearns|2007|pp=88–99}}, {{harvnb|Sharma|2011|pp=5–12}}, {{harvnb|Smith|Van De Mieroop|von Glahn|Lane|2012|pp=321–324}}.
* {{harvnb|Sharma|2002}} also mentions the use of the word ''Hindu'' in Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text ''Tarikh Al-Hind'', and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term ''Hindu'' retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006}} states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, ''Futuhu's-Salatin'', composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".{{harv|Lorenzen|2006|p=33}}
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|pp=32–33}} also mentions other non-Persian texts such as ''Prithvíráj Ráso'' by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|p=15}} states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.}}
<!-- K -->
<!-- "Knott_sanatana dharma" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"|Sanatāna Dharma:
* {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}: "In modern Indian usage, sanātana dharma is often equated with 'Hinduism' as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it."
* {{harvnb|Knott|1998|p=5}}: "Many describe Hinduism as ''sanatana dharma'', the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history."
* {{harvnb|Knott|1998|p=117}}: " The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."
* {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|p=3}}: "Some Indians object to having a foreign term for their religion, preferring the Sanskrit expression ''sanātana dharma'', "eternal law or truth," despite the fact that this expression was not applied to any religious system in ancient texts."}}
<!-- L -->
<!-- "Lockard-fusion" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"|{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of ] and ] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."<br /> {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."}}
<!-- O -->
<!-- "oldest religion" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="oldest religion"|See:
* {{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=1}}: "probably the oldest religion in the world."
* {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=1}}: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.
* {{harvnb|Kurien|2006}}: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."
* {{harvnb|Bakker|1997}}: "it is the oldest religion".
* {{harvnb|Noble|1998}}: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."
{{harvnb|Smart|1993|p=1}}, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century."<br />
Animism has also been called "the oldest religion."({{harvnb|Sponsel|2012}}: "Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago.")<br />
Australian ], ] discovered that ] regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago ({{harvnb|Dixon|1996}}). {{harvp|David|Mullett|Wright|Stephenson|2024}} found archaeological evidence that the mulla-mullung ritual, described in the 19th century, dates back at least 12,000 years.<br />
See also:
* ], ], ], ] for some of the oldest forms of religion
* Indian tribal religions such as ], ], ] and ], connected to the earliest migrations into India}}
<!-- R -->
<!-- "roots" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="roots"|Among its roots are the ] of the late ] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans ({{harvnb|Samuel|2008|pp=48–53}}), but also the religions of the ] ({{harvnb|Narayanan| 2009|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=xviii}}) the ] or renouncer traditions of ] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Gomez|2013|p=42}}), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture ({{harvnb|Bronkhorst|2007}}); and "popular or ]" ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."{{harvnb|Doniger|2010|p=66}})}}
<!-- S -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Sweetman"|{{harvtxt|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":
* The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
* The influence of ]s on European conceptions of Hinduism.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
* he identification of Vedanta, more specifically ], as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|King|1999|p=128}}.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=13–14}}
** According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favoured because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the ]; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=13–14}}
** "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=14}}
* The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=14–16}} According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|Dirks|2001|p=xxvii}}.)
* "he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=15}}
* Anti-colonial Hindus{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=15–16}} "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=15}} (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|Viswanathan|2003|p=26}}.)}}
}}
{{Notelist|30em|refs=
<!-- H -->
<!-- "Hindu_dharma" -->
{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"|There is ] for ''dharma'' in Western languages ({{harvnb|Widgery|1930}}, {{harvnb|Rocher|2003}}). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, , defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." See ].<br>
'Hindu dharma' refers to the religious behaviours and attitudes of the various traditions collectively referred to as Hinduism:
* {{harvtxt|Flood|2003a|p=9}}: "V. D. Savarkar in his highly influential book Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923) distinguishes between “Hindu Dharma,” the various traditions subsumed under the term “Hinduism,” and “Hindutva” or “Hinduness,” a sociopolitical force to unite all Hindus against “threatening Others”
* {{harvtxt|Thomas|2012|p=175}}: "Some 'Hindus' refer to this agglomeration of religious forms as 'Hindu dharma' (dharma here standing loosely for' religion'), but that is only to enable them to communicate to westerners some of their own religious attitudes."
* {{harvtxt|Bhattacharya|2006|p=1}}: "Dharma, therefore, is just not a belief but righteous living."}}
}}

== References ==
<!-- Please do not edit here, if you came here to provide citations please read WP:CITE for more info on how to do so. Thank you. -->
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
For references on specific authors or topics, please see the relevant article.
<!-- Only references that are actually used and cited in the article should be placed here. Mainly list only books, and journals (not websites, newspapers). List in alphabetical order, by first author's last name. Try maintaining a standard formatting style and add ISBN numbers if possible. See ] for further details. -->

=== Printed sources ===
<!-- A -->
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |first=P. K. |last=Acharya |year=1927 |title=Indian Architecture according to the Manasara Shilpa Shastra |url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republ. by Motilal Banarsidass) |location=London |isbn=0-300-06217-6 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname1=Acri |editor-given1=Andrea |editor-surname2=Creese |editor-given2=Helen |editor-surname3=Griffiths |editor-given3=Arlo |year=2011 |title=From Lanka Eastwards: The Ramayaṇa in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia |location=Leiden |publisher=KITLV Press}}
<!-- B -->
* {{Cite journal |last=Bakker |first=F.L. |year=1997 |title=Balinese Hinduism and the Indonesian State: Recent Developments |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=15–41 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003943 |jstor=27864809 |s2cid=162277591}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barua |first=Ankur |url={{Google books|id=iZmsBwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Debating 'Conversion' in Hinduism and Christianity |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-84701-9 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname=Beck |editor-given=Guy L. |title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url={{Google books|id=0SJ73GHSCF8C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |location=Albany, NY |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhardwaj |first=Surinder Mohan |url={{Google books|id=D6XJFokSJzEC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-04951-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhaskarananda |first=Swami |title=Essentials of Hinduism |publisher=Viveka Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-884852-02-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781884852022 }}
* {{cite book | last =Bhattacharya | first =A. | year =2006 | title =Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology | isbn =978-0-595-38455-6}}
* {{Citation |title=Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last1=Bilimoria |editor-first1=Purushottama |editor-last2= Prabhu |editor-first2=Joseph |editor-last3= Sharma |editor-first3=Renuka |isbn=978-1138062696}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |author-link=John Bowker (theologian) |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |surname=Bhandarkar |given=R. G. |author-link=R. G. Bhandarkar |year=1913 |title=Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism and Minor Religious Systems |series=Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, 3.6 |publisher=Trübner |location=Strassburg |url=https://archive.org/details/VaishnavismShaivismAndOtherMinorReligiousSystemsR.G.Bhandarkar/page/n1/mode/1up?view=theater }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brodd |first=Jeffrey |title=World Religions |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-88489-725-5 |location=Winona, MN}}
* {{Citation |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India |year=2007 |publisher=Brill}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author)}}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname1=Bryant |editor-given1=Edwin F. |editor-link1=Edwin Bryant (author) |editor-surname2=Ekstrand |editor-given2=Maria |url={{Google books |mBMxPdgrBhoC |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-231-12256-X }}
* {{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2007}}
<!-- C -->
* {{Cite book |surname=Carney |given=Gerald T. |chapter=Baba Premananda Bharati: his trajectory into and through Bengal Vaiṣṇavism to the West |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hTADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT135 |title=The Legacy of Vaiṣṇavism in Colonial Bengal |url={{Google books|1hTADwAAQBAJ |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |editor1=Ferdinando Sardella |editor2=Lucian Wong |year=2020 |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=135–160 |isbn=978-1-138-56179-3 |series=Routledge Hindu Studies Series }}
* {{Cite book |last=Christian |first=David |author-link=David Christian (historian) |year=2011 |title=Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95067-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515 |url-access=limited }}
* {{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Peter Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/newreligionsglob00clar |title=New Religions in Global Perspective |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7007-1185-7 |page= |author-link=Peter B. Clarke |url-access=limited }}
* {{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Matthew |year=2011 |title=Development and Religion: Theology and Practice |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-0-85793-073-6 |page=28 |access-date=11 February 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174115/https://books.google.com/books?id=DIvHQc0-rwgC&pg=PA28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIvHQc0-rwgC&pg=PA28 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |surname=Cœdès |given=George |author-link=George Coedès |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |translator=Susan Brown Cowing |year=1968 |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought |year=2008 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7336-8 |author-link=Harold Coward }}
<!-- D -->
* {{Cite book |surname=Dalal |given=Roshen |author-link=Roshen Dalal |title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |location=Delhi |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6 |url={{Google books |pNmfdAKFpkQC |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite journal |last1=David |first1=Bruno |last2=Mullett |first2=Russell |last3=Wright |first3=Nathan |last4=Stephenson |first4=Birgitta |last5=Ash |first5=Jeremy |last6=Fresløv |first6=Joanna |last7=Delannoy |first7=Jean-Jacques |last8=McDowell |first8=Matthew C. |last9=Mialanes |first9=Jerome |last10=Petchey |first10=Fiona |last11=Arnold |first11=Lee J. |last12=Rogers |first12=Ashleigh J. |last13=Crouch |first13=Joe |last14=Green |first14=Helen |last15=Urwin |first15=Chris |last16=Matheson |first16=Carney D. |title=Archaeological evidence of an ethnographically documented Australian Aboriginal ritual dated to the last ice age |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=1 July 2024 |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=1481–1492 |doi=10.1038/s41562-024-01912-w |language=en |issn=2397-3374|doi-access=free |pmid=38951612 |pmc=11343701 }}
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* {{Citation |last1=Deutsch |first1=Eliot |last2=Dalvi |first2=Rohit |year=2004 |title=The essential Vedanta. A New Source Book of Advaita Vedanta |publisher=World Wisdom |isbn=978-0-941532-52-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Dirks |first=Nicholas |author-link = Nicholas Dirks |year=2001 |title=Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-691-08895-2}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dixon |first=R. M. W. |author-link=Robert M. W. Dixon |year=1996 |title=Origin legends and linguistic relationships |journal=Oceania |volume=67 |number=2 |pages=127–140 |jstor=40331537 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1996.tb02587.x}}
* {{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-61847-0 |author-link=Wendy Doniger}}
* {{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |author-link=Wendy Doniger |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nNsXZkdHvXUC |title=The Hindus: An Alternative History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-959334-7 |author-link=Wendy Doniger }}
* {{Citation |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iM_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press USA |isbn=978-0-19-936007-9 |author-link=Wendy Doniger }}
<!-- E -->
* {{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC |title=India: A Sacred Geography |publisher=Harmony |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0 |author-link=Diana L. Eck }}
* {{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyC4o7i9tnEC |title=India: A Sacred Geography |publisher=Random House |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-385-53192-4 |author-link=Diana L. Eck }}
* {{Cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |author-link=Mircea Eliade |year=2009 |title=Yoga: Immortality and Freedom |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-14203-6}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Espín |editor-first1=Orlando O. |editor-last2=Nickoloff |editor-first2=James B. |year=2007 |title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7}}
<!-- F -->
* {{Cite book | last =Feuerstein |first=Georg |title=The Yoga Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2002 |isbn=978-3-935001-06-9 |author-link=Georg Feuerstein}}
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* {{Cite book | last =Flood | first =Gavin | year =1997 | chapter =The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas | editor-last =Lipner |editor-first =Julius J. | title =The Bhagavadgītā for Our Times | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-565039-6 | author-link =Gavin Flood}}
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* {{Cite book |editor-last=Ramstedt |editor-first=Martin |year=2004 |title=Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A Minority Religion Between Local, National, and Global Interests |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1533-6 |url=https://www.routledge.com/Hinduism-in-Modern-Indonesia/Ramstedt/p/book/9780700715336 }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Richman |first=Paula |authorlink = Paula Richman |year=1988 |title=Women, branch stories, and religious rhetoric in a Tamil Buddhist text |location=Buffalo, NY |publisher=Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University |isbn=978-0-915984-90-9}}
* {{Cite book | last =Rinehart |first =Robin | year =2004 | title =Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice | publisher =ABC-CLIO }}
* {{Citation | last =Robinson | first =Catherine A. | year =2006| title =Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gītā and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The Song of the Lord | publisher =Routledge | isbn =978-0-415-34671-9 }}
* {{Cite book | last =Rocher |first=Ludo | year =1986 |title=The Puranas |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-02522-5 |author-link=Ludo Rocher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0-4RJh5FgoC }}
* {{harvc | last =Rocher |first=Ludo |year=2003 |c=The Dharmasastra |in=Flood |author-link=Ludo Rocher}}
* {{cite book |translator-last=Roer |translator-first=Edward |year=1908 |chapter=Shankara's Introduction |title=The Brīhād Aranyaka Upanishad |url={{Google books |3uwDAAAAMAAJ |Shankara's Introduction |page=2 |plainurl=yes}} |ref={{sfnref |Roer |1908}} }}
<!-- S -->
* {{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-69534-3 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}
* {{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Sargeant |first1=Winthrop |title=The Bhagavad Gita |title-link=Bhagavad Gita (Sargeant) |last2=Chapple |first2=Christopher |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-87395-831-8 |location=New York |author-link=Winthrop Sargeant}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sen Gupta |first=Anima |title=The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought |publisher=South Asia Books |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-215-0019-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-564441-8 |author-link=Arvind Sharma}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |author-link=Arvind Sharma |year=2002 |title=On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva |journal=Numen |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.1163/15685270252772759 |jstor=3270470}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |title=The Study of Hinduism |publisher=] |year=2003 |author-link=Arvind Sharma}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Arvind |title=Hinduism as a Missionary Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduismasmissio0000shar |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4384-3211-3 |author-link=Arvind Sharma }}
* {{Citation |last1=Sharma |first1=Suresh K. |title=Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Hinduism |year=2004 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-956-0 |last2=Sharma |first2=Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XFKi3Uak8ssC&pg=PA1 }}
* {{Citation |last1=Siemens |first1=Herman |title=Nietzsche, Power and Politics: Rethinking Nietzsche's Legacy for Political Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2sEL7Kj6lcC |year=2009 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |last2=Roodt |first2=Vasti |isbn=978-3-11-021733-9 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Silverberg |first=James |year=1969 |title=Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium |journal=The American Journal of Sociology |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=442–443 |doi=10.1086/224812}}
* {{cite book |first=D. N. |last=Shukla |year=1993 |title=Vastu-Sastra: Hindu Science of Architecture |publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publ. |isbn=978-81-215-0611-3}}
* {{cite book |surname=Singh |given=Kunj Bihari |year=2004 |orig-year=1963 |chapter=Manipur Vaishnavism: A Sociological Interpretation |chapter-url={{Google books|id=Mc6GAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=125|keywords=|text=}} |title=Sociology of Religion in India |editor=Rowena Robinson |series=Themes in Indian Sociology, 3 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Sage Publ. India |pages=125–132 |url={{Google books|id=Mc6GAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |isbn=0-7619-9781-4 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |year=2008 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |author-link=Upinder Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sinha |first=Amita |title=Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras |journal=Journal of Cultural Geography |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=1998 |doi=10.1080/08873639809478319 |pages=27–41}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sjoberg |first=Andree F. |year=1990 |title=The Dravidian Contribution to the Development of Indian Civilization: A Call for a Reassessment |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=40–74 |id=Article 4 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=ccr |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174248/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=ccr |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Smart |first=Ninian |author-link=Ninian Smart |year=1993 |title=The Formation Rather Than the Origin of a Tradition |url=http://www.basr.ac.uk/diskus/diskus1-6/SMART.txt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202231922/http://www.basr.ac.uk/diskus/diskus1-6/SMART.txt |archive-date=2 December 2013 |journal=DISKUS |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=1 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Development |publisher=Aldine Transaction |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-202-30799-2 |editor-last=Smelser |editor-first=Neil J. |editor-link=Neil Smelser |editor-last2=Lipset |editor-first2=Seymour Martin |editor-link2=Seymour Martin Lipset}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Bonnie |authorlink1=Bonnie G. Smith |title=Crossroads and Cultures, Combined Volume: A History of the World's Peoples |last2=Van De Mieroop |first2=Marc |authorlink2=Marc Van de Mieroop |last3=von Glahn |first3=Richard |last4=Lane |first4=Kris |authorlink4=Kris Lane |year=2012 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-41017-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjOyxUzKWLAC }}
* {{cite journal | last =Smith | first =Brian K. | year =1998 |title=Questioning Authority: Constructions and Deconstructions of Hinduism |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=313–339 |doi=10.1007/s11407-998-0001-9 |jstor=20106612 |s2cid=144929213}}
* {{citation |last=Smith |first=Wilfred Cantwell |authorlink=Wilfred Cantwell Smith |title=The Meaning and End of Religion |year=1963 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |orig-date=1961 |url=https://archive.org/details/meaningendofre00smit |via=archive.org |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Sontheimer |editor-first=Sunther-Dietz |title = Hinduism Reconsidered |year=1989 |publisher = Manohar |isbn=8173041989 }}
* {{Citation |last=Sponsel |first=Leslie Elmer |title=Spiritual Ecology: A Quiet Revolution |year=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO}}
* {{cite book |surname=Stuart-Fox |given=David J. |year=2002 |title=Pura Besakih: Temple, religion and society in Bali |location=Leiden |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=978-9067181464}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sweetman |first=Will |date=2004 |title=The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's Account of Hinduism |url=http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf |journal=New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=12–38 |archive-date=7 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207044659/http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf }}
<!-- T -->
* {{Cite book |surname=Tattwananda |given=Swami |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |location=Calcutta |publisher=Nirmalendra Bikash Sen Gupta |year=n.d. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.128453 }}
* {{citation |first=Romila |last=Thapar |title=Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=23 |number=2 |year=1989 |pages=209–231 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00001049|s2cid=145293468 }}
** {{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=R. |chapter=Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient History and the Modem Search for a Hindu Identity |title=Interpreting Early India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |location=Delhi |pages=60–88 |author-link=Romila Thapar}}
* {{cite book | last =Thomas | first =T. | year =2012 | chapter = | editor-last =Prasons | editor-first =Gerald | title =The Growth of Religious Diversity - Vol 1: Britain from 1945 Volume 1: Traditions | publisher =Routledge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thompson Platts |first=John |authorlink = John Thompson Platts |title=A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindī, and English |publisher=W. H. Allen & Co., Oxford University |year=1884}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions |last2=Buckles |first2=Luke |publisher=Penguin |year=2011}}
* {{citation |last1=Truschke |first1=Audrey |author-link=Audrey Truschke |year=2023 |title=Hindu: A History |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |pages=1–26 |s2cid=256174694 |doi=10.1017/S0010417522000524 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC |title=For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate |year=1996a |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-8039-7634-4 |author-link=Bryan S. Turner (sociologist) }}
<!-- V -->
* {{cite book |last=Viswanathan |first=G |editor1-first=Gavin |editor1-last=Flood |year=2003 |chapter=Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism |doi=10.1002/9780470998694.ch2 |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |pages=23–44 |isbn=978-0-470-99869-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda |publisher=Advaita Ashrama |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-85301-75-4 |location=Calcutta |author-link=Swami Vivekananda}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vivekjivandas |title=Hinduism: An Introduction – Part 1 |publisher=Swaminarayan Aksharpith |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-7526-433-5 |location=Ahmedabad}}
<!-- W -->
* {{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |publisher=] |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-429-62465-0 |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6zj3DwAAQBAJ |title=The Hindu world: an encyclopaedic survey of Hinduism }}
* {{Cite book |last=Werner |first=Karel |title=Yoga And Indian Philosophy |author-link=Karel Werner |orig-year=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1609-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Werner |first=Karel |url={{Google books|id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-135-79753-9 |author-link=Karel Werner }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=West |given=Barbara A. |url={{Google books|id=pCiNqFj3MQsC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |year=2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1438119137 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Widgery |first=Alban G. |title=The Principles of Hindu Ethics |journal=International Journal of Ethics |volume=40 |issue=2 |date=Jan 1930 |pages=232–245 |doi=10.1086/intejethi.40.2.2377977 |jstor=2377977 |s2cid=170183611 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Witzel |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |publisher=Praeger |volume=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611142934/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2007 |number=4 }}
* {{harvc |last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=2003 |c=Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}} |in=Flood }}
<!-- Z -->
* {{Cite book | last =Zaehner | first =R. C.| year =1992| title =Hindu Scriptures | publisher =] |isbn =978-0-679-41078-2 | author-link =Robert Charles Zaehner | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWuezQEACAAJ | access-date =11 April 2021 | archive-date =28 March 2024 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155555/https://books.google.com/books?id=eWuezQEACAAJ | url-status =live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |title=Philosophies of India |publisher=] |year=1951 |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer}}
{{refend}}

=== Web sources ===
{{Reflist|group=web|30em|refs=
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<ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{Cite web |date=January 2015 |title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact |url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141543/http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=29 May 2015 |website=gordonconwell.edu}}</ref>
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<ref name="pewforum_Hinduism" group="web">{{Cite web |date=18 December 2012 |title=The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism |url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx |access-date=31 March 2013 |website=A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups <!-- {{as of|2010|lc=y}}--> |publisher=Pew Research Foundation |archive-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506104814/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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<ref group=web name="VD">{{Cite web|title=View Dictionary |url=https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg |access-date=19 November 2021 |website=sanskritdictionary.com}}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
<!-- only monographs dedicated to Hinduism in general should be listed here -->
{{refbegin|30em}}
; Encyclopedias
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Dalal |given=Roshen |authorlink=Roshen Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |year=2010b |url={{Google books|id=DH0vmD8ghdMC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |location=New Delhi |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2009–2015 |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism |editor-surname=Jacobsen |editor-given=Knut A. |editor-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |display-editors=etal |volume=1–6 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |url=https://brill.com/view/package/9789004271289?language=en&packages=about |isbn=978-9004271289 |url-access=registration |ref=none }}
** Vol. 1: ''Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities'' (2009).
** Vol. 2: ''Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts'' (2010).
** Vol. 3: ''Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies'' (2011).
** Vol. 4: ''Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues'' (2012).
** Vol. 5: ''Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers'' (2013).
** Vol. 6: ''Indices'' (2015).
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=2018 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Pankaj |editor-link1=Pankaj Jain |editor2-last=Sherma |editor2-first=Rita |editor3-last=Khanna |editor3-first=Madhu |editor-link3=Madhu Khanna |entry=Hinduism and Tribal Religions |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_541-1 |isbn=978-94-024-1036-5 |series=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions |pages=1–6 |title=Swaminarayan }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Johnson |given=W. J. |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-861025-0 |ref=none }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Jones |given=Constance A. |surname2=Ryan |given2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=OgMmceadQ3gC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |year=2007 |location=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions. ], Series Editor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |surname=Klostermaier |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism |location=London |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-672-2 |url={{Google books|id=DB29DwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Potter |editor-given=Karl H. |editor-link=Karl Harrington Potter |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |location=Delhi |publisher=] |year=1970–2019 |volume=1–25 |ref=none |archive-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201160007/https://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |url-status=dead }} Ongoing ] project.
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |surname=Sullivan |given=Bruce M. |title=The A to Z of Hinduism |edition=Rev. |place=Lanham, Md; London |publisher=Scarecrow Press |url=https://archive.org/details/atozofhinduism2001sull |url-access=registration |isbn=0-8108-4070-7 |ref=none }}
* {{cite book |surname=Werner |given=Karel |author-link=Karel Werner |title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism |location=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |year=1997 |edition=Rev. |isbn=0-7007-1049-3 |url={{Google books|id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none }}

; Introductory
* {{cite book |surname=Flood |given=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood |year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129185620/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C |archive-date=29 November 2016 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |ref=none |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Flood |editor-given=Gavin |editor-link=Gavin Flood |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2003 |place=Oxford |publisher=] |isbn=0-631-21535-2 |url={{Google books|id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144114/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C |archive-date=29 March 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown |ref=none |access-date=29 May 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |year=1997 |title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-60-8 |url={{Google books|id=RmGKHu20hA0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book |surname=Hiltebeitel |given=Alf |authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel |year=2002 |orig-year=1987 |chapter=Hinduism |editor-surname=Kitagawa |editor-given=Joseph M. |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture |place=London |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |pages=3–40 |chapter-url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=3|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |ref=none }}
* {{cite book |year=2007 |surname=Klostermaier |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-026-3 |url={{Google books|id=P0VCO1900dMC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174233/https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Knott |given=Kim |year=1998 |url={{Google books|id=p4kzNzII3zAC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-160645-8 |archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174324/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live |ref=none}}

; History
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya |editor-given=D. P. |editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya |title=] |volume=1–15 |location=Delhi |publisher=] |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Basham |given=Arthur Llewellyn |author-link=Arthur Llewellyn Basham |title=] |location=London |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson |year=1954 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |authorlink=Asko Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-022693-0 |url={{Google books|id=DagXCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none }}
* {{cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey | authorlink = Geoffrey Samuel |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |ref=none}}

; Philosophy and theology
* {{cite book |surname=Dasgupta |given=Surendranath |year=1922–1955 |author-link=Surendranath Dasgupta |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1–5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian-philosophy-vol-i |ref=none }} | | | |
* {{cite book |year=1923–1927 |surname=Radhakrishnan |given=Sarvepalli |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |volume=1–2 |url=https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2 |ref=none }}

; Texts
* {{cite book |year=2010 |surname=Klostermaier |edition=3rd |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Survey of Hinduism |location=New York |publisher=SUNY Press |url={{Google books|id=8CVviRghVtIC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |ref=none }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Richards |editor-first=Glyn |year=1985 |title=A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism |location=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0173-5 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}


== External links ==
{{Col-5-of-5}}
{{Prone to spam|date=June 2020}}
*]
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Revision as of 04:35, 24 December 2024

Indian religion

Part of a series on
Hinduism
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Hinduism (/ˈhɪnduˌɪzəm/) is an umbrella term for a range of Indian religious and spiritual traditions (sampradayas) that are unified by adherence to the concept of dharma, a cosmic order maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living, as first expounded in the Vedas. The word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described by the modern term Sanātana Dharma (lit. 'eternal dharma') emphasizing its eternal nature. Another endonym for Hinduism is Vaidika Dharma (lit. 'Vedic dharma').

Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared concepts that discuss theology, mythology, among other topics in textual sources. Hindu texts have been classified into Śruti (lit. 'heard') and Smṛti (lit. 'remembered'). The major Hindu scriptures are the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita), the Ramayana, and the Agamas. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include karma (action, intent and consequences), saṃsāra (the cycle of death and rebirth) and the four Puruṣārthas, proper goals or aims of human life, namely: dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from passions and ultimately saṃsāra). Hindu religious practices include devotion (bhakti), worship (puja), sacrificial rites (yajna), and meditation (dhyana) and yoga. Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many Hindus do not claim to belong to any denomination. However, scholarly studies notify four major denominations: Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism, and Vaishnavism. The six Āstika schools of Hindu philosophy that recognise the authority of the Vedas are: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta.

While the traditional Itihasa-Purana and its derived Epic-Puranic chronology present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of Brahmanical orthopraxy with various Indian cultures, having diverse roots and no specific founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500 to 200 BCE, and c. 300 CE, in the period of the second urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism when the epics and the first Purānas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India. Since the 19th century, modern Hinduism, influenced by western culture, has acquired a great appeal in the West, most notably reflected in the popularisation of yoga and various sects such as Transcendental Meditation and the Hare Krishna movement.

Hinduism is the world's third-largest religion, with approximately 1.20 billion followers, or around 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. It is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal, Mauritius, and in Bali, Indonesia. Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in the countries of South Asia, in Southeast Asia, in the Caribbean, Middle East, North America, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and other regions.

Etymology

Further information: Hindu

The word Hindū is an exonym, and is derived from the Sanskrit root Sindhu, believed to be the name of the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.

The Proto-Iranian sound change *s > h occurred between 850 and 600 BCE. According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–486 BCE). The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. The word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. In Arabic texts, al-Hind referred to the land beyond the Indus and therefore, all the people in that land were Hindus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".

Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th-century Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami. Some 16–18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts mention Hindu and Hindu dharma to distinguish from Muslims without positively defining these terms. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction. It was apparently coined (with the original spelling "Hindooism") by Charles Grant in 1787, who used it along with "Hindu religion". The first Indian to use "Hinduism" may have been Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1816–17. By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians. Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, varna, jāti, occupation, and sect.

Definitions

"Hinduism" is an umbrella-term, referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions. According to Sweetman, the term "Hinduism" was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century and refers to the fusion, or synthesis, of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500–200 BCE and c. 300 CE, in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the epics and the first Puranas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India. Hinduism's variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions; Hindus can be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. According to Mahatma Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu". According to Wendy Doniger, "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma."

Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it". Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life". From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term (Hindu) dharma is used, which is broader than the Western term "religion," and refers to the religious attitudes and behaviours, the 'right way to live', as preserved and transmitted in the various traditions collectively referred to as "Hinduism."

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.

Typology

Om, a stylised letter of the Devanagari script, used as a religious symbol in Hinduism
Main article: Hindu denominations

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. The six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are: Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā, and Vedānta.

Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as equals). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or Supreme God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ātman (self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.

June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to McDaniel are Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasising knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasising introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions". The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga", jnana-marga, bhakti-marga, and "heroism", which is rooted in militaristic traditions. These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, Rama, believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu) and parts of political Hinduism. "Heroism" is also called virya-marga. According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practising or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasise Brahman (Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism. He includes among "founded religions" Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various "Guru-isms" and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, BAPS and ISKCON.

Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project. From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.

Sanātana Dharma

See also: Sanātanī
Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple, dedicated to the Hindu deity Vishnu, is said to be worshiped by Ikshvaku (and the descendants of Ikshvaku Vamsam).

To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way". Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The Puranic chronology, as narrated in the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the Puranas, envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE. The word dharma is used here to mean religion similar to modern Indo-Aryan languages, rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfilment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha), are viewed here as part of "dharma", which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment. The use of the term Sanātana Dharma for Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts.

Sanātana Dharma refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and traditions with origins beyond human history– truths divinely revealed (Shruti) in the Vedas, the most ancient of the world's scriptures. To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era. The Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher.

Sanātana Dharma historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahiṃsā), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (varṇa) and stage in life (puruṣārtha). In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".

Vaidika dharma

See also: Historical Vedic religion and Vedic period

Some have referred to Hinduism as the Vaidika dharma. The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'. Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism. According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term vaidika dharma or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE. According to Brian K. Smith, "t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term Vaidika Dharma cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."

Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic varṇāśrama – 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some Shaiva groups like the Paśupatas and Kāpālins to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).

According to Alexis Sanderson, the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of antinomian Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold. Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy considered the Agamas such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma. The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas. However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, and that as such they are man's sole means of valid knowledge ".

The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner. The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term. To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself a Hindu," and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text." Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.

Legal definition

Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave the following definition in Gita Rahasya (1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large". It was quoted by the Indian Supreme Court in 1966, and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition," and is still the legal definition of a Hindu today.

Diversity and unity

Diversity

See also: Hindu denominations
Hindus in Ghana celebrating Ganesh Chaturti

Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion. Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed", but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India. According to the Supreme Court of India,

Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".

Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.

Sense of unity

Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, though Louis Renou stated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".

Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations", there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives" of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".

Classical Hinduism

Brahmins played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture. In the post-Gupta period Vedanta developed in southern India, where orthodox Brahmanic culture and the Hindu culture were preserved, building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda the multiple demands of Hinduism."

Medieval developments

The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion. Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other". According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other" is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.

Pashupatinath Temple in Nepal, dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva as the lord of all beings

According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged. This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy." The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Mikel Burley. Hacker called this "inclusivism" and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit". Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other", which started well before 1800. Michaels notes:

As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.

Colonial views

The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition" was also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism. These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature". Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention. He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.

Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta

Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and the United States, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.

All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.

— Swami Vivekananda See also: Hindu reform movements See also: Orientalism and Neo-Vedanta

This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.

Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation, meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems. This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west. Major representatives of "Hindu modernism" are Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.

Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance. He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism". Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity", and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms. According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today". Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".

This "Global Hinduism" has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism", both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions. It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity". It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation", or the pizza effect, in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".

Modern India and the world

The Hare Krishna group at the Esplanadi Park in Helsinki, Finland

The Hindutva movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times. And there are assumptions of political dominance of Hindu nationalism in India, also known as 'Neo-Hindutva'. There have also been increase in pre-dominance of Hindutva in Nepal, similar to that of India. The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such as Yoga and Hare Krishna movement by many missionaries organisations, especially by ISKCON and this is also due to the migration of Indian Hindus to the other nations of the world. Hinduism is growing fast in many western nations and in some African nations.

Main traditions

Denominations

Further information: Hindu denominations
A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Parvati (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism, and Vaishnavism. These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook. The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" Krishna and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools. Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga. Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within. Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.

Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realising God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge). The term Smartism is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.

Ethnicities

Prambanan Hindu temple complex built in the 9th century, Java, Indonesia
Puja at Pura Besakih, one of the most significant Balinese Hinduism temples
See also: Hinduism in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Bali, Java, Vietnam, and West

Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or polyethnic religion. On the Indian subcontinent, it is widespread among many Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and other South Asian ethnic groups, for example, the Meitei people (Tibeto-Burman ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state Manipur).

In addition, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the Greater India – from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, partly Philippines) – and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam, except several still Hindu minor Austronesian ethnic groups, such as the Balinese and Tenggerese people in Indonesia, and the Chams in Vietnam. Also, a small community of the Afghan Pashtuns who migrated to India after partition remain committed to Hinduism.

The Indo-Aryan Kalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which is closely related to ancient Indo-Iranian religion, and resembles the ancient Vedic religion. While it has been related to Greek religion, due to an origin-narrative which says that the Kalash descend from Alexander the Great's Greek soldiers, the Kalash speak an Indo-Aryan language, and their religion is closer to Hinduism than to the religion of Alexander's army.

There are many new ethnic Ghanaian Hindus in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of Swami Ghanananda Saraswati and Hindu Monastery of Africa From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), Swami Vivekananda, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.

Scriptures

Main article: List of Hindu texts See also: Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism
The Rigveda is the first among four Vedas and is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rigveda manuscript is in Sanskrit.

The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are initially in Vedic Sanskrit and later in classical Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is apauruṣeyā, (lit. 'not made of a man') but revealed by the rishis (lit. 'seers'), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority. They are the two highest sources of dharma, the other two being Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara (lit. 'conduct of noble people') and finally Ātma tuṣṭi (lit. 'what is pleasing to oneself').

Hindu scriptures were composed, memorised and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.

Shruti (lit. 'that which is heard') primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (rishis). There are four Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).

The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions. Indian philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.

RamayanaMahabharata

The most notable of the Smritis (lit. 'that which is remembered') are the Hindu epics and the Puranas (lit. 'that which is ancient'). The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being Upanishadic in content. The Puranas, which started to be composed of c. 300 CE onward, contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained renewed popularity in the 20th century.

Since the 19th century, Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.

Tantra are the religious scriptures that give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition, Radha, Parvati, Durga, and Kali are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms. The Agamas in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti, while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva. In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.

Beliefs

Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), saṃsāra (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices). However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterised by a belief in an Afterlife, with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as Śrāddha. Ancestor worship once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.

Purusharthas

Main article: Puruṣārtha See also: Diksha, Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa

Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)

Main article: Dharma

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism. The concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living". Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:

Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv

In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever; thus, Sanātana Dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.

Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life)

Main article: Artha

Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.

A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.

Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure)

Main article: Kama

Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.

Tantric depiction of loving embrace at a temple relief of Khajuraho Group of Monuments, Madhya Pradesh, India - a UNESCO World Heritage Site

In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian Epic the Mahabharata describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).

In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.

Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering)

Main article: Moksha

Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष, romanized: mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from samsara (a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.

Muktinath temple in Mustang, Nepal, considered one of the focal pilgrimage places for liberation (moksha or nirvana)

Due to the belief in Hinduism that the Atman is eternal, and the concept of Purusha (the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness), death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.

Differing views on the nature of moksha

The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.

Advaita Vedanta holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to Brahman.

The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife moksha state, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha they expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven).

More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.

According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self". Moksha when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.

Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the Vedantic school separates this into two views – Jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and Videhamukti (liberation after death).

Karma and saṃsāra

Main article: Karma

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect". The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicisation, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth. Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives. This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called saṃsāra. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances. The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the Rigveda. The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade. According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals. The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira.

Concept of God

Main articles: Ishvara and God in Hinduism

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.

Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?

— Nasadiya Sukta, concerns the origin of the universe, Rigveda, 10:129–6

The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest texts which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The Rig Veda praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and One Ultimate Reality. The "One Truth" of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.

Gods and Goddesses in HinduismVishnuVishnuBrahmaBrahmaShivaShivaShaktiShakti

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the ātman. The Self is believed to be eternal. According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit or the Ultimate Reality. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's Self is identical to supreme Self, that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life. Dualistic schools (Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual Selfs. They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.

Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances. There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents. It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from animism, in which all things are themselves divine. The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, man and nature, etc. The Vedic view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.

The Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called Devas (or Devi in feminine form), which may be translated into English as gods or heavenly beings. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions. The multitude of Devas is considered manifestations of Brahman.

Hindu god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his ten major avatars, namely Matsya; Kurma; Varaha; Narasimha; Vamana; Parashurama; Rama; Krishna; Buddha, and Kalki

The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature; It appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the avatars of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities. Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption". Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious". Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.

Ardhanarishvara, showing both feminine and masculine aspect of god in Hinduism

God in Hinduism is often represented having both the feminine and masculine aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati (Ardhanarishvara), Vishnu accompanied by Lakshmi, Radha with Krishna and Sita with Rama.

According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present. The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.

Authority

Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars. But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason." Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, 'by what' power something is the case. The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via Radha.

Practices

Rituals

Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Arti (Hinduism), Abhisheka, Japa, Havan, Yajna, and Hindu wedding
A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical Hindu wedding is solemnised before Vedic fire ritual (shown).

Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.

Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding. Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.

The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred," and "do not constitute linguistic utterances." Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, "means to an end." In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer. By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the mantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."

Sādhanā

Main article: Sādhanā

Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realisation of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.

Life-cycle rites of passage

Main article: Saṃskāra

Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra, rites of passage) in Hinduism. The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally. Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras. The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.

The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the child), Nishkramana (baby's first outing from home into the world), Annaprashana (baby's first feeding of solid food), Chudakarana (baby's first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (ear piercing), Vidyarambha (baby's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite), Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child). In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as Śrāddha (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practised.

Bhakti (worship)

Main articles: Bhakti, Puja (Hinduism), Japa, Mantra, and Bhajan A home shrine with offerings at a regional Vishu festival (left); a priest in a temple (right)

Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. Bhakti-marga is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha. The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are Jnana-marga (path of knowledge), Karma-marga (path of works), Rāja-marga (path of contemplation and meditation).

Bhakti is practised in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine, or in a temple before a murti or sacred image of a deity. Hindu temples and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism. While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.

One form of daily worship is aarati, or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise". Notable aaratis include Om Jai Jagdish Hare, a Hindi prayer to Vishnu, and Sukhakarta Dukhaharta, a Marathi prayer to Ganesha. Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to "human exemplar". For instance, Aarti is offered to Hanuman, a devotee of God, in many temples, including Balaji temples, where the primary deity is an incarnation of Vishnu. In Swaminarayan temples and home shrines, aarati is offered to Swaminarayan, considered by followers to be Supreme God.

Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarati, kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees. While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman. Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalising god. While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (saguna Brahman). Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman), and god within oneself.

Festivals

Main article: List of Hindu festivals
The festival of lights, Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.
Holi being celebrated at the Sri Sri Radha Krishna Temple in Utah, United States (2013)

Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes. Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj) festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.

Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:

Pilgrimage

See also: Tirtha (Hinduism), Tirtha locations, and Yatra

Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today. Pilgrimage sites are called Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya. The process or journey associated with Tirtha is called Tirtha-yatra. According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self. Tīrtha-yatra is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.

Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas. Most Puranas include large sections on Tirtha Mahatmya along with tourist guides, which describe sacred sites and places to visit. In these texts, Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameswaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Pitha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (sangam) or join the sea. Kumbh Mela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: Prayagraj at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Haridwar near source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nashik on the bank of the Godavari river. This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.

Kedar Ghat, a bathing place for pilgrims on the Ganges at Varanasi

Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons. It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of passage such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness. It may also be the result of prayers answered. An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death. This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honour the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.

Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by travelling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges. Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition. The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts. The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from travelling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.

Culture

The term "Hindu culture" refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress codes followed by the Hindus which is mainly can be inspired from the culture of India and Southeast Asia.

Architecture

This section is an excerpt from Hindu architecture.
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Other Related Links (Templates)
The architecture of a Hindu temple in Sunak, Gujarat

Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in Hindu texts. The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the Vastu shastras, Shilpa Shastras, the Brihat Samhita, architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the Manasara among others.

By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are Hindu temples, with an architectural tradition that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and rock-cut architecture dating back to the Gupta Empire. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and Hellenistic architecture. Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.

Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas. The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.

Art

Main article: Hindu art
Krishna with cows, herdsmen, and Gopis

Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

Calendar

See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar Main article: Hindu calendar

The Hindu calendar, Panchanga (Sanskrit: पञ्चाङ्ग) or Panjika is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with further regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka (Based on the King Shalivahana, also the Indian national calendar) found in the Deccan region of Southern India and the Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of India – both of which emphasise the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasised and this is called the Tamil calendar (though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and Malayalam calendar and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchangam (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as Panjika in Eastern India.

The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar, and the Babylonian calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.

The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the Hindus all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient Jain traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.

The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as Ekadashi.

Person and society

Varnas

Main article: Varna (Hinduism)
Priests performing Kalyanam (marriage) of the holy deities at Bhadrachalam Temple, in Telangana. It is one of the temples in India, where Kalyanam is done everyday throughout the year.

Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varṇas. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers and merchants; and the Shudras: servants and labourers. The Bhagavad Gītā links the varṇa to an individual's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies (guṇa). The Manusmriti categorises the different castes. Some mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists, although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom. And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.

A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varṇatita or "beyond all varṇas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varṇas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.

Yoga

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation
Main article: Yoga

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, tranquility, and spiritual insight. Texts dedicated to yoga include the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major marga (paths) of Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), and Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of yoga as exercise (traditionally Hatha yoga) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.

Symbolism

Some of the most prominent Hindu symbols: Om (left) and the Swastika (right)

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Brahman and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika (from the Sanskrit: स्वस्तिक, romanized: svastika) a sign that represents auspiciousness, and Tilaka (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ritual or rite of passage. Elaborate Tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, lingam, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.

Ahiṃsā and food customs

Main articles: Ahimsa, Diet in Hinduism, Sattvic diet, Mitahara, and Jhatka A goshala or cow shelter at GunturA vegetarian thali

Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considers Bos indicus to be sacred. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving, selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance. There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood. Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs. Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad and Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous Self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.

Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal practise animal sacrifice. The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food. In contrast, the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice. The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.

Institutions

Temple

Main articles: Hindu temple, Murti, Hindu iconography, and Hindu architecture For list of temples, see List of Hindu temples. Illustration of Hindu temples in AsiaClockwise from top-left: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Madhya Pradesh; Chennakeshava Temple, Karnataka; Jagannath Temple, Puri, Odisha;Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam, Tamil Nadu; Padmanabhaswamy temple, Kerala; Swaminarayan Mandir, Vadtal, Gujarat.

A Hindu temple is a house of god(s). It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe, the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma. The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs. Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India. Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples. Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.

Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana, a sight) in a Hindu temple. In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.

Asrama

Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu monastery in the North American continent.
Main article: Āśrama (stage)

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery). The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vānaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation). Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind. Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world. The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.</ref>

The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism. Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation. While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.

Monasticism

A sadhu in Madurai, India
Main article: Sannyasa

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is called a Sanyāsī, Sādhu, or Swāmi. A female renunciate is called a Sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahiṃsā-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.

History

Main article: History of Hinduism
A Tamil depiction of Kali from the 12th century

Hinduism's varied history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation. While the traditional Itihasa-Purana and the Epic-Puranic chronology derived from it present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder, which emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500–200 BCE and c. 300 CE.

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320–650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.

The Hindu Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was built by Narasimhavarman II.

Hinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from c. 1250–1750 CE, saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. Historic persecutions of Hindus happened under Muslim rulers and also by Christian Missionaries. In Goa, the 1560 inquisition by Portuguese colonists is also considered one of the most brutal persecutions of Hindus. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by western movements, such as Unitarianism and Theosophy. In the Kingdom of Nepal, the Unification of Nepal by Shah dynasty was accompanied by the Hinduization of the state and continued till the c. 1950s. Indians were hired as plantation labourers in British colonies such as Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago. The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the Partition of India. During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the United States, and the United Kingdom.

Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal, and in Indonesia, in the 20th–21st century, many missionary organisations such as ISKCON, Sathya Sai Organization, Vedanta Society have been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India. Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched Shuddhi movement to proselytise and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytisation activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined. There have also been an increase of Hindu identity in politics, mostly in India, Nepal and Bangladesh in the form of Hindutva. The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations like RSS, BJP and other organisations of Sangh Parivar in India, while there are also many Hindu nationalist parties and organisations such as Shivsena Nepal and RPP in Nepal, HINDRAF in Malaysia, etc.

Demographics

Main article: Hinduism by country
Artwork of Ganesha in Nepal, holding a gold bowl of laddoos, implements, vajra weapon, vegetable, fruits, mala, mouse, wish fulfilling jewels

Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 80% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (966 million adherents). India contains 94% of the global Hindu population. Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (13 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). A significant population of Hindus are also present in Pakistan (5.2 million). The majority of the Indonesian Tenggerese people in Java and the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams in Ninh Thuận Province.

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. Hinduism is the third fastest-growing religion in the world after Islam and Christianity, with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.

Percentage of Hindus by country

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

  1.  Nepal – 81.3%
  2.  India – 80.0%
  3.  Mauritius – 48.5%
  4.  Guyana – 31%
  5.  Fiji – 27.9%
  6.  Trinidad and Tobago – 24.3%
  7.  Bhutan – 22.6%
  8.  Suriname – 22.3%
  9.  Qatar – 15.9%
  10.  Sri Lanka – 12.6%
  11.  Bahrain – 9.8%
  12.  Bangladesh – 7.9%
  13.  Réunion – 6.8%
  14.  United Arab Emirates – 6.6%
  15.  Malaysia – 6.3%
  16.  Kuwait – 6%
  17.  Oman – 5.5%
  18.  Seychelles – 5.4%
  19.  Singapore – 5%
  20.  Indonesia – 3.9%
  21.  New Zealand – 2.9%
  22.  Australia – 2.7%
  23.  Pakistan – 2.2%
Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, as of 2010)
Tradition Followers % of the Hindu population % of the world population Follower dynamics World dynamics
Vaishnavism 640,806,845 67.6 9.3 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Shaivism 252,200,000 26.6 3.7 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Shaktism 30,000,000 3.2 0.4 Steady Stable Decrease Declining
Neo-Hinduism 20,300,000 2.1 0.3 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Reform Hinduism 5,200,000 0.5 0.1 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Cumulative 948,575,000 100 13.8 Increase Growing Increase Growing

See also

For a topical guide, see Outline of Hinduism.
Hinduism
Related systems and religions

Notes

  1. ^ Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "way of life" (Sharma 2003, pp. 12–13), etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood 2003, pp. 1–17.
  2. ^ There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
    • Flood 1996, p. 6 states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."
    • Sharma 2002 and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar Xuanzang, whose 17-year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in the Chinese language, uses the transliterated term In-tu whose "connotation overflows in the religious".(Sharma 2002) Xuanzang describes Hindu Deva-temples of the early 7th century CE, worship of Sun deity and Shiva, his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at Nalanda. See also Gosch & Stearns 2007, pp. 88–99, Sharma 2011, pp. 5–12, Smith et al. 2012, pp. 321–324.
    • Sharma 2002 also mentions the use of the word Hindu in Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text Tarikh Al-Hind, and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term Hindu retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
    • Lorenzen 2006 states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, Futuhu's-Salatin, composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".(Lorenzen 2006, p. 33)
    • Lorenzen 2006, pp. 32–33 also mentions other non-Persian texts such as Prithvíráj Ráso by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.
    • Lorenzen 2006, p. 15 states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.
  3. See:
    • Fowler 1997, p. 1: "probably the oldest religion in the world."
    • Klostermaier 2007, p. 1: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.
    • Kurien 2006: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."
    • Bakker 1997: "it is the oldest religion".
    • Noble 1998: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."
    Smart 1993, p. 1, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century."
    Animism has also been called "the oldest religion."(Sponsel 2012: "Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago.")
    Australian linguist, R. M. W. Dixon discovered that Aboriginal myths regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago (Dixon 1996). David et al. (2024) found archaeological evidence that the mulla-mullung ritual, described in the 19th century, dates back at least 12,000 years.
    See also:
  4. Sanatāna Dharma:
    • Harvey 2001, p. xiii: "In modern Indian usage, sanātana dharma is often equated with 'Hinduism' as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it."
    • Knott 1998, p. 5: "Many describe Hinduism as sanatana dharma, the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history."
    • Knott 1998, p. 117: " The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."
    • Parpola 2015, p. 3: "Some Indians object to having a foreign term for their religion, preferring the Sanskrit expression sanātana dharma, "eternal law or truth," despite the fact that this expression was not applied to any religious system in ancient texts."
  5. ^ Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."
    Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
  6. ^ Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."
  7. See:
    • Samuel 2008, p. 194: "The Brahmanical pattern"
    • Flood 1996, p. 16: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative'"
    • Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "Brahmanical synthesis"
    According to Heesterman 2005, Brahmanism developed out of the Historical Vedic religion; "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." According to Witzel 1995, this development started around 1000 BCE in the Kuru Kingdom, with the Brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the Kuru kings.
  8. ^ See also:
    • Ghurye 1980, pp. 3–4: "He considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."
    • Zimmer 1951, pp. 218–219.
    • Sjoberg 1990, p. 43. Quote: ; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."
    • Sjoberg 1990.
    • Flood 1996, p. 16: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence to varnasramadharma."
    • Nath 2001.
    • Werner 1998.
    • Werner 2005, pp. 8–9.
    • Lockard 2007, p. 50.
    • Hiltebeitel 2002.
    • Hopfe & Woodward 2008, p. 79: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
    • Samuel 2010.
  9. ^ Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2008, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation (Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2007, p. xviii) the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of northeastern India (Flood 1996, p. 16; Gomez 2013, p. 42), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture (Bronkhorst 2007); and "popular or local traditions" (Flood 1996, p. 16) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."Doniger 2010, p. 66)
  10. The Indo-Aryan word Sindhu means "river", "ocean". It is frequently being used in the Rigveda. The Sindhu-area is part of Āryāvarta, "the land of the Aryans".
  11. In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practicing or Laissez-faire. The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as Sarnaism. The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states Julius Lipner, to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.
  12. In D. N. Jha's essay Looking for a Hindu identity, he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity." He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."
  13. Hinduism is derived from Persian hindu- and the -ism suffix. It is first recorded in 1786, in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".
  14. Sweetman mentions:
  15. See Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, Invading the Sacred, and Hindu studies.
  16. The term sanatana dharma and its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that it to be similar to Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.
  17. Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), The sacred tread, p. 5.
  18. Pennington describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings . Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."
  19. Sweetman (2004, p. 13) identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":
    • The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,(Sweetman 2004, p. 13) which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".(Sweetman 2004, p. 13)
    • The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004, p. 13)
    • he identification of Vedanta, more specifically Advaita Vedanta, as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.(Sweetman 2004, p. 13) (Sweetman cites King 1999, p. 128.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":(Sweetman 2004, pp. 13–14)
      • According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favoured because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the French Revolution; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.(Sweetman 2004, pp. 13–14)
      • "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".(Sweetman 2004, p. 14)
    • The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004, pp. 14–16) According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman cites Dirks 2001, p. xxvii.)
    • "he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"(Sweetman 2004, p. 15)
    • Anti-colonial Hindus(Sweetman 2004, pp. 15–16) "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".(Sweetman 2004, p. 15) (Sweetman cites Viswanathan 2003, p. 26.)
  20. Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
    • Klaus Witz states that Hindu Bhakti movement ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
    • John Henderson states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognised attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
    • Patrick Olivelle and others state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.
  21. ^ * Hinduism is the fastest growing religion in Russia, Ghana and United States. This was due to the influence of the ISKCON and the migration of Hindus in these nations.
  22. According to Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 474, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."
  23. sometimes with Lakshmi, the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;
  24. Rigveda is not only the oldest among the Vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.
  25. According to Bhavishya Purana, Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7, there are four sources of dharma: Śruti (Vedas), Smṛti (Dharmaśāstras, Puranas), Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara (conduct of noble people) and finally Ātma tuṣṭi (Self satisfaction). From the sloka:
    वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥
    vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah
    etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam
    – Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7
    The meaning is vedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's Self (conscience), the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma.
  26. For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. For translation of devatā as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.
  27. Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called Kuldevis or Kuldevata.
  28. Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified speech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds, p.4.
  29. The cremation ashes are called phool (flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called asthi sanchayana, then dispersed during asthi visarjana. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.
  30. Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings."
  31. Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans, but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of east India, and "popular or local traditions".
  32. There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE. Flood mentions 1500 BCE.
  33. According to Sharma, the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.
  34. Réunion is not a country, but an independent French territory.
  1. ^ Smith (1963, pp. 65–66): "My point, and I think that this is the first step that one must take towards understanding something of the vision of Hindus, is that the mass of religious phenomena that we shelter under the umbrella of that term, is not a unity and does not aspire to be."
  2. ^ There is no single-word translation for dharma in Western languages (Widgery 1930, Rocher 2003). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Dharma, defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." See Dharma (righteousness, ethics).
    'Hindu dharma' refers to the religious behaviours and attitudes of the various traditions collectively referred to as Hinduism:
    • Flood (2003a, p. 9): "V. D. Savarkar in his highly influential book Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923) distinguishes between “Hindu Dharma,” the various traditions subsumed under the term “Hinduism,” and “Hindutva” or “Hinduness,” a sociopolitical force to unite all Hindus against “threatening Others”
    • Thomas (2012, p. 175): "Some 'Hindus' refer to this agglomeration of religious forms as 'Hindu dharma' (dharma here standing loosely for' religion'), but that is only to enable them to communicate to westerners some of their own religious attitudes."
    • Bhattacharya (2006, p. 1): "Dharma, therefore, is just not a belief but righteous living."
  3. Flood (2003a, p. 4): "This revelation of the Veda, verses believed to have been revealed to and heard by (sruti) the ancient sages (rsi), as symbol and legitimizing reference if not actual text, is central as a constraining influence on later traditions, providing the authority for tradition (Oberhammer 1997: 21–31). Some would argue that this is a defining feature of Hinduism.

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