Revision as of 16:22, 22 September 2008 view sourceSciurinæ (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Rollbackers12,786 editsm Reverted edits by Ferrarifire5 (talk) to last version by Kukini← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 04:39, 24 December 2024 view source Tbhotch (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Page movers, File movers, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers312,354 edits Adding {{pp-move-indef}}Tag: Twinkle | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|Country in Northeast Africa and Southwest Asia}} | |||
: ''This article is about the country of Egypt. For a topic outline on this subject, see ]. For other uses, see ].'' | |||
{{Other uses|Egypt (disambiguation)}} | |||
{{Infobox Country | |||
{{pp-move-indef}} | |||
|native_name = <big> جمهورية مصر العربية </big><br/>''{{unicode|'''Gumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah'''}}''<!--Don't change transcription; conforms to pronunciation in Egypt--> | |||
{{pp-extended|small=yes}} | |||
|conventional_long_name = Arab Republic of Egypt | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}} | |||
|common_name = Egypt | |||
{{Infobox country | |||
|image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg | |||
| conventional_long_name = Arab Republic of Egypt | |||
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt.svg | |||
| name = {{native name|ar|جمهورية مصر العربية}}<br />{{resize|85%|{{transliteration|ar|Jumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʻArabiyyah}}}} | |||
|image_map = LocationEgypt.svg | |||
| |
| common_name = Egypt | ||
| |
| image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg | ||
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg | |||
|official_languages = ]{{smallsup|1}} | |||
| coa_size = 75 | |||
|ethnic_groups = 98% ], 1% ], 1% ] | |||
| |
| image_map = EGY orthographic.svg | ||
| |
| map_caption = | ||
| national_anthem = {{ubl|'']|''{{lang|ar|"بلادي، بلادي، بلادي"}}|({{Langx|en|italic=yes|My country, my country, my country}})|]}} | |||
|latd=30 |latm=2 |latNS=N |longd=31 |longm=13 |longEW=E | |||
| official_languages = ]<ref name="CoARE"/> | |||
|largest_city = capital | |||
| languages_type = ] | |||
|government_type = ] ] | |||
| languages = ]{{efn|] is the sole official language.<ref name="Provisional Constitution">{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155 |title=Constitutional Declaration: A New Stage in the History of the Great Egyptian People |date=30 March 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |access-date=15 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427083143/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155 |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is the ]. Other ] are spoken regionally.|name=lang}} | |||
|leader_title1 = ] | |||
| religion = See '']''{{efn|While ] is the majority and official religion of the country, the size of the country's historic ] is highly controversial and disputed by various entities and groups. Estimates range from as low as 5% to as high as 20%. Since 2006, religion has been omitted from censuses after widespread claims that the figures had been distorted.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/|title=How many Christians are there in Egypt?|date=16 February 2011|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=19 March 2018|archive-date=2 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002004401/https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="churches-deleg"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/53839/Egypt/Politics-/Egyptian-Copts-reject-population-estimate.aspx|title=Egyptian Copts reject population estimate – Politics|website=english.ahram.org.eg|access-date=28 February 2018|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029011854/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/53839/Egypt/Politics-/Egyptian-Copts-reject-population-estimate.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=relig}} | |||
|leader_name1 = ] | |||
| |
| demonym = Egyptian | ||
| |
| capital = ] | ||
| coordinates = {{Coord|30|2|N|31|13|E|type:city}} | |||
|sovereignty_type = ] | |||
| largest_city = capital | |||
|established_event1 = ] | |||
| government_type = Unitary ] under an authoritarian regime<ref name="Truex & Tavana 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Truex |first1=Rory |last2=Tavana |first2=Daniel L. |title=Implicit Attitudes toward an Authoritarian Regime |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=July 2019 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=1014–1027 |doi=10.1086/703209 |s2cid=203513334 |issn = 0022-3816 }}</ref><ref name="foreignpolicy">{{Cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/22/egypts-sisi-is-getting-pretty-good-at-being-a-dictator/ |title=Egypt's Sisi Is Getting Pretty Good … at Being a Dictator |last1=Cambanis |first1=Thanassis |date=22 May 2015 |website=Foreign Policy |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210231855/https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/22/egypts-sisi-is-getting-pretty-good-at-being-a-dictator/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Egypt: A Move to Enhance Authoritarian Rule|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/12/egypt-move-enhance-authoritarian-rule|date=2019|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=4 January 2024|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713152806/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/12/egypt-move-enhance-authoritarian-rule|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=9 July 2020|access-date=22 November 2022|title=Egypt tries to silence its critics in the United States by jailing their relatives|newspaper=The Washington Post|first=Sudarsan|last=Raghavan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-tries-to-silence-its-critics-in-the-united-states-by-jailing-their-relatives/2020/07/08/c93a809e-c053-11ea-864a-0dd31b9d6917_story.html|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109023939/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-tries-to-silence-its-critics-in-the-united-states-by-jailing-their-relatives/2020/07/08/c93a809e-c053-11ea-864a-0dd31b9d6917_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Al-Arian|first=Abdullah|date=27 February 2020|title=Hosni Mubarak's legacy is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/2/27/hosni-mubaraks-legacy-is-abdel-fattah-el-sisi|url-status=live|access-date=2 November 2021|website=Al Jazeera|language=en|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201019213139/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/2/27/hosni-mubaraks-legacy-is-abdel-fattah-el-sisi/ |archive-date = 19 October 2020 }}</ref> | |||
|established_date1 = ]3150 BCE | |||
| leader_title1 = ] | |||
|established_event2 = Independence from United Kingdom | |||
| |
| leader_name1 = ] | ||
| leader_title2 = ] | |||
|established_event3 = Republic declared | |||
| leader_name2 = ] | |||
|established_date3 = June 18, 1953 | |||
| |
| leader_title3 = | ||
| |
| leader_name3 = | ||
| |
| legislature = ] | ||
| |
| upper_house = ] | ||
| lower_house = ] | |||
|percent_water = 0.632 | |||
| established_event1 = Unification of ]<ref name="goldschmidt_oldest_nation">{{cite book |last1=Goldschmidt |first1=Arthur |title=Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmZyAAAAMAAJ&q=nation-state |year=1988 |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, CO |isbn=978-0-86531-182-4 |page=5 |quote=Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217150902/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Modern_Egypt/YmZyAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=nation-state |archive-date=17 December 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm |title=Background Note: Egypt |date=10 November 2010 |publisher=United States Department of State ] |access-date=5 March 2011 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183905/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><!--end nowrap:--> | |||
|population_estimate = 81,713,517<ref name=popclock/> | |||
| established_date1 = {{circa}} 3150 BC | |||
|population_estimate_year = July 2008 | |||
| established_event2 = Fall of ] | |||
|population_estimate_rank = 14th | |||
| established_date2 = 343 BC | |||
|population_density_km2 = 74 | |||
| established_event3 = ] | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 192 <!--Do not remove per ] --> | |||
| established_date3 = 639–642 | |||
|population_density_rank = 120th | |||
| established_event4 = ] & ] | |||
|GDP_PPP_year = 2007 | |||
| established_date4 = 1171/4–1517 | |||
|GDP_PPP = $403.961 billion | |||
| established_event5 = ] inaugurated | |||
|GDP_PPP_rank = 27th | |||
| established_date5 = 9 July 1805<ref>{{cite book |author=Pierre Crabitès |title=Ibrahim of Egypt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1 |access-date=10 February 2013 |year=1935 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-81121-7 |page=1 |quote=... on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo ... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509064900/http://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1 |archive-date=9 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,491 | |||
| established_event6 = ] from<br />] | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 97th | |||
| established_date6 = 28 February 1922 | |||
|HDI_year = 2007 | |||
| established_event7 = ] | |||
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.708 | |||
| established_date7 = 23 July 1952 | |||
|HDI_rank = 112nd | |||
| established_event8 = Republic declared | |||
|HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> | |||
| established_date8 = 18 June 1953 | |||
|Gini = 34.5 | |||
| established_event9 = ] | |||
|Gini_year = 1999–00 | |||
| established_date9 = 18 January 2014 | |||
|Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> | |||
| |
| area_rank = 30th | ||
| area_km2 = 1,010,408<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/StaticPages.aspx?page_id=5035|title=Density By Governorate 1/7/2020 – Area km2 (Theme: Population – pg.14)|publisher=Capmas.gov.eg|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=2 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102023819/https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/StaticPages.aspx?page_id=5035|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf |title=Total area km2, pg.15 |publisher=Capmas.Gov – Arab Republic of Egypt |access-date=8 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321110107/http://capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf |archive-date=21 March 2015 }}</ref> | |||
|currency_code = EGP | |||
| |
| area_sq_mi = 387,048 | ||
| |
| percent_water = 0.632 | ||
| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 94,798,827 | |||
|time_zone_DST = ] | |||
| population_census_year = 2017<ref>{{cite web|title=الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء|url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf|website=www.capmas.gov.eg|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=13 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013224804/http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20%2FAdmin%2FPages%20Files%2F2017109143840cns.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
|utc_offset_DST = +3 | |||
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 107,304,000 | |||
|cctld = ] | |||
| population_estimate_year = 2024<ref name="IMFOCT2024">{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=469,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2023&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |website=IMF |access-date=24 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
|calling_code = 20 | |||
| population_estimate_rank = 14th | |||
|footnote1 = Spoken language is ]. | |||
| population_density_km2 = 106.20 | |||
| population_density_sq_mi = 275.05 | |||
| population_density_rank = 106th | |||
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $2.232 trillion<ref name="IMFOCT2024" /> | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_PPP_rank = 18th | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $20,799<ref name="IMFOCT2024" /> | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 87th | |||
| GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $380.044 billion<ref name="IMFOCT2024" /> | |||
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_nominal_rank = 42nd | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $3,542<ref name="IMFOCT2024" /> | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 132nd | |||
| Gini_year = 2019 | |||
| Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| Gini = 31.9 <!--number only--> | |||
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient|publisher=]|access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> | |||
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | |||
| HDI_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| HDI = 0.728 <!--number only--> | |||
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|publisher=]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| HDI_rank = 105th | |||
| currency = ] (LE/E£/£E) | |||
| currency_code = EGP | |||
| time_zone = ] | |||
| utc_offset = +2 | |||
| time_zone_DST = ]{{efn|See ].|name=UTCoff}} | |||
| utc_offset_DST = +3 | |||
| drives_on = right | |||
| calling_code = ] | |||
| cctld = {{unbulleted list |] |{{lang|ar|]}}}} | |||
| footnote_a = | |||
| footnote_b = | |||
| footnote_c = | |||
| footnote_d = | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Egypt''' ({{Audio-IPA|lang=US English|En-us-Egypt.ogg|}}; {{lang-ar|مصر}}, ''{{transl|ar|Miṣr}}'' or ''{{transl|ar-EGP|Máṣr}}'') is a country in ], with the ] forming a land bridge to ]. Covering an area of about {{convert|1001450|km2|sp=us}}, Egypt borders the ] to the north, the ] and ] to the northeast, the ] to the east, ] to the south and ] to the west. | |||
'''Egypt''' (<!--Do not add English pronunciation per ]-->{{langx|ar|مصر}} {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Miṣr}} {{IPA|ar|mesˁr|}}, {{IPA|arz|mɑsˤr}}), officially the '''Arab Republic of Egypt''', is a country spanning the ] and the ] in the ]. It is bordered by the ] to ], the ] of ] and ] to ], the ] to the east, ] to ], and ] to ]. The ] in the northeast separates Egypt from ] and ]. ] is the capital and ], while ], the second-largest city, is an important industrial and tourist hub at the ].<ref name=gov>{{Cite web|url=https://www.egy-map.com/|title=محافظة الأسكندرية|first=Egypt's Projects|last=Map|website=www.egy-map.com|access-date=13 May 2022|archive-date=25 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525194517/https://www.egy-map.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> At approximately 110 million inhabitants, Egypt is the ], and the ] in Africa. | |||
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in ] and the ]. The great majority of its estimated 80 million<ref name=popclock></ref> live near the banks of the ], in an area of about {{convert|40000|km2|sp=us}}, where the only ] agricultural land is found. The large areas of the ] ] are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely-populated centres of greater ], ] and other major cities in the ]. | |||
Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the ] back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a ], the ] saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings|last=Midant-Reynes|first=Béatrix|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|location=Oxford}}</ref> Egypt was an early and important ], later ] from the seventh century onwards. Cairo became the capital of the ] in the tenth century, and of the provincial capital of the ] in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of the ] in 1517, before its local ruler ] established modern Egypt as an autonomous ] in 1867. | |||
Egypt is famous for its ] and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the ] and its ]. The southern city of ] contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the ] Temple and the ]. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the ]. | |||
The country was then ] by the ] along with ] and gained independence in 1922 as ]. Following the ], Egypt declared itself a ]. For a brief period between 1958 and 1961 Egypt merged with ] to form the ]. Egypt fought ] with Israel in ], ], ] and ], and ] the ] intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the ], which ] in exchange for its withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After the ], which led to the ] and overthrow of ], the country faced a ]; this included the ] of a brief, short-lived ]-aligned Islamist government spearheaded by ], and its subsequent ] after ]. | |||
== Etymology == | |||
{{Hiero | ''km.t'' (Egypt) | <hiero>km-m-t:niwt</hiero> | align=left | era=default}} | |||
One of the ancient ] names of the country, ''Kemet'' ({{transl|egy-Latn|kṃt}}), (from ''kem'' "black"), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the ''deshret'', or "red land" ({{transl|egy-Latn|dšṛt}}), of the desert.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rosalie, David |title=Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |pages=p. 18}}</ref> The name is realized as ''{{lang|cop-Latn|kīmi}}'' and ''{{lang|cop-Latn|kīmə}}'' in the ] stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as {{Polytonic|Χημία}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Khēmía}}'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html|title=A Brief History of Alchemy|publisher=UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY|accessdate=2008-08-21}}</ref> Another name was ''{{lang|egy-Latn|t3-mry}}'' "land of the riverbank".<ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient Records of Egypt |last=Breasted |first=James Henry |coauthors= Peter A. Piccione |year=2001 |publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252069758 |pages=76;40|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC&client=firefox-a }}</ref> The names of ] were ''Ta-Sheme'aw'' ({{transl|egy-Latn|t3-šmˁw}}) "sedgeland" and ''Ta-Mehew'' ({{transl|egy-Latn|t3 mḥw}}) "northland", respectively. | |||
The current government, a ] led by ] since he was elected in 2014, has been described by a number of watchdogs as ] and responsible for perpetuating the country's poor ]. ] is the ] and ] is official language. Egypt is considered to be a ] in the Middle East, North Africa and the ], and a ] worldwide. It is a ]. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the ], the ], the ], ], ], and a member of ].<ref name="CoARE">{{cite web |title=Constitution of The Arab Republic of Egypt 2014 |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718052913/http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2015 |access-date=13 April 2017 |website=sis.gov.eg}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Lessons from/for BRICSAM about south–north Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else? |journal=International Studies Review |volume=9}}</ref><ref name="IMFOCT2024" /> | |||
''{{transl|ar|Miṣr}}'', the ] and modern official name of Egypt (]: ''{{transl|arz-Latn|Maṣr}}''), is of ] origin, directly ] with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the ] {{lang-Hebrew2|מִצְרַיִם}} (''{{transl|he|Mitzráyim}}''), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).<ref name="hebrewname"></ref> The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land". | |||
== Names ==<!--linked--> | |||
The English name "Egypt" came via the ] word ''{{lang|la|Aegyptus}}'' derived from the ] word ''Aígyptos'' ({{lang|grc|Αίγυπτος}}). The adjective ''aigýpti, aigýptios'' was borrowed into Coptic as ''gyptios, kyptios'', and from there into Arabic as ''{{transl|ar|qubṭī}}'', back formed into ''{{transl|ar|qubṭ}}'', whence English '']''. The term is derived from ] ''Hikuptah'' "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier ] name ''Hat-ka-Ptah'' ({{transl|egy-Latn|ḥwt-k3-ptḥ}}), meaning "home of the ] (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god ] at ].<ref>{{Citation|last= Hoffmeier|first =James K| author-link =| title =RAMESES OF THE EXODUS NARRATIVES IS THE 13TH CENTURY B.C. ROYAL RAMESSIDE RESIDENCE| journal =Trinity Journal| pages = 1| date = October 1, 2007|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3803/is_200710/ai_n21137941/pg_2}}</ref> ] provided a ] according to which ''Aígyptos'' ({{lang|grc|Αίγυπτος }}) had evolved as a compound from ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Aegaeon uptiōs}}'' ({{transl|grc|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}), meaning "below the Aegean". | |||
<!--Needs to be recycled--> | |||
The English name "Egypt" is derived from the ] "{{transliteration|grc|Aígyptos}}" ("{{lang|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}"), via ] "Egypte" and ] "{{lang|la|Aegyptus}}". It is reflected in early Greek ] tablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo".<ref>Breyer, Fr. A. K. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409180842/https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNY7VPn1WUC&dq=%22a-ku-pi-ti-yo%22&pg=PA381 |date=9 April 2024 }}". In: W. Raunig/St. Wenig. ''Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internatio-nalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München''. Meroitica 22. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005. p. 381. {{ISBN|9783447051750}}.</ref> The adjective "aigýpti-"/"aigýptios" was borrowed into Coptic as "{{transliteration|cop|gyptios}}", and from there into ] as "{{transliteration|ar|qubṭī}}", back formed into "{{lang|ar|قبط}}" ({{Transliteration|ar|qubṭ}}), whence English "]". Prominent ] historian and ], ], provided a ] stating that "''{{lang|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}''" (Aigýptios) had originally evolved as a ] from "''{{lang|grc|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}''" ({{transliteration|grc|Aegaeou huptiōs}}), meaning "]".<ref name="Engsheden">{{citation|title=An etymological safari to Aigyptos|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26863322|author=Åke Engsheden|journal=Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur |date=2018 |volume=47 |pages=1–30 |jstor=26863322 |access-date=31 July 2024}}</ref> | |||
"{{Transliteration|ar|Miṣr}}" ({{IPA|ar|misˤɾ}}; "{{lang|ar|مِصر}}") is the ] and modern official name of Egypt, while "{{transliteration|arz|Maṣr}}" ({{IPA|arz|mɑsˤɾ}}; {{lang|arz|مَصر}}) is the local pronunciation in ].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Il-Malti |last=Z. |first=T. |date=1928 |volume=2 |issue=1 |language=mt |publisher=Il-Ghaqda tal-Kittieba tal-Malti |title=Il-Belt (Valletta) |edition=2 |url=http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004(1928)2/01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417234107/http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004%281928%292/01.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2016 |page=35 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from the ] ] name for it. The term originally connoted "]" or "]".<ref name="AncientCivils">{{Citation|title=Civilizations and World Order|isbn = 9780739186077|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5QeqBAAAQBAJ&q=misr+means+civilization&pg=PA87|last1 = Dallmayr|first1 = Fred|last2 = Akif Kayapınar|first2 = M.|last3 = Yaylacı|first3 = İsmail| date=24 September 2014 | publisher=Lexington Books|access-date=31 July 2024}}</ref> ] ''{{transliteration|ar|Miṣr}}'' (Egyptian Arabic ''{{transliteration|arz|Maṣr}}'') is directly cognate with the ] ''Miṣráyīm'' (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of ]. Also mentioned in several Semitic languages as ''Mesru'', ''Misir'' and ''Masar''.<ref name="AncientCivils"/> The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the ] "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")<ref>The ending of the Hebrew form is either a ] or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps a ]), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" ("מַיִם"), "noon" ("צָהֳרַיִם"), "sky/heaven" ("שָׁמַיִם"), and in the '']'' – but not the original "ketiv" – of "Jerusalem" ("ירושלם"). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the ''-áyim'' in "Mitzráyim" actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. See ''inter alia'' Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.) ''These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics'', Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), Avi Hurvitz (''A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew: Linguistic Innovations in the Writings of the Second Temple Period'' (Brill, 2014), ) and Nadav Na'aman ("Shaaraim – The Gateway to the Kingdom of Judah" in ''The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures'', Vol. 8 (2008), article {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017233422/http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_101.pdf |date=17 October 2014 }}, pp. 2–3).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = On the So-Called Ventive Morpheme in the Akkadian Texts of Amurru|url = https://www.academia.edu/371050|website = www.academia.edu|access-date = 18 November 2015|page = 84|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160118112500/http://www.academia.edu/371050/On_the_So-Called_Ventive_Morpheme_in_the_Akkadian_Texts_of_Amurru|archive-date = 18 January 2016|url-status=live|df = dmy-all|last1 = Izre'|first1 = Shlomo}}</ref> related to ''miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru'', meaning "border" or "frontier".<ref name="akkadian">{{cite book|title = A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&pg=PA212|publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year= 2000|isbn = 978-3-447-04264-2|first1 = Jeremy A.|last1 = Black|first2 = Andrew|last2 = George|first3 = J.N.|last3 = Postgate}}</ref> The ] used the derived term ], ''Mu-ṣur''.<ref>As in inscriptions such as the ] of ]. For transcription, the word being written Mu-s,ur {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613113247/https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807|date=13 June 2020}}</ref> | |||
] in Egypt]] | |||
] | |||
<div>The ancient Egyptian name of the country was <div style="display:inline-block;"><hiero> km-m-t:O49 </hiero></div> (] ] ]𓊖) {{transliteration|egy|km.t}}, which means black land, likely referring to the ] black soils of the ] plains, distinct from the ''deshret'' ({{angbr|{{transliteration|egy|dšṛt}}}}), or "red land" of the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Rosalie, David |title=Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43 |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |author=Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār |page=43 |access-date=28 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131155854/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43 |archive-date=31 January 2017 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-85255-092-2 |year=1990 |publisher=Currey }}</ref> This name is commonly vocalised as ''Kemet'', but was probably pronounced {{IPA|}} in ancient Egyptian.<ref>Antonio Loprieno, "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", in ''Phonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus). Vol 1 of 2.'' Ed: Alan S Kaye. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997: p. 449</ref> The name is realised as ''{{transliteration|cop|K(h)ēmə}}'' ({{Langx|cop|ⲭⲏⲙⲓ|label=]}}, {{Langx|cop|ⲕⲏⲙⲉ|label=]}}) in the ] stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as {{lang|grc|Χημία}} (''{{transliteration|grc|Khēmía}}'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Χ χ, χεσι^φωνέω, Χημία |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic+letter=*x:entry+group=20:entry=*xhmi/a |access-date=9 April 2023 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212900/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic+letter=*x:entry+group=20:entry=*xhmi/a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html|title=A Brief History of Alchemy|publisher=University of Bristol School of Chemistry|access-date=21 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005180735/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html|archive-date=5 October 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> Another name was {{angbr|{{transliteration|egy|tꜣ-mry}}}} "land of the riverbank".<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Records of Egypt |last=Breasted |first=James Henry |author2=Peter A. Piccione |year=2001 |publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-06975-8 |pages=76, 40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC}}</ref> The names of ] were ''Ta-Sheme'aw'' ({{angbr|{{transliteration|egy|tꜣ-šmꜥw}}}}) "sedgeland" and ''Ta-Mehew'' ({{angbr|{{Transliteration|egy|tꜣ mḥw}}}}) "northland", respectively.</div> | |||
== History == | == History == | ||
{{ |
{{Main|History of Egypt}} | ||
{{Overly detailed|section|date=September 2023}} | |||
=== Prehistory and Ancient Egypt === | |||
Evidence of human habitation in the ] since the ] era appears in the form of artifacts and ] along the ] terraces and in the desert oases. In the ], a culture of ]s and ] replaced a ]-grinding ]. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the ]. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled ] ] and more centralized ].<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref> | |||
{{Main|Prehistoric Egypt|Ancient Egypt}} | |||
] ruins in 1960]] | |||
There is evidence of ] along the ] terraces and in desert oases. In the ], a culture of ]s and ] was replaced by a ]-grinding culture. Climate changes or ] around 8000 ] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the ]. Early ]s migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural ] and more centralised society.<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref> | |||
By about 6000 |
By about 6000 BCE, a ] culture took root in the Nile Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |title=The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BCE Neolithic |publisher=The British Museum |year=2005 |access-date=21 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214084636/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |archive-date=14 February 2009 }}</ref> During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in ]. The ] culture and the successor ] series are generally regarded as precursors to ]. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of ] inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-280458-8|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69}}</ref> | ||
] is the oldest of the ] and the only one still in existence.]] | |||
{{Hiero | ''tAwy'' ('Two Lands') | <hiero>N16:N16</hiero> | align=right | era=default}}A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 ] by King ], giving rise to a ] that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. ] subsequently referred to their unified country as ''tawy'', meaning "two lands", and later ''kemet'' (]: ''kīmi''), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. ] flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its ], ], ] and customs. The ] of a unified Egypt set the stage for the ] period, c.2700−2200 BC., famous for its many ], most notably the ] ] and the ] ]. | |||
A unified kingdom was founded {{circa|3150}} BCE by King ], leading to a ] that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. ] flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its ], ], ] and customs. The ] of a unified Egypt set the stage for the ] period, {{circa|2700–2200}} BCE, which constructed many ], most notably the ] ] and the ] ]. | |||
The ] ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml |title=The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom |publisher=BBC |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117133705/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml |archive-date=17 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the ] {{circa|2040}} BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh ]. A ] heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic ]. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at ]. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by ], who founded the ] and relocated the capital from ] to ]. | |||
The ] |
The ] {{circa|1550–1070}} BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an ] that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as ] in ], and included parts of the ] in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known ]s, including ], ], ] and his wife ], ] and ]. The first historically attested expression of ] came during this period as ]. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by ], ] and ]ns, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm |title=The Kushite Conquest of Egypt |publisher=Ancientsudan.org |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201014554/http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm |archive-date=1 February 2011}}</ref> | ||
]'']] | |||
] church.]] | |||
In 525 BCE, the ], led by ], began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh ] at the battle of ]. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of ], but ruled Egypt from his home of ] in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a ]y. The entire ], from 525 to 402 BCE, save for ], was an entirely Achaemenid-ruled period, with the Achaemenid emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Achaemenids marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Achaemenids.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-280458-8|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383}}</ref> | |||
The ] was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It ] in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King ], was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the ] and ], beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule. | |||
The ] was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It ] in 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, King ], was defeated in battle. This ], however, did not last long, as the Achaemenids were toppled several decades later by ]. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, ], founded the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Prudence J.|title=Cleopatra: A Sourcebook|url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone|url-access=registration|page=|location=Norman|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0806137414|quote=They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.}}</ref> | |||
Before Egypt became part of the ] realm, Christianity had been brought by ] in the AD first century. ]'s reign marked the transition from the ] to the ] era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The ] had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the ] in AD 451, a distinct ] was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref> | |||
=== Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt === | |||
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief ] invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was ] by the ] ]. The form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was ]. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through ], giving rise to various ] orders that have flourished to this day.<ref>El-Daly, Okasha. ''Egyptology: The Missing Millennium''. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140</ref> Muslim rulers nominated by the ] ] for the next six centuries, including a period for which it was the seat of the Caliphate under the ]s. With the end of the ], the ]s, a ]-] military caste, took control about AD 1250. They continued to govern even after the ] by the ] in 1517. | |||
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom|Roman Egypt}} | |||
] and her son by Julius Caesar, ], at the ]]] | |||
] built in the early nineteenth century within the ].]] | |||
The brief ] led by ] in 1798 had a great social impact on the country and its culture. Native Egyptians became exposed to the principles of the ] and had a chance to exercise ].<ref>Vatikiotis, P.J. ''The History of Modern Egypt''. 4th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992, p. 39</ref> The expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans, wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, ] (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the ] in ] as his '']'' (]) in Egypt; <!--] -->the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a ] that was to rule Egypt (at first really and later as British puppets) until the revolution of 1952. His primary focus was military: he annexed Northern ] (1820-1824), ] (1833), and parts of ] and ]; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple Byzantium itself, checked him: he had to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans, but he kept the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A more lasting consequence of his military ambition is that it made him the moderniser of Egypt. Anxious to learn the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great powers he sent students to the West and invited training missions to Egypt. He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the ]. For better or worse, the introduction in 1820 of long-staple ], the Egyptian variety of which became famous, transformed Egyptian agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture befor the end of the century. The social effects of this were enormous: it led to the concentration of agriculture in the hands of large landowners, and, with the additional trigger of high cotton prices caused by the United States' ] production drop, to a large influx of foreigners who began in earnest the exploitation of Egypt for international commodity production.<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', published ''circa'' 1973, p 2.</ref> | |||
Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son ] (in September 1848), then by a grandson ] (in November 1848), then by ] (in 1854), and ] (in 1863). | |||
<!-- In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Members of the Assembly were elected from across Egypt and came to have an important influence on governmental decisions.<ref>Jankowski, James. ''Egypt: A Short History.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. p. 83</ref> That's hogwash, the assembly had almost no power and rarely met --> | |||
Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were ambitious developers; unfortunately they spent beyond their means. The ], built in partnership with the French, was completed in in 1869. The expense of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European ]s, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous ]ation it necessitated. In 1875 Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French ] who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the government."<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs", p 2.</ref> Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first ] in 1879, with ] a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a diminishment of their control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bombarding ] and crushing the Egyptian army at the ].<ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945-1981''. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p 11.</ref> They reinstalled Ismail's son ] as figurehead of a ''de facto'' British protectorate.<ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt''. Metuchen, New Jersey, USA; 1984; Scarecrow. p 17.</ref> In 1914 the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state, which had changed from ''pasha'' to ''khedive'' in 1867, was changed to ''sultan'', to repudiate the vestigal suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the ] in World War One. ] was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, ], as sultan. | |||
<ref>James Jankowski, ''Egypt, A Short History'', p. 111</ref> | |||
The ] was a powerful ] state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to ] to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. ] became the capital city and a centre of ] culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bowman |first = Alan K |title= Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1996 |edition=2nd |pages=25–26 |isbn=0-520-20531-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stanwick |first = Paul Edmond |title= Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs |publisher=] |location=Austin |year=2003 |isbn=0-292-77772-8}}</ref> | |||
In 1906, the ] prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the First World War, ] and the ] led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local ]. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to ] on March 8, 1919, the country arose in its ]. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February 22, 1922.<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 112</ref> | |||
The last ruler from the ] line was ], who committed suicide following the burial of her lover ], after ] had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. | |||
The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new ] in 1923 based on a ] representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as ] in 1924. In 1936 the ] was concluded. Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military '']'' known as the ]. The officers, known as the ], forced King ] to abdicate in support of his son ]. | |||
The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. | |||
Christianity was brought to Egypt by ] in the 1st century.<ref name="georgetown">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=] |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |archive-date=20 December 2011 |url-status=dead }} See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"</ref> ]'s reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from the ] to the ] era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The ] had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the ] in CE 451, a distinct ] was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref> | |||
On June 18, 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General ] as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by ]{{ndash}} the real architect of the 1952 movement{{ndash}} and was later put under ]. Nasser assumed ] as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on June 18, 1956. His ] of the ] on July 26, 1956 prompted the 1956 ]. | |||
=== Middle Ages (7th century – 1517) === | |||
], the largest city in ] and the ]. The ] (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.]] | |||
{{Main|Egypt in the Middle Ages}} | |||
] mosque in Cairo, recognised as the oldest in Africa]] | |||
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief ] invasion early in the 7th century amidst the ] during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as ], until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and | |||
] by the ] Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the ] brought ] to the country. Some time during this period, Egyptians began to blend in their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various ] orders that have flourished to this day.<ref name="georgetown" /> These earlier rites had survived the period of ].<ref>{{cite book|last=El-Daly|first=Okasha|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium|year=2005|publisher=UCL Press|location=London|page=140}}</ref> | |||
In 639 an army was sent in Egypt by the second ], ], under the command of ]. They defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by ] was repulsed. | |||
Three years after the 1967 ], during which ] had invaded and occupied ], Nasser died and was succeeded by ]. Sadat switched Egypt's ] allegiance from the ] to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the ] economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike. | |||
The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called ], which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the ], second only to ].] in Cairo, of ]|left]] | |||
In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the ], a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the ]. It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a ] was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the ] presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return with peace with Israel. | |||
The ] period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under ], who decided to reside at ], sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the ] (868–905) and ] (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph.] in Cairo, of ], the sixth caliph, as renovated by ] ]] | |||
Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with ] as the seat of the ]. With the end of the ], the ]s, a ]-] military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.<ref name="Abu-Lughod">{{cite book|last=Abu-Lughod|first=Janet L.|author-link=Janet Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|orig-year=1989|pages=|isbn=978-0-19-506774-3|chapter=The Mideast Heartland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244|url=https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243}}</ref> The mid-14th-century ] killed about 40% of the country's population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm |title=Egypt – Major Cities |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117011718/http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 ] in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the ] and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.<ref>Vatikiotis, p. 443</ref> A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981. He was succeeded by the incumbent ]. In 2003, the ], popularly known as ''Kefaya'', was launched to seek a return to ] and greater ]. | |||
=== Early modern period: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867) === | |||
== Identity == | |||
{{Main|Egypt Eyalet}} | |||
{{main|Egyptians#Identity}} | |||
] troops in the ], 21 July 1798, painted by ].]] | |||
]'s ''Egypt's Renaissance'' 1919-1928, ].]] | |||
The Nile Valley was home to one of the ], spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a ] after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's ]. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, ] and ]; and a new language, ], and its spoken descendant, ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm|title=The Egyptian Identity: Pharoahs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?|author=Raymon Kondos|date=February 15|accessdate=2008-08-21}}</ref> The degree to which Egyptians identify with each layer of Egypt's history in articulating a sense of ] can vary. Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism, secular ] and ], and ]. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.<ref>Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. ''The Origins of Arab Nationalism''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244-45</ref> Arab nationalism reached a peak under ] but was once again relegated under ]; meanwhile, the ideology espoused by ] such as the ] is present in small segments of the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.<ref>Dawisha, Adeed. ''Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003, pp. 264-65, 267</ref> | |||
Egypt was conquered by the ] in 1517, after which it became a province of the ]. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions.<ref name="Abu-Lughod" /> The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.<ref name="Abu-Lughod" /> Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.<ref>{{cite book|author=Donald Quataert|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC&pg=PA115|access-date=21 June 2013|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7|page=115|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213015351/http://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC&pg=PA115|archive-date=13 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1784 ] cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |title=Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows |website=ScienceDaily |date=22 November 2006 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013900/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman ] to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the ], the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the ] until it was ] by the ] forces of ] Bonaparte in 1798. After the French were defeated by the British, a three-way power struggle ensued between the ], Egyptian ]s who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and ] in the service of the Ottomans. | |||
] was the founder of the ] and the first ] of Egypt and Sudan.]] | |||
After the French were expelled, ] in 1805 by ], an ] military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. Muhammad Ali ] the Mamluks and established a ] that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop ] before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2">{{cite book|title=Nasser of the Arabs: an Arab assessment|last=Izzeddin|first=Nejla M. Abu|publisher=Third World Centre for Research and Publishing|year=1981|isbn=978-0-86199-012-2|page=2}}</ref> Muhammad Ali annexed ] (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of ] and ]; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2" /> He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=217|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the ] to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |title=All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the making of modern Egypt |series=Cambridge Middle East Studies |volume=8 |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56007-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlQsbY3REP4C |pages=119–147 |access-date=22 February 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424091006/https://books.google.com/books?id=IlQsbY3REP4C |url-status=live }}</ref> The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=220, Figure 7.4 "Numeracy in selected Middle Eastern countries", based on Prayon and Baten (2013)|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son ] (in September 1848), then by a grandson ] (in November 1848), then by ] (in 1854), and ] (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.<ref name="auto" /> | |||
] remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an ] or '']'' (1867–1914) in 1867. The ], built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French ] who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', p. 2.</ref> Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=217, 224 Figure 7.6: "Height development in the Middle East and the world (male)" and 225|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> | |||
] in 1882 during the ]|left]] | |||
Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with ] a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at the ] and militarily occupying the country.<ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981''. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p. 11.</ref> Following this, the Khedivate became a ''de facto'' British protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.<ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt''. Metuchen, NJ; 1984; Scarecrow. p. 17.</ref> In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only. In 1906, the ] prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. | |||
=== Sultanate and Kingdom of Egypt === | |||
{{Main|Sultanate of Egypt {{!}} Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)|Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953)}}] with ], 1932]] ], 17 July 1942]] | |||
In 1914 the ] entered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; Khedive ] (who had grown increasingly hostile to the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power and replaced him with his brother ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne|title=Treaty of Lausanne – World War I Document Archive|website=wwi.lib.byu.edu|access-date=29 January 2020|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613183950/https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne|url-status=live}}</ref> Hussein Kamel declared Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title of ]. Shortly following independence, Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom.], 1919|left]] | |||
After ], ] and the ] led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its ]. The revolt led the ] to issue a ] on 22 February 1922.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=112}}</ref> Following independence from the United Kingdom, Sultan ] assumed the title of ]; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state. The ] drafted and implemented a ] in 1923 based on a ] system. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the ] and ] was appointed as the new prime minister. In 1936, the ] was concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question of ], which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.<ref name="ModernSudan">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33|title=A History of Modern Sudan|last1=Collins|first1=Robert O.|last2=Collins|first2=Professor of History Robert O.|date=29 May 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85820-5|language=en|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175515/https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. The Egyptian army did no fighting. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as prime minister. | |||
Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador Sir ], pressed Farouk to have a ] or Wafd-coalition government replace ]'s government. On the night of 4 February 1942, ]. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter. | |||
Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in the ]. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalist ] and the King was forced to appoint ] as new prime minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from the ] and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal. | |||
As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, General ] sent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia. The police commander called the Interior Minister, ], Nahas's right-hand man, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight "to the last man and the last bullet". The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was ], as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced by ].<ref name="factbook">{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=2 February 2011|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009073315/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
On 22–23 July 1952, the ], led by ] and ], launched a coup d'état (]) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his son ], who was, at the time, a seven-month-old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led by ] was formed. The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of the ], led by Naguib and Nasser. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in ] on 12 August 1952. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new prime minister. | |||
=== Republican Egypt under Nasser (1952–1970) === | |||
{{Main|History of republican Egypt|History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser}} | |||
Following the ] by the ], the rule of Egypt passed to military hands and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General ] as the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years. Republic of Egypt (1953–1958) was declared.] in Mansoura, 1960|left]] | |||
Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by ]{{spaced ndash}}a ] and the real architect of the 1952 movement{{spaced ndash}}and was later put under ]. After Naguib's resignation, the position of president was vacant until the election of Nasser in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/Types/Persons/Details.aspx?type=ruler&ID=ieiMjZc32OCIOCRsXII4PA==|title=ذاكرة مصر المعاصر – السيرة الذاتية|website=modernegypt.bibalex.org|access-date=24 September 2018|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226053316/http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/Types/Persons/Details.aspx?type=ruler&ID=ieiMjZc32OCIOCRsXII4PA==|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish the ] of 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956. Nasser assumed ] as president in June 1956 and began ]. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He ] the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of the ] (Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and the ''status quo'' was restored.] hit during the initial ] on Egypt, 5 November 1956.|left]] | |||
In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the ]. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose ] with ] (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the ]. In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the ]. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Orkaby |first=Asher Aviad. |date=2014 |title=The International History of the Yemen Civil War, 1962-1968 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/12269828/Orkaby_gsas.harvard_0084L_11420.pdf?sequence= |journal=Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University |access-date=20 November 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429073554/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/12269828/Orkaby_gsas.harvard_0084L_11420.pdf?sequence= |url-status=live }}</ref> In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to ] of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff ] verified them as "baseless",<ref>{{cite book |last=Aburish |first=Said K. |author-link=Said Aburish |title=Nasser, the Last Arab |year=2004 |publisher=] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-312-28683-5 |page=252 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312286835 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kandil |first=Hazem |title=Soldiers, Spies and Statesmen: Egypt's Road to Revolt |year=2012 |publisher=]|location=Brooklyn |isbn=978-1-84467-962-1 |page=76}}</ref> Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the ] to Israeli shipping.<ref>Shlaim, Rogan, 2012 pp. 7, 106</ref> On 26 May ] declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".<ref>{{cite book|author=Samir A. Mutawi|title=Jordan in the 1967 War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC&pg=PA94|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52858-0|page=95|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906091253/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC&pg=PA94|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
This prompted the beginning of the ] (Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied ] and the ], which Egypt had ] since the ]. During the 1967 war, an ] was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Emergency Law in Egypt|url=http://www.fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|work=International Federation for Human Rights|access-date=2 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201210318/http://fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|archive-date=1 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt – Emergency Law No. 162/1958. |url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=111245 |access-date=7 May 2022 |website=www.ilo.org |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510091634/http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=111245 |url-status=live }}</ref> At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p. 120">''Egypt on the Brink'' by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 120</ref> Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p. 120" /> During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jesse Ferris|title=Nasser's Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15514-2|page=2|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906085333/https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Egypt under Sadat and Mubarak (1971–2011) === | |||
{{Main|History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat|History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak}} | |||
], 1973]] ]: ], ], ]]]In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by ]. During ], Sadat switched Egypt's ] allegiance from the ] to the United States, expelling the Soviet advisors in 1972. Egypt was renamed as Arab Republic of Egypt in 1971. Sadat launched the ] economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the ] (Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his programme of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.<ref>Amin, Galal. ''Egypt's Economic Predicament: A Study in the Interaction of External Pressure, Political Folly, and Social Tension in Egypt, 1960–1990'', 1995</ref> Because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, it led to the ]. Sadat made a ], which led to the 1979 ] in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. In return, Egypt recognised Israel as a legitimate sovereign state. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the ] and led to Egypt's expulsion from the ], but it was supported by most Egyptians.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=443|edition=4.}}</ref> ] by an Islamic extremist in October 1981. ] — president of Egypt from 1981 to 2011]] | |||
] came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |last=Cambanis |first=Thanassis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt |location=Egypt |work=The New York Times |date=11 September 2010 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027041857/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=27 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> He became another leader to ]. Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On ], the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.<ref>Middle East International No 270, 7 March 1986, Publishers ], ]. Simon Ingram p. 8, ] p.20</ref> | |||
] grew into a ] with a population of over 20 million.]] | |||
In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian ]s, foreign tourists and government officials.<ref>Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p. 4</ref> In the 1990s an ] group, ], engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism<ref>"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924131816/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |date=24 September 2013}}. Retrieved 27 September 2007.</ref>—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kepel |first1=Gilles |author-link=Gilles Kepel |title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01090-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tttzgNKFAI8C |language=en |page={{page needed|date=February 2023}} |access-date=11 December 2018 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175516/https://books.google.com/books?id=tttzgNKFAI8C |url-status=live }}</ref> During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the ], which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Evaluating Egyptian REfoRm |url=http://research.policyarchive.org/6458.pdf |journal=Carnegie P a P e R S}}</ref> As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.<ref>Dunne, Michele (January 2006). "Evaluating Egyptian Reform". Carnegie Papers: Middle East Series (66): 4.</ref> ] grew into a ] with a population of over 20 million. | |||
On 17 November 1997, ] near ]. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310152506/http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 March 2005 |title=Mubarak throws presidential race wide open |publisher=Business Today Egypt |date=10 March 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |title=Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections |publisher=Weeklystandard.com |date=27 March 2006 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107135218/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |archive-date=7 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Voter turnout was less than 25%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/09/13/worldviews.DTL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050915045155/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fgate%2Farchive%2F2005%2F09%2F13%2Fworldviews.DTL |archive-date=15 September 2005 |title=Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election |last=Gomez |first=Edward M |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=12 September 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |title=Egyptian vote marred by violence |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=26 May 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208095738/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |archive-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the election, Mubarak imprisoned ], the runner-up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |title=United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=24 December 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021051128/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |archive-date=21 October 2011 }}</ref> | |||
Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations under Mubarak's rule, including routine ], arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |title=Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt |chapter=Egypt: Events of 2005 |date=5 January 2006 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |archive-date=14 November 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, ] released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |title=Egypt torture centre, report says |work=BBC News |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126031108/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |archive-date=26 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |title=Egypt rejects torture criticism |work=BBC News |date=13 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331143516/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |archive-date=31 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |title=Anger over Egypt vote timetable |work=BBC News |date=20 March 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129222423/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |archive-date=29 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (]), described Egypt as a "]" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} | |||
=== Revolution, political crisis and transition (2011–Present) === | |||
{{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution|2011 Egyptian parliamentary election|Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)|2012 Egyptian presidential election|2013 Egyptian protests|2013 Egyptian coup d'état|2014 Egyptian presidential election}} | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| width = 200 | |||
| direction = vertical | |||
| footer = Top: celebrations in Tahrir Square after the announcement of Hosni Mubarak's resignation.<br/>Bottom: protests in Tahrir Square against President ] on 27 November 2012. | |||
| image1 = Tahrir Square on February11.png | |||
| image2 = TahrirSquareAgainstMorsi.jpg | |||
}} | |||
On 25 January 2011, ] began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's ] at the news.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |title=Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control |work=Huffington Post |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322095317/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |archive-date=22 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] then assumed the power to govern.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military |work=The New York Times |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |first=David D. |last=Kirkpatrick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211081712/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader |publisher=BBC |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211192204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> ], chairman of the ], became the ''de facto'' interim ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Christopher |last2=Swinford |first2=Steven |date=15 February 2011 |title=WikiLeaks: Egypt's new man at the top 'was against reform' |journal=] |access-date=5 March 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310105211/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |archive-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |title=The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Constitutional Proclamation |date=13 February 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |access-date=5 March 2011 |quote=The Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces shall represent it internally and externally. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427082524/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|title=Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended|publisher=BBC|date=13 February 2011|access-date=13 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214045727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|archive-date=14 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
A ] was held on 19 March 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Marty |title=The Egyptian constitutional referendum of March 2011 a new beginning |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |website=www.aph.gov.au |language=en-AU |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121104622/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |url-status=live }}</ref> On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its ] since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.<ref>{{cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |title=Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections |newspaper=NPR |publisher=Npr.org |date=28 November 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202183307/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
], who was affiliated with the ], was ] on 24 June 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's new president moves into his offices, begins choosing a Cabinet|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics|publisher=CNN|access-date=13 February 2013|date=25 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512224527/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics/|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |access-date=2 September 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820031904/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister ] announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.<ref>{{cite news|title= Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post |date= 3 August 2012}}</ref> Liberal and secular groups walked out of the ] because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |title=Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers |agency=Associated Press |date=23 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129033632/http://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |archive-date=29 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |title=Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122182256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |archive-date=22 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|first=Richard|last=Spencer|date=23 November 2012|access-date=23 November 2012|title=Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'|work=]|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127191821/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|archive-date=27 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |title=Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=6 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421184804/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|title=Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2012|access-date=8 December 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208041127/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|archive-date=8 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 2013, ] with autocratic excesses of Morsi's ] government,<ref name="morsi-think-again">{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|title=Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=28 January 2013|access-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202110236/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> the military ] Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/world/middleeast/egypt.html|title=Army Ousts Egypt's President; Morsi Denounces 'Military Coup'|work=The New York Times|date=3 July 2013|access-date=3 July 2013|first=David D.|last=Kirkpatrick|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704010457/http://www.nytimes.com//2013//07//04//world//middleeast//egypt.html|archive-date=4 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the ] ] was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Holpuch |first1=Amanda |last2=Siddique |first2=Haroon |last3=Weaver |first3=Matthew |title=Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |work=The Guardian |date=4 July 2013 |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175613/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |url-status=live }}</ref> The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt protests: Hundreds killed after police storm pro-Morsi camps|newspaper=ABC News|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=15 August 2013|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804050054/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|archive-date=4 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Abuse claims rife as Egypt admits jailing 16,000 Islamists in eight months|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904163847/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissidents|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=28 April 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620091424/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|archive-date=20 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences 529 people to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805081643/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|archive-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|work=Reuters|date=4 July 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729133559/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|archive-date=29 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a ] following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=18 January 2014|access-date=18 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119234504/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|archive-date=19 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 January 2014 |title=Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175646/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In the ] of June 2014 El-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%.<ref>{{cite web |title=El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91% |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx |access-date=3 June 2014 |website=English.Ahram.org |publisher=Ahram Online}}</ref> On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.<ref>{{cite news |date=8 June 2014 |title=Egypt's Sisi sworn in as president |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/08/egypt-sisi-sworn-in-president |work=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 February 2018 |title=Egypt's War against the Gaza Tunnels |url=https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/node/32925 |website=Israel Defense |language=en}}</ref> In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by a landslide in ] with no real opposition.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 April 2018 |title=Egypt's Sisi wins 97 percent in election with no real opposition |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-election-result-idUSKCN1H916A |work=Reuters |language=en}}</ref> In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for a third term in the next election in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/egypt-parliament-extends-presidential-term-to-six-years/1454194 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref> | |||
Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mehmood |first1=Ashna |date=31 March 2021 |title=Egypt's Return to Authoritarianism |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/03/31/egypts-return-to-authoritarianism/ |work=Modern Diplomacy}}</ref> The constitutional changes were accepted in a ] in April 2019.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 April 2019 |title=Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/23/sisi-wins-snap-egyptian-referendum-amid-vote-buying-claims |work=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary ] confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watan (]) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.<ref>{{cite news |date=14 December 2020 |title=Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/egypt-election-int-idUSKBN28O2T0 |work=Reuters |language=en}}</ref> | |||
== Geography == | == Geography == | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Geography of Egypt}} | ||
] | |||
]]] | |||
Egypt lies primarily between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ]. At {{convert|1001450|km2|-1}}, it is the world's 30th-largest country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |title=World Factbook area rank order |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |archive-date=9 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/383/1/Hamza.pdf |title=Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324233515/http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/383/1/Hamza.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fouberg|first1=Erin H.|last2=Murphy|first2=Alexander B.|author3=de Blij|title=Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThFncGxOrzEC&pg=PT91|access-date=10 February 2013|year=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-57647-2|page=91|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509151021/http://books.google.com/books?id=ThFncGxOrzEC&pg=PT91|archive-date=9 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
At {{convert|1001450|km2|sp=us}},<ref></ref> Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country (after ]). It is comparable in size to ], twice the size of France, four times the size of the United Kingdom, and is more than half the size of the US state of ]. | |||
Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. A ], it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the ]) that ] by way of the Red Sea. | |||
Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.<ref>Hamza, Waleed. . Accessed= 2007-06-10.</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few ] scattered about. Winds create prolific ] that peak at more than {{convert|100|ft|m|order=flip|-1}} high. Egypt includes parts of the ] desert and of the ]. | |||
Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt, ] at 2,642 metres. The ], on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life. | |||
Egypt is bordered by ] to the west, ] to the south, and by the ] and ] to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a ], it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between ] and ], which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the ]) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the ] via the ]. | |||
Towns and cities include ], the second largest city; ]; ]; ], the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; ]; ], the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ], where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; ]; and ]. ] include ], ], ], ] and ]. ] include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. | |||
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is a sandy desert. The winds blowing can create ] more than {{convert|100|ft}} high. Egypt includes parts of the ] and of the ]. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats. | |||
On 13 March 2015, plans for a ] were announced.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt to build new administrative and business capital|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-31874886|work=BBC News|date=13 March 2015|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216003921/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-31874886|archive-date=16 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Towns and cities include ], one of the greatest ancient cities, ], ], ], the modern Egyptian capital, ], ], the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], where the Suez Canal is located, ], and ]. ] include ], ], ], ] and ]. ] include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. See ] for more information. {{MapLibrary|Egypt_sat.png|Egypt}} | |||
===Climate=== | |||
Egypt does not receive much rainfall except in the winter months.<ref>Soliman, KH. ''Rainfall over Egypt''. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, pp. 104-104.</ref> South of ], rainfall ]s only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many ]s. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as {{convert|410|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=2}},<ref>. Weatherbase.com. Last accessed February 12, 2008.</ref> with most of the rainfall between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north ] cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria, frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. | |||
=== Climate === | |||
Temperatures average between {{convert|80|F}} and {{convert|90|F}} in summer, and up to {{convert|109|F}} on the ] ]. Temperatures average between {{convert|55|F}} and {{convert|70|F}} in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the ] coast. The ] is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the ] to more than {{convert|100|F}}. | |||
{{Main|Climate of Egypt}} | |||
] in Egypt's north west]] | |||
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.<ref>Soliman, KH. ''Rainfall over Egypt''. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, p. 104.</ref> South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around {{convert|2|to|5|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as {{convert|410|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60326&refer= |title=Marsa Matruh, Egypt |publisher=Weatherbase.com |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104040540/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60326&refer= |archive-date=4 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as ], ] and ], and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.<ref>{{cite news |title= Biblical snowstorm: Rare flakes in Cairo, Jerusalem paralyzed by over a foot |first= Jason |last= Samenow |newspaper= The Washington Post |date= 13 December 2013 |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/ |access-date= 26 August 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233952/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/ |archive-date= 3 September 2015 |url-status=live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> ] is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. | |||
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The ] is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over {{convert|40|°C}} and sometimes over {{convert|50|°C}} in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less. | |||
Every year, a predictable flooding of the Nile replenishes Egypt's soil. This gives the country consistent harvest throughout the year. Many know this event as ''The Gift of the Nile''. | |||
Prior to the construction of the ], the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years. | |||
The rise in sea levels due to ] threatens Egypt’s densely populated coastal strip and could have grave consequences for the country’s economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into ] by the end of the century, according to climate experts.<ref></ref> | |||
The potential rise in sea levels due to ] could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into ] by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=77240 |title=Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt | IRIN News, March 2008 |date=12 March 2008 |publisher=Irinnews.org |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827210253/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=77240 |archive-date=27 August 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=El Deeb and Keath|first=Sarah and Lee|title=Islamist claims victory in Egypt president vote|url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/M/ML_EGYPT?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2012-06-17-23-11-03|agency=Associated Press|access-date=18 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620080939/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/M/ML_EGYPT?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2012-06-17-23-11-03|archive-date=20 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
== Politics == | |||
{{main|Politics of Egypt}} | |||
=== |
=== Biodiversity === | ||
{{Main|Wildlife of Egypt}} | |||
Egypt has been a republic since June 18, 1953. President ] has been the ] since October 14, 1981, following the assassination of former-President ]. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling ]. ] Dr. ] was sworn in as Prime Minister on July 9, 2004, following the resignation of Dr. ] from his office. | |||
] is the national animal of Egypt.]] | |||
Egypt signed the Rio ] on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |access-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124005746/http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |archive-date=24 January 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has subsequently produced a ], which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/eg/eg-nbsap-01-en.pdf |title=Egypt: National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation |access-date=9 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012234/http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/eg/eg-nbsap-01-en.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Where many ] ] neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm |title=The Micheli Guide to Fungal Conservation |access-date=9 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219063643/http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm |archive-date=19 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.<ref>A.M. Abdel-Azeem, ''The History, Fungal Biodiversity, Conservation, and Future Perspectives for Mycology in Egypt'' IMA Fungus 1 (2): 123–142 (2010).</ref> For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ibrahim|first1=Kamal M.|last2=Hosni|first2=Hasnaa A.|last3=Peterson|first3=Paul M.|title=Grasses of Egypt|date=2016|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo67060|access-date=16 April 2016|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518190122/https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GOVPUB-SI-PURL-gpo67060|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Although power is ostensibly organized under a ] ], whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the ], in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, ]. | |||
== Government == | |||
In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the ], the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."<ref>Business TodayEGYPT. . March 2005.</ref> However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as ] from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.<ref>Lavin, Abigail. . March 27, 2006.</ref> | |||
{{Main|Politics of Egypt}} | |||
Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.<ref>Murphy, Dan. . ]. ].</ref> After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the “conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law.”<ref>. U.S. Department of State, Published December 24, 2005</ref> | |||
] is the current ].]] | |||
The ], whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. ] were held between ], which were later dissolved. | |||
After a wave of public discontent with the autocratic excesses{{clarify|date=July 2023}} of the ] government of President ],<ref name="morsi-think-again" /> on 3 July 2013 then-] ] announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the ]. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying ], which was later published for ] and was adopted on 18 January 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/80519.aspx|title=Who's Who: Members of Egypt's 50-member constitution committee|newspaper=Al-Ahram|access-date=1 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903224524/http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/80519.aspx|archive-date=3 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of ] and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.<ref>Gomez, Edward M. . ]. September 13, 2005.</ref> A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.<ref name=autogenerated1>. December 5, 2006.</ref> | |||
] was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.<ref name="ao30aug">{{Cite news |date=30 August 2015 |title=Timetable for Egypt's parliamentary elections announced; voting to start 17 Oct |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/139288/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-parliamentary-elections-to-start--October---.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904023424/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/139288/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-parliamentary-elections-to-start--October---.aspx |archive-date=4 September 2015 |access-date=11 September 2015 |agency=Ahram Online}}</ref> Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president ] pushed the date.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 January 2014 |title=Egypt to Hold Presidential Polls First: Interim President |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/92617.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407072629/http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/92617.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2014 |access-date=2 April 2014 |publisher=Ahram Online}}</ref> The ] took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with ] winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for ].<ref>{{cite web |title=El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91% |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731100838/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx |archive-date=31 July 2014 |access-date=28 July 2014 |website=English.Ahram.org |publisher=Ahram Online}}</ref> | |||
Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on March 19, 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.<ref> ] News.</ref> As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum would be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27, 2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the ]s introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of certain opposition elements, particularly Islamists. | |||
In 2024, as part of its ] report, ] rated ] in Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), and ] at 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/egypt/freedom-world/2024|work=Freedom in the World 2024|publisher=Freedom House|access-date=3 March 2024|archive-date=2 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302233711/https://freedomhouse.org/country/egypt/freedom-world/2024|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the 2023 ] Egypt is the eighth least ].<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |date=2023 |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |access-date=14 October 2023 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208183458/https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2023 edition of ] categorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Democracy Index 2023: Age of conflict |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy-Index-2023-Final-report.pdf |website=] |page=3 |language=en-GB |access-date=3 March 2024 |archive-date=20 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320115317/http://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy-Index-2023-Final-report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
===Human rights=== | |||
{{main|Human rights in Egypt}} | |||
] democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President ]. See also .]] | |||
Several local and international human rights organizations, including ] and ], have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President ] faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on ] challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">Human Rights Watch. . 2005</ref> | |||
] predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.<ref>Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. ''The Origins of Arab Nationalism''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244–45</ref> The ideology espoused by ] such as the ] is mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dawisha|first=Adeed|title=Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|pages=264–265, 267}}</ref> | |||
Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning ]ic ]s which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major construction still requires governmental approval, while sporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.<ref></ref> Intolerance of ] and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as ]s and ], also remains a problem.<ref name="HRW" /> The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: ], ] and ]. When the government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could ].<ref name="us_dos_egypt">{{cite web | title = Egypt: International Religious Freedom Report |date=2004-09-15 |author=U.S. Department of State |publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35496.htm |accessdate=2008-01-30}}</ref> An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news |first=Cynthia |last=Johnston |title= Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers|url=http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html |publisher=Reuters |date=2008-01-29 |accessdate=2008-01-30 }}</ref> (For more on the status of religious minorities, see the ] section.) | |||
Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.<ref name="pogar" /> The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.<ref name="pogar">{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Nathan J.|title=Mechanisms of Accountability in Arab Governance: The Present and Future of Judiciaries and Parliaments in the Arab World|url=http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/governance/nbrown/potential.html#foot1|publisher=Programme on Governance in the Arab Region|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605005203/http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/governance/nbrown/potential.html#foot1|archive-date=5 June 2012}}</ref> | |||
In 2005, the ] rated ] in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), ] as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pdf/Charts2006.pdf|title=Freedom in the World 2006|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-07-27|format=PDF}}<br/>See also ], ]</ref> It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."<ref></ref> | |||
=== Military and foreign relations === | |||
In 2007, human rights group ] released a report criticizing Egypt for ] and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the ]. The report calls on Egypt to bring its ] into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.<ref>. ]. Written 2007-]. Accessed 2007-4-11.</ref> Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.<ref>. ]. Written 2007-]. Accessed 2007-4-13.</ref> | |||
{{Main|Egyptian Armed Forces|Foreign relations of Egypt}} | |||
] | |||
The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "]".<ref name="nytimes.com" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Cambanis|first=Thanassis|title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html|access-date=11 September 2010|newspaper=]|date=11 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503082713/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html|archive-date=3 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/04/15/egyptian-armed-forces-and-remaking-of-economic-empire |title=The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire |publisher=] |date=15 April 2015 |access-date=23 June 2015 |author=Marshall, Shana |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709153851/http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/04/15/egyptian-armed-forces-and-remaking-of-economic-empire |archive-date=9 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Consensual ] conduct between adults is criminalized under Egyptian law as a "practice of debauchery".<ref>HRW. . February 5, 2008.</ref> Since 2001, Egyptian authorities have made hundreds of arbitrary arrests of young ] men, many of whom have been tried and convicted for acts of "debauchery", while hundreds of others have been harassed and tortured, according to HRW.<ref>HRW. . 2004</ref> In February 2008, a new round of arrests and torture of ]-positive citizens followed a man's admission to the police that he was HIV-positive, sparking international outcry that the Egyptian government was treating the ] disease as a homosexual "crime" instead of providing care, prevention and education.<ref>AFP. . February, 2008.</ref> | |||
Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a ], ]<ref>{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Yaacov|url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=48099|title=Egypt to launch first spy satellite|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=15 January 2007}}</ref> in addition to ] launched on 16 April 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/16egyptsat2/ |title=Egyptian reconnaissance satellite launched by Soyuz |author=Stephen Clark |publisher=Spaceflight Now |date=16 April 2014 |access-date=18 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013018/http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/16egyptsat2/ |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of ].<ref></ref> In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former ] ] who directly reports to the president.<ref>.</ref> The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations<ref>. EOHR. June 3, 2003.</ref> and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.<ref>Qenawy, Ahmed. . ANHRI. 2004</ref> Egypt had announced in 2006 that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,<ref name=autogenerated1 /> but in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.<ref>. Reuters. March 20, 2007.</ref> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
===Foreign relations=== | |||
| width1 = 185 | |||
{{main|Foreign relations of Egypt}} | |||
| width2 = 185 | |||
Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as ], historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in ] and the ]. ] has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and ]ic institutions are at the center of the region's social and ]. | |||
| direction = vertical | |||
| footer = Top: Former President ] with former US President ] at Camp David in 2002.<br/>Bottom: President ] and Russian President ] in Sochi, August 2014. | |||
| image1 = Hosni Mubarak with George W. Bush.jpg | |||
| image2 = Sisi and Putin meeting on 16 August 2014 (1).jpg | |||
}} | |||
The ] provides Egypt with annual ], which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/mar/31/obama-restores-us-military-aid-to-egypt |title=Obama restores US military aid to Egypt over Islamic State concerns |date=31 March 2015 |work=] |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214044811/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/mar/31/obama-restores-us-military-aid-to-egypt |archive-date=14 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1989, Egypt was designated as a ] of the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/07/09/the-u-s-gives-egypt-1-5-billion-a-year-in-aid-heres-what-it-does/ |title=The U.S. gives Egypt $1.5 billion a year in aid. Here's what it does. |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=9 July 2013 |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715231259/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/07/09/the-u-s-gives-egypt-1-5-billion-a-year-in-aid-heres-what-it-does/ |archive-date=15 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the ] of Islamist president ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33003.pdf |title=Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations |publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=5 June 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author=Sharp, Jeremy M. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909045135/http://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33003.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> with the ] denouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-protests-obama-idUSBRE97E0N020130816 |title=Obama cancels military exercises, condemns violence in Egypt |work=Reuters |date=15 August 2013 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author1=Holland, Steve |author2=Mason, Jeff |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014033253/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/16/us-egypt-protests-obama-idUSBRE97E0N020130816 |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32490624 |title=Business as usual for Egypt and the West |publisher=BBC |date=7 May 2015 |access-date=23 June 2015 |author=Iqbal, Jawad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801140720/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32490624 |archive-date=1 August 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29186686 |title=Egypt 'has key role' in fight against Islamic State – Kerry |publisher=BBC |date=13 September 2014 |access-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004225725/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29186686 |archive-date=4 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-sisi-idUSBREA4E07X20140515 |title=Exclusive: Egypt's Sisi asks for U.S. help in fighting terrorism |work=Reuters |date=15 May 2014 |access-date=18 October 2014 |author1=Adler, Stephen |author2=Mably, Richard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023014039/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/15/us-egypt-sisi-idUSBREA4E07X20140515 |archive-date=23 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, following ] of ] ] as the President of the United States, the two countries were looking to improve the ]. On 3 April 2017 al-Sisi met with Trump at the White House, marking the first visit of an Egyptian president to Washington in 8 years. Trump praised al-Sisi in what was reported as a public relations victory for the Egyptian president, and signaled it was time for a normalisation of the relations between Egypt and the US.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/03/world/middleeast/-egypt-sisi-trump-white-house.html|title=Trump Shifts Course on Egypt, Praising Its Authoritarian Leader|last1=Baker|first1=Peter|date=3 April 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 February 2019|last2=Walsh|first2=Declan|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215120743/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/03/world/middleeast/-egypt-sisi-trump-white-house.html|archive-date=15 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The permanent ] are located in ] and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister ] is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989. | |||
Relations with ] have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi's removal<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/08/russia-egypt-putin-sisi-visit-ukraine-palestine.html |title=Russia, Egypt draw closer |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=13 August 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author=Naumkin, Vitaly |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817094408/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/08/russia-egypt-putin-sisi-visit-ukraine-palestine.html |archive-date=17 August 2014 }}</ref> and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-egypt-arms-idUSKBN0HC19T20140917 |title=Russia, Egypt seal preliminary arms deal worth $3.5 billion: agency |work=Reuters |date=17 September 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014032747/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/17/us-russia-egypt-arms-idUSKBN0HC19T20140917 |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and trade ties<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/russia-boost-wheat-supplies-egypt-mulls-free-trade-144820576--sector.html |title=Russia to boost trade with Egypt after Western food ban |work=Yahoo News |date=12 August 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author=Anishchuk, Alexei |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014204101/http://news.yahoo.com/russia-boost-wheat-supplies-egypt-mulls-free-trade-144820576--sector.html |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> among other aspects of bilateral co-operation. ] have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927040951/https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/chinas-egypt-opportunity/ |date=27 September 2015 }}". '']''. 24 December 2014</ref> | |||
Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with ], with the signing of the ] in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the ]. | |||
The permanent ] of the ] are located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister ]. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to ] in 1978 to protest the ], but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/saudi-arabia-uae-prop-egypt-5bn-aid-boost-1469781 |title=Saudi Arabia and UAE to Prop Up Egypt With $5bn Aid Boost |website=International Business Times |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=17 October 2014 |author=Wilson, Nigel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019104420/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/saudi-arabia-uae-prop-egypt-5bn-aid-boost-1469781 |archive-date=19 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323423804579020510228645356 |title=Saudi King Offers Support to Egyptian Military |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=18 August 2013 |access-date=17 October 2014 |author=Knickmeyer, Ellen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411064245/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323423804579020510228645356 |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the overthrow of Morsi.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207125944/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/06/saudi-king-abdullah-visits-egypt-sisi-2014620183031132590.html |date=7 February 2015 }}". Al-Jazeera. 20 June 2014.</ref> | |||
Former Egyptian ] ] served as ] from 1991 to 1996. | |||
], 11 November 2022]] | |||
Following the ] and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish ] with Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians.<ref>"Massive Israel protests hit universities" (Egyptian Mail, 16 March 2010) "According to most Egyptians, almost 31 years after a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel, having normal ties between the two countries is still a potent accusation and Israel is largely considered to be an enemy country"</ref> Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Middle East Contemporary Survey: 1995, Volume 19; Volume 1995 |publisher=Moshe Dayan Center |author=Maddy-Weitzmann, Bruce |year=1997 |page=265 |isbn=978-0-8133-3411-0}}</ref> Egypt's ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in ] have hardly been challenged following Israel's evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the ] following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi,<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016064226/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/31/world/meast/israel-gaza-region/ |date=16 October 2014 }}". CNN News. 1 August 2014.</ref> and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/08/13/the_sisi_doctrine_egypt_policy_gaza_israel_iraq |title=The Sisi Doctrine |work=Foreign Policy |date=13 August 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author=Hanna, Michael W. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013192647/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/08/13/the_sisi_doctrine_egypt_policy_gaza_israel_iraq |archive-date=13 October 2014 |url-status=live | |||
}}</ref> | |||
Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including ] and ], have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and Iran's rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf.<ref>{{cite book |title=Egyptian Foreign Policy: Against the National Interest |publisher=] |author=Shama, Nael |year=2013 |pages=129–131}}</ref> Turkey's recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in ] also made both countries bitter regional rivals.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2015-03-08/turkey-and-egypts-great-game-middle-east |title=Turkey and Egypt's Great Game in the Middle East |magazine=] |date=8 March 2015 |access-date=23 June 2015 |author1=Cagaptay, Soner |author2=Sievers, Marc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623024158/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2015-03-08/turkey-and-egypts-great-game-middle-east |archive-date=23 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
== Governorates and markazes == | |||
{{main|Governorates of Egypt|Markazes of Egypt}} | |||
] (numbers label 5 capitals).]] | |||
Egypt is a founding member of the ] and the United Nations. It is also a member of the {{Lang|fr|]}}, since 1983. Former Egyptian ] ] served as ] from 1991 to 1996. | |||
Egypt is divided into 29 ]s (in Arabic, called ''muhafazat'', singular '']''). The governorates are further divided into regions ('']es''). | |||
In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted "harsh, sometimes lethal" methods of border control.<ref>{{cite web|title=Desperate on the Border|author=Soussi, Alasdair|work=Jerusalem Report|date=9 November 2008|url=http://www.jpost.com/JerusalemReport/Article.aspx?id=119897|access-date=30 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031064451/http://www.jpost.com/JerusalemReport/Article.aspx?id=119897|archive-date=31 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Each governorate has a capital, often having the same name as the governorate (''see map, showing names of the 29 capitals''). | |||
=== Law === | |||
The tables (''below'') list the governorates in alphabetical order. | |||
{{Main|Egyptian Civil Code}} | |||
In April 2008, Cairo and Giza have divided to 4 governorates, the new governorates are 6th of October and Helwan beside Cairo and Giza | |||
]]] | |||
The legal system is based on ] and civil law (particularly ]s); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory ] jurisdiction only with reservations.<ref name=factbook /> | |||
Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7235357.stm |title=Incorporating Sharia into legal systems |work=BBC News |date=8 February 2008 |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425031043/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7235357.stm |archive-date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Gender Equality Profile|url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Egypt-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=20 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019172446/https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Egypt-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
{| style="background:transparent; font-size:95%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" | |||
|- valign="top" | |||
On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a ] held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Egyptian constitution 'approved' in referendum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20829911|work=BBC News|date=23 December 2012|access-date=23 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223022054/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20829911|archive-date=23 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> It replaced the ], adopted following the revolution. | |||
| | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
The Penal code was unique as it contains a "]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/oeur/lxweegy.htm |title=Legislation Egypt |publisher=Lexadin.nl |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012239/http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/oeur/lxweegy.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual ]. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |title=7 Egyptian Christians, Florida pastor sentenced to death for anti-Islam film |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/7-egyptian-christians-florida-pastor-sentenced-to-death-for-anti-islam-film |publisher=Fox News |date=28 November 2012 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105210156/https://www.foxnews.com/world/7-egyptian-christians-florida-pastor-sentenced-to-death-for-anti-islam-film |archive-date=5 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
! Governorate !! Capital !! Location</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Northern</tr> | |||
On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more ].<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25796110 |title=BBC News – Egypt referendum: '98% back new constitution' |last=BBC |date=18 January 2014 |work=] |access-date=19 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118203701/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25796110|archive-date=18 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.<ref name="BBC" /> The parliament may impeach the president.<ref name="BBC" /> Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute ].<ref name="BBC" /> The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.<ref name="BBC" /> Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".<ref name="BBC" /> | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
==== Human rights ==== | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
{{Main|Human rights in Egypt}} | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
{{See also|Sudanese refugees in Egypt|August 2013 Rabaa massacre|Persecution of Copts}} | |||
| ] || ] || Middle</tr> | |||
In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nchregypt.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=3 |title=Law No. 94 of 2003 Promulgating The National Council for Human Rights |publisher=Nchregypt.org |date=16 February 2010 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012238/http://www.nchregypt.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=3 |archive-date=17 January 2013 }}</ref> Shortly after its foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eohr.org/PRESS/2003/6-3.HTM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030701015847/http://www.eohr.org/PRESS/2003/6-3.HTM |archive-date=1 July 2003 |title=Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs |publisher=EOHR |date=3 June 2003 |access-date=8 February 2013}}</ref> and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anhri.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml |title=The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree |publisher=ANHRI |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105202323/http://www.anhri.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml |archive-date=5 January 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
] | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
The ] ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsnorthamerica.net/news.php?idnews=2748 |title=Religion: Few States Enjoy Freedom of Faith, Report Says |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=17 December 2009 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112201851/http://www.ipsnorthamerica.net/news.php?idnews=2748 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/restrictions/restrictionsfullreport.pdf |title=Global Restrictions on Religion|publisher=Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life|date=17 December 2009 |access-date=1 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206073203/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/restrictions/restrictionsfullreport.pdf |archive-date= 6 February 2011 }}</ref> The ], a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1457&Itemid=1 |title=USCIRF Watch List – USCIRF |publisher=Uscirf.gov |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114131553/http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1457&Itemid=1 |archive-date=14 November 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to a 2010 ] Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the death penalty for those who ]; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Muslim Publics Divided on Hamas and Hezbollah|date=2 December 2010|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/|publisher=Pew Global Attitudes Project|access-date=8 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513123330/http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/|archive-date=13 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
<!--reflects Mubarak- and Morsi-era information--> | |||
| ] || ] || Middle</tr> | |||
] face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from underrepresentation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/christian-martyrs-victims-radical-islam/story?id=9976549&page=4 |title=Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam – Rising Islamic Extremism Is Putting Pressure on Christians in Muslim Nations |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date=1 March 2010 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430080456/https://abcnews.go.com/International/christian-martyrs-victims-radical-islam/story?id=9976549&page=4 |archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Intolerance towards followers of the ], and those of the non-orthodox Muslim sects, such as ], ] and ], also remains a problem.<ref name="HRW" /> When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Baháʼís, could not obtain ].<ref name="International Religious Freedom Report 2008">{{cite web|url= https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108481.htm|title= Egypt, International Religious Freedom Report 2008|date= 19 September 2008|publisher= ]|access-date= 24 June 2017|df= dmy-all|archive-date= 16 April 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160416000126/http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108481.htm|url-status= live}}</ref> An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news|first=Cynthia |last=Johnston |title= Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers|url=http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215133731/http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html|archive-date=15 February 2008 |work=Reuters |date=29 January 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=30 January 2008}}</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Canal</tr> | |||
| ]|| ] || Lower</tr> | |||
Clashes continued between police and supporters of former president Mohamed Morsi. During violent clashes that ensued as part of the ], 595 protesters were killed<ref>{{Cite news|author=Mohsen, Manar |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |title=Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638 |newspaper=Daily News Egypt |date=16 August 2013 |access-date=19 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821044205/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |archive-date=21 August 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> with 14 August 2013 becoming the single deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325055057/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/14/world/middleeast/memory-egypt-mass-killing.html |date=25 March 2017 }}". ''The New York Times.'' 13 November 2013.</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
|} | |||
Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.<ref name="amnesty.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/egypt-more-500-sentenced-death-grotesque-ruling-2014-03-24 |title=Egypt: More than 500 sentenced to death in 'grotesque' ruling – Amnesty International |date=24 March 2014 |work=amnesty.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111055849/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/egypt-more-500-sentenced-death-grotesque-ruling-2014-03-24 |archive-date=11 November 2014 }}</ref> The United Nations human rights office<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/world/middleeast/un-expresses-alarm-over-egyptian-death-sentences.html |work=The New York Times |first=Nick |last=Cumming-Bruce |title=U.N. Expresses Alarm Over Egyptian Death Sentences |date=25 March 2014 |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718152729/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/world/middleeast/un-expresses-alarm-over-egyptian-death-sentences.html |archive-date=18 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> and various NGOs<ref name="amnesty.org" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/03/24/egypt-shocking-death-sentences-follow-sham-trial|title=Egypt: Shocking Death Sentences Follow Sham Trial – Human Rights Watch|work=hrw.org|date=24 March 2014|access-date=4 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112174616/https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/03/24/egypt-shocking-death-sentences-follow-sham-trial|archive-date=12 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> expressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former president ] were to be executed for their alleged role in violence following his ] in July 2013. The judgement was condemned as a violation of ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences nearly 530 to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death/2014/03/24/46b21f46-b32c-11e3-bab2-b9602293021d_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325150616/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death/2014/03/24/46b21f46-b32c-11e3-bab2-b9602293021d_story.html|archive-date=25 March 2014|newspaper=Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count, according to '']''),<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905233107/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21603071-president-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-fails-bring-enough-voters-ballot-box |date=5 September 2017 }}, economist.com.</ref> mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after Morsi's removal<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225205950/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/24/egypt-death-sentence-529-morsi-supporters |date=25 February 2017 }}". ''The Guardian''. 24 March 2014.</ref> after the ] was labelled as ] by the post-Morsi interim Egyptian government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's interim Cabinet officially labels Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/25/world/africa/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-terrorism/|newspaper=CNN|access-date=30 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726123339/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/25/world/africa/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-terrorism/|archive-date=26 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> According to human rights groups there are some 60,000 political prisoners in Egypt.<ref>{{cite news |title=My brother is one of Egypt's 60,000 political prisoners – and Trump is happy to let him rot in jail |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/moustafa-kassem-abdel-fattah-el-sisi-trump-egypt-us-prisoner-a9288401.html |work=The Independent |date=17 January 2020 |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=27 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127171138/https://www.independent.co.uk//voices/moustafa-kassem-abdel-fattah-el-sisi-trump-egypt-us-prisoner-a9288401.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=No political prisoners freed as Egypt pardons thousands on Eid |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/5/24/no-political-prisoners-freed-as-egypt-pardons-thousands-on-eid |work=Al-Jazeera |date=24 May 2020 |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115193937/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/5/24/no-political-prisoners-freed-as-egypt-pardons-thousands-on-eid |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| | |||
] was sentenced to five years of imprisonment in December 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Alaa Abdel Fattah: Leading Egyptian activist jailed for five years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-59730354 |work=BBC News |date=20 December 2021}}</ref>]] | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Governorate !! Capital !! Location</tr> | |||
] is illegal in Egypt.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title=Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=16 June 2016 |access-date=13 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111064457/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |archive-date=11 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to a 2013 survey by the ], 95% of Egyptians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.<ref name="pewglobal.org"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103034522/http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/ |date=3 November 2013 }} ''pewglobal''. 4 June 2013. 4 June 2013.</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Western</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
In 2017, Cairo was voted the most dangerous megacity for women with more than 10 million inhabitants in a poll by ]. Sexual harassment was described as occurring on a daily basis.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://poll2017.trust.org/|publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation|title=The world's most dangerous megacities for women 2017|work=poll2017.trust.org|access-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025024053/http://poll2017.trust.org/ |archive-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Western</tr> | |||
==== Freedom of the press ==== | |||
| ] || ] || Sinai</tr> | |||
] ranked Egypt in their 2017 ] at {{abbr|No.|Number}} 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, {{as of|2015|August|lc=y}}. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense".<ref>Gehlen, M. (2015) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830030511/http://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2015-08/aegypten-al-dschasira-journalisten-haft |date=30 August 2015 }}, Zeit Online, 29 August 2015</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Canal</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
Some critics of the government have been ] for allegedly spreading ] about the ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Reporting on the coronavirus: Egypt muzzles critical journalists |url=https://www.dw.com/en/reporting-on-the-coronavirus-egypt-muzzles-critical-journalists/a-53009293 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=3 April 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |archive-date=13 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513144352/https://www.dw.com/en/reporting-on-the-coronavirus-egypt-muzzles-critical-journalists/a-53009293 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt is more concerned with controlling information than containing the coronavirus |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-egypt-is-more-concerned-with-controlling-information-than-containing/ |work=The Globe and Mail |date=3 April 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020 |archive-date=9 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409145026/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-egypt-is-more-concerned-with-controlling-information-than-containing/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Eastern</tr> | |||
=== Administrative divisions === | |||
| ] || ] || Lower</tr> | |||
{{Main|Governorates of Egypt|Subdivisions of Egypt}} | |||
| ] || ] || Upper</tr> | |||
| ] || ] || Sinai</tr> | |||
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.<ref name="Beckouche2017">{{cite book|author=Pierre Beckouche|title=Europe's Mediterranean Neighbourhood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tHpHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA121|year=2017|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-78643-149-3|page=121}}</ref> | |||
| ] || ] || Canal</tr> | |||
[[File:Egypt - Administrative Divisions - Nmbrs - colored.png|center|thumb|upright=2.5|<div style="font-size:larger">{{center| Governorates of Egypt}} | |||
| ] || October 6 || Middle</tr> | |||
1. ] | |||
|} | |||
2. ] | |||
|style="padding-top:8px;"| | |||
3. ] | |||
|} | |||
4. ] | |||
5. ] | |||
6. ] | |||
7. ] | |||
8. ] | |||
9. ] | |||
10. ] | |||
11. ] | |||
12. ] | |||
13. ] | |||
14. ] | |||
15. ] | |||
16. ] | |||
17. ] | |||
18. ] | |||
19. ] | |||
20. ] | |||
21. ] | |||
22. ] | |||
23. ] | |||
24. ] | |||
25. ] | |||
26. ] | |||
27. ] | |||
</div> | |||
]] | |||
== Economy == | == Economy == | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Economy of Egypt}} | ||
] | |||
Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, natural gas, and tourism. There are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Libya, Saudi Arabia, the ] and Europe. The completion of the ] in 1970 and the resultant ] have altered the time-honoured place of the ] in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited ], and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy. A diversified economy, which is the ], the ] and ] per capita. | |||
The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received ] since 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601071446/http://www.undp.org.eg/Default.aspx?tabid=75 |date=1 June 2013}}. Undp.org.eg (11 February 2011). Retrieved 29 July 2013.</ref> | |||
]'s city centre is a busy economic hub]] Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in ], the ] and Europe. The completion of the ] in 1970 and the resultant ] have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the ] and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited ], and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lexicorient.com/e.o/egypt_2.htm|title=Egypt: Economy|publisher=LookLex Encyclopedia|accessdate=2008-08-21}} </ref> | |||
In recent years, the ], dominating sectors such as petrol stations, fish-farming, car manufacturing, media, infrastructure including roads and bridges, and cement production. This hold on various industries has resulted in a suppression of competition, deterring private investment, and leading to adverse effects for ordinary Egyptians, including slower growth, higher prices, and limited opportunities.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 January 2023 |title=To save Egypt's economy, get the army out of it |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/01/26/to-save-egypts-economy-get-the-army-out-of-it |access-date=1 February 2024 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=24 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124014023/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/01/26/to-save-egypts-economy-get-the-army-out-of-it |url-status=live }}</ref> The military-owned ] (NSPO) continues its expansion by establishing new factories dedicated to producing fertilisers, irrigation equipment, and veterinary vaccines. Businesses operated by the military, such as Wataniya and Safi, which manage petrol stations and bottled water, respectively, remain under government ownership.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 April 2023 |title=Egypt's army seems to want to make pasta as well as war |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/04/13/egypts-army-seems-to-want-to-make-pasta-as-well-as-war |access-date=1 February 2024 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> In 2022, the Egyptian economy entered an ongoing crisis, the Egyptian pound was one of the worst performing currencies,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shan |first=Lee Ying |date=5 April 2023 |title=Egypt's pound is among the worst performing currencies in 2023. And it's expected to plummet further |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/05/the-egyptian-pound-is-amongst-the-worst-performing-currencies-in-2023.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515192106/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/05/the-egyptian-pound-is-amongst-the-worst-performing-currencies-in-2023.html |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=11 April 2023 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> inflation. reached 32.6% and ] reached nearly 40% in March.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 April 2023 |title=Egypt's annual core inflation records 39.5% in March 2023: CBE - Dailynewsegypt |url=https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2023/04/11/egypts-annual-core-inflation-records-39-5-in-march-2023-cbe/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608013034/https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2023/04/11/egypts-annual-core-inflation-records-39-5-in-march-2023-cbe/ |archive-date=8 June 2023 |access-date=11 April 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving U.S. ] (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the ]. | |||
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming ]. In its annual report, the ] (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.<ref name=IMF>{{cite web|last=Enders|first=Klaus|title=Egypt: Reforms Trigger Economic Growth|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2008/car021308a.htm|work=International Monetary Fund|access-date=2 February 2011|quote=In its most recent review of Egypt's economy, the IMF has said the expansion has broadened from energy, construction, and telecommunications to labor-intensive sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204192917/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2008/CAR021308A.htm|archive-date=4 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new ] implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in ] by 2006. | |||
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, ], and ]. Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about {{convert|600000|t|lk=on|sp=us}} per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the ], and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over {{convert|1100000|m3|sp=us}} in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries. | |||
], a business district established in 2001 to facilitate the growth of high-tech businesses]] | |||
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while their ] or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=27105 |title=IRIN Middle East | Egypt: Corruption hampering development, says opposition report | Breaking News |date=5 July 2006 |publisher=Irinnews.org |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514145003/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=27105 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Rania Al Malky |url=http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2978 |title=et — Full Story |publisher=Egypttoday.com |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208233152/http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2978 |archive-date=8 February 2009}}</ref> The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by ] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820192346/http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 August 2006 |title=Etisalat Wins Third License |author=Fatima El Saadani |date=August 2006 |publisher=Business Today |access-date=21 August 2008 }}</ref> In the ] 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/12/03/egypt-ranks-114th-on-corruption-scale/#dnePhoto/0/ |title=Egypt ranks 114th on corruption scale |date=3 December 2013 |access-date=8 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207155652/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/12/03/egypt-ranks-114th-on-corruption-scale/#dnePhoto/0/ |archive-date=7 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through ] (US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.<ref name="IOMEgypt" /> Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://gulfnews.com/business/economy/global-remittance-flow-grows-10-77-to-514-billion-in-2012-world-bank-1.1172693|title=Global remittance flow grows 10.77% to $514 billion in 2012: World Bank|author=Saifur Rahman|date=April 2013|newspaper=Gulf News|access-date=18 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423033021/http://gulfnews.com/business/economy/global-remittance-flow-grows-10-77-to-514-billion-in-2012-world-bank-1.1172693|archive-date=23 April 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35–40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/02/08/egypt_over_the_brink?page=0,1 |title=Egypt Over the Brink, interview with Tarek Osman |author1=Lauren E. Bohn |author2=Sarah Lynch |publisher=Foreignpolicy.com |date=8 February 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522032651/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/02/08/egypt_over_the_brink?page=0,1 |archive-date=22 May 2013 }}</ref> | |||
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming ]. In its annual report, the ] has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new ] implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in ] by the year 2006. | |||
] | |||
FDI (]) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent ] measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006. | |||
=== Tourism === | |||
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their ] or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth.<ref></ref> <ref></ref> <ref></ref> Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902|title=Etisalat Wins Third License|author=Fatima El Saadani|month=August | year=2006|publisher=Business Today|accessdate=2008-08-21}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Tourism in Egypt}} | |||
] in front of ]. The ] is one of Egypt's main tourist attractions.]] | |||
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dziadosz |first=Alexander |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE59J0PG20091020 |title=Egypt tourism numbers to fall less than feared |publisher=] Africa |date=20 October 2009 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610030616/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE59J0PG20091020 |archive-date=10 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last=Farouk |first=Dalia |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/61366/Business/Economy/Egypt-tourism-shows-little-recovery-in-.aspx |title=Egypt tourism shows little recovery in 2012 |publisher=Ahram Online |date=27 December 2012 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713122537/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/61366/Business/Economy/Egypt-tourism-shows-little-recovery-in-.aspx |archive-date=13 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The ] is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the ] still in existence. | |||
The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the ] and ]. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement. | |||
Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over {{convert|3,000|km|abbr=off}}, are also popular tourist destinations; the ] beaches, ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] are popular sites. | |||
=== Energy === | |||
{{Main|Energy in Egypt}} | |||
] | |||
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and ]. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about {{convert|600000|t|-4}} per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the ], and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at {{convert|2180|km3|-1}},<ref name="eia">{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=EG|website=U.S. Energy Information Administration|access-date=24 February 2015|date=14 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218034336/http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=EG|archive-date=18 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and ] up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ameinfo.com/egypt-reduce-natural-gas-exports-avoid-343607 |title=Egypt to reduce natural gas exports to avoid energy crisis |publisher=AMEinfo.com |access-date=6 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803013304/http://www.ameinfo.com/egypt-reduce-natural-gas-exports-avoid-343607 |archive-date= 3 August 2013 }}</ref> | |||
Egypt produced 691,000 ] of oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas in 2013, making the country the largest non-] producer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in 2012).<ref name="eia" /> | |||
Egypt is currently building its first ], in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia to lend Egypt $25 billion to build nuclear power plant|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-russia-nuclear-idUSKCN0YA1G5|date=19 May 2016|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516193807/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-russia-nuclear-idUSKCN0YA1G5|archive-date=16 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Transport === | |||
{{Main|Transport in Egypt}} | |||
Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's {{convert|40800|km|mi|adj=on}} railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by ]. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over {{convert|21000|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}}, consisting of 28 lines, 796 stations, 1800 trains covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases. | |||
] The ] consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future. | |||
], which is now the country's ] and largest airline, was founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialist ], today owned by the Egyptian government. The airline is based at ], its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and ]. The Current ] fleet includes 80 aeroplanes.]|left]] | |||
The ] is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, {{convert|3|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=off}} from the half-way point. | |||
The canal is {{convert|193.30|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|24|m|ft|abbr=off}} deep and {{convert|205|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide {{As of|2010|lc=y}}. It consists of the northern access channel of {{convert|22|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}, the canal itself of {{convert|162.25|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=on}} and the southern access channel of {{convert|9|km|mi|frac=2|abbr=on}}. The canal is a single lane with passing places in the Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a ]. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Says Work Finished on New Suez Canal|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/egypt-says-work-is-finished-on-new-suez-canal/2883548.html|publisher=Voice of America|date=29 July 2015|access-date=24 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803133542/http://www.voanews.com/content/egypt-says-work-is-finished-on-new-suez-canal/2883548.html|archive-date=3 August 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt's New Suez Canal to Be Completed for Aug. 6 Ceremony|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/06/13/world/middleeast/ap-ml-egypt-suez-canal.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=1 August 2015|date=30 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616163211/http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/06/13/world/middleeast/ap-ml-egypt-suez-canal.html|archive-date=16 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33800076|title=Egypt launches Suez Canal expansion|date=6 August 2015|access-date=6 August 2015|agency=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806152649/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33800076|archive-date=6 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1531052/egypt-opens-new-6bn-suez-canal|title=Egypt Opens New £6bn Suez Canal|first=Sherine|last=Tadros|agency=Sky News|date=6 August 2015|access-date=6 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806194926/http://news.sky.com/story/1531052/egypt-opens-new-6bn-suez-canal|archive-date=6 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Water supply and sanitation === | |||
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}} | |||
] | |||
The piped ] in Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination of ] in rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to an ] in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to ]s.<ref>As per the 2006 census</ref> | |||
Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of ].<ref name="IDRC">National Water Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (2007): , Shaden Abdel-Gawad. Retrieved 30 April 2012.</ref> Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the ]. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues. | |||
Due to the absence of appreciable rainfall, Egypt's agriculture depends entirely on irrigation. The main source of irrigation water is the river Nile of which the flow is controlled by the high dam at Aswan. It releases, on average, 55 cubic kilometres (45,000,000 acre·ft) water per year, of which some 46 cubic kilometres (37,000,000 acre·ft) are diverted into the irrigation canals.<ref name="ewup">Egyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt's Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources.</ref> | |||
In the Nile valley and delta, almost 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi) of land benefit from these irrigation waters producing on average 1.8 crops per year.<ref name="ewup" /> | |||
== Demographics == | == Demographics == | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Demographics of Egypt|Egyptians}} | ||
] | |||
] | |||
Egypt is the most populated country in the ] and the third most populous on the ], with an estimated 75 million people (as of mid-2008). Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the ]. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to ] and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the ] denomination.<ref name="Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html#People|title=Egyptian people section from the World Factbook|work=]|accessdate=2007-01-29}}</ref> Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the ]in or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to ] and massive increase in agricultural productivity,<ref></ref> made by the ].<ref></ref> | |||
Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on the ], with about 95 million inhabitants {{As of|2017|lc=y}}.<ref name="popclock">{{cite web |url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/?lang=2 |title=Population Clock |date=27 April 2013 |publisher=] |access-date=27 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117121826/http://capmas.gov.eg/?lang=2 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to ] and increases in agricultural productivity<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm |title=The limits of a Green Revolution? |work=BBC News |date=29 March 2007 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728055441/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> enabled by the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=admin |url=http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html |title=Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy |publisher=Foodfirst.org |date=8 April 2000 |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714215036/http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html |archive-date=14 July 2009 }}</ref> Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when ] invaded the country in 1798.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/55.htm |title=Egypt – Population |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117011712/http://countrystudies.us/egypt/55.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The great majority of its people live near the banks of the ] River, an area of about {{convert|40000|km2|-3}}, where the only ] is found. The large regions of the ] desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's urban areas,<ref>{{cite web |title=Urban population (% of total population) - Egypt, Arab Rep. |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=EG |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314193242/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=EG |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=1 August 2022 |work=]}}</ref> with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta. | |||
] are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 98% of the total population.<ref name="Factbook" /> Ethnic minorities include the ] Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the ], the ]-speaking ] (]) of the ], and the ancient ] communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of ] concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of ] clans mostly in the Nile Delta and ] who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases. | |||
Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the ]in, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes , putting the ] at over 1,200 people per km<sup>2</sup>, similar to Bangladesh. | |||
Egypt also hosts an unknown number of ] and asylum seekers, but they are estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.<ref name="Refugees">.</ref> There are some 70,000 ]s,<ref name="Refugees" /> and about 150,000 recently arrived ],<ref></ref> but the number of the largest group, the ], is contested.<ref>See for a lower estimate. The states on its web site that in 2000 the ] claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.</ref> The once-vibrant ] has virtually ], with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in ], ] and other cities. | |||
While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsourapas|first=Gerasimos|date=2 July 2016|title=Nasser's Educators and Agitators across al-Watan al-'Arabi: Tracing the Foreign Policy Importance of Egyptian Regional Migration, 1952–1967|journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies|volume=43|issue=3|pages=324–341|doi=10.1080/13530194.2015.1102708|s2cid=159943632|issn=1353-0194|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/21822/1/s1-ln210934022089525479-1939656818Hwf-2143436348IdV150395290621093402PDF_HI0001.pdf|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720132456/http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/21822/1/s1-ln210934022089525479-1939656818Hwf-2143436348IdV150395290621093402PDF_HI0001.pdf|archive-date=20 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsourapas|first=Gerasimos|date=10 November 2015|title=Why Do States Develop Multi-tier Emigrant Policies? Evidence from Egypt|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|volume=41|issue=13|pages=2192–2214|doi=10.1080/1369183X.2015.1049940|s2cid=73675854|issn=1369-183X|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/20161/1/CJMS_A_1049940.pdf}}{{dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).<ref name="IOMEgypt">{{cite web|url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|publisher=International Organization for Migration|title=Migration and Development in Egypt: Facts and Figures|year=2010|access-date=21 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011709/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|archive-date=5 February 2011}}</ref> The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Egypt to Europe : globalisation and migration across the Mediterranean|last=Simona.|first=Talani, Leila|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies|oclc=650606660}}</ref> | |||
== Media == | |||
{{main|Media of Egypt}} | |||
Egyptian ] are highly influential both in Egypt and the ], attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.<ref name=bbc> ''BBC''</ref><ref name=tbs>, ''TBS''</ref> Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.<ref name=bbc/><ref name=fh></ref> After the ], Ahmed Selim, office director for Information Minister Anas al-Fiqi, declared an era of a "free, transparent and independent Egyptian media."<ref name=tbs/> | |||
== |
=== Ethnic groups === | ||
Ethnic ] are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.<ref name=factbook /> Ethnic minorities include the ], ], ], ] Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the ], the ]-speaking ] (]) of the ], and the ] communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal ] communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number of ] clans mostly in the Nile Delta and ] who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases. | |||
{{main|Religion in Egypt}} | |||
] | |||
Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives. The ] that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque ]s and church towers. | |||
Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly Sudanese, "some of whom have lived in Egypt for generations".<ref name="Karasapan">Omer Karasapan, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706130432/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2016/10/04/who-are-the-5-million-refugees-and-immigrants-in-egypt/ |date=6 July 2017 }}, Brookings Institution (4 October 2016).</ref> Smaller numbers of immigrants come from Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.<ref name="Karasapan" /> | |||
Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 90% of the population<ref></ref>, with the majority being adherents of the ] branch of Islam.<ref name="Factbook" /> A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native ] ],<ref>Hoffman, Valerie J. ''Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt''. University of South Carolina Press, 1995.</ref> and there is a minority of ]. | |||
Christians represent around 10% of the population<ref></ref>, more than 95% of whom belong to the native ]. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the ], the ] and various Coptic ] denominations. Non-native ] communities are largely found in the urban regions of ] and ], and are members of the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], or the ]. | |||
According to the ], any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with ]. The mainstream ] school of ] Islam is largely organised by the state, through ''Wizaret Al-Awkaf'' (Ministry of Religious Affairs). ''Al-Awkaf'' controls all mosques and overviews Muslim clerics. ] are trained in Imam vocational schools and at ]. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give '']'' judgements on Islamic issues. | |||
The ] estimated that the total number of "people of concern" (refugees, asylum seekers, and ]) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registered ] was 117,000, a decrease from the previous year.<ref name="Karasapan" /> Egyptian government claims that a half-million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated.<ref name="Karasapan" /> There are 28,000 registered ].<ref name="Karasapan" /> | |||
] faith as members of the ].]] | |||
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. ] is the oldest ]ic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 ]) and considered by many to be the oldest extant university. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, headed by the ], attests to Egypt's strong Christian heritage. It has a following of approximately 15 million ]s worldwide; affiliated sister churches are located in ], ], ], India, ] and ]. | |||
] have almost ]. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities. | |||
] in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist ] groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. ]s have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 ] led by ]. Until recently, ] were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. These obstacles are not found in building mosques.<ref>WorldWide Religious News. . December 13, 2005.</ref><ref>Compass Direct News. . December 13, 2005.</ref> | |||
=== Languages === | |||
In addition, Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.<ref name="HRW">Human Rights Watch. . 2005</ref> The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals (such as ] and ]), maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt. Of the 32 ], two are Copts: Finance Minister ] and Minister of Environment Magued George; and of the 25 local governors, only one is a Copt (in the ]ian governorate of ]). However, Copts have demonstrated great success in Egypt's private business sector; ], an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's wealthiest 100 people is a Copt. In 2002, under the ] government, Coptic ] (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday.<ref>ArabicNews.com. . December 20, 2002.</ref> Nevertheless, the Coptic community has occasionally been the target of hate crimes and physical assaults. The most significant was the 2000-2001 El Kosheh attacks , in which 21 Copts and one Muslim were killed. A 2006 attack on three churches in ] left one dead and 17 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any organisation.<ref>BBC. , April 15, 2006.</ref> | |||
{{Main|Languages of Egypt}} | |||
The ] of Egypt is ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitutional Declaration 2011|url=http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/laws/constitution/|website=Egyptian Government Services|access-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201095854/http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/laws/constitution/|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The ]s are: ] (68%), ] (29%), ]<!--don't reduce the name, there are many similar named dialects--> (1.6%), ] (0.6%), ] (0.3%), ] (0.3%), ] (0.1%), ] and others.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Additionally, Greek, ] and Italian, and more recently, African languages like ] and ] are the main languages of immigrants. | |||
The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian. | |||
], ].]] | |||
Egypt was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. ], who were mostly ], partook of all aspects of Egypt's social, economic and political life; one of the most ardent Egyptian nationalists, ]' (Abu Naddara), was a Jew, as were famous musician Dawoud Husni, popular singer ], and prominent filmmaker Togo Mizrahi. For a while, Jews from across the ] and Europe were attracted to Egypt due to the relative harmony that characterized the local religious landscape in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After the 1956 ], a great number of Jews were expelled by ], many of whom holding official Egyptian citizenship. Their Egyptian citizenship was revoked and their property was confiscated. A steady stream of migration of Egyptian Jews followed, reaching a peak after the ] with Israel in 1967. Today, Jews in Egypt number less than 100.<ref>Jewish Community Council (JCC) of Cairo. . 2006.</ref> | |||
Historically ] was spoken, the latest stage of which is ]. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in ] as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the ].<ref name=extinct>The language may have survived in isolated pockets in ] as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in ''Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde'', 39 (1901), p. 87.</ref><ref name="Daily Star Egypt">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=106|title=Daily News Egypt – Full Article|date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721071828/http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=106|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> It forms a separate branch among the family of ]. | |||
] in Egypt, whose population is estimated to be a few thousand, have long been ], having their institutions and community activities banned. Since their faith is not officially recognized by the state, they were not allowed to use it on their national ]; a court case in 2008 allowed Bahá'ís to obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news |first=Cynthia |last=Johnston |title= Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers|url=http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html |publisher=Reuters |date=2008-01-29 |accessdate=2008-01-30 }}</ref> | |||
=== Religion === | |||
There are Egyptians who identify as ] and ], but their numbers are largely unknown, as openly advocating such positions risks legal sanction on the basis of apostasy (if a citizen takes the step of suing the 'apostating' person, though not automatically by the general prosecutor). In 2000, an openly atheist Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local association for atheists, was tried on charges of insulting Islam in four of his books.<ref name="note6">{{cite news |first=Jailan |last=Halawi |pages= |title=Limits to expression |date=21-December 27, 2000 |publisher=Al-Ahram Weekly |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/513/eg7.htm}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Religion in Egypt}} | |||
]]] | |||
While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to ], "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents.<ref>.</ref> The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim.<ref>. 2004</ref> Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from ] to ] (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.<ref>. November 03, 2003</ref> In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam.<ref>Shahine, Gihan. Ahram Weekly, 3 - May 9, 2007</ref> However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted back to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards,<ref>]. . 2008-02-09.</ref> but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.<ref>AFP. . February, 2008.</ref> | |||
Islam is the ] of Egypt, and the country has the largest Muslim population in the ] and the world's ], accounting for five percent of all Muslims worldwide.<ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=December 2012|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=5 November 2018|archive-date=17 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117084054/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|url-status=live}}</ref> Egypt also has the ] in the ].<ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web |author=Analysis |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx |title=Global Christianity |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226061838/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Official data about religion is lacking due to social and political sensitivities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hackett |first=Conrad |date=16 February 2011 |title=How many Christians are there in Egypt? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% as ], and 1% as other Christian denominations; other estimates place the Christian population as high as 15–20%.{{efn|The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian, though estimates vary.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/egypt/180843.htm|title=Background Note: Egypt|date=10 November 2010|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=5 March 2011|archive-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722024956/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/egypt/180843.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|title=Egypt|date=4 September 2008|publisher=CIA|access-date=15 May 2007|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009073315/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|title=Egypt|date=27 January 2008|publisher=UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|archive-date=12 December 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=16 February 2016}}</ref> Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Egypt|publisher=Microsoft Encarta Online|url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html|date=30 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003619/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html|archive-date=21 October 2009}}</ref> The ] gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population, at 94.6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|title=Mapping The Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life|page=8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010050756/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2009|url-status=dead|access-date=25 July 2011}}</ref> In 2017, the government-owned newspaper '']'' estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.<ref name="churches-deleg">{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|title=Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo|work=Al Ahram|date=19 November 2017|author=Alhram Online|access-date=26 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504020907/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|archive-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>}} | |||
Egypt was an early and leading center of Christianity into ]; the ] was founded in the first century and remains the largest church in the country. With the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Encyclopedia Coptica: The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt|url = http://www.coptic.net/EncyclopediaCoptica/|website = www.coptic.net|access-date = 6 January 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050831164722/http://www.coptic.net/EncyclopediaCoptica/|archive-date = 31 August 2005|url-status=live|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Arab Conquest of Egypt|last = Butler|first = Alfred J.|publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1978|isbn = 978-0-19-821678-0}}</ref> It is unknown when Muslims reached a majority, variously estimated from {{Circa|1000 CE}} to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the ]. Under ], Islam became the official ] and ] the main source of law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=] |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |archive-date=20 December 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere to the ]. ] form roughly 12% of the population.<ref name="churches-deleg" /><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|date=26 December 2016}} retrieved 4 September 2013</ref> There is also a ] minority. The ] estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million<ref>{{cite web |author=Col. (ret.) Jacques Neriah |url=http://jcpa.org/article/egypts-shiite-minority-between-the-egyptian-hammer-and-the-iranian-anvil/ |title=Egypt's Shiite Minority: Between the Egyptian Hammer and the Iranian Anvil |publisher=] |date=23 September 2012 |access-date=6 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909234700/http://jcpa.org/article/egypts-shiite-minority-between-the-egyptian-hammer-and-the-iranian-anvil/ |archive-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and could measure as much as 3 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/story/1107961/egypt-attack-on-shia-comes-at-dangerous-time |title=Egypt: Attack On Shia Comes At Dangerous Time |author=Tim Marshall |publisher=Sky News |date=25 June 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630001649/http://news.sky.com/story/1107961/egypt-attack-on-shia-comes-at-dangerous-time |archive-date=30 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] population is estimated at less than 50,000,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|author=Mohammad Hassan Khalil|date=2013|page=297 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-994541-2}}</ref> whereas the ] (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/politics/6073/what-salafism-and-should-we-be-worried |title=What is Salafism and should we be worried? |author=Venetia Rainey |publisher=Theweek.co.uk |date=20 April 2011 |access-date=6 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711010603/http://www.theweek.co.uk/politics/6073/what-salafism-and-should-we-be-worried |archive-date=11 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is famous for its numerous mosque ]s and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".<ref>{{cite news|title= Cairo: Welcome to the city of 1,000 minarets|url= https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/africa/cairo-welcome-to-the-city-of-1000-minarets-692635.html|work= ]|location= London|author= Robin Barton|date= 19 February 2001|access-date= 26 August 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150925234721/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/africa/cairo-welcome-to-the-city-of-1000-minarets-692635.html|archive-date= 25 September 2015|url-status=live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> The city also hosts ], which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence;<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2024 |title=Egypt - Arabic, Coptic, Nubian {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/Languages |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world.<ref>Indira Falk Gesink, ''Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam'' (I.B.Tauris, 2014), p. 2.</ref> It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufi ],<ref>{{cite web |author=Kristin Deasy |date=October 2012 |title=The Sufis' Choice: Egypt's Political Wild Card |url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/sufis%E2%80%99-choice-egypt%E2%80%99s-political-wild-card |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724235845/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/sufis%E2%80%99-choice-egypt%E2%80%99s-political-wild-card |archive-date=24 July 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013 |publisher=World Affairs Journal}}</ref><ref name="HuffPost15Million">{{cite news |author=Hassan Ammar |date=14 June 2013 |title=Sufis In Egypt Thrive With More Than 15 Million Despite Attacks By Islamist Hardliners |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/sufis-in-egypt_n_3441037.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708021321/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/sufis-in-egypt_n_3441037.html |archive-date=8 July 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013 |work=Huffington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Valerie J. |title=Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |year=1995}}</ref> with ] leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.<ref name="HuffPost15Million" /> At least 305 people were killed during a ] on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.<ref>Walsh, Declan, and Youssef, Nour, '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126223759/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/mosque-attack-egypt.html|date=26 November 2017}}'', The New York Times, 24 November 2017</ref> | |||
Of the ] over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an ] Christian Church.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145|title=Who are the Christians in the Middle East?|year=2009|publisher=Betty Jane Bailey |isbn=978-0-8028-1020-5}}</ref> Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the ], the ] and various other ] denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the ], who belong to ], ], and ] denominations.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Catholics in Egypt Reflect Church's Rich and Varied Traditions|magazine=L'Osservatore Romano|date=1 March 2000|pages=6–7|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/EGPTCATH.HTM|access-date=23 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125104510/http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/EGPTCATH.HTM|archive-date=25 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the small ] and ] communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.<ref>{{cite news |last =al-Shahat |first =Abdel Moneim |title =Shahat: Baha'is threaten Egypt's national security |newspaper =Egypt Independent |date =18 February 2012 |url =http://www.egyptindependent.com/node/666371 |access-date =25 February 2012 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120220192155/http://www.egyptindependent.com/node/666371 |archive-date =20 February 2012 |url-status=live |df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/egypt-ahmadis-detained-under-emergency-law-rights-group/ |title=Egypt Ahmadis detained under emergency law: rights group |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606215554/https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/egypt-ahmadis-detained-under-emergency-law-rights-group/ |archive-date=6 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards ], and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.<ref name="International Religious Freedom Report 2008" /><ref name="reuters" /> | |||
=== Education === | |||
{{Main|Education in Egypt}} | |||
] | |||
In 2022, Egypt's adult literacy rate was 74.5%, compared to 71.1% in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt - Literacy rate 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/572680/literacy-rate-in-egypt/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> Literacy is lowest among those over 60 years of age, at 35.1%, and highest among youth between 15 and 24 years of age, at 92.2%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt: youth literacy rate |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1253111/youth-literacy-rate-in-egypt/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref>]]]A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.<ref name="edu-chatham" /> Under British occupation, investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.<ref name="edu-chatham" /> | |||
In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.<ref name=edu-chatham /> The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.<ref name=edu-chatham /> Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.<ref name=edu-chatham /> Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.<ref name=edu-chatham>{{cite web|title=Education in Egypt: Key Challenges|url=http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf|publisher=Chatham House|date=March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224022844/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.<ref name=oecd-edu>{{cite book|title=Higher education in Egypt|year=2010|publisher=OECD|isbn=978-92-64-08434-6|page=60|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/reviews-of-national-policies-for-education-higher-education-in-egypt-2010_9789264084346-en|edition=2010|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125141055/http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/reviews-of-national-policies-for-education-higher-education-in-egypt-2010_9789264084346-en|archive-date=25 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the ], the leaving exam.<ref name=oecd-edu /> | |||
Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.<ref name=oecd-edu /> | |||
] is Egypt's premier ]. The country is currently opening new research institutes with the aim of modernising scientific research and development; the most recent example is ]. Egypt was ranked 86th in the ] in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2024 : Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref> | |||
=== Health === | |||
{{Main|Health in Egypt}} | |||
]]] | |||
{{Update|section|date=December 2024}} | |||
Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demography|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=17&cat_code=7|publisher=SESRIC|access-date=8 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622090849/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=17&cat_code=7|archive-date=22 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Health|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=17&cat_code=8|publisher=SESRIC|access-date=8 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622081201/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=17&cat_code=8|archive-date=22 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt's healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and immunisation programmes are now able to cover 98% of the population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101–132/1000 live births, in 2000 the rate was 50–60/1000, and in 2008 it was 28–30/1000).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsurance.com/health-insurance/egypt/|title=Egypt Health Insurance|work=globalsurance.com|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905232826/http://www.globalsurance.com/health-insurance/egypt/|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
According to the ] in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html |title=Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices |publisher=WHO |year=2011 |access-date=28 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423210304/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html |archive-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years. Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's parliament passes bill designating FGM a felony, imposes stricter penalties|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/242112/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-parliament-passes-bill-designating-FGM-a-fe.aspx|access-date=1 December 2016|agency=Ahram Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202101139/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/242112/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-parliament-passes-bill-designating-FGM-a-fe.aspx|archive-date=2 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The total number of Egyptians with ] reached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors, providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt's population.<ref>{{cite web|title=SIS|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Templates/Articles/tmpArticles.aspx?CatID=729|publisher=State Information Service|access-date=28 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113145429/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Templates/Articles/tmpArticles.aspx?CatID=729|archive-date=13 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Largest cities === | |||
{{See also|List of cities and towns in Egypt}} | |||
{{Largest cities | |||
| country = Egypt | |||
| stat_ref = | |||
| list_by_pop = | |||
| div_name = Governorate | |||
| div_link = | |||
| city_1 = Cairo | |||
| div_1 = Cairo Governorate{{!}}Cairo | |||
| pop_1 = 9,801,536 | |||
| img_1 = View from Cairo Tower 31march2007.jpg | |||
| city_2 = Alexandria | |||
| div_2 = Alexandria Governorate{{!}}Alexandria | |||
| pop_2 = 5,362,517 | |||
| img_2 = Alexandria Egypt (235108493).jpeg | |||
| city_3 = Giza | |||
| div_3 = Giza Governorate{{!}}Giza | |||
| pop_3 = 4,458,135 | |||
| img_3 = Giza-Nile.JPG | |||
| city_4 = Shubra El Kheima | |||
| div_4 = Qalyubia Governorate{{!}}Qalyubia | |||
| pop_4 = 1,275,700 | |||
| img_4 = 3-D Building on Google Map - panoramio.jpg | |||
| city_5 = Port Said | |||
| div_5 = Port Said Governorate{{!}}Port Said | |||
| pop_5 = 791,749 | |||
| city_6 = Suez | |||
| div_6 = Suez Governorate{{!}}Suez | |||
| pop_6 = 716,458 | |||
| city_7 = Mansoura | |||
| div_7 = Dakahlia Governorate{{!}}Dakahlia | |||
| pop_7 = 632,330 | |||
| city_8 = El Mahalla El Kubra | |||
| div_8 = Gharbia Governorate{{!}}Gharbia | |||
| pop_8 = 614,202 | |||
| city_9 = Tanta | |||
| div_9 = Gharbia Governorate{{!}}Gharbia | |||
| pop_9 = 597,694 | |||
| city_10 = Asyut | |||
| div_10 = Asyut Governorate{{!}}Asyut | |||
| pop_10 = 562,061 | |||
| city_11 = Faiyum | |||
| div_11 = Faiyum Governorate{{!}}Faiyum | |||
| pop_11 = 531,861 | |||
| city_12 = Khusus | |||
| div_12 = Qalyubia Governorate{{!}}Qalyubia | |||
| pop_12 = 502,864 | |||
| city_13 = Zagazig | |||
| div_13 = Sharqia Governorate{{!}} Sharqia | |||
| pop_13 = 460,501 | |||
| city_14 = Ismailia | |||
| div_14 = Ismailia Governorate{{!}}Ismailia | |||
| pop_14 = 450,388 | |||
| city_15 = Aswan | |||
| div_15 = Aswan Governorate{{!}}Aswan | |||
| pop_15 = 401,890 | |||
| city_16 = 6 October (city){{!}} 6 October | |||
| div_16 = Giza Governorate{{!}}Giza | |||
| pop_16 = 376,302 | |||
| city_17 = Damanhur | |||
| div_17 = Beheira Governorate{{!}}Beheira | |||
| pop_17 = 329,572 | |||
| city_18 = New Cairo | |||
| div_18 = Cairo Governorate{{!}}Cairo | |||
| pop_18 = 319,488 | |||
| city_19 = Damietta | |||
| div_19 = Damietta Governorate{{!}}Damietta | |||
| pop_19 = 312,863 | |||
| city_20 = Minya, Egypt{{!}}Minya | |||
| div_20 = Minya Governorate{{!}}Minya | |||
| pop_20 = 298,021 | |||
}} | |||
== Culture == | == Culture == | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Culture of Egypt}} | ||
] is a commemoration of the ancient ] in Egypt's second largest city.]] | |||
] has five thousand years of ]. ] was among the earliest ]s and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the ] and other African countries. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of ], ], and ]ic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern ], itself with roots in ancient Egypt. | |||
Egypt is a recognised cultural trendsetter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061 |title=Mideast: Egypt Makes Cultural Clout Count (IPS, Oct. 29, 2009) |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=29 October 2009 |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427044804/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061 |archive-date=27 April 2011 }}</ref> | |||
Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of ] in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like ] of the ] and ] of the ]. | |||
] is listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by the ].]] | |||
Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate ], Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, ] which is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm|title=The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?|author=Raymon Kondos|date=15 February 2004|access-date=21 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829005958/http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm|archive-date=29 August 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The work of early 19th century scholar ] renewed interest in ] and exposed Egyptian society to ] principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer ] a native ] school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as ] and ], who themselves studied the ], ] and ] of Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|last=El-Daly|first=Okasha|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium|year=2005|publisher=UCL Press|location=London|page=29}}</ref> | |||
====Renaissance==== | |||
The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from ] to ] Egypt. His work renewed interest in ] and exposed Egyptian society to ] principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer ] a native ] school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as ] and ], who themselves studied the ], ] and ] of Egypt.<ref>El-Daly, ''op cit''., p. 29</ref> Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. They forged a ] path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, ] and faith in science to bring progress.<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 130</ref> | |||
Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, ] and faith in science to bring progress.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=130}}</ref> | |||
====Art and architecture==== | |||
] painting from the tomb of ] governor ] in ].]] | |||
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the ]s followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, ]s and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the ] designed by ancient architect and engineer ], the ], and the temple of ]. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of ] and ], to ]'s famous sculptures, to the distinctive ] of ]. | |||
=== Arts === | |||
The ] serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the ], has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.<ref>.</ref> To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the ] and ], a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like ], have achieved worldwide fame. | |||
]'']]{{See also|Architecture of Egypt}} | |||
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and ]. ], also known as calcium copper silicate, is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the ]s followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal ], ] and monumental tombs. | |||
Well-known examples are the ] designed by ancient architect and engineer ], the ], and the temple of ]. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of ] and ], to ]'s sculptures, to the distinctive ] of ]. The ] serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. | |||
====Literature==== | |||
] constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of ], and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/EgyptOnline/Culture/000001/0203000000000000000567.htm|title=Global influence of Egyptian culture|date=February 4, 2006|publisher=Egypt State Information Service|accessdate=2008-08-21}}</ref> The first modern Egyptian novel '']'' by ] was published in 1913 in the ].<ref>Vatikiotis, ''op cit''.</ref> Egyptian novelist ] was the first Arabic-language writer to win the ]. Egyptian women writers include ], well known for her ] ], and ] who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular ] amongst Egyptians, represented by the works of ] (Fagumi), ] and ]. | |||
=== |
=== Literature === | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Egyptian literature}} | ||
].]] | ], the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature]] | ||
Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ] and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book.<ref>{{Citation |last=Edwards |first=Amelia |title=The Literature and Religion of Ancient Egypt |url=http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-6.html |access-date=30 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020082547/http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-6.html |archive-date=20 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of ], and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Arab world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/EgyptOnline/Culture/000001/0203000000000000000567.htm |title=Global influence of Egyptian culture |date=4 February 2006 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |access-date=21 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124223643/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/EgyptOnline/Culture/000001/0203000000000000000567.htm |archive-date=24 November 2007}}</ref> The first modern Egyptian novel '']'' by ] was published in 1913 in the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The history of modern Egypt: from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=486|edition=4}}</ref> Egyptian novelist ] was the first Arabic-language writer to win the ]. Egyptian women writers include ], well known for her ] activism, and ] who also writes about women and tradition. | |||
] is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In ], Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ] and the ]. ] and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as ], ], ] and ]. These prominent artists were followed later by ]. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities. | |||
Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular ] among Egyptians, represented by the works of ] (Fagumi), ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Culture of Egypt |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/hellochina/egyptambassador09/2009-08/24/content_8607968.htm |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref> | |||
====Festivals==== | |||
=== Media === | |||
Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as ''mulid''. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. ] has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as ''fawanees'') and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of ] (]: {{Coptic|Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ}} ''shom en nisim'') has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the ] of ] (April) and ] (May), following ] Sunday. | |||
{{Main|Media of Egypt}} | |||
] are highly influential throughout the ], attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.<ref name=bbc>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm#media |title=Country profiles: Egypt |work=BBC News |date=15 January 2013 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421002317/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm#media |archive-date=21 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tbsjournal.com/Archives/Fall05/Levinson.html |title=Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections |publisher=Tbsjournal.com |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816171126/http://tbsjournal.com/Archives/Fall05/Levinson.html |archive-date=16 August 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref> Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.<ref name=bbc /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007 |title=Freedom House 2007 report |publisher=Freedomhouse.org |date=10 May 2004 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227144203/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007 |archive-date=27 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Cinema === | ||
{{Main|Cinema of Egypt}} | |||
] during the ]]] | |||
], film star]] | |||
] is the ''de facto'' ] of Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs ] , ] and ] are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favorite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the ]. While, Egypt's national team has not qualified for the ] since 1990, the Egyptian team won the Africa Cup Of Nations an unprecedented six times, including two times in a row in 1957 and 1959 and again in 2006 and 2008, setting a world record. | |||
], film star|right|170px]] | |||
] became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, ], financed by industrialist ], emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Darwish|first=Mustafa|title=Dream Makers on the Nile: A Portrait of Egyptian Cinema|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|location=Cairo|pages=12–13|year=1998}}</ref> For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Houissa|first=Ali|title=LibGuides: Middle Eastern & North African Cinema & Film: Egyptian Cinema & Film|url=https://guides.library.cornell.edu/MidEastCinema/Egypt|access-date=4 October 2021|website=guides.library.cornell.edu|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dajani|first=Karen Finlon|date=1 May 1980|title=Cairo: the Hollywood of the Arab World|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/001654928002600202|journal=Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands)|language=en|volume=26|issue=2|pages=89–98|doi=10.1177/001654928002600202|s2cid=144015456|issn=0016-5492}}</ref> Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The golden age of Egyptian cinema - Focus|url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/50/1209/366778/AlAhram-Weekly/Focus/The-golden-age-of--Egyptian-cinema-.aspx|access-date=4 February 2022|website=Ahram Online}}</ref> Actors from all over the Arab world seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. The ] has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://azam.net/ukhotmovies/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/ |title=Cairo International Film Festival information |work=UKHotMovies |date=1 December 2005 |access-date=17 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105193710/http://azam.net/ukhotmovies/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/ |archive-date=5 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
] and ] are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s. ] is Egypt's best player and the winner of the world open three times and the best player of 2006. | |||
The Egyptian Handball team also holds another record; throughout the 34 times the ] was held, Egypt won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, four times third place, and came in fourth place twice. The team won 6th and 7th places in 1995, 1997 at the World Men's Handball Championship, and twice won 6th place at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics. | |||
The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of talking films, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962, and reached 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995 due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres, until their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009. Over a period of more than a hundred years, Egyptian cinema has presented more than four thousand films.<ref>{{Cite book|last=سعد|first=عبدالمنعم|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJaOQgAACAAJ&q=%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9|title=موجز تاريخ السينما المصرية|date=1976|publisher=مطابع الأهرام التجارية|language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shafik|first=Viola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QusdDAAAQBAJ&q=egyptian+cinema+history|title=Popular Egyptian Cinema: Gender, Class, and Nation|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-977-416-053-0|language=en}}</ref> | |||
In 2007, Omar joined Ben Stephens (England), Victoria James (Wales) and Greg Maud (South Africa) in putting together an expedition to climb Mount Everest from its South side. The Everest expedition began on the 25th of March 2007 and lasted for just over 9 weeks. On the 17th of May at precisely 9:49AM Nepal time, Omar became the first and youngest Egyptian to climb 8,850m Mount Everest. He also became the first Egyptian to climb Everest from its South face, the same route taken by Sir Edmund Hilary and Sherpa Tenzing in 1953. | |||
=== Music === | |||
Egypt has a long history of ] since 1912. | |||
{{Main|Music of Egypt}} | |||
] | |||
] is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of ] since antiquity. The ancient ] credited one of their gods ] with the invention of music, which ] in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013114158/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/AncientEgypt/AncientEgypt.html |date=13 October 2015}}, ], ].</ref> | |||
Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as ], Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of ], ], ] and ]. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include ] and ]. | |||
=====Best results===== | |||
{| {{MedalTable|type=Games}} | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 2|| 1 || 1 || 4 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 2 || 1 || 2 || 5 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 2 || 2 || 1 || 5 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 0 || 1 || 1 || 2 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 1 || 1 || 3 || 5 | |||
|- | |||
|align=left| ] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 | |||
|- | |||
! Total !! 7 !! 7 !! 10 !! 24 | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
== |
=== Dances === | ||
] dancers performing in Wekalet El Ghoury, Cairo]] | |||
{{main|Military of Egypt}} | |||
Today, Egypt is often considered the home of ]. Egyptian ] has two main styles – ] and ]. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with ]. | |||
<!--Please expand main article instead of section--> | |||
] | |||
=== Museums === | |||
The ] have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.<ref></ref> According to the Israeli chair of the former Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, ], the ] has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the ] and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the ].<ref>Steinitz, Yuval. . Haaretz. December 05, 2006.</ref> The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernization mostly in their Air Force. Other than Israel, Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the first country in the region with a ], ], and is planning to launch 3 more satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years. Egypt is considered to be the leading military power in the Middle East along with Israel.<ref>Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," ], January 15, 2007.</ref> | |||
{{Main|List of museums in Egypt}} | |||
] of Cairo]] | |||
Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. At least 60 museums may be found in Egypt. | |||
] of Cairo.]] | |||
The three main museums in Egypt are ] which has more than 120,000 items, the ] and the ]. | |||
The ] (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://marketplace.publicradio.org/shows/2006/07/25/AM200607251.html |title=Marketplace: Egypt's next big thing |author=Nancy Farghalli |work=Marketplace |publisher=American Public Media |date=25 July 2006 |access-date=31 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515221138/http://marketplace.publicradio.org/shows/2006/07/25/AM200607251.html |archive-date=15 May 2008 }}</ref> The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on {{convert|50|ha|acre}} of land approximately {{convert|2|km|mi|spell=in|abbr=off}} from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/great-museum-be-inaugurated-may-2018|title=Great Museum to be inaugurated in May 2018 – Egypt Independent|date=10 May 2015|access-date=14 December 2016|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150709180239/http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/great-museum-be-inaugurated-may-2018|archive-date=9 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Festivals === | |||
Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as ''mulid''. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. | |||
The ancient spring festival of ] (]: {{Coptic|Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ}} ''shom en nisim'') has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the ] of ] (April) and ] (May), following Easter Sunday. | |||
=== Cuisine === | |||
{{Main|Egyptian cuisine}} | |||
], one of Egypt's national dishes]] | |||
Egyptian cuisine relies heavily on legume and vegetable dishes. Although food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed. | |||
Some consider ] (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the ]. In addition, ] (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making ] (also known as "ta'miya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to ], a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit. | |||
=== Sports === | |||
]]] | |||
] is the most popular ] of Egypt. The ] is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm |title=BBC Sport Academy | Al-Ahly v Zamalek |work=BBC News |date=5 August 2002 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511124932/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals ]. They are known as the "]". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's ] and Argentina's ], both having eighteen.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/ |title=Al-Ahly – master of the world |newspaper=Daily News Egypt |date=11 December 2014 |access-date=22 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211115406/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/ |archive-date=11 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The ], known as the Pharaohs, won the ] seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the ] three times. Two goals from star player ] in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify|title=Mo Salah's late penalty gives Egypt first World Cup qualification since 1990|date=8 October 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206052043/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify|archive-date=6 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the ] in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the ] and the ] Olympics. | |||
] and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. ], ] and ] are Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in ]. | |||
In 1999, Egypt ] the ], and hosted it again in ]. In 2001, the ] achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the ] five times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed the ] in ], the ] in ] and the ] in ]. | |||
Among all African nations, the ] holds the record for best performance at the ] and at the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html |title=1950 World Championship for Men |publisher=FIBA |date=9 June 2012 |access-date=9 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113212042/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html |archive-date=13 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html |title=Egypt – 1952 Olympic Games; Tournament for Men |publisher=FIBA |date=9 June 2012 |access-date=9 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811212844/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html |archive-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the ]. | |||
] in the ] since 1912 and has hosted ] including ] in 1951, the ], the ] and the ], ] and ] editions of the ]. | |||
Egypt featured a national team in beach volleyball that competed at the ] in both the women's and the men's section.<ref>{{cite news |title= Continental Cup Finals start in Africa|url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=] |date=22 June 2021}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
* ] | |||
{{columns |width=210px | |||
* ] | |||
|col1 = | |||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
|col2 = | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
|col3 = | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
|col4 = | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
}} | |||
===Lists=== | |||
: ''Main list: ]'' | |||
== Notes == | |||
* ] | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
== |
== References == | ||
{{ |
{{Reflist}} | ||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
'''General references''' | |||
* {{CIAfb}}{{clr}} | |||
* {{StateDept}} | |||
</div> | |||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
{{Library resources box}} | |||
* | |||
* from ] | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports | |||
{{sisterlinks|Egypt}} | |||
{{wikiatlas|Egypt}} | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* Leonard William King, ''History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria in the Light of Recent Discovery'', . | |||
* ], ''History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria'', in 12 volumes, . | |||
* (]) | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* ''Online travel and tourism guides to Egypt and cities like Cairo''. | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Egypt/}} | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* {{wikitravel}} | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* , a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir ], 1920 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; ] & format)'' | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* . | |||
=== Government === | |||
{{Template group | |||
* – Official Egypt Information Portal | |||
|title = Geographic locale | |||
* – Egypt Information and Decision Support Center | |||
|list = | |||
* – official website of Egypt State Information Services | |||
{{Governorates of Egypt}} | |||
* – official website of the president of Egypt | |||
* – official website of the prime minister of Egypt | |||
* – official website of Egypt House of Representatives | |||
* – official website of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt | |||
* – official website of Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics | |||
=== History === | |||
* – Egyptian history at Egypt Information Portal | |||
* – Ancient, modern and natural history of Egypt at The ] | |||
* – website from the Bibliotheca Alexandrina | |||
=== Tourism === | |||
* – Egypt's official tourism portal | |||
=== Maps === | |||
* {{Wikiatlas}} | |||
* {{Osmrelation-inline|1473947}} | |||
{{Egypt topics}} | |||
{{Navboxes | |||
|title = Related articles | |||
|list = | |||
{{Countries and territories of North Africa}} | |||
{{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} | {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} | ||
{{Countries of Africa}} | |||
{{Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea}} | {{Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea}} | ||
{{Countries bordering the Red Sea}} | {{Countries bordering the Red Sea}} | ||
{{Countries of Africa}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Countries of Asia}} | |||
{{Template group | |||
|title = International membership | |||
|list = | |||
{{Arab League}} | {{Arab League}} | ||
{{Non-Aligned Movement}} | {{Non-Aligned Movement}} | ||
{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}} | |||
{{African Union (AU)}} | |||
{{D8 nations}} | |||
{{G15 nations}} | {{G15 nations}} | ||
{{Community of |
{{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} | ||
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organization}} | |||
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}} | {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}} | ||
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} | {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} | ||
{{Semitic-speaking nations}} | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Subject bar|Egypt|Africa|Asia|Middle East|Countries|auto=yes|voy=Egypt}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
{{Coord|26|N|30|E|dim:1000km_type:country_region:EG|format=dms|display=title}} | |||
<!--Categories--> | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
{{Link FA|ar}} | |||
] | |||
<!--Other languages--> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 04:39, 24 December 2024
Country in Northeast Africa and Southwest Asia For other uses, see Egypt (disambiguation).
Arab Republic of Egyptجمهورية مصر العربية (Arabic) Jumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʻArabiyyah | |
---|---|
Flag Coat of arms | |
Anthem:
| |
Capitaland largest city | Cairo 30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E / 30.033; 31.217 |
Official languages | Arabic |
National language | Egyptian Arabic |
Religion | See Religion in Egypt |
Demonym(s) | Egyptian |
Government | Unitary semi-presidential republic under an authoritarian regime |
• President | Abdel Fattah el-Sisi |
• Prime Minister | Mostafa Madbouly |
Legislature | Parliament |
• Upper house | Senate |
• Lower house | House of Representatives |
Establishment | |
• Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt | c. 3150 BC |
• Fall of Memphis | 343 BC |
• Arab conquest | 639–642 |
• Ayyubid dynasty & Mamluk Sultanate | 1171/4–1517 |
• Muhammad Ali dynasty inaugurated | 9 July 1805 |
• Independence from United Kingdom | 28 February 1922 |
• Revolution Day | 23 July 1952 |
• Republic declared | 18 June 1953 |
• Current constitution | 18 January 2014 |
Area | |
• Total | 1,010,408 km (390,121 sq mi) (30th) |
• Water (%) | 0.632 |
Population | |
• 2024 estimate | 107,304,000 (14th) |
• 2017 census | 94,798,827 |
• Density | 106.20/km (275.1/sq mi) (106th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $2.232 trillion (18th) |
• Per capita | $20,799 (87th) |
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $380.044 billion (42nd) |
• Per capita | $3,542 (132nd) |
Gini (2019) | 31.9 medium inequality |
HDI (2022) | 0.728 high (105th) |
Currency | Egyptian pound (LE/E£/£E) (EGP) |
Time zone | UTC+2 (EGY) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) |
Drives on | Right |
Calling code | +20 |
ISO 3166 code | EG |
Internet TLD |
Egypt (Arabic: مصر Miṣr [mesˁr], Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mɑsˤr]), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and the Sinai Peninsula in the southwest corner of Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip of Palestine and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt, while Alexandria, the second-largest city, is an important industrial and tourist hub at the Mediterranean coast. At approximately 110 million inhabitants, Egypt is the 14th-most populated country in the world, and the third-most populated in Africa.
Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the Nile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a cradle of civilisation, the Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, later adopting Islam from the seventh century onwards. Cairo became the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate in the tenth century, and of the provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517, before its local ruler Muhammad Ali established modern Egypt as an autonomous Khedivate in 1867.
The country was then occupied by the British Empire along with Sudan and gained independence in 1922 as a monarchy. Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt declared itself a republic. For a brief period between 1958 and 1961 Egypt merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic. Egypt fought several armed conflicts with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, and occupied the Gaza Strip intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, which recognised Israel in exchange for its withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After the Arab Spring, which led to the 2011 Egyptian revolution and overthrow of Hosni Mubarak, the country faced a protracted period of political unrest; this included the election in 2012 of a brief, short-lived Muslim Brotherhood-aligned Islamist government spearheaded by Mohamed Morsi, and its subsequent overthrow after mass protests in 2013.
The current government, a semi-presidential republic led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi since he was elected in 2014, has been described by a number of watchdogs as authoritarian and responsible for perpetuating the country's poor human rights record. Islam is the official religion and Arabic is official language. Egypt is considered to be a regional power in the Middle East, North Africa and the Muslim world, and a middle power worldwide. It is a developing country. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, World Youth Forum, and a member of BRICS.
Names
The English name "Egypt" is derived from the Ancient Greek "Aígyptos" ("Αἴγυπτος"), via Middle French "Egypte" and Latin "Aegyptus". It is reflected in early Greek Linear B tablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo". The adjective "aigýpti-"/"aigýptios" was borrowed into Coptic as "gyptios", and from there into Arabic as "qubṭī", back formed into "قبط" (qubṭ), whence English "Copt". Prominent Ancient Greek historian and Geographer, Strabo, provided a folk etymology stating that "Αἴγυπτος" (Aigýptios) had originally evolved as a compound from "Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως" (Aegaeou huptiōs), meaning "Below the Aegean".
"Miṣr" (Arabic pronunciation: [misˤɾ]; "مِصر") is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern official name of Egypt, while "Maṣr" (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mɑsˤɾ]; مَصر) is the local pronunciation in Egyptian Arabic. The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from the Ancient Semitic name for it. The term originally connoted "Civilization" or "Metropolis". Classical Arabic Miṣr (Egyptian Arabic Maṣr) is directly cognate with the Biblical Hebrew Miṣráyīm (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of Upper and Lower Egypt. Also mentioned in several Semitic languages as Mesru, Misir and Masar. The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru") related to miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier". The Neo-Assyrian Empire used the derived term , Mu-ṣur.
The ancient Egyptian name of the country was |
History
Main article: History of EgyptThis section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Misplaced Pages's inclusion policy. (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Prehistory and Ancient Egypt
Main articles: Prehistoric Egypt and Ancient EgyptThere is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BCE, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers was replaced by a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BCE began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralised society.
By about 6000 BCE, a Neolithic culture took root in the Nile Valley. During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.
A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BCE by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700–2200 BCE, which constructed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza pyramids.
The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.
The New Kingdom c. 1550–1070 BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.
In 525 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 to 402 BCE, save for Petubastis III, was an entirely Achaemenid-ruled period, with the Achaemenid emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Achaemenids marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Achaemenids.
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Achaemenids again in 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. This Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, however, did not last long, as the Achaemenids were toppled several decades later by Alexander the Great. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, founded the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt
Main articles: Ptolemaic Kingdom and Roman EgyptThe Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a centre of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.
The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony, after Octavian had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.
Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century. Diocletian's reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in CE 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.
Middle Ages (7th century – 1517)
Main article: Egypt in the Middle AgesThe Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Sasanid Persian invasion early in the 7th century amidst the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as Sasanian Egypt, until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and conquered by the Islamic caliphate by the Muslim Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought Islam to the country. Some time during this period, Egyptians began to blend in their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day. These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.
In 639 an army was sent in Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. They defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed.
The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called Fustat, which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the Arab caliphate, second only to Baghdad.
The Abbasid period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the Tulunid dynasty (868–905) and Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph.
Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Fatimid Caliphate. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies. The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.
Early modern period: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867)
Main article: Egypt EyaletEgypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions. The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade. Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines. The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population. Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. After the French were defeated by the British, a three-way power struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans.
After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. Muhammad Ali massacred the Mamluks and established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets. Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service. He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.
Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the corvée to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt. The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector. Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.
Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or Khedivate (1867–1914) in 1867. The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government." Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.
Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmed ʻUrabi a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at the Battle of Tell El Kebir and militarily occupying the country. Following this, the Khedivate became a de facto British protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty. In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only. In 1906, the Denshawai incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.
Sultanate and Kingdom of Egypt
Main articles: Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922) and Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953)In 1914 the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; Khedive Abbas II (who had grown increasingly hostile to the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power and replaced him with his brother Hussein Kamel. Hussein Kamel declared Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title of Sultan of Egypt. Shortly following independence, Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom.
After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922. Following independence from the United Kingdom, Sultan Fuad I assumed the title of King of Egypt; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state. The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the 1923–1924 election and Saad Zaghloul was appointed as the new prime minister. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question of Sudan, which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.
Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. The Egyptian army did no fighting. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as prime minister.
Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador Sir Miles Lampson, pressed Farouk to have a Wafd or Wafd-coalition government replace Hussein Sirri Pasha's government. On the night of 4 February 1942, British troops and tanks surrounded Abdeen Palace in Cairo and Lampson presented Farouk with an ultimatum. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter.
Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in the First Arab-Israeli War. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalist Wafd Party and the King was forced to appoint Mostafa El-Nahas as new prime minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal.
As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, General George Erskine sent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia. The police commander called the Interior Minister, Fouad Serageddin, Nahas's right-hand man, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight "to the last man and the last bullet". The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was "Black Saturday", as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced by Aly Maher Pasha.
On 22–23 July 1952, the Free Officers Movement, led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, launched a coup d'état (Egyptian Revolution of 1952) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his son Fouad II, who was, at the time, a seven-month-old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led by Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim was formed. The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of the Revolutionary Command Council, led by Naguib and Nasser. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in Kafr Dawar on 12 August 1952. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new prime minister.
Republican Egypt under Nasser (1952–1970)
Main articles: History of republican Egypt and History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel NasserFollowing the 1952 Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt passed to military hands and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years. Republic of Egypt (1953–1958) was declared.
Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – a Pan-Arabist and the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. After Naguib's resignation, the position of president was vacant until the election of Nasser in 1956. In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956. Nasser assumed power as president in June 1956 and began dominating the history of modern Egypt. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of the Second Arab-Israeli War (Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and the status quo was restored.
In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab States. In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the North Yemen Civil War. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff Mohamed Fawzi verified them as "baseless", Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. On 26 May Nasser declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".
This prompted the beginning of the Third Arab Israeli War (Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 war, an Emergency Law was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81. Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised. At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor. Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser. During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.
Egypt under Sadat and Mubarak (1971–2011)
Main articles: History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat and History of Egypt under Hosni MubarakIn 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. During his period, Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling the Soviet advisors in 1972. Egypt was renamed as Arab Republic of Egypt in 1971. Sadat launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the Fourth Arab-Israeli War (Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his programme of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries. Because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, it led to the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots. Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 Egypt-Israel peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. In return, Egypt recognised Israel as a legitimate sovereign state. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians. Sadat was assassinated by an Islamic extremist in October 1981.
Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate. He became another leader to dominate the Egyptian history. Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On 25 February 1986, the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.
In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian Copts, foreign tourists and government officials. In the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support. During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the National Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations. As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well. Cairo grew into a metropolitan area with a population of over 20 million.
On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred near Luxor. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the 1952 movement. However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory. Voter turnout was less than 25%. Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process. After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, the runner-up.
Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations under Mubarak's rule, including routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts. In 2007, Amnesty International released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report. Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring. In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".
Revolution, political crisis and transition (2011–Present)
Main articles: 2011 Egyptian revolution, 2011 Egyptian parliamentary election, Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014), 2012 Egyptian presidential election, 2013 Egyptian protests, 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, and 2014 Egyptian presidential election Top: celebrations in Tahrir Square after the announcement of Hosni Mubarak's resignation.Bottom: protests in Tahrir Square against President Morsi on 27 November 2012.
On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's Tahrir Square at the news. The Egyptian military then assumed the power to govern. Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, became the de facto interim head of state. On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.
A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.
Mohamed Morsi, who was affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, was elected president on 24 June 2012. On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's president. On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood. Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi. On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.
The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt. On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution. Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the December 2012 constitutional referendum. On 3 July 2013, after a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of Morsi's Muslim Brotherhood government, the military removed Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.
On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi. The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests. Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials. On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.
In the elections of June 2014 El-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%. On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president. Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai. In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by a landslide in election with no real opposition. In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for a third term in the next election in 2024.
Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition. The constitutional changes were accepted in a referendum in April 2019. In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watan (Nation's Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.
Geography
Main article: Geography of EgyptEgypt lies primarily between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and longitudes 25° and 35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi), it is the world's 30th-largest country. Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area. 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.
Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. A transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few oases scattered about. Winds create prolific sand dunes that peak at more than 30 metres (100 ft) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and of the Libyan Desert.
Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt, Mount Catherine at 2,642 metres. The Red Sea Riviera, on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life.
Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; El Mahalla El Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga; Port Said; Sharm El Sheikh; Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Minya. Oases include Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.
On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.
Climate
Main article: Climate of EgyptMost of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months. South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in), mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim and Sidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades. Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The Khamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.
Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.
The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of EgyptEgypt signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998. Where many CBD National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher. For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.
Government
Main article: Politics of EgyptThe House of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. Elections were held between November 2011 and January 2012, which were later dissolved.
After a wave of public discontent with the autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi, on 3 July 2013 then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the constitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution, which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.
The next parliamentary election was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015. Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date. The 2014 Egyptian presidential election took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.
In 2024, as part of its Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), and civil liberties at 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free". According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Egypt is the eighth least democratic country in Africa. The 2023 edition of The Economist Democracy Index categorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.
Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century. The ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.
Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world. The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.
Military and foreign relations
Main articles: Egyptian Armed Forces and Foreign relations of EgyptThe military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "deep state".
Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1 in addition to EgyptSat 2 launched on 16 April 2014.
Top: Former President Hosni Mubarak with former US President George W. Bush at Camp David in 2002.Bottom: President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi and Russian President Vladimir Putin in Sochi, August 2014.
The United States provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion. In 1989, Egypt was designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the July 2013 overthrow of Islamist president Mohamed Morsi, with the Obama administration denouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries. There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the fight against regional and international terrorism. However, following the election of Republican Donald Trump as the President of the United States, the two countries were looking to improve the Egyptian-American relations. On 3 April 2017 al-Sisi met with Trump at the White House, marking the first visit of an Egyptian president to Washington in 8 years. Trump praised al-Sisi in what was reported as a public relations victory for the Egyptian president, and signaled it was time for a normalisation of the relations between Egypt and the US.
Relations with Russia have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi's removal and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military and trade ties among other aspects of bilateral co-operation. Relations with China have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".
The permanent headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the overthrow of Morsi.
Following the 1973 war and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians. Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the peace process. Egypt's ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in Gaza have hardly been challenged following Israel's evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the Hamas government in Gaza following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi, and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.
Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including Iran and Turkey, have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and Iran's rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf. Turkey's recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in Libya also made both countries bitter regional rivals.
Egypt is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted "harsh, sometimes lethal" methods of border control.
Law
Main article: Egyptian Civil CodeThe legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.
Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice. The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.
On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation. It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.
The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law." The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.
On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution. The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms. The parliament may impeach the president. Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought. The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect. Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Egypt See also: Sudanese refugees in Egypt, August 2013 Rabaa massacre, and Persecution of CoptsIn 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights. Shortly after its foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.
The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom. The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government. According to a 2010 Pew Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the death penalty for those who leave Islam; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.
Coptic Christians face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from underrepresentation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches. Intolerance towards followers of the Baháʼí Faith, and those of the non-orthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis, Shi'a and Ahmadis, also remains a problem. When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Baháʼís, could not obtain identification documents. An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.
Clashes continued between police and supporters of former president Mohamed Morsi. During violent clashes that ensued as part of the August 2013 sit-in dispersal, 595 protesters were killed with 14 August 2013 becoming the single deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.
Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations. The United Nations human rights office and various NGOs expressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former president Mohamed Morsi were to be executed for their alleged role in violence following his removal in July 2013. The judgement was condemned as a violation of international law. By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count, according to The Economist), mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after Morsi's removal after the Muslim Brotherhood was labelled as terrorist organisation by the post-Morsi interim Egyptian government. According to human rights groups there are some 60,000 political prisoners in Egypt.
Homosexuality is illegal in Egypt. According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 95% of Egyptians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.
In 2017, Cairo was voted the most dangerous megacity for women with more than 10 million inhabitants in a poll by Thomson Reuters Foundation. Sexual harassment was described as occurring on a daily basis.
Freedom of the press
Reporters Without Borders ranked Egypt in their 2017 World Press Freedom Index at No. 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of August 2015. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense".
Some critics of the government have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Subdivisions of EgyptEgypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.
Economy
Main article: Economy of EgyptEgypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, natural gas, and tourism. There are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Libya, Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honoured place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy. A diversified economy, which is the second largest in Africa, the 42nd-largest economy by nominal GDP and 132nd by nominal GDP per capita.
The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received United States foreign aid since 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.
In recent years, the Egyptian army has expanded its economic influence, dominating sectors such as petrol stations, fish-farming, car manufacturing, media, infrastructure including roads and bridges, and cement production. This hold on various industries has resulted in a suppression of competition, deterring private investment, and leading to adverse effects for ordinary Egyptians, including slower growth, higher prices, and limited opportunities. The military-owned National Service Products Organization (NSPO) continues its expansion by establishing new factories dedicated to producing fertilisers, irrigation equipment, and veterinary vaccines. Businesses operated by the military, such as Wataniya and Safi, which manage petrol stations and bottled water, respectively, remain under government ownership. In 2022, the Egyptian economy entered an ongoing crisis, the Egyptian pound was one of the worst performing currencies, inflation. reached 32.6% and core inflation reached nearly 40% in March.
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by 2006.
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth. The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat in 2006. In the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.
An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment. Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.
Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35–40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in EgyptTourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce. Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.
The Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over 3,000 kilometres (1,900 miles), are also popular tourist destinations; the Gulf of Aqaba beaches, Safaga, Sharm el-Sheikh, Hurghada, Luxor, Dahab, Ras Sidr and Marsa Alam are popular sites.
Energy
Main article: Energy in EgyptEgypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 2,180 cubic kilometres (520 cu mi), and LNG up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.
Egypt produced 691,000 bbl/d of oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas in 2013, making the country the largest non-OPEC producer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in 2012).
Egypt is currently building its first nuclear power plant in El Dabaa, in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.
Transport
Main article: Transport in EgyptTransport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 40,800-kilometre (25,400 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 34,000 km (21,000 mi), consisting of 28 lines, 796 stations, 1800 trains covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.
The Cairo Metro consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future. EgyptAir, which is now the country's flag carrier and largest airline, was founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialist Talaat Harb, today owned by the Egyptian government. The airline is based at Cairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The Current EgyptAir fleet includes 80 aeroplanes.
The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 kilometres (1+7⁄8 miles) from the half-way point.
The canal is 193.30 km (120+1⁄8 mi) long, 24 metres (79 feet) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide as of 2010. It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25 km (100+7⁄8 mi) and the southern access channel of 9 km (5+1⁄2 mi). The canal is a single lane with passing places in the Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a New Suez Canal. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015. The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.
Water supply and sanitation
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in EgyptThe piped water supply in Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination of open defecation in rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to an improved water source in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers.
Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of diarrhoea. Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.
Due to the absence of appreciable rainfall, Egypt's agriculture depends entirely on irrigation. The main source of irrigation water is the river Nile of which the flow is controlled by the high dam at Aswan. It releases, on average, 55 cubic kilometres (45,000,000 acre·ft) water per year, of which some 46 cubic kilometres (37,000,000 acre·ft) are diverted into the irrigation canals.
In the Nile valley and delta, almost 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi) of land benefit from these irrigation waters producing on average 1.8 crops per year.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and EgyptiansEgypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on the African continent, with about 95 million inhabitants as of 2017. Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to medical advances and increases in agricultural productivity enabled by the Green Revolution. Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the fellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes only 77,041 km², putting the physiological density at over 1,200 people per km, similar to Bangladesh.
While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the Arab Cold War. Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis. An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy). The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.
Ethnic groups
Ethnic Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population. Ethnic minorities include the Abazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal Beja communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.
Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly Sudanese, "some of whom have lived in Egypt for generations". Smaller numbers of immigrants come from Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that the total number of "people of concern" (refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registered Syrian refugees in Egypt was 117,000, a decrease from the previous year. Egyptian government claims that a half-million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated. There are 28,000 registered Sudanese refugees in Egypt.
Jewish communities in Egypt have almost disappeared. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.
Languages
Main article: Languages of EgyptThe official language of Egypt is Literary Arabic. The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic (68%), Sa'idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%), Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others. Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian, and more recently, African languages like Amharic and Tigrigna are the main languages of immigrants.
The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.
Historically Egyptian was spoken, the latest stage of which is Coptic Egyptian. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It forms a separate branch among the family of Afroasiatic languages.
Religion
Main article: Religion in EgyptIslam is the state religion of Egypt, and the country has the largest Muslim population in the Arab world and the world's sixth largest Muslim population, accounting for five percent of all Muslims worldwide. Egypt also has the largest Christian population in the Middle East and North Africa. Official data about religion is lacking due to social and political sensitivities. An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% as Coptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian denominations; other estimates place the Christian population as high as 15–20%.
Egypt was an early and leading center of Christianity into late antiquity; the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria was founded in the first century and remains the largest church in the country. With the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country. It is unknown when Muslims reached a majority, variously estimated from c. 1000 CE to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat, Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.
The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere to the Sunni branch of Islam. Nondenominational Muslims form roughly 12% of the population. There is also a Shi'a minority. The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million and could measure as much as 3 million. The Ahmadiyya population is estimated at less than 50,000, whereas the Salafi (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets". The city also hosts Al-Azhar University, which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence; founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world. It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufi orders, with Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order. At least 305 people were killed during a November 2017 attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.
Of the Christian population in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the Syro-Lebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite Catholic denominations.
The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the small Baháʼí Faith and Ahmadiyya communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security. Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability, and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.
Education
Main article: Education in EgyptIn 2022, Egypt's adult literacy rate was 74.5%, compared to 71.1% in 2017. Literacy is lowest among those over 60 years of age, at 35.1%, and highest among youth between 15 and 24 years of age, at 92.2%.
A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers. Under British occupation, investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.
In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians. The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers. Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate. Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.
Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six. After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the Thanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.
Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.
Cairo University is Egypt's premier public university. The country is currently opening new research institutes with the aim of modernising scientific research and development; the most recent example is Zewail City of Science and Technology. Egypt was ranked 86th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
Health
Main article: Health in EgyptThis section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2024) |
Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state. In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.
As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt's healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and immunisation programmes are now able to cover 98% of the population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101–132/1000 live births, in 2000 the rate was 50–60/1000, and in 2008 it was 28–30/1000).
According to the World Health Organization in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to genital mutilation, despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years. Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.
The total number of Egyptians with health insurance reached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors, providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt's population.
Largest cities
See also: List of cities and towns in Egypt Largest cities or towns in Egypt 2023 estimate | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Governorate | Pop. | Rank | Name | Governorate | Pop. | ||
Cairo Alexandria |
1 | Cairo | Cairo | 9,801,536 | 11 | Faiyum | Faiyum | 531,861 | Giza Shubra El Kheima |
2 | Alexandria | Alexandria | 5,362,517 | 12 | Khusus | Qalyubia | 502,864 | ||
3 | Giza | Giza | 4,458,135 | 13 | Zagazig | Sharqia | 460,501 | ||
4 | Shubra El Kheima | Qalyubia | 1,275,700 | 14 | Ismailia | Ismailia | 450,388 | ||
5 | Port Said | Port Said | 791,749 | 15 | Aswan | Aswan | 401,890 | ||
6 | Suez | Suez | 716,458 | 16 | 6 October | Giza | 376,302 | ||
7 | Mansoura | Dakahlia | 632,330 | 17 | Damanhur | Beheira | 329,572 | ||
8 | El Mahalla El Kubra | Gharbia | 614,202 | 18 | New Cairo | Cairo | 319,488 | ||
9 | Tanta | Gharbia | 597,694 | 19 | Damietta | Damietta | 312,863 | ||
10 | Asyut | Asyut | 562,061 | 20 | Minya | Minya | 298,021 |
Culture
Main article: Culture of EgyptEgypt is a recognised cultural trendsetter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.
Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate Islam, Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic which is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.
The work of early 19th century scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.
Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.
Arts
See also: Architecture of EgyptThe Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and architecture. Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate, is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal pyramids, temples and monumental tombs.
Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.
Literature
Main article: Egyptian literatureEgyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book. It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Arab world. The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition.
Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.
Media
Main article: Media of EgyptEgyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control. Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of EgyptEgyptian cinema became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, Studio Misr, financed by industrialist Talaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades. For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production. Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the Arab world. Actors from all over the Arab world seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. The Cairo International Film Festival has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.
The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of talking films, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962, and reached 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995 due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres, until their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009. Over a period of more than a hundred years, Egyptian cinema has presented more than four thousand films.
Music
Main article: Music of EgyptEgyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since antiquity. The ancient Egyptians credited one of their gods Hathor with the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.
Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu al-Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir.
Dances
Today, Egypt is often considered the home of belly dance. Egyptian belly dance has two main styles – raqs baladi and raqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with raqs baladi.
Museums
Main article: List of museums in EgyptEgypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. At least 60 museums may be found in Egypt.
The three main museums in Egypt are The Egyptian Museum which has more than 120,000 items, the Egyptian National Military Museum and the 6th of October Panorama.
The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum. The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.
Festivals
Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion.
The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.
Cuisine
Main article: Egyptian cuisineEgyptian cuisine relies heavily on legume and vegetable dishes. Although food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed.
Some consider kushari (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the national dish. In addition, ful medames (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making falafel (also known as "ta'miya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to molokhiya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit.
Sports
Football is the most popular national sport of Egypt. The Cairo Derby is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world. Al Ahly is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals Zamalek SC. They are known as the "African Club of the Century". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's A.C. Milan and Argentina's Boca Juniors, both having eighteen.
The Egyptian national football team, known as the Pharaohs, won the African Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the FIFA World Cup three times. Two goals from star player Mohamed Salah in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the 2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the 1928 and the 1964 Olympics.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana, Ali Farag and Ramy Ashour are Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in 2019.
In 1999, Egypt hosted the IHF World Men's Handball Championship, and hosted it again in 2021. In 2001, the national handball team achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the African Men's Handball Championship five times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed the Mediterranean Games in 2013, the Beach Handball World Championships in 2004 and the Summer Youth Olympics in 2010. Among all African nations, the Egypt national basketball team holds the record for best performance at the Basketball World Cup and at the Summer Olympics. Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the African Championship.
Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912 and has hosted several other international competitions including the first Mediterranean Games in 1951, the 1991 All-Africa Games, the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup and the 1953, 1965 and 2007 editions of the Pan Arab Games.
Egypt featured a national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup in both the women's and the men's section.
See also
Notes
- Literary Arabic is the sole official language. Egyptian Arabic is the spoken language. Other dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally.
- While Islam is the majority and official religion of the country, the size of the country's historic Christian minority is highly controversial and disputed by various entities and groups. Estimates range from as low as 5% to as high as 20%. Since 2006, religion has been omitted from censuses after widespread claims that the figures had been distorted.
- See Daylight saving time in Egypt.
- The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian, though estimates vary. Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population, at 94.6%. In 2017, the government-owned newspaper Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.
References
- ^ "Constitution of The Arab Republic of Egypt 2014" (PDF). sis.gov.eg. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
- "Constitutional Declaration: A New Stage in the History of the Great Egyptian People". Egypt State Information Service. 30 March 2011. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- "How many Christians are there in Egypt?". Pew Research Center. 16 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ^ Alhram Online (19 November 2017). "Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo". Al Ahram. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
- "Egyptian Copts reject population estimate – Politics". english.ahram.org.eg. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
- Truex, Rory; Tavana, Daniel L. (July 2019). "Implicit Attitudes toward an Authoritarian Regime". The Journal of Politics. 81 (3): 1014–1027. doi:10.1086/703209. ISSN 0022-3816. S2CID 203513334.
- Cambanis, Thanassis (22 May 2015). "Egypt's Sisi Is Getting Pretty Good … at Being a Dictator". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
- "Egypt: A Move to Enhance Authoritarian Rule". Human Rights Watch. 2019. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
- Raghavan, Sudarsan (9 July 2020). "Egypt tries to silence its critics in the United States by jailing their relatives". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
- Al-Arian, Abdullah (27 February 2020). "Hosni Mubarak's legacy is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- Goldschmidt, Arthur (1988). Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-86531-182-4. Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity.
- "Background Note: Egypt". United States Department of State Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. 10 November 2010. Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- Pierre Crabitès (1935). Ibrahim of Egypt. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-81121-7. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
... on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo ...
- "Density By Governorate 1/7/2020 – Area km2 (Theme: Population – pg.14)". Capmas.gov.eg. Archived from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
- "Total area km2, pg.15" (PDF). Capmas.Gov – Arab Republic of Egypt. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
- ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
- "الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء" (PDF). www.capmas.gov.eg. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
- "Gini Index coefficient". The World Factbook. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
- "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- Map, Egypt's Projects. "محافظة الأسكندرية". www.egy-map.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
- Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
- "Lessons from/for BRICSAM about south–north Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?". International Studies Review. 9.
- Breyer, Fr. A. K. "Morgenländische Wörter im Deutschen: Die ägyptischen Lehnwörter Archived 9 April 2024 at the Wayback Machine". In: W. Raunig/St. Wenig. Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internatio-nalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München. Meroitica 22. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005. p. 381. ISBN 9783447051750.
- Åke Engsheden (2018), "An etymological safari to Aigyptos", Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 47: 1–30, JSTOR 26863322, retrieved 31 July 2024
- Z., T. (1928). "Il-Belt (Valletta)" (PDF). Il-Malti (in Maltese). 2 (1) (2 ed.). Il-Ghaqda tal-Kittieba tal-Malti: 35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2016.
- ^ Dallmayr, Fred; Akif Kayapınar, M.; Yaylacı, İsmail (24 September 2014), Civilizations and World Order, Lexington Books, ISBN 9780739186077, retrieved 31 July 2024
- The ending of the Hebrew form is either a dual or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps a locative), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" ("מַיִם"), "noon" ("צָהֳרַיִם"), "sky/heaven" ("שָׁמַיִם"), and in the qere – but not the original "ketiv" – of "Jerusalem" ("ירושלם"). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the -áyim in "Mitzráyim" actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. See inter alia Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.) These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics, Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), Avi Hurvitz (A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew: Linguistic Innovations in the Writings of the Second Temple Period (Brill, 2014), p. 128) and Nadav Na'aman ("Shaaraim – The Gateway to the Kingdom of Judah" in The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Vol. 8 (2008), article no. 24 Archived 17 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 2–3).
- Izre', Shlomo. "On the So-Called Ventive Morpheme in the Akkadian Texts of Amurru". www.academia.edu: 84. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Black, Jeremy A.; George, Andrew; Postgate, J.N. (2000). A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04264-2.
- As in inscriptions such as the Rassam cylinder of Ashurbanipal. For transcription, the word being written Mu-s,ur Archived 13 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Rosalie, David (1997). Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce. Routledge. p. 18.
- Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār (1990). Ancient Civilizations of Africa. Currey. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-85255-092-2. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
- Antonio Loprieno, "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", in Phonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus). Vol 1 of 2. Ed: Alan S Kaye. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997: p. 449
- "Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Χ χ, χεσι^φωνέω, Χημία". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- "A Brief History of Alchemy". University of Bristol School of Chemistry. Archived from the original on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- Breasted, James Henry; Peter A. Piccione (2001). Ancient Records of Egypt. University of Illinois Press. pp. 76, 40. ISBN 978-0-252-06975-8.
- Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
- "The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BCE Neolithic". The British Museum. 2005. Archived from the original on 14 February 2009. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-19-280458-8.
- "The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom". BBC. 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- "The Kushite Conquest of Egypt". Ancientsudan.org. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 383. ISBN 0-19-280458-8.
- Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: A Sourcebook. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0806137414.
They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.
- Bowman, Alan K (1996). Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-520-20531-6.
- Stanwick, Paul Edmond (2003). Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77772-8.
- ^ "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 20 December 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2011. See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"
- Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39
- El-Daly, Okasha (2005). Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press. p. 140.
- ^ Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (1991) . "The Mideast Heartland". Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-0-19-506774-3.
- "Egypt – Major Cities". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- Donald Quataert (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-139-44591-7. Archived from the original on 13 February 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- "Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows". ScienceDaily. 22 November 2006. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- ^ Izzeddin, Nejla M. Abu (1981). Nasser of the Arabs: an Arab assessment. Third World Centre for Research and Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-86199-012-2.
- ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
- Fahmy, Khaled (1997). All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the making of modern Egypt. Cambridge Middle East Studies. Vol. 8. Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–147. ISBN 978-0-521-56007-8. Archived from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
- Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 220, Figure 7.4 "Numeracy in selected Middle Eastern countries", based on Prayon and Baten (2013). ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
- Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, p. 2.
- Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. pp. 217, 224 Figure 7.6: "Height development in the Middle East and the world (male)" and 225. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
- Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p. 11.
- De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Metuchen, NJ; 1984; Scarecrow. p. 17.
- Jankowski, James. Egypt, A Short History. p. 111.
- "Treaty of Lausanne – World War I Document Archive". wwi.lib.byu.edu. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
- Jankowski, James. Egypt, A Short History. p. 112.
- Collins, Robert O.; Collins, Professor of History Robert O. (29 May 2008). A History of Modern Sudan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85820-5. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 10 November 2020.
- ^ "Egypt". The World Factbook. CIA. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "ذاكرة مصر المعاصر – السيرة الذاتية". modernegypt.bibalex.org. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
- Orkaby, Asher Aviad. (2014). "The International History of the Yemen Civil War, 1962-1968" (PDF). Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2023. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
- Aburish, Said K. (2004). Nasser, the Last Arab. New York City: St. Martin's Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-312-28683-5.
- Kandil, Hazem (2012). Soldiers, Spies and Statesmen: Egypt's Road to Revolt. Brooklyn: Verso Books. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-84467-962-1.
- Shlaim, Rogan, 2012 pp. 7, 106
- Samir A. Mutawi (2002). Jordan in the 1967 War. Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-521-52858-0. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- "The Emergency Law in Egypt". International Federation for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- "Egypt – Emergency Law No. 162/1958". www.ilo.org. Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 120
- Jesse Ferris (2013). Nasser's Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power. Princeton University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-691-15514-2. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
- Amin, Galal. Egypt's Economic Predicament: A Study in the Interaction of External Pressure, Political Folly, and Social Tension in Egypt, 1960–1990, 1995
- Vatikiotis, P.J. (1991). The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4. ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 443. ISBN 978-0-297-82034-5.
- ^ Cambanis, Thanassis (11 September 2010). "Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt". The New York Times. Egypt. Archived from the original on 27 October 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- Middle East International No 270, 7 March 1986, Publishers Lord Mayhew, Dennis Walters. Simon Ingram p. 8, Per Gahrton p.20
- Murphy, Caryle Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Scribner, 2002, p. 4
- "Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) ... concerns over tourism's future Archived 24 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press. p. . ISBN 978-0-674-01090-1. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- "Evaluating Egyptian REfoRm" (PDF). Carnegie P a P e R S.
- Dunne, Michele (January 2006). "Evaluating Egyptian Reform". Carnegie Papers: Middle East Series (66): 4.
- "Mubarak throws presidential race wide open". Business Today Egypt. 10 March 2005. Archived from the original on 10 March 2005. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections". Weeklystandard.com. 27 March 2006. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- Gomez, Edward M (12 September 2005). "Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 15 September 2005. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Egyptian vote marred by violence". Christian Science Monitor. 26 May 2005. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour". U.S. Department of State. 24 December 2005. Archived from the original on 21 October 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- ^ "Egypt: Events of 2005". Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. Human Rights Watch. 5 January 2006. Archived from the original on 14 November 2008. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Egypt torture centre, report says". BBC News. 11 April 2007. Archived from the original on 26 November 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- "Egypt rejects torture criticism". BBC News. 13 April 2007. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- "Anger over Egypt vote timetable". BBC News. 20 March 2007. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- "Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control". Huffington Post. 11 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 March 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (11 February 2010). "Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- "Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader". BBC. 11 February 2010. Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- Hope, Christopher; Swinford, Steven (15 February 2011). "WikiLeaks: Egypt's new man at the top 'was against reform'". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- "The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Constitutional Proclamation". Egypt State Information Service. 13 February 2011. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
The Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces shall represent it internally and externally.
- "Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended". BBC. 13 February 2011. Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
- Harris, Marty. "The Egyptian constitutional referendum of March 2011 a new beginning". www.aph.gov.au. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
- Memmott, Mark (28 November 2011). "Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections". NPR. Npr.org. Archived from the original on 2 December 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Egypt's new president moves into his offices, begins choosing a Cabinet". CNN. 25 June 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
- "Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
- "Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post". 3 August 2012.
- "Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers". Associated Press. 23 November 2012. Archived from the original on 29 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- "Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers". BBC News. 22 November 2012. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- Spencer, Richard (23 November 2012). "Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- "Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution". Wall Street Journal. 6 December 2012. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
- Fleishman, Jeffrey (6 December 2012). "Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
- ^ "Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood". Al-Monitor. 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
- Kirkpatrick, David D. (3 July 2013). "Army Ousts Egypt's President; Morsi Denounces 'Military Coup'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- Holpuch, Amanda; Siddique, Haroon; Weaver, Matthew (4 July 2013). "Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
- "Egypt protests: Hundreds killed after police storm pro-Morsi camps". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 15 August 2013. Archived from the original on 4 August 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- "Abuse claims rife as Egypt admits jailing 16,000 Islamists in eight months". The Independent. 16 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 September 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- "Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissidents". The Washington Post. 28 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 June 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- "Egyptian court sentences 529 people to death". The Washington Post. 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 August 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- "Egyptian court sentences Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison". Reuters. 4 July 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- "Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'". Al Jazeera English. 18 January 2014. Archived from the original on 19 January 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
- "Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote". the Guardian. 18 January 2014. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
- "El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91%". English.Ahram.org. Ahram Online. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
- "Egypt's Sisi sworn in as president". the Guardian. 8 June 2014.
- "Egypt's War against the Gaza Tunnels". Israel Defense. 4 February 2018.
- "Egypt's Sisi wins 97 percent in election with no real opposition". Reuters. 2 April 2018.
- "Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years". www.aa.com.tr.
- Mehmood, Ashna (31 March 2021). "Egypt's Return to Authoritarianism". Modern Diplomacy.
- "Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims". the Guardian. 23 April 2019.
- "Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls". Reuters. 14 December 2020.
- "World Factbook area rank order". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- Fouberg, Erin H.; Murphy, Alexander B.; de Blij (2009). Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture. John Wiley & Sons. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-470-57647-2. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
- "Egypt to build new administrative and business capital". BBC News. 13 March 2015. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
- Soliman, KH. Rainfall over Egypt. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, p. 104.
- "Marsa Matruh, Egypt". Weatherbase.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- Samenow, Jason (13 December 2013). "Biblical snowstorm: Rare flakes in Cairo, Jerusalem paralyzed by over a foot". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
- "Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt | IRIN News, March 2008". Irinnews.org. 12 March 2008. Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- El Deeb and Keath, Sarah and Lee. "Islamist claims victory in Egypt president vote". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- "List of Parties". Archived from the original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
- "Egypt: National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- "The Micheli Guide to Fungal Conservation". Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- A.M. Abdel-Azeem, The History, Fungal Biodiversity, Conservation, and Future Perspectives for Mycology in Egypt IMA Fungus 1 (2): 123–142 (2010).
- Ibrahim, Kamal M.; Hosni, Hasnaa A.; Peterson, Paul M. (2016). Grasses of Egypt. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
- "Who's Who: Members of Egypt's 50-member constitution committee". Al-Ahram. Archived from the original on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
- "Timetable for Egypt's parliamentary elections announced; voting to start 17 Oct". Ahram Online. 30 August 2015. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
- "Egypt to Hold Presidential Polls First: Interim President". Ahram Online. 26 January 2014. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
- "El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91%". English.Ahram.org. Ahram Online. Archived from the original on 31 July 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014.
- "Egypt". Freedom in the World 2024. Freedom House. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
- V-Dem Institute (2023). "The V-Dem Dataset". Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
- "Democracy Index 2023: Age of conflict" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2024. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
- Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244–45
- Dawisha, Adeed (2003). Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 264–265, 267.
- ^ Brown, Nathan J. "Mechanisms of Accountability in Arab Governance: The Present and Future of Judiciaries and Parliaments in the Arab World". Programme on Governance in the Arab Region. Archived from the original on 5 June 2012.
- Cambanis, Thanassis (11 September 2010). "Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- Marshall, Shana (15 April 2015). "The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
- Katz, Yaacov (15 January 2007). "Egypt to launch first spy satellite". The Jerusalem Post.
- Stephen Clark (16 April 2014). "Egyptian reconnaissance satellite launched by Soyuz". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
- "Obama restores US military aid to Egypt over Islamic State concerns". The Guardian. 31 March 2015. Archived from the original on 14 December 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- "The U.S. gives Egypt $1.5 billion a year in aid. Here's what it does". The Washington Post. 9 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
- Sharp, Jeremy M. (5 June 2014). "Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- Holland, Steve; Mason, Jeff (15 August 2013). "Obama cancels military exercises, condemns violence in Egypt". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 October 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- Iqbal, Jawad (7 May 2015). "Business as usual for Egypt and the West". BBC. Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
- "Egypt 'has key role' in fight against Islamic State – Kerry". BBC. 13 September 2014. Archived from the original on 4 October 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
- Adler, Stephen; Mably, Richard (15 May 2014). "Exclusive: Egypt's Sisi asks for U.S. help in fighting terrorism". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
- Baker, Peter; Walsh, Declan (3 April 2017). "Trump Shifts Course on Egypt, Praising Its Authoritarian Leader". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- Naumkin, Vitaly (13 August 2014). "Russia, Egypt draw closer". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 17 August 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- "Russia, Egypt seal preliminary arms deal worth $3.5 billion: agency". Reuters. 17 September 2014. Archived from the original on 14 October 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- Anishchuk, Alexei (12 August 2014). "Russia to boost trade with Egypt after Western food ban". Yahoo News. Archived from the original on 14 October 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- "China's Egypt Opportunity Archived 27 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine". The Diplomat. 24 December 2014
- Wilson, Nigel (13 October 2014). "Saudi Arabia and UAE to Prop Up Egypt With $5bn Aid Boost". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
- Knickmeyer, Ellen (18 August 2013). "Saudi King Offers Support to Egyptian Military". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 11 April 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
- "Saudi King Abdullah visits Egypt's Sisi Archived 7 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine". Al-Jazeera. 20 June 2014.
- "Massive Israel protests hit universities" (Egyptian Mail, 16 March 2010) "According to most Egyptians, almost 31 years after a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel, having normal ties between the two countries is still a potent accusation and Israel is largely considered to be an enemy country"
- Maddy-Weitzmann, Bruce (1997). Middle East Contemporary Survey: 1995, Volume 19; Volume 1995. Moshe Dayan Center. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-8133-3411-0.
- "This time, Gaza fighting is 'proxy war' for entire Mideast Archived 16 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine". CNN News. 1 August 2014.
- Hanna, Michael W. (13 August 2014). "The Sisi Doctrine". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- Shama, Nael (2013). Egyptian Foreign Policy: Against the National Interest. Routledge. pp. 129–131.
- Cagaptay, Soner; Sievers, Marc (8 March 2015). "Turkey and Egypt's Great Game in the Middle East". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 23 June 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
- Soussi, Alasdair (9 November 2008). "Desperate on the Border". Jerusalem Report. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
- "Incorporating Sharia into legal systems". BBC News. 8 February 2008. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- "Egypt Gender Equality Profile" (PDF). UNICEF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
- "Egyptian constitution 'approved' in referendum". BBC News. 23 December 2012. Archived from the original on 23 December 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
- "Legislation Egypt". Lexadin.nl. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "7 Egyptian Christians, Florida pastor sentenced to death for anti-Islam film". Fox News. 28 November 2012. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- ^ BBC (18 January 2014). "BBC News – Egypt referendum: '98% back new constitution'". BBC Online. Archived from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
- "Law No. 94 of 2003 Promulgating The National Council for Human Rights". Nchregypt.org. 16 February 2010. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs". EOHR. 3 June 2003. Archived from the original on 1 July 2003. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree". ANHRI. Archived from the original on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Religion: Few States Enjoy Freedom of Faith, Report Says". Ipsnews.net. 17 December 2009. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Global Restrictions on Religion" (PDF). Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. 17 December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "USCIRF Watch List – USCIRF". Uscirf.gov. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- "Muslim Publics Divided on Hamas and Hezbollah". Pew Global Attitudes Project. 2 December 2010. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam – Rising Islamic Extremism Is Putting Pressure on Christians in Muslim Nations". Abcnews.go.com. 1 March 2010. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt, International Religious Freedom Report 2008". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 19 September 2008. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
- ^ Johnston, Cynthia (29 January 2008). "Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2008.
- Mohsen, Manar (16 August 2013). "Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638". Daily News Egypt. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
- "Memory of a Mass Killing Becomes Another Casualty of Egyptian Protests Archived 25 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine". The New York Times. 13 November 2013.
- ^ "Egypt: More than 500 sentenced to death in 'grotesque' ruling – Amnesty International". amnesty.org. 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014.
- Cumming-Bruce, Nick (25 March 2014). "U.N. Expresses Alarm Over Egyptian Death Sentences". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
- "Egypt: Shocking Death Sentences Follow Sham Trial – Human Rights Watch". hrw.org. 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 12 January 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
- "Egyptian court sentences nearly 530 to death". Washington Post. 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014.
- A coronation flop: President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi fails to bring enough voters to the ballot box Archived 5 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, economist.com.
- "Egypt sentences to death 529 supporters of Mohamed Morsi Archived 25 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine". The Guardian. 24 March 2014.
- "Egypt's interim Cabinet officially labels Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group". CNN. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
- "My brother is one of Egypt's 60,000 political prisoners – and Trump is happy to let him rot in jail". The Independent. 17 January 2020. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- "No political prisoners freed as Egypt pardons thousands on Eid". Al-Jazeera. 24 May 2020. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- "Alaa Abdel Fattah: Leading Egyptian activist jailed for five years". BBC News. 20 December 2021.
- "Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death". The Washington Post. 16 June 2016. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
- "The Global Divide on Homosexuality." Archived 3 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine pewglobal. 4 June 2013. 4 June 2013.
- "The world's most dangerous megacities for women 2017". poll2017.trust.org. Thomson Reuters Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
- Gehlen, M. (2015) Al-Dschasira-Journalisten zu drei Jahren Haft verurteilt Archived 30 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Zeit Online, 29 August 2015
- "Reporting on the coronavirus: Egypt muzzles critical journalists". Deutsche Welle. 3 April 2020. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- "Egypt is more concerned with controlling information than containing the coronavirus". The Globe and Mail. 3 April 2020. Archived from the original on 9 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- Pierre Beckouche (2017). Europe's Mediterranean Neighbourhood. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-78643-149-3.
- Egypt Country Profile Archived 1 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Undp.org.eg (11 February 2011). Retrieved 29 July 2013.
- "To save Egypt's economy, get the army out of it". The Economist. 26 January 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 24 January 2024. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
- "Egypt's army seems to want to make pasta as well as war". The Economist. 13 April 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
- Shan, Lee Ying (5 April 2023). "Egypt's pound is among the worst performing currencies in 2023. And it's expected to plummet further". CNBC. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- "Egypt's annual core inflation records 39.5% in March 2023: CBE - Dailynewsegypt". 11 April 2023. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- Enders, Klaus. "Egypt: Reforms Trigger Economic Growth". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
In its most recent review of Egypt's economy, the IMF has said the expansion has broadened from energy, construction, and telecommunications to labor-intensive sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing.
- "IRIN Middle East | Egypt: Corruption hampering development, says opposition report | Breaking News". Irinnews.org. 5 July 2006. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Rania Al Malky. "et — Full Story". Egypttoday.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Fatima El Saadani (August 2006). "Etisalat Wins Third License". Business Today. Archived from the original on 20 August 2006. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- "Egypt ranks 114th on corruption scale". 3 December 2013. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
- ^ "Migration and Development in Egypt: Facts and Figures" (PDF). International Organization for Migration. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- Saifur Rahman (April 2013). "Global remittance flow grows 10.77% to $514 billion in 2012: World Bank". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 23 April 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
- Lauren E. Bohn; Sarah Lynch (8 February 2011). "Egypt Over the Brink, interview with Tarek Osman". Foreignpolicy.com. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- Dziadosz, Alexander (20 October 2009). "Egypt tourism numbers to fall less than feared". Reuters Africa. Archived from the original on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- Farouk, Dalia (27 December 2012). "Egypt tourism shows little recovery in 2012". Ahram Online. Archived from the original on 13 July 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
- ^ "Egypt". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
- "Egypt to reduce natural gas exports to avoid energy crisis". AMEinfo.com. Archived from the original on 3 August 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- "Russia to lend Egypt $25 billion to build nuclear power plant". Reuters. 19 May 2016. Archived from the original on 16 May 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
- "Egypt Says Work Finished on New Suez Canal". Voice of America. 29 July 2015. Archived from the original on 3 August 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
- "Egypt's New Suez Canal to Be Completed for Aug. 6 Ceremony". The New York Times. 30 June 2015. Archived from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
- "Egypt launches Suez Canal expansion". BBC News. 6 August 2015. Archived from the original on 6 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
- Tadros, Sherine (6 August 2015). "Egypt Opens New £6bn Suez Canal". Sky News. Archived from the original on 6 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
- As per the 2006 census
- National Water Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (2007): Actualizing the Right to Water: An Egyptian Perspective for an Action Plan, Shaden Abdel-Gawad. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
- ^ Egyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt's Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources.
- "Population Clock". Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. 27 April 2013. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
- "The limits of a Green Revolution?". BBC News. 29 March 2007. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- admin (8 April 2000). "Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy". Foodfirst.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- "Egypt – Population". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Urban population (% of total population) - Egypt, Arab Rep". World Bank. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2022.
- Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2 July 2016). "Nasser's Educators and Agitators across al-Watan al-'Arabi: Tracing the Foreign Policy Importance of Egyptian Regional Migration, 1952–1967" (PDF). British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (3): 324–341. doi:10.1080/13530194.2015.1102708. ISSN 1353-0194. S2CID 159943632. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
- Tsourapas, Gerasimos (10 November 2015). "Why Do States Develop Multi-tier Emigrant Policies? Evidence from Egypt" (PDF). Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 41 (13): 2192–2214. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2015.1049940. ISSN 1369-183X. S2CID 73675854.
- Simona., Talani, Leila (1 January 2010). From Egypt to Europe : globalisation and migration across the Mediterranean. Tauris Academic Studies. OCLC 650606660.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Omer Karasapan, Who are the 5 million refugees and immigrants in Egypt? Archived 6 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Brookings Institution (4 October 2016).
- "Constitutional Declaration 2011". Egyptian Government Services. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
- The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87.
- "Daily News Egypt – Full Article". 21 July 2011. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
- "The Global Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. December 2012. Archived from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
- Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- Hackett, Conrad (16 February 2011). "How many Christians are there in Egypt?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- "Background Note: Egypt". US Department of State. 10 November 2010. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- "Egypt". CIA. 4 September 2008. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
- "Egypt". UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 27 January 2008. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
- Egypt. Microsoft Encarta Online. 30 September 2008. Archived from the original on 21 October 2009.
- "Mapping The Global Muslim Population" (PDF). Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2011.
- "Encyclopedia Coptica: The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt". www.coptic.net. Archived from the original on 31 August 2005. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
- Butler, Alfred J. (1978). The Arab Conquest of Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-821678-0.
- "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 20 December 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
- Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 4 September 2013
- Col. (ret.) Jacques Neriah (23 September 2012). "Egypt's Shiite Minority: Between the Egyptian Hammer and the Iranian Anvil". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- Tim Marshall (25 June 2013). "Egypt: Attack On Shia Comes At Dangerous Time". Sky News. Archived from the original on 30 June 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- Mohammad Hassan Khalil (2013). Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others. Oxford University Press. p. 297. ISBN 978-0-19-994541-2.
- Venetia Rainey (20 April 2011). "What is Salafism and should we be worried?". Theweek.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 July 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- Robin Barton (19 February 2001). "Cairo: Welcome to the city of 1,000 minarets". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
- "Egypt - Arabic, Coptic, Nubian | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 6 July 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- Indira Falk Gesink, Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam (I.B.Tauris, 2014), p. 2.
- Kristin Deasy (October 2012). "The Sufis' Choice: Egypt's Political Wild Card". World Affairs Journal. Archived from the original on 24 July 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Hassan Ammar (14 June 2013). "Sufis In Egypt Thrive With More Than 15 Million Despite Attacks By Islamist Hardliners". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- Hoffman, Valerie J. (1995). Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. University of South Carolina Press.
- Walsh, Declan, and Youssef, Nour, Militants Kill 305 at Sufi Mosque in Egypt's Deadliest Terrorist Attack Archived 26 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 24 November 2017
- Who are the Christians in the Middle East?. Betty Jane Bailey. 2009. ISBN 978-0-8028-1020-5.
- "Catholics in Egypt Reflect Church's Rich and Varied Traditions". L'Osservatore Romano. 1 March 2000. pp. 6–7. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
- al-Shahat, Abdel Moneim (18 February 2012). "Shahat: Baha'is threaten Egypt's national security". Egypt Independent. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
- "Egypt Ahmadis detained under emergency law: rights group". 14 May 2010. Archived from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
- "Egypt - Literacy rate 2022". Statista. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- "Egypt: youth literacy rate". Statista. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ "Education in Egypt: Key Challenges" (PDF). Chatham House. March 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2012.
- ^ Higher education in Egypt (2010 ed.). OECD. 2010. p. 60. ISBN 978-92-64-08434-6. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
- "Global Innovation Index 2024 : Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship". www.wipo.int. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
- "Demography". SESRIC. Archived from the original on 22 June 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Health". SESRIC. Archived from the original on 22 June 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Egypt Health Insurance". globalsurance.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
- "Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices". WHO. 2011. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- "Egypt's parliament passes bill designating FGM a felony, imposes stricter penalties". Ahram Online. Archived from the original on 2 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
- "SIS". State Information Service. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2013.
- "Mideast: Egypt Makes Cultural Clout Count (IPS, Oct. 29, 2009)". Ipsnews.net. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Raymon Kondos (15 February 2004). "The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?". Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- El-Daly, Okasha (2005). Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press. p. 29.
- Jankowski, James. Egypt, A Short History. p. 130.
- Edwards, Amelia, The Literature and Religion of Ancient Egypt, archived from the original on 20 October 2007, retrieved 30 September 2007
- "Global influence of Egyptian culture". Egypt State Information Service. 4 February 2006. Archived from the original on 24 November 2007. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
- Vatikiotis, P.J. (1991). The history of modern Egypt: from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4 ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 486. ISBN 978-0-297-82034-5.
- "Culture of Egypt". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
- ^ "Country profiles: Egypt". BBC News. 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on 21 April 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections". Tbsjournal.com. Archived from the original on 16 August 2006. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- "Freedom House 2007 report". Freedomhouse.org. 10 May 2004. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Darwish, Mustafa (1998). Dream Makers on the Nile: A Portrait of Egyptian Cinema. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. pp. 12–13.
- Houissa, Ali. "LibGuides: Middle Eastern & North African Cinema & Film: Egyptian Cinema & Film". guides.library.cornell.edu. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
- Dajani, Karen Finlon (1 May 1980). "Cairo: the Hollywood of the Arab World". Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands). 26 (2): 89–98. doi:10.1177/001654928002600202. ISSN 0016-5492. S2CID 144015456.
- "The golden age of Egyptian cinema - Focus". Ahram Online. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
- "Cairo International Film Festival information". UKHotMovies. 1 December 2005. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
- سعد, عبدالمنعم (1976). موجز تاريخ السينما المصرية (in Arabic). مطابع الأهرام التجارية.
- Shafik, Viola (2007). Popular Egyptian Cinema: Gender, Class, and Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-977-416-053-0.
- Music of Ancient Egypt Archived 13 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan.
- Nancy Farghalli (25 July 2006). "Marketplace: Egypt's next big thing". Marketplace. American Public Media. Archived from the original on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
- "Great Museum to be inaugurated in May 2018 – Egypt Independent". 10 May 2015. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- "BBC Sport Academy | Al-Ahly v Zamalek". BBC News. 5 August 2002. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- "Al-Ahly – master of the world". Daily News Egypt. 11 December 2014. Archived from the original on 11 December 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
- "Mo Salah's late penalty gives Egypt first World Cup qualification since 1990". The Guardian. 8 October 2017. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- "1950 World Championship for Men". FIBA. 9 June 2012. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
- "Egypt – 1952 Olympic Games; Tournament for Men". FIBA. 9 June 2012. Archived from the original on 11 August 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
- "Continental Cup Finals start in Africa". FIVB. 22 June 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
External links
Library resources aboutEgypt
Government
- Information Portal – Official Egypt Information Portal
- Information and Decision – Egypt Information and Decision Support Center
- Information Services – official website of Egypt State Information Services
- Presidency – official website of the president of Egypt
- Prime Minister – official website of the prime minister of Egypt
- House of Representatives – official website of Egypt House of Representatives
- Supreme Constitutional Court – official website of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt
- Mobilization and Statistics – official website of Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics
History
- "History" – Egyptian history at Egypt Information Portal
- "Description de l'Egypte" – Ancient, modern and natural history of Egypt at The Bibliotheca Alexandrina
- "Modern Egypt" – website from the Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Tourism
- Experience Egypt – Egypt's official tourism portal
Maps
- Wikimedia Atlas of Egypt
- Geographic data related to Egypt at OpenStreetMap
Related articles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
- Media from Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Travel guides from Wikivoyage
26°N 30°E / 26°N 30°E / 26; 30
Categories:- Egypt
- Countries in Africa
- Countries in Asia
- North African countries
- West Asian countries
- Eastern Mediterranean
- Saharan countries
- Arab republics
- Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language
- BRICS nations
- Developing 8 Countries member states
- G15 nations
- Member states of the African Union
- Member states of the Arab League
- Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
- Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
- Member states of the United Nations
- States and territories established in 1922
- 1922 establishments in Egypt
- 1922 establishments in Africa
- 1922 establishments in Asia