Revision as of 18:37, 9 April 2008 view sourceNuclearVacuum (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users5,533 edits →Culture: added "Cartoons and Comics" and added more images.← Previous edit | Revision as of 13:22, 24 December 2024 view source JacktheBrown (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers76,430 edits This sentence seems to be intended to discredit Putin; Russia was under a dictatorship even under Stalin, so it's wrong to imply that it became an authoritarian dictatorship only under PutinTags: Reverted Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile editNext edit → | ||
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{{Short description|Country spanning Europe and Asia}} | |||
{{sprotect2}} | |||
{{Other uses}} | |||
{{Infobox Country | |||
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} | |||
|native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;"> Российская Федерация <br />''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''</span> | |||
{{Use British English|date=September 2022}} | |||
|conventional_long_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Russian Federation</span> | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024|cs1-dates=l}} | |||
|common_name = Russia | |||
{{Infobox country | |||
|national_anthem = ] | |||
| conventional_long_name = Russian Federation | |||
|image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg | |||
| common_name = Russia | |||
|image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg | |||
| linking_name = Russia | |||
|image_map = Location_Russia.svg | |||
| native_name = {{native name|ru|Российская Федерация}} | |||
|capital = ] | |||
| image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg | |||
|latd=55 |latm=45 |latNS=N |longd=37 |longm=37 |longEW=E | |||
| image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg | |||
|largest_city = capital | |||
| national_anthem = <br />{{nowrap|{{lang|ru|Государственный гимн Российской Федерации}}}}<br />{{transliteration|ru|Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii}}<br />"]"{{parabr}}{{center|]}} | |||
|official_languages = ] official throughout nation; ] in various regions | |||
| image_map = {{Switcher|]{{parabr}}Recognised territory of Russia is shown in dark green; claimed but internationally unrecognised territory is shown in light green.<!--Start of note--------------------------->{{Efn|], which was ] in 2014, remains ] as a part of Ukraine.<ref name="Pifer-2020">{{cite web |last=Pifer |first=Steven |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/ |title=Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation |publisher=] |date=17 March 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414045104/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were ]—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain ] as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost ] have been the subject of a ] with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.<ref name="Chapple-2019" />}} | |||
|demonym = ] | |||
<!--End of note---------------------------->{{parabr}}|Show globe|]|Show region with labels|]|Show map of Europe|]|default=1}}<!--End of map switcher template--> | |||
|government_type = ] ] ] | |||
| map_caption = | |||
|leader_title1 = ] | |||
| capital = ] | |||
|leader_name1 = ] | |||
| coordinates = {{Coord|55|45|21|N|37|37|02|E|type:city}} | |||
|leader_title2 = ] | |||
| largest_city = capital | |||
|leader_name2 = ] | |||
| languages_type = Official and national language | |||
|leader_title3 = ] | |||
| languages = ]<ref name="Chevalier-2006">{{cite journal |last=Chevalier |first=Joan F. |title=Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation |jstor=43669126 |journal=Russian Language Journal |pages=25–36 |volume=56 |year=2006 |issue=1 |publisher=American Councils for International Education ACTR / ACCELS|doi=((10.70163/0036-0252.1233))}}</ref> | |||
|leader_name3 = ]<br><small>Sworn in on 7th of May 2008</small> | |||
| languages2_type = {{nobold|Recognised regional languages}} | |||
|sovereignty_type = ] (862)<sup>1</sup> | |||
| languages2 = 35 ]<ref>{{cite web |title=What Languages Are Spoken in Russia? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-russia.html |website=WorldAtlas |access-date=19 February 2024 |date=1 August 2017 |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219124154/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-russia.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|sovereignty_note = Arrival of ] to ] | |||
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | |||
|area_km2 = 17,075,400<!--http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R--> | |||
| 71.7% ] | |||
|area_sq_mi = 6,592,800 | |||
| 3.2% ] | |||
|area_rank = 1st | |||
| 1.1% ] | |||
|area_magnitude = 1 E13 | |||
| 1.1% ] | |||
|percent_water = 13<ref>{{cite web|title=The Russian federation: general characteristics|url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R|Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| 11.3% ] | |||
|population_estimate = 142,000,000<ref name=demo/> | |||
| 11.6% not reported | |||
|population_estimate_year = 2008 | |||
}} | |||
|population_estimate_rank = 9th | |||
| ethnic_groups_year = 2021; including ] | |||
|population_census = 145,274,019<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Census of 2002|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/html/TOM_01_01.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web|script-title=ru:Национальный состав населения|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx|publisher=]|access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=30 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204643/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx|url-status=live |language=ru}}</ref> | |||
|population_census_year = 2002 | |||
| demonym = Russian | |||
|population_density_km2 = 8.3 | |||
| government_type = Federal ]<ref name="cia"/> under an ]<ref>{{cite web | title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report | website=Freedom House | date=9 March 2023 | url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2023 | access-date=17 April 2023 | archive-date=11 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311093511/https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2023 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kuzio-2016"/> dictatorship<ref name="Krzywdzinski">{{cite book | first = Martin |last=Krzywdzinski |year= 2020 | title = Consent and Control in the Authoritarian Workplace: Russia and China Compared | publisher = ] | page = 252 | isbn = 978-0-19-252902-2 | url = {{GBurl|id=gz5MDwAAQBAJ|p=252}}|quote=''officially a democratic state with the rule of law, in practice an authoritarian dictatorship''}}</ref><ref name="o730">{{cite journal | last=Fischer | first=Sabine | title=Russia on the road to dictatorship | journal=SWP Comment | year=2022 | publisher=Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP), German Institute for International and Security Affairs | doi=10.18449/2022C30 | url=https://www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2022C30/ | access-date=24 July 2024 | page=}}</ref><!--- Before adding ] here, discuss in the talk page, additions before any consensus will be challenged and removed. ---> | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 21.8 | |||
| leader_title1 = ] | |||
|population_density_rank = 209th | |||
| leader_name1 = ] | |||
|GDP_PPP_year = 2007 | |||
| leader_title2 = ] | |||
|GDP_PPP = $2.076 trillion<ref name=cia/> | |||
| leader_name2 = ] | |||
|GDP_PPP_rank = 7th | |||
| legislature = ] | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $14,600 | |||
| upper_house = ] | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 55th | |||
| lower_house = ] | |||
|GDP_nominal = $1.286 trillion<ref name=cia/> | |||
| sovereignty_type = ] | |||
|GDP_nominal_rank = 10th | |||
| established_event1 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|GDP_nominal_year = 2007 | |||
| established_date1 = 882 | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $9,056 | |||
| established_event2 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | |||
| established_date2 = 1157 | |||
|HDI_year = 2005 | |||
| established_event3 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.802 | |||
| established_date3 = 1282 | |||
|HDI_rank = 67th | |||
| established_event4 = ] | |||
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_RUS.html|title=The Human Development Index—Going Beyond Income|publisher=United Nations Development Program|work=Human Development Report 2007|accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> | |||
| established_date4 = 16 January 1547 | |||
|Gini = 40.5<ref name=cia/> | |||
| established_event5 = ] | |||
|Gini_year = 2005 | |||
| established_date5 = 2 November 1721 | |||
|currency = ] | |||
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|currency_code = RUB | |||
| established_date6 = 15 March 1917 | |||
|time_zone = | |||
| established_event7 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|utc_offset = +2 to +12 | |||
| established_date7 = 30 December 1922 | |||
|time_zone_DST = | |||
| established_event8 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|utc_offset_DST = +3 to +13 | |||
| established_date8 = 12 June 1990 | |||
|cctld = ] (] reserved), (]<sup>2</sup> proposed) | |||
| established_event9 = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|calling_code = 7 | |||
| established_date9 = 12 December 1991 | |||
|footnote1 = 1991 - year of establishment in modern form in connection with the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Russian Federation is the successor to earlier forms of continuous statehood, starting from 9 century AD when Rurik, a viking warrior, establishes "Russ" or "Rhos" state at Novgorod, ] | |||
| established_event10 = ] | |||
|footnote2 = The ] ] has been proposed for the Russian Federation as of 2008 and will only accept domains which use the ]. | |||
| established_date10 = 12 December 1993 | |||
| established_event11 = ] | |||
| established_date11 = 8 December 1999 | |||
| area_km2 = 17,098,246 | |||
| area_footnote = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2016 edition |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division |access-date=24 April 2018 |archive-date=4 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804041700/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |url-status=live }}</ref> (within internationally recognised borders) | |||
| percent_water = 13<ref>{{cite web |title=The Russian federation: general characteristics |url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728064121/http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1%2F010000R |archive-date=28 July 2011 |website=Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=5 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (including swamps) | |||
| population_estimate = {{plainlist| | |||
* {{DecreaseNeutral}} 146,150,789<ref>Including 2,470,873 people living on the ]</ref> | |||
* {{nowrap|(including Crimea)<ref name="gks.ru-popul">{{cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/OkPopul_Comp2024_Site.xlsx |format=XLSX |script-title=ru:Оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2024 г. и в среднем за 2023 г. и компоненты её изменения |trans-title=Estimates of the resident population as of January 1, 2024 and averaged over 2023 and the components of change |language=ru |work=] |access-date=22 June 2024 |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406215805/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/OkPopul_Comp2024_Site.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | |||
* {{DecreaseNeutral}} 143,679,916 | |||
* (excluding Crimea)}} | |||
| population_estimate_year = 2024 | |||
| population_estimate_rank = 9th | |||
| population_density_km2 = 8.4 | |||
| population_density_sq_mi = 21.5 | |||
| population_density_rank = 187th | |||
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $6.909 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.RU">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=922,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Russia) |publisher=] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=11 November 2024}}</ref> | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_PPP_rank = 4th | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $47,299<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 43rd | |||
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $2.184 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> | |||
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | |||
| GDP_nominal_rank = 11th | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $14,953<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 65th | |||
| Gini = 36.0 <!--number only--> | |||
| Gini_year = 2020 | |||
| Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=20 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420201540/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| HDI = 0.821<!--number only--> | |||
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | |||
| HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | |||
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| HDI_rank = 56th | |||
| currency = ] (]) | |||
| currency_code = RUB | |||
| utc_offset = +2 to +12 | |||
| drives_on = right | |||
| calling_code = ] | |||
| cctld = {{unbulleted list |]|]|]}} | |||
| religion_year = 2024 | |||
| religion_ref = <ref name="FOM 2024">{{cite web|title=Русская православная церковь|url=https://fom.ru/TSennosti/15011|publisher=Фонд Общественное Мнение, ФОМ (Public Opinion Foundation)|language=ru|date=2 May 2024|access-date=10 June 2024|archive-date=16 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516060957/https://fom.ru/TSennosti/15011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="FOM 2024 Tables">{{cite web|title=Русская православная церковь | |||
|url=https://fom.ru/posts/download/15011|publisher=Фонд Общественное Мнение, ФОМ (Public Opinion Foundation)|language=ru|date=2 May 2024|access-date=10 June 2024|archive-date=3 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503192150/https://fom.ru/posts/download/15011|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space;|{{Tree list}} | |||
* 64.4% ] | |||
** 61.8% ] | |||
** 2.6% other ] | |||
{{Tree list/end}}|21.2% ]|9.5% ]|1.4% ] (including ])<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/327646-kalmykia-buddhism-russia |title=Check out Russia's Kalmykia: The only region in Europe where Buddhism rules the roost |last=Shevchenko |first=Nikolay |date=21 February 2018 |website=] |access-date=11 February 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227211046/https://www.rbth.com/arts/327646-kalmykia-buddhism-russia |url-status=live }}</ref>|3.5% undeclared}} | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Russia''' ({{pronounced|ˈrʌʃə}}, {{lang-ru|Росси́я}}, '']''), also<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-02.htm|work=From Article 1: "The names "Russian Federation" and "Russia" shall be equal."|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> the '''Russian Federation''' ({{audio-ru|Росси́йская Федера́ция|Ru-Rossiyskaya Federatsiya Rossiya.ogg}}, ''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''), is a ] ] extending over much of northern ]. It is a ] ] comprising 83 ]. Russia shares land borders with the following countries (counter-clockwise from northwest to southeast): ], ], ], ], ] (]), ] (Kaliningrad Oblast), ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. It is also close to the ] ], ], ] and ] across relatively small stretches of water (the ], the ], the ] and ], respectively). | |||
'''Russia''',{{efn|{{Langx|ru|Россия|Rossiya}}, {{IPA|ru|rɐˈsʲijə|}}}} or the '''Russian Federation''',<!-- Both names are equally official - see: ]. -->{{efn|{{lang-rus|Российская Федерация|r=Rossiyskaya Federatsiya|p=rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə|links=yes}}}} is a country spanning ] and ]. It is the ], extending across ] and sharing ].{{efn|The fourteen countries bordering Russia are:<ref>{{Citation |title=Russia |year=2022 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#geography |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#geography |url-status=live }}</ref> ] and ] to the northwest; ], ], ] and ] to the west, as well as ] and ] (with ]); ] and ] to the southwest; ] and ] to the south; ] and ] to the southeast. Russia also shares ] with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the two ] breakaway states of ] and ] that it occupies in Georgia.}} It is the world's ] and ]. Russia is a highly urbanised country, with 16 of its population centres having more than 1 million inhabitants. Its capital and ] is ]. ] is Russia's second-largest city and ]. | |||
At {{convert|17075400|sqkm|sqmi|-2}}, Russia is by far the ], covering more than an eighth of the Earth’s land area; with 142 million people, it is the ] by population. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 11 time zones and incorporating a great range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest mineral and energy resources,<ref>{{cite web|last=Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007|title="Russia"|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_4/Russia.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> and is considered an ]. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's unfrozen fresh water.<ref name=loc/> | |||
The ] emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state, ], arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted ] from the ]. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated; the ] led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the ] in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of ], developing into the ], which remains the ]. However, with the ] in 1917, Russia's monarchic rule ] and eventually replaced by the ]—the world's first constitutionally ]. Following the ], the Russian SFSR established the ] with three other ], within which it was the largest and principal constituent. At the ], the Soviet Union underwent ] and later played a decisive role for the ] by leading large-scale efforts on the ]. With the onset of the ], it competed with the ] for ] and ]. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the ], including the ] and the ]. | |||
The nation's history began with that of the ]. The Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=britannica>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109504/Russia|title=Russia|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-01-31}}</ref> Founded and ruled by ]s and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, ], arose in the 9th century and adopted ] from the ] in 988,<ref name = Curtis/> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and ] cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.<ref name = Curtis>{{cite web|last=excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.)|title=Russia: A Country Study: Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods|publisher=Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress|date=1998|url=http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal Russian states. The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was ], which served as the main force in the Russian reunification process and independence struggle against the ]. Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation and exploration to become the huge ], stretching from Poland eastward to the ]. | |||
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the ] as the Russian Federation. ] was adopted, which established a ] ]. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by ]. ] in a number of ], including ] in 2008 and ] since 2014, which has involved the internationally unrecognised ]s of Ukrainian territory including ] and ] during ]. | |||
Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the ] to being the largest and leading constituent of the ], the world's first and largest ] ] and a recognized ]. The nation can boast a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences.<ref name=britannica/> The Russian Federation was founded following the ] in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the ].<ref name=uk/> Russia is a permanent member of the ] and a leading member of the ] and the ]. It is one of the five recognized ] and possesses the ]. | |||
Russia is a ]; a member state of the ], ], ], ], ], and ]; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as ], ], and ]. It possesses the ] and has the ]. Russia is generally considered a ] and is a ]. Internationally, Russia ] in measurements of ], ] and ]; the country also has ]. As of 2024, Russia has a ] which ranks ] and ], relying on ]; the world's second-largest for ] and ]. Russia is home to ]. | |||
==Geography== | |||
{{main|Geography of Russia}} | |||
The Russian Federation stretches across much of the north of the super-continent of ]. Because of its size, Russia displays both monotony and diversity. As with its topography, its climates, vegetation, and soils span vast distances.<ref name=climate>{{cite web|title=Russia::Climate and vegetation|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-207542|accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref> From north to south the ] is clad sequentially in ], coniferous forest (]), mixed and broad-leaf forests, grassland (]), and semi-desert (fringing the ]) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. ] supports a similar sequence but is taiga. The country contains 23 ]s<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|title=Russian Federation|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and 40 UNESCO ]s.<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Network of Biosphere Reserves - UNESCO|title=Russian Federation|url=http://www.unesco.org/mab/BRs/EurBRlist.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> | |||
===Topography=== | |||
The two widest separated points in Russia are about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) apart along a ] line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a 60 km long (40-mi long) ] separating the ] from the ]; and the farthest southeast of the ], a few miles off ], Japan. The points which are furthest separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,100 mi) apart along a geodesic. These points are: in the West, the same spit; in the East, the ] (Ostrov Ratmanova). The Russian Federation spans 11 ]s. | |||
==Etymology== | |||
Russia has the world's largest forest reserves<ref name=loc>{{cite web|last=Library of Congress|title=Topography and Drainage|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> and is known as "the lungs of Europe,"<ref name=guardianforest>{{cite web|last=Walsh|first =Nick Paton|title =It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood|publisher =Guardian (UK)|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/conservation/story/0,13369,1045070,00.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> second only to the ] in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. It provides a huge amount of oxygen for not just Europe, but the world. With access to three of the world's oceans—the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific—Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the world's fish supply.<ref>{{cite book|title =Fish Industry of Russia - Production, Trade, Markets and Investment|publisher=Eurofish, Copenhagen, Denmark|date=August 2006|pages=211|url=http://www.eurofish.dk/indexSub.php?id=3308&easysitestatid=255998662|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The Caspian is the source of what is considered the finest ] in the world. | |||
{{Main|Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia}} | |||
] | |||
According to the '']'', the English name ''Russia'' first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from {{Langx|la-x-medieval|Russia}}, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from {{Langx|la-x-medieval|Russi|lit=the Russians|label=none}} and the suffix {{Langx|la-x-medieval|]|label=none}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2023 |title=Russia (n.), Etymology |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/russia_n?tab=etymology |website=Oxford English Dictionary |doi=10.1093/OED/2223074989 |access-date=3 January 2024 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122215843/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/russia_n?tab=etymology |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kuchkin|first=V. A.|title=|publisher=Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir|year=2014|editor-last=Melnikova|editor-first=E. A.|location=Moscow|pages=700–701|language=ru|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь в средневековом мире|trans-title=Old Rus' in the medieval world|script-chapter=ru:Русская земля|trans-chapter=Russian land|editor-last2=Petrukhina|editor-first2=V. Ya.}}</ref> In modern historiography, this state is usually denoted as '']'' after its capital city.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kort |first1=Michael |title=A Brief History of Russia |date=2008 |publisher=Checkmark Books |isbn=978-0816071135 |location=New York |page=6}}</ref> Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nazarenko |first=Aleksandr Vasilevich|author-link=Aleksandr Nazarenko|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков |year=2001 |publisher=Languages of the Rus' culture |isbn=978-5-7859-0085-1 |pages=40, 42–45, 49–50 |chapter=1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века)|trans-title=Old Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries |language=ru|trans-chapter=The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)|chapter-url=http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814143443/http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |archive-date=14 August 2011}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly ] to the south and heavily forested to the north, with ] along the northern coast. Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the ] (containing ], Russia's and Europe's highest point at 5,642 m / 18,511 ft) and the ], and in the eastern parts, such as the ] or the volcanoes on ]. The ] form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia, rich in mineral resources. Russia possesses 10% of the world's ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Oil prices drive the cost of food|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20080222/99853566.html|accessdate=2009-02-22}}</ref> | |||
In Russian, the current name of the country, {{Lang|ru|Россия|italic=no}} ({{Lang|ru-latn|Rossiya}}), comes from the ] name for Rus', {{Lang|grc|Ρωσία|italic=no}} ({{Lang|grc-latn|Rosía}}).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Russians: The People of Europe |last=Milner-Gulland |first=R. R. |year=1997 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-0-631-21849-4 |pages=1–4}}</ref> A new form of the name ''Rus{{'}}'', {{lang|ru|Росия|italic=no}} ({{lang|ru-latn|Rosiya}}), was borrowed from the Greek term and first attested in 1387.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Obolensky |first1=Dimitri |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumslavs0000obol/page/16/mode/2up |title=Byzantium and the Slavs |date=1994 |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn=9780881410082 |location=Crestwood, NY |pages=17}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2024}} The name {{Transliteration|ru|Rossiia}} appeared in Russian sources in the late 15th century, but until the end of the 17th century the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus{{'}}, the Russian land ({{Transliteration|ru|Russkaia zemlia}}), or the Muscovite state ({{Transliteration|ru|Moskovskoe gosudarstvo}}), among other variations.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Langer |first1=Lawrence N. |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia |date=2021 |location=Lanham |isbn=978-1538119426 |page=182 |edition=2nd |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref><ref name="Hellberg-Hirn-1998">{{cite book |last1=Hellberg-Hirn |first1=Elena |title=Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness |date=1998 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot |isbn=1855218712 |pages=54}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The origins of the Slavic nations: premodern identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-521-15511-3 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge |pages=213–14, 285}}</ref> In 1721, Peter the Great changed the name of the state from ] ({{langx|ru|Русское царство|translit=Russkoye tsarstvo}}) or Tsardom of Muscovy ({{Langx|ru|Московское царство|translit=Moskovskoye tsarstvo}})<ref name="Monahan2016">{{cite book |last1=Monahan |first1=Erika |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |year=2016 |isbn=978-1118455074 |pages=1–6 |chapter=Russia: 3. Tsardom of Muscovy (1547–1721) |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe425}}</ref><ref name="Magocsi2010">{{cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC&pg=PA223 |title=A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7 |page=223 |author-link=Paul Robert Magocsi |access-date=19 August 2016}}</ref> to ] ({{Transliteration|ru|Rossiiskaia imperiia}}).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> | |||
Russia has an extensive coastline of over 37,000 kilometers (23,000 mi) along the ] and ]s, as well as the ], ] and Caspian seas.<ref name=cia>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Russia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|title=CIA|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ] are linked to Russia. Major islands and archipelagos include ], the ], the ], ], the ] and ]. The ] (one controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just three kilometers (1.9 mi) apart, and ] is about twenty kilometers (12 mi) from ]. | |||
There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective {{Langx|ru|русский |translit=russkiy|label=none}} refers to ethnic ]. The adjective {{Langx|ru|российский|translit=rossiiskiy|label=none}} denotes ] regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun {{Langx|ru|россиянин|translit=rossiianyn|label=none}}, "Russian" in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.<ref name="Hellberg-Hirn-1998" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Merridale |first=Catherine |title=Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia |journal=] |year=2003 |volume=38 |number=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.1177/0022009403038001961 |jstor=3180694 |s2cid=143597960| issn=0022-0094 }}</ref> | |||
Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water, providing it with one of the world's largest surface water resources. The most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is ], the world's deepest, purest and most capacious freshwater lake.<ref name=baikal>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies|publisher=United States Geological Survey|url=http://marine.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/baikal/|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal|publisher=] World Heritage Centre|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/754|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Of its 100,000 rivers,<ref>{{cite web|title=Angara River|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007537|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The ] is the most famous—not only because it is the longest river in Europe but also because of its major role in Russian history. Major lakes include ], ] and ]. Russia has a wide natural resource base unmatched by any other country, including major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, timber and mineral resources.<ref name=cia/><ref name=countrybrief>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation: Country Brief|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/RUSSIANFEDERATIONEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21054807~menuPK:517666~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305600,00.html|accessdate =2007-12-26}}</ref> | |||
According to the ], the word Rus' is derived from the ], who were a ] tribe, and where the three original members of the ] dynasty came from.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duczko |first=Wladyslaw |title=Viking Rus |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13874-2 |pages=10–11}}</ref> The ] word for Swedes, {{lang|fi|ruotsi}}, has the same origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/128848 |title=The Origin of Rus' |jstor=128848 |access-date=19 October 2023 |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025004709/https://www.jstor.org/stable/128848 |url-status=bot: unknown |last1=Pritsak |first1=Omeljan |journal=The Russian Review |date=5 April 1977 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=249–273 |doi=10.2307/128848 }}.</ref> | |||
===Climate=== | |||
Later archeological studies mostly confirmed this theory.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Swedish Vikings: Who Were the Rus? |url=https://cjadrien.com/swedish-vikings-rus/ |first1=C.J. |last1=Adrien |date=19 April 2020 |access-date=19 October 2023 |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025005710/https://cjadrien.com/swedish-vikings-rus/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (]).|date=January 2024}} | |||
The climate of the Russian Federation formed under the influence of several determining factors. The enormous size of the country and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the ], which is prevalent in European and Asian Russia except for the tundra and the extreme southeast.<ref name=climate/> Mountains in the south obstructing the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean and the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.<ref name=congress>{{cite web|title=Climate|publisher=Library Of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> | |||
== History == | |||
Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons — winter and summer; spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low temperatures and extremely high.<ref name=congress/> The coldest month is January (on the shores of the sea—February), the warmest usually is July. Great ranges of temperature are typical.<ref name=climate/> In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east.<ref name=climate/> Summers can be quite hot and humid, even in Siberia. A small part of Black Sea coast around ] is considered in Russia to have ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Drozdov|first=V. A.|coauthors=et al|title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea|journal=GeoJournal|publisher=Springer Netherlands|location=27.2, pp. 169–178|date=1992|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/n877766450lk8p66/fulltext.pdf|accessdate=}}</ref> The continental interiors are the driest areas. | |||
{{Main|History of Russia}} | |||
=== Early history === | |||
==History== | |||
{{further|Ancient Greek colonies||Early Slavs|Huns|Turkic expansion|Prehistory of Siberia}} | |||
{{main|History of Russia}} | |||
{{See also|Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Uralic homeland}} | |||
===Early periods=== | |||
The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the ] period in the early ]. About 2 million years ago, representatives of '']'' migrated to the ] in southern Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shchelinsky |first1=V.E. |last2=Gurova |first2=M. |last3=Tesakov |first3=A.S. |last4=Titov |first4=V.V. |last5=Frolov |first5=P.D. |last6=Simakova |first6=A.N. |title=The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results) |journal=] |volume=393 |pages=51–69 |date=30 January 2016 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032|bibcode=2016QuInt.393...51S }}</ref> ] tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the ].<ref>{{cite web |last1= Chepalyga |first1= A.L. |last2= Amirkhanov |first2= Kh.A. |last3= Trubikhin |first3= V.M. |last4= Sadchikova |first4= T.A. |last5= Pirogov |first5= A.N. |last6= Taimazov |first6= A.I. |year= 2011 |title= Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Europe |url= http://paleogeo.org/article3.html |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130520090413/http://paleogeo.org/article3.html |archive-date= 20 May 2013 |access-date= 18 December 2013 }}</ref> ] specimens from ] in the ] estimate the oldest ] specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douka |first1=K. |title=Age estimates for hominin fossils and the onset of the Upper Palaeolithic at Denisova Cave |journal=Nature |year=2019 |volume=565 |issue=7741 |pages=640–644 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0870-z |pmid=30700871 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1559&context=smhpapers1 |bibcode=2019Natur.565..640D |s2cid=59525455 |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506140551/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1559&context=smhpapers1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Fossils of '']'', an ] hybrid that was half ] and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Warren |first=Matthew |title=Mum's a Neanderthal, Dad's a Denisovan: First discovery of an ancient-human hybrid |date=22 August 2018 |journal=] |volume=560 |issue=7719 |pages=417–418 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-06004-0 |pmid=30135540 |bibcode= 2018Natur.560..417W |doi-access=free }}</ref> Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Igor V. Ovchinnikov |last2= Anders Götherström |last3= Galina P. Romanova |last4= Vitaliy M. Kharitonov |last5= Kerstin Lidén |last6= William Goodwin |date= 30 March 2000 |title= Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus |journal= ] |volume= 404 |issue= 6777 |pages= 490–493 |bibcode= 2000Natur.404..490O |doi= 10.1038/35006625 |pmid= 10761915 |s2cid= 3101375}}</ref> | |||
{{see|Eurasian nomads|Scythia|Bosporan Kingdom|Khazaria}} | |||
]: South Russia as the ] of ]]] | |||
In prehistoric times, the vast ]s of Southern Russia were home to disunited ]s of ]. In classical antiquity, the ] was known as ].<ref name = Belinskij>{{cite journal|last=Belinskij|first=Andrej|coauthors=H. Härke|title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo|journal=Archeology|volume=52|issue=2|date=March/April 1999|url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as ],<ref name = Belinskij/> ],<ref>{{cite book | last = Drews | first = Robert | title = Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe | year = 2004 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | pages = 50}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|last=Koryakova|first=Dr. Ludmila|title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture|publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN)|url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"|work=Transcript|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> In the latter part of the eighth century ], ] traders brought ] to the trade emporiums in ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=Esther|title=The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World|publisher=Brill|date=1995|location=p. 38|isbn=9004098569}}</ref> Between the third and sixth centuries BC, the ], a Hellenistic ] which succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{cite book|last=Tsetskhladze|first=Gocha R.|title=The Greek Colonisation of the ] Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology|publisher=F. Steiner|date=1998|location=p. 48|isbn=3515073027}}</ref> was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,<ref>{{cite book|last=Turchin|first=Peter|title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2003|location=pp. 185–186|isbn=0691116695}}</ref> led by warlike tribes, such as the ] and ]. A Turkic people, the ], ruled the lower ] basin ]s between the ] and ]s until the 8th century.<ref name = Christian>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|date=1998|location=pp. 286–288|isbn=0631208143}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
The ancestors of modern ] are the ], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see Barford|first=Paul M.|title=The Early Slavs|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=pp. 15–16|isbn=0801439779}}</ref> Moving into the lands vacated by the migrating ], the ] gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from ] toward present-day ] and ] and another from ] toward ] and ].<ref name = Christian2>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|date=1998|location=pp. 6–7|isbn=}}</ref> From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<ref name = Christian2/> and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native ] tribes, including the ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Paszkiewicz|first=Henry K|title=The Making of the Russian Nation|publisher=Darton, Longman & Todd|date=1963|location=p. 262}}</ref> the ]s,<ref>{{cite book|last=McKitterick|first=Rosamond|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1995|location =p. 497|isbn=0521364477}}</ref> and the ].<ref name = Mongait>{{cite book|last=Mongaĭt|first=Aleksandr Lʹvovich|title=Archeology in the U.S.S.R.|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House|date=1959|location=p. 335}}</ref> | |||
The first trace of an ] in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in ].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Fu Q, Li H, Moorjani P, Jay F, Slepchenko SM, Bondarev AA, Johnson PL, Aximu-Petri A, Prüfer K, de Filippo C, Meyer M, Zwyns N, Salazar-García DC, Kuzmin YV, Keates SG, Kosintsev PA, Razhev DI, Richards MP, Peristov NV, Lachmann M, Douka K, Higham TF, Slatkin M, Hublin JJ, Reich D, Kelso J, Viola TB, Pääbo S|title=Genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia |journal=Nature | issue= 7523| pages=445–449|date=23 October 2014|doi=10.1038/nature13810 | pmid=25341783 | volume=514 | pmc=4753769|bibcode=2014Natur.514..445F |hdl= 10550/42071}}</ref> The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of ], from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at ],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dinnis |first1=Rob |last2=Bessudnov |first2=Alexander |last3=Reynolds |first3=Natasha |last4=Devièse |first4=Thibaut |last5=Pate |first5=Abi |last6=Sablin |first6=Mikhail |last7=Sinitsyn |first7=Andrei |last8=Higham |first8=Thomas |title=New data for the Early Upper Paleolithic of Kostenki (Russia) |pmid=30777356 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.11.012 |journal=] |year=2019 |pages=21–40 |volume=127 |bibcode=2019JHumE.127...21D |s2cid=73486830 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01982049/file/Dinnis%20et%20al%202019%20New%20data%20for%20the%20EUP%20of%20Kostenki%20%28green%20open-access%20post-print%29.pdf |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405163036/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01982049/file/Dinnis%20et%20al%202019%20New%20data%20for%20the%20EUP%20of%20Kostenki%20%28green%20open-access%20post-print%29.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and at ], dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in ].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aao1807 |pmid=28982795 |title=Ancient genomes show social and reproductive behavior of early Upper Paleolithic foragers |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6363 |pages=659–662 |year=2017 |vauthors=Sikora, Martin ''et al.'' |bibcode=2017Sci...358..659S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Humans reached ] at least 40,000 years ago, in ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pavlov |first=Pavel |author2=John Inge Svendsen |author3=Svein Indrelid |date=6 September 2001 |title=Human presence in the European Arctic nearly 40,000 years ago |journal=Nature |volume=413 |pages=64–67 | doi= 10.1038/35092552 |pmid=11544525 |issue=6851|bibcode=2001Natur.413...64P |s2cid=1986562 }}</ref> ] populations from Siberia genetically similar to ] and ] were an important genetic contributor to ] and ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balter |first1=M. |title=Ancient DNA Links Native Americans With Europe |journal=Science |date=25 October 2013 |volume=342 |issue=6157 |pages=409–410 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6157.409 |pmid=24159019 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..409B |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
===Kievan Rus=== | |||
{{main|Kievan Rus}} | |||
] in the 11th century]] | |||
]n Norsemen, called "]s" in Western Europe and "]" in the East,<ref>{{cite web|last=See, for instance,|title=Viking (Varangian) Oleg|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057004/Oleg|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> combined ] and trade in their roamings over much of Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|title=Byzantium and the Slavs|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|date=1994|location=p. 42|isbn=088141008X}}</ref> According to the ], a Varangian named ] was elected ruler (] or ]) of Novgorod around the year 860;<ref name = Curtis/> his successors moved south and extended their authority to Kiev,<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=James Westfall|coauthors =E. N. Johnson|title=An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|date=1937|location=p. 268|isbn=0415346991}}</ref> which had been previously dominated by the Khazars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|date=1998|location=p. 343|isbn=0631208143}}</ref> | |||
] ] ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population |journal=Science |date=21 February 2017 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=25 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925154535/https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population |url-status=live }}</ref> including the ] of southern Siberia]] | |||
In the 10th to 11th centuries this state of ] became the largest and most prosperous in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ukraine: Security Assistance|publisher=U.S. Department of State|url=http://www.state.gov/t/pm/64851.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the ] and the ], caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as ].<ref name="Klyuch1">{{cite book|last=Klyuchevsky|first=Vasily|title=The course of the Russian history|location=v.1|url=http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|isbn=5-244-00072-1}}</ref> Like many other parts of ], these territories were ]. The invaders, later known as ], formed the state of the ], which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries. Mongol rule retarded the country's economic and social development.<ref>{{cite book|last=Рыбаков|first=Б. А.|title=Ремесло Древней Руси|date=1948|location=с.525–533,780–781}}</ref> However, the ] together with ] retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the ] and was largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by ], Novgorodians repelled the ] who attempted to colonize the region. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of ] in the north-east, ] in the north-west, and ] in the south-west. Conquest by the Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow and resulted in the destruction of Kiev in 1240.<ref name ="Hamm">{{cite book|last=Hamm|first=Michael Franklin|title=Kiev: A Portrait, 1800–1917|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691025851}}</ref> Galicia-Volhynia was eventually absorbed into the ],<ref name = Curtis/> while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and the independent ], two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name = Curtis/> | |||
The ] places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and ] as the ] of the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=David W. |last2=Ringe |first2=Don |date=1 January 2015 |title=The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=199–219 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812 |issn=2333-9683|doi-access=free }}</ref> Early ] from the ] of Ukraine and Russia spread ] ancestry and ] across large parts of Eurasia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haak|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Lazaridis|first2=Iosif|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Rohland|first4=Nadin|last5=Mallick|first5=Swapan|last6=Llamas|first6=Bastien|last7=Brandt|first7=Guido|last8=Nordenfelt|first8=Susanne|last9=Harney|first9=Eadaoin|last10=Stewardson|first10=Kristin|last11=Fu|first11=Qiaomei|date=11 June 2015|title=Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe|journal=Nature|volume=522|issue=7555|pages=207–211|doi=10.1038/nature14317|issn=0028-0836|pmc=5048219|pmid=25731166|bibcode=2015Natur.522..207H|arxiv=1502.02783}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians |first=Ann |last=Gibbons |date=10 June 2015 |title=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians |journal=Science |publisher=AAAS |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians |url-status=live }}</ref> ] developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the ].<ref name="Belinskij-1999">{{Cite journal |last1=Belinskij |first1=Andrej |last2=Härke |first2=Heinrich |title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo |journal=Archeology |volume=52 |issue=2 |year=1999 |url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043326/http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html |archive-date=10 June 2008 |access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as ],<ref name="Belinskij-1999"/> ],<ref name="mounted">{{Cite book |author=Drews, Robert |title=Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |page=50 |isbn=978-0-415-32624-7}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |author=Koryakova, L. |title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture |publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN) |url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html |access-date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228104055/http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite web |title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" |work=Transcript |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html |access-date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416163503/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which bear the earliest known traces of ].<ref name="mounted"/> The genetic makeup of speakers of the ] language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from ] that began at least 3,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lamnidis |first1=Thiseas C. |last2=Majander |first2=Kerttu |last3=Jeong |first3=Choongwon |last4=Salmela |first4=Elina |last5=Wessman |first5=Anna |last6=Moiseyev |first6=Vyacheslav |last7=Khartanovich |first7=Valery |last8=Balanovsky |first8=Oleg |last9=Ongyerth |first9=Matthias |last10=Weihmann |first10=Antje |last11=Sajantila |first11=Antti |last12=Kelso |first12=Janet |last13=Pääbo |first13=Svante |last14=Onkamo |first14=Päivi |last15=Haak |first15=Wolfgang |date=27 November 2018 |title=Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=5018 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5 |pmid=30479341 |pmc=6258758 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.5018L |s2cid=53792952 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> | |||
===Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia=== | |||
{{main|Grand Duchy of Moscow|Tsardom of Russia}} | |||
] | |||
] | |||
The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was ]. It would annex rivals such as ] and ], and eventually become the basis of the modern Russian state. After the downfall of ] in 1453, Moscow ] of the ]. While still under the domain of the ] and with their connivance, the ] (or "Muscovy") began to assert its influence in Western Russia in the early 14th century. Assisted by the ] and Saint ]'s spiritual revival, Russia inflicted a defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the ] (1380). ] (''Ivan the Great'') eventually tossed off the control of the ], consolidated surrounding areas under Moscow's dominion and first took the title "grand duke of all the Russias".<ref>{{cite web|last=May|first=Dr. Timothy|title=Khanate of the Golden Horde|url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the ] kingdom of ] existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by ]. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the ], which was a Hellenistic ] that succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{Cite book |author=Tsetskhladze, G. R. |title=The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology |publisher=F. Steiner |year=1998 |page=48 |isbn=978-3-515-07302-8}}</ref> was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and ].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Turchin, P. |title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2003 |pages=185–186 |isbn=978-0-691-11669-3}}</ref> The ], who were of ], ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Weinryb |first=Bernard D. |title=The Khazars: An Annotated Bibliography |journal=Studies in Bibliography and Booklore |publisher=] |volume=6 |number=3 |pages=111–129 |year=1963 |jstor=27943361}}</ref> After them came the ] who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the ] and the ].<ref>Carter V. Findley, ''The Turks in World History'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) {{ISBN|0-19-517726-6}}</ref> | |||
In 1547, ] (''Ivan the Terrible'') was officially crowned the first ] of Russia. During his long reign, Ivan IV annexed the ] (], ]) along the ] and transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. Ivan IV promulgated a new code of laws (]), established the first Russian feudal representative body (]) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<ref name=solovyov>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|date=2001|location=pp.562–604, volume 6|isbn=5170021429}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Skrynnikov|first=R.|title=Ivan the Terrible|publisher=Academic Intl Pr (March 1981)|date=1981|location=p.58|pages=219|isbn=0875690394}}</ref> But Ivan IV's rule was also marked by the long and unsuccessful ] against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden for the access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|date=2001|location=v.6, pp.751–908|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> The military losses, ]s and poor harvests<ref>Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena. ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190</ref> weakened the state, and the ] were able to ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|date=2001|location=v.6, pp.751–809|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> The death of Ivan's sons, combined with ] (1601–1603),<ref>''Nighttime temperatures in all summer months, often below freezing, wrecked crops.'' Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena. ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190</ref> led to the civil war and foreign intervention of the ] in the early 1600s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|date=2001|location=v.7, pp.461–568|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> By the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern ], on the ], along the ], and on the Pacific coast. The ] between ] and ] was first sighted by a Russian explorer in 1648. | |||
The ancestors of ] are among the ] that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe {{Circa|1500}} years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhernakova |first1=Daria V. |display-authors=etal |title=Genome-wide sequence analyses of ethnic populations across Russia |volume=112 |number=1 |journal=Genomics |year=2020 |pages=442–458 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2019.03.007 |doi-access=free |publisher=] |pmid=30902755}}</ref> The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern ] and ]) in two waves: one moving from ] towards present-day ] and ] and another from ] towards ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book |author=] |title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=1998 |pages=6–7 |isbn=978-0-631-20814-3}}</ref> Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by ] peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.<ref name="Curtis-1998">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/2.htm |title=Russia – Early History |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=29 June 2021 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814163709/https://countrystudies.us/russia/2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Ed. ], ''The New Cambridge Medieval History'', Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 494-497. {{ISBN|0-521-36447-7}}.</ref> | |||
===Imperial Russia=== | |||
{{main|Russian Empire}} | |||
] officially proclaimed the existence of the ] in 1721]] | |||
=== Kievan Rus' === | |||
Under the ] and ] (''Peter the Great''), the Russian Empire was officially founded. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated ] in the ], forcing it to cede West ] and ] (two regions lost by Russia in the ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|date=2001|location=v.9, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/09_01.html|isbn=5170021429|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>), Estland, and ], securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|date=2001|location=v.15, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/15_01.html}}</ref> It was in Ingria that Peter founded a new capital, ]. Peter's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. ] (''Catherine the Great''), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts at establishing Russia as one of the ] of Europe. In alliance with ] and ], Russia stood against ]'s ] and eliminated its rival Poland-Lithuania in a series of ], gaining large areas of territory in the west. As a result of its victories in the ], by the early 19th century Russia had made significant territorial gains in ]. ]'s invasion failed miserably as obstinate Russian resistance combined with the bitterly cold Russian winter dealt him a disastrous defeat, from which more than 95% of his invading force perished.<ref name=uslibrary>{{cite web|title=Ruling the Empire|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/5.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, the officers of the ] brought back to Russia the ideas of ] and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive ] of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression. | |||
{{Main|Rus' Khaganate|Kievan Rus'|List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine}} | |||
] | |||
] |
] after the ] in 1097]] | ||
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of ], the ] who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic ] and ] Seas. According to the '']'', a Varangian from the ], named ], was elected ruler of ] in 862. In 882, his successor ] ventured south and conquered ], which had been previously paying tribute to the ].<ref name="Curtis-1998"/> Rurik's son ] and Igor's son ] subsequently subdued all local ] tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,<ref>{{cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii|author-link=Serhii Plokhy |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |publisher=] |date=2006 |page=13 |isbn=978-0-521-86403-9}}</ref> and launched several military expeditions to ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Obolensky |first=Dimitri |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumslavs0000obol |title=Byzantium & the Slavs |date=1971 |isbn=978-0-88141-008-2 |pages=75–108 |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=] |url=https://archive.org/details/vikingsinhistory00loga |title=The Vikings in History|edition=2nd |date=1992 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-08396-6 |page=201 |url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of ] (980–1015) and his son ] (1019–1054) constitute the ] of Kiev, which saw ] Orthodox Christianity from ], and the creation of the first East Slavic written ], the '']''.<ref name="Curtis-1998"/> The age of ] and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the ] that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of ] in the north-east, the ] in the north, and ] in the south-west.<ref name="Curtis-1998"/> By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.<ref name="Channon-1995"/> Prince ] sacked Kiev in 1169 and made ] his base,<ref name="Channon-1995">{{cite book |last1=Channon |first1=John |title=The Penguin historical atlas of Russia |date=1995 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0140513264 |page=16}}</ref> leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.<ref name="Curtis-1998"/> | |||
The prevalence of ] and the conservative policies of ] impeded the development of Russia in the mid-nineteenth century. Nicholas's successor ] (1855–1881) enacted significant reforms, including the ] in 1861; these "Great Reforms" spurred ]. However, many socio-economic conflicts were aggravated during ]’s reign and under his son, ]. Harsh conditions in factories created mass support for the revolutionary socialist movement. In January, 1905 striking workers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in Saint Petersburg but were fired upon by troops, killing and wounding hundreds. The event, known as "]", ignited the ]. Although the uprising was swiftly put down by the army and he retained much of his power, Nicholas II was forced to concede major reforms including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, legalization of political parties and the creation of an elected legislative assembly, the ], however basic improvements in the lives of industrial workers were unfulfilled. | |||
Led by Prince ], Novgorodians repelled the invading ] in the ] in 1240,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Battle of the Neva |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Neva |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329054701/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Neva |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as the ] in the ] in 1242.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Donald |year=2006 |title=Alexander Nevskii's "Battle on the Ice": The Creation of a Legend |journal=] |volume=33 |pages=289–312 |doi=10.1163/187633106X00186 |jstor=24664446 |number=2/4}}</ref> | |||
Russia entered ] in the aid of its ally ] and fought a war across three fronts while isolated from its allies. Russia did not want war but felt that only alternative was German domination of Europe. Although the army was far from defeated in 1916, the already existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, casualties (Russia suffered the highest amount of ] of the ]), and tales of corruption and even treason in high places, leading to the outbreak of the ]. A series of uprisings were organized by workers and peasants throughout the country, as well as by soldiers in the Russian army, who were mainly of peasant origin. Many of the uprisings were organized and led by democratically elected councils called Soviets. The ] overthrew the Russian monarchy, which was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the ]. The abdication marked the end of imperial rule in Russia, and Nicholas and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the ]. While initially receiving the support of the Soviets, the Provisional Government proved unable to resolve many problems which had led to the February Revolution. The second revolution, the ], led by ], overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first Communist state. | |||
Kievan Rus' finally fell to the ] of 1237–1240, which resulted in the ] and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.<ref name="Curtis-1998" /> The invaders, later known as ], formed the state of the ], which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kPwX2dW-V6sC&pg=PA7 |title=Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History |date=1987 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-253-20445-5 |page=7 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813152923/https://books.google.com/books?id=kPwX2dW-V6sC&pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.<ref name="Curtis-1998" /> Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by ] and ], while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.<ref name="Curtis-1998" /> | |||
===Soviet Russia=== | |||
{{main|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|History of the Soviet Union|Russian SFSR}} | |||
]]] | |||
Following the ], a ] broke out between the new regime and the ], ]s, and the ]. The ] concluded hostilities with the ] in World War I. Russia lost its ] and ] territories, and ] by signing the treaty. The ] launched a ] in support of anti-Communist forces and both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the ] and ]. At the end of the Civil War, the economy and infrastructure were devastated. Following victory in the Civil War, the ] together with three other Soviet republics ] the ] on ], ]. The ] dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 74-year history; the USSR was often referred to as "Russia" and its people as "Russians." The largest of the republics, Russia contributed over half the population of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks introduced free universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing. Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cliff|first=Tony|title=Class Struggle and Women’s Liberation|publisher=Bookmarks|date=1984|location=pp. 138–139|isbn=0906224128}}</ref> Notably, Russia became the first country in the world with full freedom of divorce and legalized abortion. After Lenin's death in 1924 ] consolidated power and became ]. Stalin launched a ], rapid ] of the largely rural country and ] of its agriculture and the Soviet Union transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time. | |||
] during the ] on April 30, 1945; symbolic of the fall of ]]] | |||
On ], ], ] invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,<ref>{{cite web|title=World War II|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2008-03-09|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-53552</ref> opening the ]. Although the ] had considerable success early on, they suffered defeats after reaching the outskirts of Moscow and were dealt their first major defeat at the ] in the winter of 1942–1943.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-53567/World-War-II|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-03-12|title=The Allies' first decisive successes > Stalingrad and the German retreat, summer 1942–February 1943}}</ref> Soviet forces drove through ] in 1944–45 and ] in May, 1945. In the conflict, Soviet military and civilian death toll were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,<ref name=vadim>{{cite book|last=Erlikman|first=Vadim|title=Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik|date=2004|id=Note: Estimates for Soviet World War II casualties vary between sources|isbn=5-93165-107-1}}</ref> accounting for half of all ]. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation<ref>{{cite web|title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged ]. The ] occupied ] after the war, including the ] of Germany; Stalin installed communist governments in these ]s. Becoming the world's second ], the USSR established the ] alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States, which became known as the ]. | |||
=== Grand Duchy of Moscow === | |||
]]] | |||
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}} | |||
] blessing ] in ], before the ], depicted in a painting by ]]] | |||
The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the ], initially a part of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glenn E. |first=Curtis |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/97007563 |title=Russia: A Country Study |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1998 |isbn=0-8444-0866-2 |location=Washington DC |chapter=Muscovy |oclc=36351361 |access-date=24 August 2022 |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824200530/https://www.loc.gov/item/97007563 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|pages=11–20}} While still under the domain of the ]-] and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |page=4 |url=http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Davies.pdf#page=20 |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009193828/http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Davies.pdf#page=20 |url-status=live }}</ref> gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".<ref name="Curtis-1998-3"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Angus |title=Atlas of Medieval Europe |date=11 September 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-80693-5 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6KIAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> When the seat of the Metropolitan of the ] moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gleason |first1=Abbott |title=A Companion to Russian History |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |isbn=978-1444308426 |pages=126}}</ref> Moscow's last rival, the ], prospered as the chief ] centre and the easternmost port of the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |title=Novgorod and the 'Novgorodian Land' |jstor=20171136 |volume=40 |number=3 |pages=345–363 |date=September 1999 |publisher=EHESS |journal=Cahiers du Monde russe}}</ref> | |||
Led by Prince ] of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted ] on the Mongol-Tatars in the ] in 1380.<ref name="Curtis-1998"/> Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as ] and ].<ref name="Curtis-1998-3">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |year=1998 |title=Russia – Muscovy |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/3.htm |access-date=25 June 2021 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606071001/https://countrystudies.us/russia/3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Under Stalin's successor ], the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial ], ] and the Russian ] ] became the first human being to orbit the ] aboard the first manned spacecraft, ]. Tensions with the ] heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. ] in ] and Soviet ]. Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued until ] established himself in the early 1970s as the pre-eminent figure in Soviet politics. Brezhnev's rule oversaw ] and the ], which dragged on without success and with continuing casualties inflicted by ]. Soviet citizens became increasingly discontented with the war, ultimately leading to the withdrawal of Soviet forces by 1989. | |||
] ("the Great") threw off the control of the ] and consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'". After the ] in 1453, Moscow ] of the ]. Ivan III married ], the niece of the last ] ], and made the Byzantine ] his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.<ref name="Curtis-1998-3"/> ] united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent ] in the early 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=M.S. |title=The Origins of the Modern European State System, 1494–1618 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317892755 |url={{GBurl|id=smCgBAAAQBAJ|pg=PT281}}}}</ref> | |||
From 1985 onwards, ] introduced the policies of '']'' (openness) and '']'' (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country. The ] was the second largest in the world prior to the Soviet collapse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-03-09|title=1990 CIA World Factbook}}</ref> | |||
During its last years, the economy was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/russia/economy/russia_economy_unforeseen_results_o~1315.html|title=Russia Unforeseen Results of Reform|publisher=The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook|accessdate=2008-03-10}}</ref> In August 1991, an unsuccessful ] against Gorbachev aimed at preserving the Soviet Union instead led to its collapse. In Russia, ] came to power and declared the end of Communist rule. The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics and was ] in December 1991. Boris Yeltsin was elected the ] in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. | |||
=== |
=== Tsardom of Russia === | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Tsardom of Russia}} | ||
{{See also|Moscow, third Rome}} | |||
] was the ] from 1533 to 1547, then ] until his death in 1584.]] | |||
In development of the ] ideas, the grand duke ] ("the Terrible") was officially crowned the first ] of Russia in 1547. The tsar ] a new code of laws (]), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the ]), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.<ref name="Curtis-1998-3"/> During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: ] and ] along the ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Perrie |first=Maureen |title=The Popular Image of Ivan the Terrible |jstor=4207642 |journal=] |volume=56 |number=2 |date=April 1978 |pages=275–286 |publisher=]}}</ref> and the ] in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Skrynnikov |first=R. G. |title=Ermak's Siberian Expedition |journal=] |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=1–39 |publisher=] |jstor=24655823 |year=1986|doi=10.1163/187633186X00016 }}</ref> However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful ] against the coalition of the ] and the ] (later the united ]), the ], and ] for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Filyushkin |first=Alexander |title=Livonian War in the Context of the European Wars of the 16th Century: Conquest, Borders, Geopolitics |year=2016 |pages=1–21 |volume=43 |number=1 |journal=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1163/18763316-04301004 |jstor=44647035}}</ref> In 1572, an invading army of ] were ] in the crucial ].<ref>{{cite book |date=2015 |last=Skrynnikov |first=R. G. |title=Reign of Terror: Ivan IV |publisher=] |isbn=978-9-004-30401-7 |pages=417–421}}</ref> | |||
] in 1614]] | |||
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient ] in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous ], led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the ] in the early 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dunning |first=Chester |title=Crisis, Conjuncture, and the Causes of the Time of Troubles |jstor=41036998 |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |year=1995 |publisher=] |volume=19 |pages=97–119}}</ref> The ], taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wójcik |first=Zbigniew |title=Russian Endeavors for the Polish Crown in the Seventeenth Century |journal=] |jstor=2496635 |doi=10.2307/2496635 |publisher=] |volume=41 |number=1 |year=1982 |pages=59–72|s2cid=164176163 }}</ref> In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant ] and prince ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bogolitsyna |first1=Anna |last2=Pichler |first2=Bernhard |last3=Vendl |first3=Alfred |last4=Mikhailov |first4=Alexander |last5=Sizov |first5=Boris |title=Investigation of the Brass Monument to Minin and Pozharsky, Red Square, Moscow |journal=Studies in Conservation |publisher=] |year=2009 |volume=54 |number=1 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.1179/sic.2009.54.1.12 |jstor=27867061 |s2cid=138066784}}</ref> The ] acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orchard |first=G. Edward |title=The Election of Michael Romanov |jstor=4210028 |publisher=] |journal=] |volume=67 |number=3 |date=July 1989 |pages=378–402}}</ref> | |||
During and after the disintegration of the USSR when wide ranging reforms including privatisation and | |||
market and trade liberalization were being undertaken,<ref name=OECD/> the Russian economy went through a major crisis. This period was characterized by deep contraction of output, with GDP declining by roughly 50 percent between 1990 and the end of 1995 and industrial output declining by over 50 percent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Economic Conditions in Mid-1996|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ru0119)}}</ref><ref name=OECD/> In October 1991, Yeltsin announced that Russia would proceed with radical, market-oriented reform along the lines of "]", as recommended by the United States and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/05/12/edme.php|title=Russia: Shock Therapy Isn't the Way to Promote Democracy|publisher=International Herald Tribune|author=Melvin Fagen|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED91F39F932A15751C1A965958260|title= U.S. is abandoning 'shock therapy' for the Russians|author=Elaine Sciolino|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> ] were abolished, ] was started. Millions were plunged into poverty. According to the World Bank, whereas 1.5% of the population was living in poverty in the late Soviet era, by mid-1993 between 39% and 49% of the population was living in poverty.<ref name=worldbank>{{cite book|author=Branko Milanovic|title=Income, Inequality, and Poverty During the Transformation from Planned to Market Economy|publisher=The World Bank|date=1998|pages=186–189}}</ref> Delays in wage payment became a chronic problem with millions being paid months, even years late. Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's ]s, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia pays off USSR’s entire debt, sets to become crediting country|publisher=Pravda.ru|url=http://english.pravda.ru/russia/economics/22-08-2006/84038-paris-club-0|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The privatization process largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to groups of individuals with inside connections in the Government and the ]. Violent criminal groups often took over state enterprises, clearing the way through assassinations or extortion. ] of government officials became an everyday rule of life. Many of the newly rich mobsters and businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Clawing Its Way Back to Life (int'l edition)|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_48/b3657252.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The long and wrenching depression was coupled with social decay. Social services collapsed and the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed. The early and mid-1990s was marked by extreme lawlessness. Criminal gangs and organized crime flourished and murders and other violent crime spiraled out of control.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sokolov|first=Vsevolod|title=From Guns to Briefcases: The Evolution of Russian Organized Crime|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=XXI|issue=No 1|date=Spring 2004|url=http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/articles/wpj04-1/sokolov.htm|accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the ].<ref name="Siberia">{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/meeting-of-frontiers/articles-and-essays/exploration/russian-discovery-of-siberia/ |title=The Russian Discovery of Siberia |year=2000 |publisher=] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330122944/https://www.loc.gov/collections/meeting-of-frontiers/articles-and-essays/exploration/russian-discovery-of-siberia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, ], offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, ]; whose acceptance of this offer led to another ]. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the ], leaving the eastern part, (] and ]) under Russian rule.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frost |first=Robert I. |title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 |date=2000 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-58206-429-4 |page=13}}</ref> In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. ] pushed eastward primarily along the ], and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the ], along the ], and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.<ref name="Siberia"/> In 1648, ] became the first European to navigate through the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Oliver |first=James A. |title=The Bering Strait Crossing: A 21st Century Frontier between East and West |year=2006 |publisher=Information Architects |pages=36–37 |isbn=978-0-9546995-8-1}}</ref> | |||
] under construction. ] is the world's most expensive city to live in.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sahadi|first=Jeanne|title=Moscow remains the world’s most expensive city while London moves up from fifth to second place|publisher =CNN|url=http://money.cnn.com/2007/06/15/pf/most_expensive_cities/index.htm|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>]] | |||
In 1993 a ] pushed Russia to the brink of civil war. President Boris Yeltsin illegally dissolved the country's legislature which opposed his moves to consolidate power and push forward with unpopular ] reforms; in response, legislators barricaded themselves inside the ] and major protests against Yeltsin's government resulted in the most deadly street fighting seen in Moscow since the October Revolution. With military support, Yeltsin sent the army to besiege the parliament building and used tanks and artillery to eject the legislators. | |||
=== Imperial Russia === | |||
The 1990s were plagued by armed ethnic conflicts in the ].<ref name=nuff/> Such conflicts took a form of separatist Islamist insurrections against federal power (most notably in ]), or of ethnic/clan conflicts between local groups (e.g., in ] between ] and ], or between different clans in Chechnya).<ref name=nuff/> Since the ] separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent ] (], ]) has been fought between disparate Chechen rebel groups and the Russian military.<ref name=nuff/> Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by Chechen separatists, most notably the ], ] and ], caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention. High budget deficits and the ] caused the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/aslund0108.pdf|title=Russia's Capitalist Revolution|first=Anders|last=Aslund|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> and resulted in further GDP decline.<ref name=OECD>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/7/50/2452793.pdf|accessdate=2008-02-24}}</ref> On ], ] Boris Yeltsin resigned from the presidency, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister, ], who then won the 2000 election. Putin won popularity for suppressing the Chechen insurgency, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus.<ref name=cia/> High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, alleviating the standard of living and increasing Russia's clout on the world stage.<ref name=cia/> While many reforms made under Putin’s rule have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,<ref>{{cite web|first=Daniel|last=Treisman|title=Is Russia's Experiment with Democracy Over?|url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=16294|publisher=UCLA International Institute|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref> Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia,<ref>{{cite web|first=Norman|last=Stone|title=No wonder they like Putin|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article2994651.ece|publisher=The Times|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref> as well as recognition abroad.<ref>{{cite web|title=Time's Person of the Year 2007|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/personoftheyear/|publisher=Time Inc.|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Russian Empire}} | |||
] and ] of Russia from the ] of ] to the death of ]]] | |||
Under ], Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the ] (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded ] as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, ], which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.<ref name="Curtis-1998-2">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/4.htm |title=Russia – Early Imperial Russia |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=25 June 2021 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814170621/https://countrystudies.us/russia/4.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> He was succeeded by ] (1725–1727), followed by ] (1727–1730), and ]. The reign of Peter I's daughter ] in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the ] (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran ], reaching Berlin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Hans |title=Germany and Russia |journal=Current History |volume=38 |number=221 |pages=1–5 |year=1960 |publisher=U of California Press |doi=10.1525/curh.1960.38.221.1 |jstor=45310370 |s2cid=249687838 }}</ref> However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the ] by pro-Prussian ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raeff |first=Marc |title=The Domestic Policies of Peter III and his Overthrow |journal=] |volume=75 |number=5 |date=June 1970 |pages=1289–1310 |publisher=] |jstor=1844479 |doi=10.2307/1844479}}</ref> | |||
] ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the ]. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and ], making it the most populous country in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Perkins |first=James Breck |title=The Partition of Poland |jstor=1833615 |doi=10.2307/1833615 |doi-access=free |volume=2 |number=1 |date=October 1896 |pages=76–92 |journal=] |publisher=]}}</ref> In the south, after the successful ] against the ], Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=M.S. |jstor=4205010 |title=The Great Powers and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1783–1784 |journal=] |date=December 1958 |volume=37 |number=88 |pages=17–41 |publisher=]}}</ref> As a result of victories over ] through the ], by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Behrooz |first=Maziar |title=Revisiting the Second Russo-Iranian War (1826–1828): Causes and Perceptions |jstor=24482847 |journal=] |year=2013 |volume=46 |number=3 |pages=359–381 |publisher=]|doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.758502 |s2cid=143736977}}</ref> Catherine's successor, her son ], was ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ragsdale |first=Hugh |title=Russia, Prussia, and Europe in the Policy of Paul I |year=1992 |pages=81–118 |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |jstor=41046596 |volume=31 |number=1 |publisher=]}}</ref> Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with ] (1801–1825) ] from the weakened Sweden in 1809,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Finland |jstor=1945868 |doi-access=free |doi=10.2307/1945868 |publisher=] |date=August 1910 |volume=4 |number=3 |pages=350–364 |journal=]}}</ref> and of ] from the Ottomans in 1812.<ref>{{cite journal |last=King |first=Charles |title=Moldova and the New Bessarabian Questions |jstor=40396520 |journal=] |volume=49 |number=7 |pages=135–139 |date=July 1993 |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs (])}}</ref> In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/harriman/1899/exploration.html |title=Exploration and Settlement on the Alaskan Coast |publisher=] |access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319205223/http://www.pbs.org/harriman/1899/exploration.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1803–1806, the ] was made.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McCartan |first=E. F. |title=The Long Voyages-Early Russian Circumnavigation |journal=] |volume=22 |number=1 |year=1963 |pages=30–37 |doi=10.2307/126593 |jstor=126593}}</ref> In 1820, ] discovered the continent of ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |title=Who really discovered Antarctica? Depends who you ask. |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=12 January 2022 |work=] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-discovered-antarctica-depends-who-ask|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305011853/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-discovered-antarctica-depends-who-ask|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 March 2021}}</ref> | |||
==Government and politics== | |||
{{main|Government of Russia|Politics of Russia}} | |||
]]] | |||
====Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts==== | |||
According to the ], which was adopted by national referendum on ], ] following the ], Russia is a ] and a ] ], wherein the ] is the ]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 80, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the ] is the ]. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a ]. ] is exercised by the government.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 110, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-07.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> ] is vested in both the ] and the two chambers of the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 94)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The government is regulated by a system of ] defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as a ] for the people of the Russian Federation. | |||
]'s retreat from Moscow'' by ] (1851)]] | |||
During the ], Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The ] at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold ] led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European ] faced utter destruction. Led by ] and ], the ] ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the ], ultimately entering Paris.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kroll |first1=Mark J. |last2=Toombs |first2=Leslie A. |last3=Wright |first3=Peter |title=Napoleon's Tragic March Home from Moscow: Lessons in Hubris |date=February 2000 |journal=The Academy of Management Executive |jstor=4165613 |pages=117–128 |publisher=] |volume=14 |number=1}}</ref> ] controlled Russia's delegation at the ], which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghervas |first=Stella |title=The Long Shadow of the Congress of Vienna |jstor=26266203 |publisher=] |journal=Journal of Modern European History |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=458–463 |year=2015|doi=10.17104/1611-8944-2015-4-458 |s2cid=151713355 }}</ref> | |||
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive ] of 1825.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Grey |first=Ian |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/decembrists-russia%E2%80%99s-first-revolutionaries |title=The Decembrists: Russia's First Revolutionaries |magazine=] |date=9 September 1973 |volume=23 |issue=9 |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330122946/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/decembrists-russia%E2%80%99s-first-revolutionaries |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of the conservative reign of ] (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vincent |first=J.R. Vincent |title=The Parliamentary Dimension of the Crimean War |journal=] |publisher=] |pages=37–49 |volume=31 |year=1981 |jstor=3679044 |doi=10.2307/3679044|s2cid=153338264 }}</ref> | |||
], part of the ] and the working residence of the Russian president]] | |||
====Great liberal reforms and capitalism==== | |||
The federal government is composed of three branches: | |||
Nicholas's successor ] (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zenkovsky |first=Serge A. |author-link=Serge Aleksandrovich Zenkovsky |title=The Emancipation of the Serfs in Retrospect |jstor=126692 |doi=10.2307/126692 |publisher=] |volume=20 |number=4 |journal=] |date=October 1961 |pages=280–293}}</ref> These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the ] from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gunter |first=Michael M. |author-link=Michael Gunter |title=War and Diplomacy: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin |pages=231–233 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2013.0031 |journal=] |publisher=] |issn=1527-8050 |date=March 2013 |volume=24 |number=1 |s2cid=159687214}}</ref> During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and ] colluded over ] and its neighbouring territories in ] and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fromkin |first=David |author-link=David Fromkin |title=The Great Game in Asia |year=1980 |volume=58 |number=4 |pages=936–951 |jstor=20040512 |doi=10.2307/20040512 |journal=]}}</ref> | |||
* ]: The ] ], made up of the ] and the ] makes ], ], approves treaties, has the ], and has power of ], by which it can remove sitting members of the government. | |||
* ]: The ] is the ] of the military, can veto ] before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. | |||
* ]: The ], ], ] and lower ], whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem ]. | |||
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was ] in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank |first=Goodwin |journal= ] |jstor=309128 |title=Review: |doi=10.2307/309128 |pages=641–43 |year=1995 |volume=39 |number=4}}</ref> The reign of his son ] (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taranovski |first=Theodore |title=Alexander III and his Bureaucracy: The Limitations on Autocratic Power |journal=] |volume=26 |number=2/3 |year=1984 |pages=207–219 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1984.11091776 |jstor=40868293}}</ref> | |||
According to the ], constitutional justice in the court is based on the equality of all citizens,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 19, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> judges are independent and subject only to the law,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 120, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> trials are to be open and the accused is guaranteed a defense.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 123, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Since 1996, Russia has instituted a moratorium on the ], although capital punishment has not been abolished by law. | |||
====Constitutional monarchy and World War==== | |||
The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 81, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> (eligible for a second term but constitutionally barred for a third consecutive term);<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 81, para. 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> election last held 2 March 2008. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president. | |||
Under last Russian emperor, ] (1894–1917), the ] was triggered by the humiliating failure of the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Esthus |first=Raymond A. |title=Nicholas II and the Russo-Japanese War |jstor=129919 |doi=10.2307/129919 |volume=40 |number=4 |journal=] |date=October 1981 |pages=396–411}}</ref> The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (]), including granting ] and ], the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doctorow |first=Gilbert S. |title=The Fundamental State Laws of 23 April 1906 |journal=] |year=1976 |jstor=127655 |doi=10.2307/127655 |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=33–52}}</ref> | |||
The national legislature is the ], which consists of two chambers; the 450-member ]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, para. 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the 176-member ]. Leading political parties in Russia include ], the ], the ] and ]. | |||
=== Revolution and civil war === | |||
==Subdivisions== | |||
{{main|Russian Revolution|Russian Civil War|Dissolution of the Russian Empire}} | |||
{{Main|Subdivisions of Russia}} | |||
] and the ] were ] by the Bolsheviks in 1918.]] | |||
In 1914, ] in response to ]'s declaration of war on Russia's ally ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williamson|first=Samuel R. Jr.|author-link=Samuel R. Williamson Jr. |title=The Origins of World War I |jstor=204825 |doi=10.2307/204825 |journal=] |year=1988 |publisher=The ] |volume=18 |number=4 |pages=795–818}}</ref> and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its ] allies.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902–1914 |journal=] |publisher=] |jstor=1836520 |doi-access=free |doi=10.2307/1836520 |volume=29 |number=3 |pages=449–473 |date=April 1924 |last1=Schmitt |first1=Bernadotte E. |author1-link=Bernadotte Everly Schmitt }}</ref> In 1916, the ] of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schindler |first=John |year=2003 |title=Steamrollered in Galicia: The Austro-Hungarian Army and the Brusilov Offensive, 1916. |journal=] |volume=10 |number=1 |pages=27–59 |doi=10.1191/0968344503wh260oa |jstor=26061940 |s2cid=143618581}}</ref> However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, ], and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the ] of 1917, carried out in two major acts.<ref name="Curtis-1998-5">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/8.htm |title=Russia – Revolutions and Civil War |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=25 June 2021 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814182853/https://countrystudies.us/russia/8.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In early 1917, ] was ]; he and his family were imprisoned and ] during the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Walsh |first=Edmund |author-link=Edmund A. Walsh |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1928/03/the-last-days-of-the-romanovs/303877/ |title=The Last Days of the Romanovs |work=] |date=March 1928 |access-date=14 January 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124604/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1928/03/the-last-days-of-the-romanovs/303877/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosse |first=W. E. |title=Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |jstor=149631 |publisher=] |volume=15 |number=4 |pages=408–419 |date=April 1964}}</ref> and proclaimed the ]. On {{OldStyleDateNY|19 January|6 January}}, 1918, the ] declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the ].<ref name="Curtis-1998-5" /> | |||
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the ], wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called '']''. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the ], led by ] leader ], overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first ].<ref name="Curtis-1998-5"/> The ] broke out between the ] ] and the Bolsheviks with its ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Figes |first=Orlando |author-link=Orlando Figes |title=The Red Army and Mass Mobilization during the Russian Civil War 1918–1920 |jstor=650938 |journal=] |publisher=] |pages=168–211 |date=November 1990 |number=190|doi=10.1093/past/129.1.168 }}</ref> In the aftermath of signing the ] that concluded hostilities with the ] of ]; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.<ref>{{cite web |last=Figes |first=Orlando |author-link=Orlando Figes |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/russian-revolution-history-lenin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111202/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/russian-revolution-history-lenin |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2021 |title=From Tsar to U.S.S.R.: Russia's Chaotic Year of Revolution |work=] |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=27 November 2021 }}</ref> | |||
;Federal subjects | |||
] speaks in Moscow, 1920, with ] leaning against the podium.]] | |||
The Russian Federation comprises 83 ].<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 65, para. 1) In 1993, when the Constitution was adopted, there were 89 subjects listed. Some of them were later ]|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, para.2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. | |||
The ] launched an unsuccessful ] in support of anti-communist forces.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carley |first=Michael Jabara |date=November 1989 |jstor=40106089 |title=Allied Intervention and the Russian Civil War, 1917–1922 |journal=] |volume=11 |number=4 |pages=689–700 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1989.9640530 }}</ref> In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2021 |title=How the Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union |work=] |first=Erin |last=Blakemore |date=2 September 2020 |access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref> By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention#ref283723 |title=Russian Civil War – Casualties and consequences of the war |encyclopedia=] |access-date=14 January 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124604/https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention#ref283723 |url-status=live }}</ref> Millions became ]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaufuss |first=Tatiana |title=The White Russian Refugees |journal=The Annals of the ] |date=May 1939 |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |publisher=] |doi=10.1177/000271623920300106 |jstor=1021884|s2cid=143704019 }}</ref> and the ] claimed up to five million victims.<ref>{{cite web |last=Haller |first=Francis |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm |title=Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921 |work=] |publisher=] |date=8 December 2003 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314134441/https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
*46 ]s (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature. | |||
*21 ]: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities. | |||
*Nine ]s (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts. | |||
*Four ]s (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of ], all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part. | |||
*One ] (the ]): originally autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic. | |||
*Two ] (] and ]): major cities that function as separate regions. | |||
=== Soviet Union === | |||
;Federal districts and economic regions | |||
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union}} | |||
Federal subjects are grouped into seven ], each administered by an envoy appointed by the ].<ref name="OkerFD">{{lang|ru|"Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов" (ОК 024–95) введённый 1 января 1997 г., в ред. Изменения № 05/2001. Секция I. Федеральные округа}} (''Russian Classificaton of Economic Regions'' (OK 024–95) of ], ] as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. Section I. Federal Districts)</ref> Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws. For economic and statistical purposes the federal subjects are grouped into twelve ].<ref name="OkerER">{{lang|ru|"Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов" (ОК 024–95) введённый 1 января 1997 г., в ред. Изменения № 05/2001. Секция II. Экономические районы}} (''Russian Classificaton of Economic Regions'' (OK 024–95) of ], ] as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. Section II. Economic Regions)</ref> Economic regions and their parts sharing common economic trends are in turn grouped into ]. | |||
] |
] (red) within the ] in 1936]] | ||
== |
====Command economy and Soviet society==== | ||
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides ] the ], by joining the ] into a single state with the ], ], and ] republics.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Szporluk |first=Roman |title=Nationalities and the Russian Problem in the U.S.S.R.: an Historical Outline |jstor=24356607 |publisher=Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board |journal=] |volume=27 |number=1 |pages=22–40 |year=1973}}</ref> Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of ]; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brzezinski |first=Zbigniew |title=The Soviet Union: World Power of a New Type |jstor=1174124 |doi=10.2307/1174124 |volume=35 |number=3 |year=1984 |pages=147–159 |journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia|Armed Forces of the Russian Federation}} | |||
] and ] signing ]]] | |||
Following ] in 1924, a ] was designated to take charge. Eventually ], the ], managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Glassman |first=Leo M. |title=Stalin's Rise to Power |date=April 1931 |pages=73–77 |publisher=] |jstor=45336496 |journal=] |volume=34 |number=1|doi=10.1525/curh.1931.34.1.73 |s2cid=248843930 }}</ref> ], the main proponent of ], was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Getty |first=J Arch. |title=Trotsky in Exile: The Founding of the Fourth International |jstor=151989 |pages=24–35 |publisher=] |volume=38 |number=1 |date=January 1986 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies)}}</ref> and Stalin's idea of ] became the official line.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/47659/1/Socialism%20in%20One%20Country%20Redacted.pdf |title=Socialism in One Country: A Study of Pragmatism and Ideology in the Soviet 1920s |publisher=] |last=Bensley |first=Michael |year=2014 |access-date=26 June 2021 |archive-date=26 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626142120/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/47659/1/Socialism%20in%20One%20Country%20Redacted.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kuromiya |first=Hirosaki |title=Accounting for the Great Terror |jstor=41051345 |publisher=] |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |year=2005 |pages=86–101 |volume=53 |number=1}}</ref> | |||
The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as continuing the legal personality of the former Soviet Union.<ref name=uk>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744935436|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat on the ], membership in other international organizations, the rights and obligations under international treaties and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. It maintains diplomatic relations with 178 countries and has 140 embassies.<ref>{{cite web|title="News From Russia", Issue No. 4|publisher =The Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of India|url=http://www.india.mid.ru/nfr2003/nf07.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia's foreign policy is determined by the ] and implemented by the ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Kosachev|first=Konstantin|title=Russian Foreign Policy Vertical|publisher=Russia In Global Affairs|url=http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/numbers/8/578.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
====Stalinism and modernization==== | |||
As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security, and plays a major role in resolving international conflicts by participating in the ], the ] with ], promoting the resolution of the ] and resolving ] issues. Russia is a member of the ] (G8) industrialized nations, the ], ] and ]. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as the ], ], ], and the ]. President ] has advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of ].<ref>{{ru_icon}} </ref> Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile relationship with ]. The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.<ref>{{cite web|title=NATO-Russia relations|publisher =NATO|url=http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/topic.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a ], ], and ] of ]. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to ], including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=An Assessment of the Sources and Uses of Gulag Forced Labour 1929–1956 |jstor=151474 |publisher=] |pages=51–87 |volume=33 |number=1 |date=January 1981 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies)}}</ref> and millions were ] to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kreindler |first=Isabelle |title=The Soviet Deported Nationalities: A Summary and an Update |jstor=151700 |publisher=] |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |volume=38 |number=3 |date=July 1986 |pages=387–405}}</ref> The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,<ref>{{cite book | last=Zadoks | first=J.C. | title=On the political economy of plant disease epidemics: Capita selecta in historical epidemiology | publisher=Wageningen Academic Publishers | year=2008 | isbn=978-90-8686-653-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBLTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 | access-date=8 December 2022 | page=171 | archive-date=25 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225095407/https://books.google.com/books?id=EBLTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 | url-status=live }}</ref> led to the ]; which killed 5.7<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Robert W.|last2=Wheatcroft|first2=Stephen G.|title=The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=415|doi=10.1057/9780230273979|isbn=9780230238558}}</ref> to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolowyna |first=Oleh |date=October 2020 |title=A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union |journal=] |volume=23 |number=4 |pages=501–526 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741 |s2cid=226316468}}</ref> The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Excess Deaths and Industrialization: A Realist Theory of Stalinist Economic Development in the 1930s |jstor=260849 |journal=] |year=1988 |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=277–289 |publisher=]|doi=10.1177/002200948802300207 |pmid=11617302 |s2cid=26592600 }}</ref> | |||
] at an exercise in ]]] | |||
====World War II and United Nations==== | |||
Russia assumed control of Soviet assets abroad and most of the Soviet Union's production facilities and defense industries are located in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 2—Investing In Russian Defense Conversion: Obstacles and Opportunities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/industry/docs/rus95/rdbd4ch2.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The Russian military is divided into the ], ], and ]. There are also three independent arms of service: ], ], and the ]. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.<ref name=iiss/> Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world.<ref name=fas>{{cite web|title=Status of Nuclear Powers and Their Nuclear Capabilities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/summary.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern ] force.<ref name=fas/> The country has a large and fully indigenous ], producing all of its own military equipment. Russia is the world's top supplier of weapons, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<ref>{{cite web|title=US drives world military spending to record high|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200606/s1661277.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia arms exports could exceed $7 bln in 2007 - Ivanov|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-01-27|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20071224/93979601.html}}</ref> Following the Soviet practice, it is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be ] for two years' Armed Forces service, though various problems associated with this is why the armed forces are from 2008 reducing the conscription term from 18 months to 12, and plan to increase contract servicemen to compose 70% of the armed forces by 2010.<ref name=cia/> Defense expenditure has quadrupled over the past six years.<ref>{{citation|publisher=FBIS: Informatsionno-Analiticheskoye Agentstvo Marketing i Konsalting|date=14 March 2006|title=Russia: Assessment, Adam Baltin Interview, Opinion Poll on State of Armed Forces}}</ref> Official government military spending for 2008 is $40 billion,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080226/100080440.html|title=Russian defense spending to grow 20% in 2008, to $40 bln|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-03-13}}</ref> though various sources, including US intelligence,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abcnews.go.com/WN/story?id=3728855|title=Rice: Russia's Military Moves 'a Problem'|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> and the ],<ref name=iiss>{{cite journal|journal=International Institute for Strategic Studies|title=Overview of the major Asian Powers (page 31)|url=http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/060626_asia_balance_powers.pdf|accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm|publisher=Global Security|title=World Wide Military Expenditures|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> | |||
{{main|Soviet Union in World War II}} | |||
Currently, the military is undergoing a major equipment upgrade with about $200 billion (what equals to about $400 billion in PPP dollars) on procurement of military equipment between 2006 and 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,,2009339,00.html|publisher=Guardian|title=Big rise in Russian military spending raises fears of new challenge to west|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> | |||
] submachine guns during the siege of Leningrad in 1942]] | |||
], the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the ].]] | |||
The Soviet Union entered ] on 17 September 1939 with its ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kornat |first=Marek |title=Choosing Not to Choose in 1939: Poland's Assessment of the Nazi-Soviet Pact |jstor=40647041 |publisher=] |volume=31 |number=4 |date=December 2009 |journal=] |pages=771–797|doi=10.1080/07075332.2009.9641172 |s2cid=155068339}}</ref> in accordance with a secret protocol within the ] with ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Geoffrey |title=The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany |jstor=152247 |publisher=] |volume=44 |number=1 |year=1992 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |pages=57–78}}</ref> The Soviet Union later ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Spring |first=D. W. |title=The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939 |jstor=152247 |publisher=] |volume=38 |number=2 |date=April 1986 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |pages=207–226}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Saburova |first=Irina |title=The Soviet Occupation of the Baltic States |journal=] |volume=14 |number=1 |pages=36–49 |publisher=] |doi=10.2307/126075 |jstor=126075 |date=January 1955}}</ref> as well as ].<ref>{{cite book |last=King |first=Charles |title=The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture |date=1999 |publisher=] |url=https://archive.org/details/moldovansromania00king_0/page/n3/mode/2up |isbn= 978-0-817-99791-5}}</ref>{{rp|91–95}} On 22 June 1941, Germany ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stolfi |first=Russel H. S. |title=Barbarossa Revisited: A Critical Reappraisal of the Opening Stages of the Russo-German Campaign (June–December 1941) |jstor=1906049 |publisher=] |volume=54 |number=1 |pages=27–46 |journal=] |date=March 1982|doi=10.1086/244076 |s2cid=143690841 |hdl=10945/44218 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> opening the ], the largest theater of World War II.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=David |title=The Eastern Front Campaign: An Operational Level Analysis |publisher=Eschenburg Press |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-789-12193-3}}</ref>{{rp|7}} | |||
Eventually, some 5 million ] troops were captured by the Nazis;<ref>{{cite book |last=Chapoutot |first=Johann |title=The Law of Blood: Thinking and Acting as a Nazi |date=2018 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-674-66043-4}}</ref>{{rp|272}} the latter deliberately ] 3.3 million Soviet ]s, and a vast number of civilians, as the "]" sought to fulfil ].<ref>{{cite book |last=D. Snyder |first=Timothy |location=New York |title=Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin |date=2010 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-465-00239-9}}</ref>{{rp|175–186}} Although the ] had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Assmann |first=Kurt |title=The Battle for Moscow, Turning Point of the War |jstor=20030251 |doi=10.2307/20030251 |volume=28 |number=2 |pages=309–326 |publisher=] |date=January 1950 |journal=]}}</ref> Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the ] in the winter of 1942–1943,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clairmont |first=Frederic F. |title=Stalingrad: Hitler's Nemesis |jstor=4413752 |volume=38 |number=27 |pages=2819–2823 |date=July 2003 |journal=]}}</ref> and then in the ] in the summer of 1943.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mulligan |first=Timothy P. |title=Spies, Ciphers and 'Zitadelle': Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943 |jstor=260932 |pages=235–260 |volume=22 |number=2 |journal=] |publisher=] |date=April 1987|doi=10.1177/002200948702200203 |s2cid=162709461}}</ref> Another German failure was the ], in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Krypton |first=Constantin |title=The Siege of Leningrad |journal=] |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=255–265 |publisher=] |doi=10.2307/125859 |jstor=125859 |date=January 1955}}</ref> Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and ] in May 1945.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/soviet-victory-battle-berlin-finished-nazi-germany |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320151932/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/soviet-victory-battle-berlin-finished-nazi-germany |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 March 2021 |title=The Soviet victory in the Battle of Berlin finished Nazi Germany |work=] |first1=Neil |last1=Kagan |first2=Stephen |last2=Hyslop |date=7 May 2020 |access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> In August 1945, the Red Army ] and ] from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Morton|first=Louis|title=Soviet Intervention in the War with Japan|volume=40|number=4|date=July 1962|pages=653–662|publisher=]|journal=]|doi=10.2307/20029588|jstor=20029588}}</ref> | |||
==Economy== | |||
{{main|Economy of Russia}} | |||
], an example of the resurging civil aviation industry]] | |||
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-s-monumental-tribute-to-the-great-patriotic-war-/30599462.html |title=Russia's Monumental Tributes To The 'Great Patriotic War' |publisher=] |date=8 May 2020 |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331102407/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-s-monumental-tribute-to-the-great-patriotic-war-/30599462.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the ], which was the foundation of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|author-link=John Lewis Gaddis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd|publisher=]|date=1972|location=New York|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9}}</ref>{{rp|27}} During the war, ],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |last2=Maksudov |first2=S. |author1-link=Michael Ellman |title=Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note |journal=] |year=1994 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=671–680 |doi=10.1080/09668139408412190 |pmid=12288331 |jstor=152934}}</ref> accounting for about half of all ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cumins |first=Keith |title=Cataclysm: The War on the Eastern Front 1941–45 |publisher=Helion and Company |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-907-67723-6}}</ref>{{rp|295}} The ] and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Harrison |first=Mark |date=14 April 2010 |title=The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression |url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/pp2011postprint.pdf |website=] |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021204316/https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/pp2011postprint.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.<ref name="Reiman-2016">{{cite book |last=Reiman |first=Michael |title=About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present |chapter=The USSR as the New World Superpower |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |date=2016 |publisher=] |pages=169–176 |jstor=j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |isbn=978-3-631-67136-8 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051631/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Since the turn of the century, rising oil prices, increased foreign investment, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have bolstered economic growth in Russia. The country ended 2007 with its ninth straight year of growth, averaging 7% annually since the ].<ref name=cia/> In 2007, Russia's GDP was $2.076 trillion (est. ]), the 7th highest in the world, with GDP rising 8.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=ng.expert.ru/articles/2008/02/14/putin/|title=Five Hours with the President|publisher=Expert|author=Vera Kholmogorova|accessdate=2008-02-17}}</ref> from the previous year. Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineral extraction and exports.<ref name=cia/> Approximately 12.5% of Russians remained below the federally-designated poverty line in 2007,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=RIA Novosti|title=Putin says direct investment in Russia totals 3.3% of GDP|url=http://en.rian.ru/business/20071227/94382724.html|accessdate =2008-01-01}}</ref> though this is significantly down from 40% in 1998 at the worst of the post-Soviet collapse.<ref name=worldbank/> The average salary in Russia was $540 (about $920 PPP) per month in August 2007, up from $65 per month in August 1999.<ref>{{cite web|title=Putin’s Economy—Eight Years On|publisher=russiaprofile.org|url=http://www.russiaprofile.org/page.php?pageid=Business&articleid=a1187177738|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
====Superpower and Cold War==== | |||
] petrol station. Russia is the world's leading natural gas exporter and the second leading oil exporter.]] | |||
]" at the ] in February 1945, ], ] and ]]] | |||
] moves to launch pad, about to carry the first resident crew to the ]]] | |||
After World War II, according to the ], the ] occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including ] and the eastern regions of ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Wills |first=Matthew |url=https://daily.jstor.org/potsdam-origins-cold-war/ |title=Potsdam and the Origins of the Cold War |work=] Daily |date=6 August 2015 |access-date=28 January 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051631/https://daily.jstor.org/potsdam-origins-cold-war/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Dependent communist governments were installed in the ] satellite states.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bunce |first=Valerie |title=The Empire Strikes Back: The Evolution of the Eastern Bloc from a Soviet Asset to a Soviet Liability |jstor=2706633 |journal=] |volume=39 |number=1 |year=1985 |pages=1–46 |publisher=The ]|doi=10.1017/S0020818300004859 |s2cid=154309589 |doi-access=free }}</ref> After becoming the world's second ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Holloway |first=David |title=Entering the Nuclear Arms Race: The Soviet Decision to Build the Atomic Bomb, 1939–1945 |publisher=] |volume=11 |number=2 |date=May 1981 |pages=159–197 |journal=]|doi=10.1177/030631278101100201 |s2cid=145715873}}</ref> the Soviet Union established the ] alliance,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolfe |first=Thomas W. |title=The Warsaw Pact in Evolution |date=May 1966 |volume=22 |number=5 |pages=191–198 |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs (]) |journal=] |jstor=40393859}}</ref> and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the ], with the rivalling United States and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wagg |first1=Stephen |last2=Andrews |first2=David |title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War |year=2007 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-134-24167-5 |page=11}}</ref> | |||
====Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development==== | |||
Russia has the world's largest natural gas reserves, the second largest coal reserves and the eighth largest oil reserves. It is the world's leading natural gas exporter and the second leading oil exporter. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad.<ref name=cia/> Since 2003, however, exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably.<ref name=nuff/> Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will drop to 3.7% by 2011.<ref name=fixedassets/> Russia is also considered well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461_page_2.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The country has more ] graduates than any other country in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=CEE Biweekly (page 6)|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics, UniCredit New Europe Research Network|url=http://www.unicredit-tiriac.ro/pdf/CEE-Biweekly_07-05-24.pdf|accessdate=2008-03-28}}</ref> | |||
After ] in 1953 and a short period of ], the new leader ] denounced ] and launched the policy of ], releasing many political prisoners from the ] labour camps.<ref>{{cite book |first=Polly |last=Jones |title=The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-28347-7 |pages=2–4}}</ref> The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reid |first=Susan E. |year=1997 |title=Destalinization and Taste, 1953–1963 |publisher=] |jstor=1316131 |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=177–201 |journal=]|doi=10.1093/jdh/10.2.177 }}</ref> At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States ] in Turkey and Soviet ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fuelling |first=Cody |url=https://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=issr |title=To the Brink: Turkish and Cuban Missiles during the Height of the Cold War |journal=International Social Science Review |publisher=] |volume=93 |number=1 |access-date=28 May 2021 |archive-date=13 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313053405/https://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=issr |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial ], '']'', thus starting the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ussr-launches-sputnik/ |title=USSR Launches Sputnik |date=7 July 2021 |work=] |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606045341/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ussr-launches-sputnik/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Russian ] ] became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the '']'' crewed spacecraft on ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold |title=Yuri Gagarin: the spaceman who came in from the cold |last=Dowling |first=Stephen |date=12 April 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051631/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In the first half of 2007, foreign investment in the Russian economy doubled year-on-year, reaching $60.3 billion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mayor says foreign investment in Moscow to double in 2007|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/business/20070914/78721264.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In 2000 total investment in fixed assets was $40 billion, giving growth of 300% by 2006 when it reached $120 billion.<ref name=fixedassets>{{cite web|title=Russia fixed asset investment to reach $370 bln by 2010 - Kudrin|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/business/20070921/80301609.html|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the tax burden on people, and dramatically increased state revenue.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tavernise|first=Sabrina|title=Russia Imposes Flat Tax on Income, and Its Coffers Swell|publisher=The New York Times|date=March 23, 2002|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E0DC163BF930A15750C0A9649C8B63|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia has a ] rate of 13 percent. This ranks it as the country with the second most attractive personal tax system for single managers in the world after the ], according to a 2007 survey by investment services firm ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Rabushka|first=Alvin|title=The Flat Tax at Work in Russia: Year Three|publisher =Hoover Institution|url=http://www.hoover.org/research/russianecon/essays/5144587.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Global personal taxation comparison survey – market rankings|publisher=Mercer (consulting firms)|url=http://www.mercer.com.au/pressrelease/details.jhtml/dynamic/idContent/1287670|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The federal budget has run surpluses since 2001 and ended 2007 with a surplus of 6% of GDP.<ref name=cia/> Over the past several years, Russia has used oil revenues from its ] to prepay all Soviet-era sovereign debt to ] creditors and the IMF.<ref name=cia/> Oil export earnings have allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12 billion in 1999 to some $470 billion at the end of 2007, the third largest reserves in the world.<ref name=cia/> The country has also been able to substantially reduce its formerly massive foreign debt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia's foreign debt down 31.3% in Q3—finance ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20061031/55272320.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
====Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation==== | |||
The economic development of the country though has been uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a disproportionately high amount of the country's GDP.<ref name=nuff>{{cite web|title=Nuffield Poultry Study Group—Visit to Russia|work=pg 7|publisher=The BEMB Research and Education Trust|url=http://www.bembtrust.org.uk/Russia%20Report%20no%20app.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Much of Russia, especially indigenous and rural communities in Siberia, lags significantly behind. Nevertheless, the middle class has grown from just 8 million persons in 2000 to 55 million persons in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia is home to the second largest number of billionaires in the world after the United States, gaining 40 billionaires in 2007 for a total of 101.<ref>{{cite_web|accessdate=2008-01-18|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/money/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/money/2008/02/18/bcnrussia118.xml|author=Felix Lowe|title= Deripaska eclipses Abramovich in rich list|publisher=Telegraph}}</ref> | |||
Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of ] ensued, until ] became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the ]. The 1965 ] aimed for partial ] of the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kontorovich |first=Vladimir |title=Lessons of the 1965 Soviet Economic Reform |jstor=151112 |date=April 1988 |pages=308–316 |volume=40 |number=2 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |publisher=]}}</ref> In 1979, after a ] in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |title=Prelude to Invasion: The Soviet Union and the Afghan Communists, 1978–1979 |jstor=40106851 |journal=] |volume=16 |number=1 |date=February 1994 |pages=49–69 |publisher=]|doi=10.1080/07075332.1994.9640668 }}</ref> In May 1988, the ], due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Daley |first=Tad |title=Afghanistan and Gorbachev's Global Foreign Policy |jstor=2644534 |doi=10.2307/2644534 |journal=] |volume=29 |number=5 |date=May 1989 |pages=496–513 |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
====Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty==== | |||
Over the last five years, fixed capital investments have averaged real gains greater than 10% per year and personal incomes have achieved real gains more than 12% per year.<ref name=cia/> During this time, poverty has declined steadily and the middle class has continued to expand.<ref name=cia/> Russia has also improved its international financial position since the 1998 financial crisis.<ref name=cia/> A principal factor in Russia's growth has been the combination of strong growth in productivity, real wages, and consumption.<ref name=imf>{{cite web|last=Lipsky|first=John|title=Statement by John Lipsky, First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund|work=Press Release No. 07/126|publisher=International Monetary Fund|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2007/pr07126.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Despite the country's strong economic performance since 1999, however, the ] lists several challenges facing the Russian economy including diversifying the economy, encouraging the growth of small and medium enterprises, building human capital and improving corporate governance.<ref name=countrybrief/> | |||
] and US President ] in ] during the ], 31 May 1988]] | |||
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader ], who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of '']'' (openness) and '']'' (restructuring) in an attempt to end the ] and to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=McForan |first=D. W. J. |title=Glasnost, Democracy, and Perestroika |jstor=41881835 |journal= International Social Science Review |volume=63 |year=1988 |number=4 |pages=165–174 |publisher=]}}</ref> This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beissinger |first=Mark R. |url=https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mbeissinger/files/beissinger.ceh_.article.pdf |title=Nationalism and the Collapse of Soviet Communism |publisher=] |journal=] |volume=18 |number=3 |pages=331–347 |date=August 2009 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309005074 |access-date=25 June 2021 |jstor=40542830 |s2cid=46642309 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224060339/https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mbeissinger/files/beissinger.ceh_.article.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shleifer |first1=Andrei |last2=Vishny |first2=Robert W. |title=Reversing the Soviet Economic Collapse |year=1991 |pages=341–360 |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=1991 |number=2 |doi=10.2307/2534597 |jstor=2534597 |s2cid=153551739 |url=http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/30723290/1991b_bpea_shleifer_vishny.pdf |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331081228/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/30723290/1991b_bpea_shleifer_vishny.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the ] chose to secede from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dahlburg |first1=John-Thor |last2=Marshall |first2=Tyler |title=Independence for Baltic States: Freedom: Moscow formally recognizes Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, ending half a century of control. Soviets to begin talks soon on new relationships with the three nations |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-09-07-mn-1530-story.html |access-date=28 September 2021 |work=] |date=7 September 1991 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603043522/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-09-07-mn-1530-story.html?_amp=true |archive-date=3 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 17 March, a ] was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-03-19-mn-494-story.html |title=Vote Backs Gorbachev but Not Convincingly: Soviet Union: His plan to preserve federal unity is supported—but so is Yeltsin's for a Russian presidency. |work=] |first=Michael |last=Parks |date=19 March 1991 |access-date=30 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331100735/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-03-19-mn-494-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 1991, ] became the first directly elected ] in Russian history when he was ] President of the Russian SFSR.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/06/14/yeltsin-elected-president-of-russia/8b0dc76b-752c-4e28-a525-45ba6120ff24/ |title=Yeltsin Elected President of Russia |newspaper=] |first=David |last=Remnick |date=14 June 1991 |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=30 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130025538/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/06/14/yeltsin-elected-president-of-russia/8b0dc76b-752c-4e28-a525-45ba6120ff24/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In August 1991, ] by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gibson |first=James L. |title=Mass Opposition to the Soviet Putsch of August 1991: Collective Action, Rational Choice, and Democratic Values in the Former Soviet Union |journal=The American Political Science Review |publisher=] |date=September 1997 |volume=97 |number=3 |pages=671–684 |doi=10.2307/2952082 |jstor=2952082|s2cid=145141360 }}</ref> On 25 December 1991, following the ], along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other ] emerged.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html |title=The Undoing Of The U.S.S.R.: How It Happened |publisher=] |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |date=1 October 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413175407/https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==Demographics== | |||
{{main|Demography of Russia}} | |||
=== Independent Russian Federation === | |||
<div style="font-size: 90%"> | |||
{{Main|History of Russia (1991–present)}} | |||
{| class="wikitable" table style="border:1px #000000;" cellspacing="0" align="left" style="margin-left: 1em" | |||
{{Further|Presidency of Boris Yeltsin|Russia under Vladimir Putin|Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev}} | |||
! style="background:#FF9999;" colspan="2"|Ethnic composition (2002) <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.1. National composition of population|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
====Transition to a market economy and political crises==== | |||
|]||79.8% | |||
] takes the oath of office as president on his ], with ] looking over, 2000.]] | |||
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including ] and ] were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shleifer |first1=Andrei |last2=Treisman |first2=Daniel |year=2005 |title=A Normal Country: Russia After Communism |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shleifer/files/normal_jep.pdf |journal=] |volume=19 |number=1 |pages=151–174 |publisher=] |doi=10.1257/0895330053147949 |access-date=24 November 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112210023/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shleifer/files/normal_jep.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-02/rich-russians-the-rise-of-the-oligarchs/10626236|title=The rise of Russia's oligarchs – and their bid for legitimacy|work=]|first=Joey|last=Watson|date=2 January 2019|access-date=28 May 2021|archive-date=21 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321211740/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-02/rich-russians-the-rise-of-the-oligarchs/10626236|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tikhomirov |first=Vladimir |title=Capital Flight from Post-Soviet Russia |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=49 |number=4 |pages=591–615 |date=June 1997 |doi=10.1080/09668139708412462 |jstor=153715}}</ref> The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the ] plummeted while the ] skyrocketed,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hollander |first=D. |title=In Post-Soviet Russia, Fertility Is on the Decline; Marriage and Childbearing are Occurring Earlier |jstor=2953371 |doi=10.2307/2953371 |pages=92–94 |volume=29 |number=2 |year=1997 |journal=Family Planning Perspectives |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Lincoln C. |last2=Wittgenstein |first2=Friederike |last3=McKeon |first3=Elizabeth |title=The Upsurge of Mortality in Russia: Causes and Policy Implications |jstor=2137719 |doi=10.2307/2137719 |volume=22 |number=3 |pages=517–530 |date=September 1996 |journal=] |publisher=]}}</ref> and millions plunged into poverty;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klugman |first1=Jeni |last2=Braithwaite |first2=Jeanine |title=Poverty in Russia during the Transition: An Overview |jstor=3986388 |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=37–58 |date=February 1998 |journal=The World Bank Research Observer |publisher=]|doi=10.1093/wbro/13.1.37 }}</ref> while extreme corruption,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shlapentokh |first=Vladimir |title=Corruption, the power of state and big business in Soviet and post-Soviet regimes |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |jstor=48610380 |volume=46 |number=1 |date=March 2013 |pages=147–158 |publisher=] |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2012.12.010}}</ref> as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frisby |first=Tanya |title=The Rise of Organised Crime in Russia: Its Roots and Social Significance |date=January 1998 |volume=50 |number=1 |publisher=] |journal=] |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1080/09668139808412522 |jstor=153404}}</ref> | |||
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in ] which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |date=3 October 2018 |title=Russia's 1993 crisis still shaping Kremlin politics, 25 years on |work=] |publisher=] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russias-1993-crisis-still-shaping-kremlin-politics-25-years-on/a-45733546 |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414044222/https://www.dw.com/en/russias-1993-crisis-still-shaping-kremlin-politics-25-years-on/a-45733546 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==== Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization ==== | |||
In December, a ] was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-players-1993-crisis/25125000.html |title=Who Was Who? The Key Players In Russia's Dramatic October 1993 Showdown |publisher=] |date=2 October 2018 |access-date=28 May 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412235932/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-players-1993-crisis/25125000.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the ], both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist ] insurrections.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilhelmsen |first=Julie |year=2005 |title=Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Islamisation of the Chechen Separatist Movement |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=57 |number=1 |pages=35–37 |doi=10.1080/0966813052000314101 |jstor=30043851 |s2cid=153594637 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref> From the time ] separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an ] was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/12/12/chechen-war-reveals-weaknesses-in-yeltsin-russias-new-democracy/073047c5-d04e-41bd-a2bc-d5e8e192d919/|title=Chechen War Reveals Weakness in Yektsubm Russia's New Democracy |newspaper=]|first=Lee|last=Hockstader|date=12 December 1995|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> ] were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.{{efn|Most notably the ], the ], the ], and the ]}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sinai |first=Joshua |title=The Terrorist Threats Against Russia and its Counterterrorism Response Measures |journal=Connections |jstor=26326421 |volume=14 |number=4 |year=2015 |pages=95–102 |publisher=]|doi=10.11610/Connections.14.4.08 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/26-years-on-russia-set-to-repay-all-soviet-unions-foreign-debt |title=26 years on, Russia set to repay all Soviet Union's foreign debt |work=] |date=26 March 2017 |access-date=11 December 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173420/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/26-years-on-russia-set-to-repay-all-soviet-unions-foreign-debt |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lipton |first1=David |last2=Sachs |first2=Jeffrey D. |last3=Mau |first3=Vladimir |last4=Phelps |first4=Edmund S. |year=1992 |title=Prospects for Russia's Economic Reforms |journal=] |volume=1992 |issue=2 |page=213 |doi=10.2307/2534584 |issn=0007-2303 |jstor=2534584 |url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1992/06/1992b_bpea_lipton_sachs_mau_phelps.pdf |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925170637/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1992/06/1992b_bpea_lipton_sachs_mau_phelps.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the ], which resulted in a further GDP decline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiodo |first1=Abbigail J. |last2=Owyang |first2=Michael T. |url=https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/02/11/ChiodoOwyang.pdf |title=A Case Study of a Currency Crisis: The Russian Default of 1998 |pages=7–18 |publisher=] |journal=] |year=2002 |volume=86 |number=6 |access-date=11 December 2021 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401061400/https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/02/11/ChiodoOwyang.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
====Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding==== | |||
{{Further|Putinism}} | |||
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/dec/31/russia.marktran|title=Yeltsin resigns|website=]|date=31 December 1999|access-date=4 April 2023|archive-date=13 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133147/https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/dec/31/russia.marktran|url-status=live}}</ref> handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/01/world/yeltsin-resigns-overview-yeltsin-resigns-naming-putin-acting-president-run-march.html |title=Yeltsin Resigns: The Overview; Yeltsin Resigns, Naming Putin as Acting President To Run in March Election |work=] |first=Celestine |last=Bohlen |date=1 January 2000 |access-date=30 May 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411205641/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/01/world/yeltsin-resigns-overview-yeltsin-resigns-naming-putin-acting-president-run-march.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin then won the ],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/27/world/election-russia-overview-putin-wins-russia-vote-first-round-but-his-majority.html |title=Election in Russia: The Overview; Putin Wins Russia Vote in First Round, But His Majority Is Less Than Expected |work=] |first=Mark |last=Wines |date=27 March 2000 |access-date=30 May 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715224429/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/27/world/election-russia-overview-putin-wins-russia-vote-first-round-but-his-majority.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Loughlin |first1=John |last2=W. Witmer |first2=Frank D. |title=The Localized Geographies of Violence in the North Caucasus of Russia, 1999–2007 |jstor=27980166 |volume=101 |number=1 |date=January 2011 |journal=] |publisher=] |pages=178–201|doi=10.1080/00045608.2010.534713 |s2cid=52248942 }}</ref> | |||
Putin won a ] in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/world/as-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html |title=As Expected, Putin Easily Wins a Second Term in Russia |work=] |first=Seth |last=Mydans |date=15 March 2004 |access-date=30 May 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817223858/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/world/as-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ] and a rise in foreign investment saw the ] and living standards improve significantly.<ref name="Ellyatt-2021">{{cite web |last=Ellyatt |first=Holly |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/11/russias-economy-under-president-putin-in-charts.html |title=5 charts show Russia's economic highs and lows under Putin |date=11 October 2021 |access-date=19 January 2022 |work=] |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173641/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/11/russias-economy-under-president-putin-in-charts.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kotkin |first=Stephen |title=The Resistible Rise of Vladimir Putin: Russia's Nightmare Dressed Like a Daydream |jstor=24483492 |volume=94 |number=2 |date=2015 |journal=] |publisher=] |pages=140–153}}</ref> In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while ] was ] for one term, to hold onto power despite legal ]s;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/08/russia |title=Putin ever present as Medvedev becomes president |work=] |first=Luke |last=Harding |date=8 May 2008 |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=21 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321211752/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/08/russia |url-status=live }}</ref> this period has been described as a "]".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Monaghan|first=Andrew|title=The vertikal: power and authority in Russia|volume=88|number=1|date=January 2012|pages=1–16|publisher=]|journal=]|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01053.x |jstor=41428537}}</ref> | |||
] as of 30 September 2022 at the time their ]]] | |||
Following a ] with neighbouring ], the ] took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it ].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Harzl | first1=B.C. | last2=Petrov | first2=R. | title=Unrecognized Entities: Perspectives in International, European and Constitutional Law | publisher=Brill | series=Law in Eastern Europe | year=2021 | isbn=978-90-04-49910-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECBXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA246 | access-date=18 December 2022 | page=246 | archive-date=25 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225095408/https://books.google.com/books?id=ECBXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA246 | url-status=live }}</ref> It was the first ] of the 21st century.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Emerson |first=Michael |date=August 2008 |title=Post-Mortem on Europe's First War of the 21st Century |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/9382/2/9382.pdf |magazine=CEPS Policy Brief |number=167 |publisher=] |access-date=6 April 2022 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1333553 |s2cid=127834430 |ssrn=1333553 |archive-date=7 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207214701/http://aei.pitt.edu/9382/2/9382.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
====Invasion of Ukraine==== | |||
{{Main|Russian invasion of Ukraine}} | |||
In early 2014, following ] in neighbouring Ukraine, Russia ] after a ] on the status of Crimea was staged under ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Yekelchyk |first=Serhy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1190722543 |title=Ukraine: What Everyone Needs to Know |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-753213-3 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=117 |oclc=1190722543}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=DeBenedictis |first1=Kent |title=Russian 'Hybrid Warfare' and the Annexation of Crimea: The Modern Application of Soviet Political Warfare |date=2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=1–7 |isbn=978-0-7556-4003-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkaIEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> The annexation generated an insurgency in the ] region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Galeotti |first1=Mark |title=Putin Takes Crimea 2014: Grey-zone Warfare Opens the Russia-Ukraine Conflict |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=4 |isbn=978-1-4728-5385-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmnGEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a ] against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and ] in the region,<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1400/RR1498/RAND_RR1498.pdf |title=Lessons from Russia's Operations in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine |last1=Kofman |first1=Michael |last2=Migacheva |first2=Katya |publisher=RAND Corporation |location=Santa Monica |pages=xii, xiii, 33–34, 48 |last3=Nichiporuk |first3=Brian |last4=Radin |first4=Andrew |last5=Tkacheva |first5=Olesya |last6=Oberholtzer |first6=Jenny |year=2017}}</ref> although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web|title=News – The views and opinions of South-Eastern regions residents of Ukraine: April 2014|url=https://kiis.com.ua/?lang=eng&cat=news&id=258|access-date=27 November 2022|website=kiis.com.ua}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The Russo-Ukrainian war: the return of history |date=2023 |publisher=WW Norton |isbn=978-1-324-05119-0 |location=New York, NY |pages=123–26 |quote=... The relative ease with which Russian mercenaries, supported by local separatist forces, were able to capture and hold hostage the inhabitants of the Ukrainian Donbas, most of whom wanted to stay in Ukraine, has a number of explanations.}}</ref> | |||
In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale ] on 24 February 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/putin-orders-military-operations-in-eastern-ukraine-as-un-meets|title=Russian forces launch full-scale invasion of Ukraine|publisher=]|date=24 February 2022|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=24 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224053027/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/putin-orders-military-operations-in-eastern-ukraine-as-un-meets|url-status=live}}</ref> The invasion marked the largest ] in Europe since World War II,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Herb |first1=Jeremy |last2=Starr |first2=Barbara |author-link2=Barbara Starr |last3=Kaufman |first3=Ellie |date=24 February 2022 |title=US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine |publisher=] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/24/politics/us-military-ukraine-russia/index.html |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227052443/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/02/24/politics/us-military-ukraine-russia/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and was met with ],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/02/united-nations-russia-ukraine-vote|title=UN votes to condemn Russia's invasion of Ukraine and calls for withdrawal|work=]|last=Borger|first=Julian|location=]|date=2 March 2022|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302171009/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/02/united-nations-russia-ukraine-vote|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as ] against Russia.<ref name="Walsh-2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/22968949/russia-sanctions-swift-economy-mcdonalds|title=The unprecedented American sanctions on Russia, explained|work=]|date=9 March 2022|last=Walsh|first=Ben|access-date=31 March 2022|archive-date=11 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411000846/https://www.vox.com/22968949/russia-sanctions-swift-economy-mcdonalds|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
], ], ], ] and commanders of Russia's ] on 15 May 2024]] | |||
As a result, Russia was expelled from the ] in March,<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/the-russian-federation-is-excluded-from-the-council-of-europe |title=The Russian Federation is excluded from the Council of Europe |publisher=Council of Europe |date=16 March 2022 |access-date=5 May 2022 |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510214508/https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/the-russian-federation-is-excluded-from-the-council-of-europe |url-status=live }}</ref> and was suspended from the ] in April.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/04/1115782 |title=UN General Assembly votes to suspend Russia from the Human Rights Council |website=United Nations |date=7 April 2022 |access-date=18 June 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407164712/https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/04/1115782 |url-status=live }}</ref> In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/putin-announces-partial-mobilization-russian-military-ukraine-war-rcna48585|title=Putin mobilizes more troops for Ukraine, threatens nuclear retaliation and backs annexation of Russian-occupied land|website=]|date=21 September 2022|access-date=4 April 2023|archive-date=12 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312142451/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/putin-announces-partial-mobilization-russian-military-ukraine-war-rcna48585|url-status=live}}</ref> Putin announced a "]", Russia's first mobilisation since ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/21/putin-announces-partial-mobilisation-in-russia-in-escalation-of-ukraine-war|title=Putin announces partial mobilisation and threatens nuclear retaliation in escalation of Ukraine war|website=]|date=21 September 2022|access-date=4 April 2023|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114202406/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/21/putin-announces-partial-mobilisation-in-russia-in-escalation-of-ukraine-war|url-status=live}}</ref> In the end of September, Putin proclaimed the ], the largest annexation in Europe since World War II.<ref name="Landay-2022">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-host-kremlin-ceremony-annexing-parts-ukraine-2022-09-29/ |title=Defiant Putin proclaims Ukrainian annexation as military setback looms |website=] |date=30 September 2022 |access-date=6 October 2022 |last=Landay |first=Jonathan |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006084106/https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-host-kremlin-ceremony-annexing-parts-ukraine-2022-09-29/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognized and widely ].<ref name="Landay-2022" /> As a result of the invasion, hundreds of thousands of people are ],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hussain |first1=Murtaza |title=The War in Ukraine Is Just Getting Started |url=https://theintercept.com/2023/03/09/ukraine-war-russia-iran-iraq/ |work=The Intercept |date=9 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite Q|Q127275136|url-access=subscription}}</ref> while Russia has been accused of ].<ref name="n377">{{cite web | last=Cumming-Bruce | first=Nick | title='Welcome to Hell': U.N. Panel Says Russian War Crimes Are Widespread | website=The New York Times | date=15 March 2024 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/15/world/europe/russia-war-crimes.html | access-date=30 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="p453">{{cite web | last=Sauer | first=Pjotr | title=UN finds further evidence of Russian war crimes in Ukraine | website=The Guardian | date=21 October 2023 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/un-finds-further-evidence-of-russian-war-crimes-in-ukraine | access-date=30 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="o970">{{cite web | title=Ukraine: Russian strikes amounting to war crimes continue to kill and injure children | website=Amnesty International | date=18 November 2024 | url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/11/ukraine-russian-strikes-amounting-to-war-crimes-continue-to-kill-and-injure-children/ | access-date=30 November 2024}}</ref> The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia's ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin's War Escalation Is Hastening Demographic Crash for Russia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-18/putin-s-war-escalation-is-hastening-demographic-crash-for-russia |work=Bloomberg |date=18 October 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122045038/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-18/putin-s-war-escalation-is-hastening-demographic-crash-for-russia |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In June 2023, the ], a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an ], capturing ], before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.<ref>{{cite web | title=Armed rebellion by Wagner chief Prigozhin underscores erosion of Russian legal system | website=AP News | date=7 July 2023 | url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-prigozhin-wagner-mutiny-ukraine-putin-898d750e843aeb105a3c220bb917f606 | access-date=9 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Rebel Russian mercenaries turn back short of Moscow 'to avoid bloodshed' | website=Reuters | date=24 June 2023 | url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wagner-head-suggests-his-mercenaries-headed-moscow-take-army-leadership-2023-06-24/ | access-date=9 July 2023 | archive-date=24 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624070212/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wagner-head-suggests-his-mercenaries-headed-moscow-take-army-leadership-2023-06-24/ | url-status=live }}</ref> The leader of the rebellion, ], was later ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2023 |title=Russia says it confirmed Wagner leader Prigozhin died in a plane crash |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-prigozhin-wagner-2c77567908c73e538f9f1c76ae406f8f |access-date=28 August 2023 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828104024/https://apnews.com/article/russia-prigozhin-wagner-2c77567908c73e538f9f1c76ae406f8f |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
== Geography == | |||
{{Main|Geography of Russia}} | |||
] of Russia]] | |||
Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.<ref name="natgeo">{{cite web |url=https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/geography/countries/article/russia |title=Russia |website=] |date=21 March 2014 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/geography/countries/article/russia |url-status=live }}</ref> It spans the northernmost edge of ]; and has the world's ], of over {{convert|comma=5|37653|km|mi|abbr=on}}.{{efn|Russia has an additional {{convert|comma=5|850|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coastline along the ], which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake |title=Is the Caspian a sea or a lake? |newspaper=] |date=16 August 2018 |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819221847/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/coastline/ |title=Coastline – The World Factbook |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412194038/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/coastline |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ], extending some {{convert|9000|km|mi|abbr=on}} east to west, and {{convert|2500 to 4000|km|mi|abbr=on}} north to south.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Russia – Land|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38573|encyclopedia=]|access-date=14 December 2021|archive-date=5 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605093450/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38602/Russia#ref38573|url-status=live}}</ref> Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,{{efn|Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of ], ], and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.}} and has the same surface area as ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet |title=Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet |work=] |first=Stuart |last=Clark |date=28 July 2015 |access-date=20 June 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329101742/https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the ], which share a significant portion of the ] (containing ], which at {{convert|5642|m|0|abbr=on}} is the ] in Russia and Europe);<ref name="cia"/> the ] and ] in ]; and in the ] and the ] in the ] (containing ], which at {{convert|4750|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest ] in Eurasia).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab |title=Klyuchevskoy |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=24 July 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Topo">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm |title=Topography and Drainage |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=8 July 2021 |archive-date=25 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525192825/http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The ], running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the ].<ref name="urals">{{cite web |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains |title=The Ural Mountains |work=] |publisher=] |date=13 July 2011 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412030222/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains |url-status=live }}</ref> The ], is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the ] reaches some {{convert|29|m|ft|1}} below sea level.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Europe – Land|encyclopedia=]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Land#ref34534|access-date=4 April 2022|quote=The lowest terrain in Europe, virtually lacking relief, stands at the head of the Caspian Sea; there the Caspian Depression reaches some {{convert|95|ft|m|abbr=off}} below sea level.|archive-date=15 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315194552/https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Land#ref34534|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Russia, as one of the world's only three countries ],<ref name="natgeo"/> has links with a great number of seas.{{efn|Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the ] and the ], to its west: the ], to its north: the ] (], ]), the ], the ], and the ], to its northeast: the ] and the ], and to its southeast: the ] and the ].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/22.htm |title=Global Position and Boundaries |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=8 July 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812161302/http://countrystudies.us/russia/22.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Its major islands and archipelagos include ], ], ], the ], ], the ] (four of which are ]), and ].<ref name="Arctic">{{cite news |url=https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/ |title=Russia |work=] |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula |title=Island hopping in Russia: Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula |work=] |first=Ziryan |last=Aziz |date=28 February 2020 |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329101742/https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula |url-status=live }}</ref> The ], administered by Russia and the United States, are just {{convert|3.8|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} apart;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/diomede-islands |title=Diomede Islands – Russia |work=] |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/diomede-islands |url-status=live }}</ref> and ] of the Kuril Islands is merely {{convert|20|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from ], Japan.<ref name="Chapple-2019">{{cite web |last=Chapple |first=Amos |title=The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II |date=4 January 2019 |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html |access-date=26 January 2022 |publisher=] |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,<ref name="natgeo"/> has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid ].<ref name="Topo"/> ], the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lake Baikal – A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies |publisher=] |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/ |access-date=26 December 2007 |archive-date=14 February 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214200542/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ] and ] in ] are two of the ].<ref name="natgeo"/> Russia is second only to Brazil by ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/ |title=Total renewable water resources |website=] |publisher=] |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the ] in Europe; and forms the ], the largest ] in the continent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hartley |first=Janet M. |author-link=Janet M. Hartley |title=The Volga: A History |date=2020 |publisher=] |url={{GBurl|id=PasKEAAAQBAJ}} |isbn=978-0-300-25604-8 |pages=5, 316}}</ref> The Siberian rivers of ], ], ], and ] are among the world's ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593 |title=Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga |work=] |date=15 May 2019 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203011/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
=== Climate === | |||
{{Main|Climate of Russia}} | |||
] of Russia]] | |||
The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the ] throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the ] and Pacific oceans, while the ] spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.<ref name="Climate">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm |title=Climate |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=10 July 2021 |archive-date=9 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409063700/http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a ], with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly ], where the Northern ] is located with the record low temperature of {{convert|-71.2|°C|°F|1|disp=or}}),<ref name="Arctic"/> and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the ] have a ].<ref name="Climate"/> | |||
The coastal part of ] on the Black Sea, most notably ], and some coastal and interior strips of the ] possess a ] with mild and wet winters.<ref name="Climate"/> In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an ].<ref name="Climate"/> The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |issn=2052-4463 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref> | |||
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief.<ref name="Climate"/> The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Drozdov |first1=V. A. |title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea |journal=GeoJournal |year=1992 |doi=10.1007/BF00717701 |volume=27 |page=169 |issue=2 |last2=Glezer |first2=O. B. |last3=Nefedova |first3=T. G. |last4=Shabdurasulov |first4=I. V. |bibcode=1992GeoJo..27..169D |s2cid=128960702}}</ref> ] is causing more frequent ],<ref>{{cite web |date=10 May 2022 |title=Putin urges authorities to take action as wildfires engulf Siberia |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/10/as-wildfires-engulf-russian-region-putin-urges-authorities-to-take-stronger-action-to-prev |access-date=24 June 2022 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612224644/http://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/10/as-wildfires-engulf-russian-region-putin-urges-authorities-to-take-stronger-action-to-prev |url-status=live }}</ref> and thawing the country's large expanse of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/01/22/1075108299/why-russias-thawing-permafrost-is-a-global-problem|title=Why Russia's thawing permafrost is a global problem|work=]|date=22 January 2022|access-date=7 July 2022|archive-date=6 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706124322/https://www.npr.org/2022/01/22/1075108299/why-russias-thawing-permafrost-is-a-global-problem|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
=== Biodiversity === | |||
{{Main|Wildlife of Russia}} | |||
{{See also|List of ecoregions in Russia}} | |||
] in the ] is the largest ] in Europe.<ref name="urals"/>]] | |||
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including ]s, ], forest tundra, ], ], ], ], semi-desert, and ].<ref name="climate">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ru |title=Russian Federation – Main Details |work=] |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173651/https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ru |url-status=live }}</ref> About half of Russia's territory is forested,<ref name="cia"/> and it has the world's largest area of forest,<ref name="Gardiner-2021"/> which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of ].<ref name="Gardiner-2021">{{cite web | last=Gardiner | first=Beth | title=Will Russia's Forests Be an Asset or an Obstacle in Climate Fight? | website=Yale University | date=23 March 2021 | url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/will-russias-forests-be-an-asset-or-obstacle-in-the-climate-fight | access-date=11 December 2022 | archive-date=11 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211140422/https://e360.yale.edu/features/will-russias-forests-be-an-asset-or-obstacle-in-the-climate-fight | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Schepaschenko | first1=Dmitry | last2=Moltchanova | first2=Elena | last3=Fedorov | first3=Stanislav | last4=Karminov | first4=Victor | last5=Ontikov | first5=Petr | last6=Santoro | first6=Maurizio | last7=See | first7=Linda | last8=Kositsyn | first8=Vladimir | last9=Shvidenko | first9=Anatoly | last10=Romanovskaya | first10=Anna | last11=Korotkov | first11=Vladimir | last12=Lesiv | first12=Myroslava | last13=Bartalev | first13=Sergey | last14=Fritz | first14=Steffen | last15=Shchepashchenko | first15=Maria | last16=Kraxner | first16=Florian | title=Russian forest sequesters substantially more carbon than previously reported | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=11 | issue=1 | date=17 June 2021 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-021-92152-9 | page=12825| pmid=34140583 | pmc=8211780 | bibcode=2021NatSR..1112825S }}</ref> | |||
Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of ]s, 2,200 species of ]s, about 3,000 species of ]s, 7,000–9,000 species of ], and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian ] is composed of ] of ], over ] of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of ]s, ] of ] (high ]), approximately 1,500 species of ]es, 9 species of ], and approximately 100–150,000 ]s (high endemism).<ref name="climate"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.rec.org/ru/en/biodiversity/in_russia/04-04-02.shtml |title=Species richness of Russia |publisher=REC |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509102841/http://education.rec.org/ru/en/biodiversity/in_russia/04-04-02.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the ].<ref name="climate"/> | |||
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.<ref name="climate"/> They include 45 ]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/europe-north-america/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |publisher=] |date=June 2017 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710161647/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/europe-north-america/russian-federation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 64 ], and 101 ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/russia-nature-reserves-year-ecology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303030416/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/russia%2Dnature%2Dreserves%2Dyear%2Decology |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2021 |title=Look Inside Russia's Wildest Nature Reserves – Now Turning 100 |work=] |date=11 January 2017 |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered ]; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Danilov-Danil'yan | first1=V.I. | last2=Reyf | first2=I.E. | title=The Biosphere and Civilization: In the Throes of a Global Crisis | publisher=Springer International Publishing | year=2018 | isbn=978-3-319-67193-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NK9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 | access-date=6 December 2022 | page=234 | archive-date=25 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225095407/https://books.google.com/books?id=NK9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 | url-status=live }}</ref> Russia had a ] mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Grantham HS, ''et al''. |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
== Government and politics == | |||
{{Main|Politics of Russia}} | |||
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300 | |||
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| image1 = Владимир Путин (18-06-2023) (cropped).jpg|caption1=]<br /><small>]</small> | |||
| image2 = Mikhail Mishustin (2020-07-09).jpg|caption2=]<br /><small>]</small> | |||
}} | |||
] | |||
Russia, by constitution, is a ] republic with a ], wherein ] is the ],<ref name="(Article 80, § 1)">{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |website=(Article 80, § 1) |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416081229/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and the ] is the ].<ref name="cia"/> It is structured as a ] ], with the federal government composed of three branches:<ref name="DeRouen-2005">{{cite book |first1=Karl R. |last1=DeRouen |first2=Uk |last2=Heo |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url={{GBurl|id=wdeBgfmZI0cC|p=666}} |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=666}}</ref> | |||
* Legislative: The ] ], made up of the 450-member ] and the 170-member ],<ref name="DeRouen-2005"/> adopts ], ], approves treaties, has the ] and the power of ] of the president.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=www.constitution.ru|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074020/http://constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* Executive: The president is the ] of the ], and appoints the ] (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.<ref name="(Article 80, § 1)"/> The president may issue ], so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Remington |first1=Thomas F. |title=Presidential Decrees in Russia: A Comparative Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-04079-3 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22russia%2Bdecree%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpresident%2Binpublisher:university%22&pg=PA48 |access-date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004180304/https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48&dq=%22russia+decree+of+the+president+inpublisher:university%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
* ]: The ], ] and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,<ref name="DeRouen-2005"/> interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 7. Judicial Power {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=www.constitution.ru|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025215135/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |website=(Article 81, § 3) |url=https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-federation-en/1680a1a237 |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202212008/https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-federation-en/1680a1a237 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|In 2020, ] were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |title=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2020 |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713115630/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). ] is the ] ], and has been described as "]" and the "]".<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Politics of Dominant Party Formation: United Russia and Russia's Governors |last=Reuter |first=Ora John |jstor=27808691 |volume=62 |number=2 |publisher=] |pages=293–327 |date=March 2010 |journal=]|doi=10.1080/09668130903506847 |s2cid=153495141 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Konitzer|first1=Andrew|last2=Wegren|first2=Stephen K.|title=Federalism and Political Recentralization in the Russian Federation: United Russia as the Party of Power|publisher=]|volume=36|number=4|year=2006|pages=503–522|journal=]|doi=10.1093/publius/pjl004|jstor=4624765}}</ref> Under the ], Russia has experienced ],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |title=Russia and Europe: Building Bridges, Digging Trenches |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-99200-1 |editor1=Kjell Engelbrekt |pages= |editor2=Bertil Nygren |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133217/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kiyan|first=Olga|title=Russia & Democratic Backsliding: The Future of Putinism|date=9 April 2020|journal=]|publisher=]|url=https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/|access-date=8 July 2022|archive-date=24 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224213448/https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/|url-status=live}}</ref> and has been described as an ].<ref name="Kuzio-2016">{{cite journal|last=Kuzio|first=Taras|title=Nationalism and authoritarianism in Russia|journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies|year=2016|volume=49|number=1|pages=1–11|publisher=]|doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.002|jstor=48610429}}</ref><ref name="Krzywdzinski"/><ref>{{Cite report |last=Fischer |first=Sabine |date=2022 |title=Russia on the road to dictatorship: Internal political repercussions of the attack on Ukraine |journal=SWP Comment |doi=10.18449/2022C30 |url=https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753 |hdl=10419/256753 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911191555/https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753 |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin's policies are generally referred to as ].<ref>{{cite book | author = Brian D. Taylor | date = 2018 | title = The Code of Putinism | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = 2–7 | isbn = 978-0-19-086731-7 | oclc = 1022076734}}</ref> | |||
=== Political divisions === | |||
{{Main|Political divisions of Russia}} | |||
Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a ]. Unlike the Soviet ] of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but no regions have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://base.garant.ru/12119810/|title=Постановление Конституционного Суда РФ от 07.06.2000 N 10-П "По делу о проверке конституционности отдельных положений Конституции Республики Алтай и Федерального закона "Об общих принципах организации законодательных (представительных) и исполнительных органов государственной власти субъектов Российской Федерации" | ГАРАНТ|website=base.garant.ru|access-date=12 May 2023|archive-date=10 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410082832/https://base.garant.ru/12119810/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The ]{{efn|Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the ] and the federal city of ] since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,<ref name="Pifer-2020"/> and territories set up following the ] in 2022.|name=disputed}} have equal representation—two delegates each—in the ], the ] of the Federal Assembly.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly |work=] |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074020/http://constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> They do, however, differ in the degree of ] they enjoy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KARTASHKIN |first1=V.A. |last2=ABASHIDZE |first2=A.KH. |year=2004 |jstor=24675138 |title=Autonomy in the Russian Federation: Theory and Practice |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=10 |number=3 |pages=203–220 |publisher=]|doi=10.1163/1571811031310738 }}</ref> The ] were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=Nikolai |title=Seven Faces of Putin's Russia: Federal Districts as the New Level of State–Territorial Composition |jstor=26298005 |publisher=] |journal=] |volume=33 |number=1 |date=March 2002 |pages=73–91|doi=10.1177/0967010602033001006 |s2cid=153455573 }}</ref> Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Martin |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/569035/EPRS_IDA(2015)569035_EN.pdf |title=Russia's constitutional structure |journal=] |publisher=] |date=2015 |access-date=3 November 2021 |isbn=978-92-823-8022-2 |doi=10.2861/664907 |archive-date=26 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226005739/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/569035/EPRS_IDA(2015)569035_EN.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
] | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Federal subjects | |||
|]||3.8% | |||
! Governance | |||
|- | |- | ||
| {{legend|#FFEC77|46 ]s}} | |||
|]||2.0% | |||
| The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Henry E. |title=The Makeup and Breakup of Ethnofederal States: Why Russia Survives Where the USSR Fell |journal=] |pages=55–70 |volume=3 |number=1 |date=March 2005 |publisher=] |doi=10.1017/S153759270505005X |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3688110|s2cid=145259594 }}</ref> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| {{legend|#00C160|22 ]}} | |||
|]||1.1% | |||
| Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ], and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Orttung |first1=Robert |last2=Lussier |first2=Danielle |last3=Paetskaya |first3=Anna |title=The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders |publisher=] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-7656-0559-7 |location=New York |pages=523–524}}</ref> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| {{legend|#FF9400|9 ]s}} | |||
|]||0.9% | |||
| For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shabad |first=Theodore |title=Political-Administrative Divisions of the U.S.S.R., 1945 |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=36 |number=2 |pages=303–311 |date=April 1946 |doi=10.2307/210882 |jstor=210882|bibcode=1946GeoRv..36..303S }}</ref> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| {{legend|#006989|4 ]}} | |||
|]||0.8% | |||
| Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharafutdinova |first=Gulnaz |title=When Do Elites Compete? The Determinants of Political Competition in Russian Regions |pages=273–293 |volume=38 |number=3 |date=April 2006 |journal=] |publisher=Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, ] |doi=10.2307/20433998 |jstor=20433998}}</ref> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| {{legend|#FF0037|3 ]}} | |||
|Other/unspecified||10.3% | |||
| Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as ] in Russian-occupied Ukraine).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelesh |first1=Yulia V. |last2=Bessonova |first2=Elena A. |title=Digitalization management system of Russia's federal cities focused on prospective application throughout the country |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/21/shsconf_icemt2021_05011.pdf |volume=110 |number=5011 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202111005011 |date=11 June 2021 |page=05011 |s2cid=236655658 |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127232543/https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/21/shsconf_icemt2021_05011.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| {{legend|#C300FF|1 autonomous oblast}} | |||
| The only autonomous oblast is the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alessandro |first=Vitale |title=Ethnopolitics as Co-operation and Coexistence: The Case-Study of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Siberia |journal=Politeja |year=2015 |volume=12 |number=31/2 |pages=123–142 |jstor=24919780 |publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka |doi=10.12797/Politeja.12.2015.31_2.09|s2cid=132962208 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
|} | |} | ||
</div> | |||
=== Foreign relations === | |||
] | |||
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}} | |||
According to preliminary estimates, the resident population of the Russian Federation on 1 January 2008 was 142 million people.<ref name=demo/> In 2007, the population shrank by 237,800 people, or by 0.17% (in 2006 - by 532,600 people, or by 0.37%). Migration grew by 50.2% in 2007<ref name=demo/> to reach 274,000.<ref name=ri>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080221/99803097.html|title=Russia's population down 0.17% in 2007 to 142 mln|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> The vast majority of migrants came from CIS states and were Russians or Russian-speaking.<ref name=demo/> The Russian Federation is a diverse, multiethnic society, home to as many as 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web|title=June 1, 2007: A great number of children in Russia remain highly vulnerable|publisher=United Nations Children's Fund|url=http://www.unicef.org/russia/media_6762.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Though Russia's population is comparatively large, its population density is low because of its enormous size;<ref>See '']''</ref> its population is densest in European Russia, near the ], and in the southwest Siberia. | |||
], 2019]] | |||
Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains diplomatic relations with 190 ], four ]s, and three ]; along with ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html |title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank |publisher=] |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201012801/http://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Russia is one of the ] of the ]. The country is generally considered a ],<ref>{{cite book | last1=Sweijs | first1=T. | last2=De Spiegeleire | first2=S. | last3=de Jong | first3=S. | last4=Oosterveld | first4=W. | last5=Roos | first5=H. | last6=Bekkers | first6=F. | last7=Usanov | first7=A. | last8=de Rave | first8=R. | last9=Jans | first9=K. | title=Volatility and friction in the age of disintermediation | publisher=The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies | page=43 |date=2017 | isbn=978-94-92102-46-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EonDwAAQBAJ | access-date=29 April 2022 | quote=We qualify the following states as great powers: China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia and the United States.}}</ref><ref name="l454">{{cite journal | last=Ellman | first=Michael | title=Russia as a great power: from 1815 to the present day Part II | journal=Journal of Institutional Economics | volume=19 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=1744-1374 | doi=10.1017/S1744137422000388 | pages=159–174| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Neumann|first=Iver B|number=11|title=Russia as a Great Power, 1815–2007|date=20 May 2008|journal=Journal of International Relations and Development|volume=11|pages=128–151|doi=10.1057/jird.2008.7|s2cid=143792013|doi-access=free}}</ref> though its status as a modern great power has been questioned following the struggles it has faced while invading Ukraine starting in 2022.<ref name="f495">{{cite journal | last=Šćepanović | first=Janko | title=Still a great power? Russia's status dilemmas post-Ukraine war | journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=32 | issue=1 | date=22 March 2023 | issn=1478-2804 | doi=10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878 | pages=80–95}}</ref><ref name="y247">{{cite web | last=Brands | first=Hal | title=Russia's Ukraine Resurgence Shows It's Often Down But Never Out | website=Bloomberg | date=23 February 2024 | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/features/2024-02-23/putin-s-ukraine-victories-show-russia-is-often-down-but-never-out | access-date=21 August 2024}}</ref> Russia is also a former ] as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.<ref name="Reiman-2016"/> Russia is a member of the ], the ], and the ]. Russia also takes a leading role in organisations such as the ],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fish |first1=M. Steven |author1-link=Steven Fish |last2=Samarin |first2=Melissa |last3=Way |first3=Lucan Ahmad |title=Russia and the CIS in 2016 |year=2017 |jstor=26367728 |publisher=] |volume=57 |number=1 |journal=] |pages=93–102|doi=10.1525/as.2017.57.1.93 }}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sadri |first=Houman A. |title=Eurasian Economic Union (Eeu): a good idea or a Russian takeover? |jstor=43580687 |pages=553–561 |volume=81 |number=4 |year=2014 |journal=Rivista di studi politici internazionali |publisher=Maria Grazia Melchionni}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/01/06/what-is-the-collective-security-treaty-organisation |title=What is the Collective Security Treaty Organisation? |newspaper=] |date=6 January 2022 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412224018/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/01/06/what-is-the-collective-security-treaty-organisation |url-status=live }}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/ |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |title=Russia's 'Pivot to Asia' and the SCO |work=] |date=21 July 2015 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=4 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704104451/https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Cynthia |title=Russia's BRICs Diplomacy: Rising Outsider with Dreams of an Insider |publisher=The ] |volume=42 |number=1 |pages=38–73 |jstor=40587582 |journal=Polity |date=January 2010|doi=10.1057/pol.2009.18 |s2cid=54682547 }}</ref> | |||
Russia maintains close relations ], which is a part of the ], a supranational confederation of the two states.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Semi-Sovereign State: Belarus and the Russian Neo-Empire |jstor=24907272 |journal=] |first=Kathleen J. |last=Hancock |volume=2 |number=2 |date=April 2006 |pages=117–136 |publisher=]|doi=10.1111/j.1743-8594.2006.00023.x |s2cid=153926665}}</ref> ] has been a ] of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.<ref>{{cite journal |year=1994 |jstor=40202977 |title=Russia and the Balkans: Pan-Slavism, Partnership and Power |journal=] |first=Lenard J. |last=Cohen |volume=49 |number=4 |pages=814–845 |publisher=] |doi=10.2307/40202977}}</ref> India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong ] since the Soviet era.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/ |title=Why India and Russia Are Going to Stay Friends |work=] |first=Emily |last=Tamkin |date=8 July 2020 |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112225311/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia wields influence across the ] important ] and Central Asia; and the two regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nation |first=R Craig. |title=Russia and the Caucasus |journal=Connections |year=2015 |volume=14 |number=2 |pages=1–12 |jstor=26326394 |publisher=] |doi=10.11610/Connections.14.2.01|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Swanström |first=Niklas |title=Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit? |journal=] |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=101–113 |jstor=24590931|quote=The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.}}</ref> | |||
73% of the population live in urban areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Resident population|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-01.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As of the ], the two largest cities in Russia are ] (10,126,424 inhabitants) and ] (4,661,219). Eleven other cities have between one and two million inhabitants: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. In 2006, 186,380 migrants arrived to the Russian Federation of which 95% came from ] countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-09.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|title=International Migration|accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref> There are also an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ] states in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia cracking down on illegal migrants|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=January 15, 2007|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/15/news/migrate.php|accessdate =}}</ref> | |||
]". The list includes countries that have imposed ] for its invasion of Ukraine.]] | |||
According to most sources, Russia's population peaked in 1991 at 148,689,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/29.htm|publisher=Library of Congress|title=Demographics|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> The number of deaths during 2007 was 477,700 greater than the number of births. This is down from 687,100 in 2006.<ref name=demo>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-05|title=Demography|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b08_00/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/7-0.htm}}</ref> The statistics service said that in 2007 the mortality rate in Russia declined 4% compared to 2006, reaching some 2 million deaths, while the birth rate grew 8.3% year-on-year to an estimated 1.6 million live births.<ref name=ri/> The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (Russia's birth rate in 2007 was 11.3 per 1000 people<ref name=demo/> compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000)<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order - Birth rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2054rank.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> its population declines at much greater rate due to a substantially higher death rate (In 2007, Russia's death rate was 14.7 per 1000 people<ref name=demo/> compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000).<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order - Death rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2066rank.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, the Russian health ministry predicts that by 2011, the death rate will equal the birth rate due to increases in fertility and decline in mortality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080123/97616414.html|title=Russia's birth, mortality rates to equal by 2011 - ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> | |||
In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the ] include ] in 2008 and ] beginning in 2014. Russia has also sought to increase its influence in the ], most significantly through military intervention in the ]. ] and ] violations, along with electoral interference, have been used to increase perceptions of Russian power.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feinstein |first1=Scott G. |last2=Pirro |first2=Ellen B. |title=Testing the world order: strategic realism in Russian foreign affairs |journal=International Politics |date=22 February 2021 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=817–834 |doi=10.1057/s41311-021-00285-5 |s2cid=231985182 |doi-access=free |pmc=7898250 }}</ref> Russia's relations with ] and the Western world—especially the ], the ], the ] and ]—have collapsed; especially since the annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the beginning of a full-scale invasion in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia|title=Ukraine cuts diplomatic ties with Russia after invasion|work=]|date=24 February 2022|access-date=7 October 2022|quote=Ukraine has cut all diplomatic ties with Russia after President Vladimir Putin authorised an all-out invasion of Ukraine by land, air and sea.|archive-date=5 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305163901/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kanerva |first=Ilkka |title=Russia and the West |jstor=48573515 |number=12 |pages=112–119 |year=2018 |publisher=Center for International Relations and Sustainable Development |journal=Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development}}</ref> Relations between Russia and China have significantly ]; due to shared political interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bolt |first=Paul J. |title=Sino-Russian Relations in a Changing World Order |year=2014 |volume=8 |number=4 |jstor=26270816 |pages=47–69 |publisher=] |journal=]}}</ref> ] and Russia share a complex ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Baev |first=Pavel |work=Russie.Nei.Reports |publisher=] |url=https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf |title=Russia and Turkey: Strategic Partners and Rivals |date=May 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022 |number=35 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027233151/https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia maintains ] with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tarock |first=Adam |title=Iran and Russia in 'Strategic Alliance' |volume=18 |number=2 |date=June 1997 |pages= 207–223 |journal=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1080/01436599714911 |jstor=3993220|s2cid=153838744 }}</ref> Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/03/29/russia-in-arctic-critical-examination-pub-84181 |title=Russia in the Arctic – A Critical Examination |last1=Rumer |first1=Eugene |last2=Sokolsky |first2=Richard |last3=Stronski |first3=Paul |date=29 March 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022 |publisher=] |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411145458/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/03/29/russia-in-arctic-critical-examination-pub-84181 |url-status=live }}</ref> Asia-Pacific,<ref>{{cite web |last=Hunt |first=Luke |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/russia-tries-to-boost-asia-ties-to-counter-indo-pacific-alliances/6272006.html |title=Russia Tries to Boost Asia Ties to Counter Indo-Pacific Alliances |publisher=] |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> Africa,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2020 |title=Russia in Africa: What's behind Moscow's push into the continent? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889 |access-date=6 January 2022 |website=] |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413235807/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889 |url-status=live }}</ref> the Middle East,<ref>{{cite report |last=Cerulli |first=Rossella |title=Russian Influence in the Middle East: Economics, Energy, and Soft Power |jstor=resrep19825 |date=1 September 2019 |pages=1–21 |publisher=American Security Project}}</ref> and Latin America.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shuya |first=Mason |title=Russian Influence in Latin America: a Response to NATO |jstor=26696258 |volume=12 |number=2 |year=2019 |pages=17–41 |journal=] |publisher=] |doi=10.5038/1944-0472.12.2.1727|s2cid=199756261 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, two-thirds of the world's population live in countries such as ] or ] that are neutral or leaning towards Russia.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Stengel |first1=Richard |title=Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe |url=https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |magazine=] |date=20 May 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818141722/https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia can count on support from many developing countries |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/russia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries/ |website=eiu.com |date=30 March 2022 |publisher=Economist Intelligence Unit |access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref> | |||
=== Military === | |||
{{Russian cities}} | |||
{{Main|Russian Armed Forces}} | |||
], a ] of the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |title=Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft? |work=] |author=Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson |date=17 August 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322102224/https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]] | |||
The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the ], the ], and the ]—and there are also two independent arms of service: the ] and the ].<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |title=Russia – The World Factbook |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=4 March 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2021}}, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's ], and about 2–20 million ].<ref>{{cite book |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance |date=2021 |publisher=] |location=London |isbn=978-1-85743-988-5 |page=191}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Nichol |first=Jim |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R42006.pdf |title=Russian Military Reform and Defense Policy |work=] |publisher=] |date=24 August 2011 |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be ] for a year of service in the Armed Forces.<ref name="cia"/> | |||
Russia is among the five ] ], with the world's ]; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat |title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance |work=] |date=August 2020 |access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/data/military-capability/signature-capabilities/ballistic-missile-submarines/ |work=] |publisher=] |year=2021 |title=Ballistic missile submarines data |access-date=25 January 2022}}</ref> and is one of the only three countries operating ]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=T. V. |last2=Wirtz |first2=James J. |last3=Fortmann |first3=Michael |url={{GBurl|id=9jy28vBqscQC|p=332}} |title=Balance of power: theory and practice in the 21st century |publisher=] |date=2004 |page=332 |isbn=978-0-8047-5017-2}}</ref> Russia maintains the world's ], spending $109 billion in 2023, corresponding to around 5.9% of its GDP.'''''<ref name="SIPRI-2020">{{Cite web |date=April 2024 |title=Trends in Military Expenditure 2023 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-04/2404_fs_milex_2023.pdf#page=2 |access-date=22 April 2024 |publisher=]}}</ref>''''' In 2021 it was the world's ], and had a large and entirely indigenous ], producing most of its own military equipment.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bowen |first=Andrew S. |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46937 |title=Russian Arms Sales and Defense Industry |work=] |publisher=] |date=14 October 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 }}</ref> | |||
===Education=== | |||
{{main|Education in Russia}} | |||
]]] | |||
Russia has a free education system guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 43 para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and has a literacy rate of 99.4%.<ref name=cia/> The country came first in the world in the 2006 ] conducted by ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia tops, South Africa last, in literacy study|publisher=]|url=http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnN28533956.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Entry to higher education is highly competitive.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smolentseva|first=Anna|title=Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia|url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News19/text13.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a high order.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia Country Guide|publisher=EUbusiness.com|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/Russia/russia-country-guide/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title= Background Note: Russia|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3183.htm|accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref> | |||
===Human rights=== | |||
The Russian Constitution grants a universal right to higher education free of charge and through competitive entry.<ref name=constitution>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 43 para. 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota, or number of students for each state institution.<ref name=education2/> This is considered crucial because it provides access to higher education to all skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. In addition, students are provided with a small stipend and free housing. However, the institutions have to be funded entirely from the federal and regional budgets; institutions have found themselves unable to provide adequate teachers' salaries, students' stipends, and to maintain their facilities.<ref name=education2>{{cite web|title=Higher education structure|publisher=State University Higher School of Economics|url=http://d1.hse.ru/lingua/en/rus-ed.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> To address the issue, many state institutions started to open commercial positions, which have been growing steadily since.<ref>{{cite web|title=Higher Education Institutions|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/08-10.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-01}}</ref> Many private higher education institutions have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for high-tech and emerging industries and economic sectors.<ref name=education2/> | |||
{{Main|Human rights in Russia}} | |||
] in 2022, ] broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaliy |date=15 March 2022 |title=Ukraine war: Protester exposes cracks in Kremlin's war message |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60749064 |access-date=3 April 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>]] | |||
Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and ]s. In particular, ] and ] say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/russia |title=Russia |publisher=] |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> | |||
Since 2004, ] has ranked Russia as "not free" in its '']'' survey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2021 |title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2021 |publisher=] |access-date=20 November 2021 }}</ref> Since 2011, the ] has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its ], ranking it 144th out of 167 countries in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2024 |title=Where democracy is most at risk |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2024/02/14/four-lessons-from-the-2023-democracy-index |access-date=15 February 2024 |newspaper=] |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> In regards to ], Russia was ranked 155th out of 180 countries in ]' ] for 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsf.org/en/russia |title=Russia |work=] |access-date=8 June 2022}}</ref> The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and ] for ],<ref>{{cite web |last=Simmons |first=Ann M. |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/russias-opposition-candidates-struggle-to-make-a-mark-in-election-11631886631 |title=In Russia's Election, Putin's Opponents Are Seeing Double |work=] |date=18 September 2021 |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> crackdowns on ],<ref>{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Andrew E. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/world/europe/putin-navalny-russian-opposition-crackdown.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/world/europe/putin-navalny-russian-opposition-crackdown.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited |title=In Shadow of Navalny Case, What's Left of the Russian Opposition? |work=] |date=10 June 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Seddon |first=Max |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e8889644-051c-41f6-a991-6a32091e5c54 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e8889644-051c-41f6-a991-6a32091e5c54 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Russian crackdown brings pro-Navalny protests to halt |work=] |date=13 February 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> ] and enforced suppression and ],<ref>{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ngos-in-russia-battered-but-unbowed/a-41459467 |title=NGOs in Russia: Battered, but unbowed |work=]|publisher=] |date=21 November 2017 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Yaffa |first=Joshua |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-victims-of-putins-crackdown-on-the-press |title=The Victims of Putin's Crackdown On The Press |magazine=] |date=7 September 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Simon|first=Scott|title=Why Do Russian Journalists Keep Falling?|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/04/21/604497554/why-do-russian-journalists-keep-falling|date=21 April 2018|work=]|access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref> and ] of mass media and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/18/russia-growing-internet-isolation-control-censorship |title=Russia: Growing Internet Isolation, Control, Censorship |publisher=] |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> | |||
===Health=== | |||
] guarantees free, universal health care for all citizens.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 41)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}Russian Constitution, </ref> While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world,<ref>{{cite book|last=Field|first=M. G.|title=The health and demographic crisis in post-Soviet Russia: a two-phase development in "Russia’s Torn Safety Nets", edited by Field M. G., Twigg J. L. (eds)|publisher=St. Martin’s Press|location=2000:11–42}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Highlights on Health in the Russian Federation|publisher =World Health Organization|date=November 1999|url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/e72504.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> since the collapse of the Soviet Union the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, and lifestyle changes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leonard|first=William R|title=Declining growth status of indigenous Siberian children in post-Soviet Russia|date=April 2002|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200204/ai_n9037764|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As of 2006, the average life expectancy in Russia is 59.12 years for males and 73.03 years for females.<ref name=cia/> The average Russian life expectancy of 65.87 years at birth is 13 years shorter than the overall figure in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ee.html|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=European Union|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crimes). Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe.<ref name=heart>{{cite web|title=Heart disease kills 1.3 million annually in Russia - chief cardiologist|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070214/60721668.html|accessdate=2007-12-27 }}</ref> As a result of the large difference in life expectancy between men and women and because of the lasting effect of World War II, where Russia lost more men than any other nation in the world, the gender imbalance remains to this day and there are 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/> | |||
Muslims, especially ], have faced persecution in Russia.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Herszenhorn |first=David M. |date=1 July 2015 |title=Russia Sees a Threat in Its Converts to Islam |language=en-US |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/world/russia-sees-a-threat-in-its-converts-to-islam.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150704162736/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/world/russia-sees-a-threat-in-its-converts-to-islam.html?_r=0 |archive-date=4 July 2015 |issn=0362-4331|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=U.S. Report Says Russia Among 'Worst Violators' Of Religious Freedom |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-worst-violators-religious-freedom-report-iran-turkmenistan/31215737.html |website=] |language=en}}</ref> To quash the ], Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clancy Chassay |date=19 September 2009 |title=Russian killings and kidnaps extend dirty war in Ingushetia |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/20/ingushetia-dirty-war-russia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221117075517/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/20/ingushetia-dirty-war-russia |archive-date=17 November 2022 |website=] |language=en}}</ref> arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DENIS SOKOLOV |date=20 August 2016 |title=Putin's Savage War Against Russia's 'New Muslims' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/putin-savage-war-against-russia-new-muslims-490783 |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=🇷🇺Ingushetia: A second Chechnya? l People and Power |date=13 October 2010 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_kHz8bhMFc&t=504s |publisher=] |language=en}}</ref> In ], some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.<ref>{{Citation |title=Russia's Invisible War: Crackdown on Salafi Muslims in Dagestan |date=17 June 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfjsgSiBkZQ |publisher=] |language=en |access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=] |date=25 November 2015 |title=Russian Crackdown on Muslims Fuels Exodus to IS |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/russian-crackdown-on-muslims-fuels-exodus-to-islamic-state/3073139.html |website=] |language=en}}</ref> Chechens and ] in ] reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mairbek Vatchagaev |date=9 April 2015 |title=Abuse of Chechens and Ingush in Russian Prisons Creates Legions of Enemies |url=https://jamestown.org/program/abuse-of-chechens-and-ingush-in-russian-prisons-creates-legions-of-enemies-2/ |website=]}}</ref> During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up ] where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marquise Francis |date=7 April 2022 |title=What are Russian 'filtration camps'? |url=https://news.yahoo.com/what-are-russian-filtration-camps-194643731.html |website=] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Katie Bo Lillis, Kylie Atwood and Natasha Bertrand |title=Russia is depopulating parts of eastern Ukraine, forcibly removing thousands into remote parts of Russia |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/26/politics/ukraine-filtration-camps-forcibly-remove-russia/index.html |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=]|date=26 May 2022 }}</ref> Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with ] that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weir |first1=Fred |title=In Russia, critiquing the Ukraine war could land you in prison |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2022/1205/In-Russia-critiquing-the-Ukraine-war-could-land-you-in-prison |work=CSMonitor.com |date=5 December 2022}}</ref> | |||
Heart diseases account for 56.7% of total deaths, with about 30% involving people still of working age.<ref name=heart/> About 16 million Russians suffer from cardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, after Ukraine, in this respect.<ref name=heart/> Death rates from homicide, suicide and cancer are also especially high.<ref name=cbs>{{cite web|title=Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System|publisher=CBS News|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/06/28/world/main2992334.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> According to a 2007 survey by Romir Monitoring, 52% of men and 15% of women smoke.<ref name=smokingria>{{cite web|title=Third of Russians smoke, but half welcome public smoking ban|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070221/61054065.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> More than 260,000 lives are lost each year as a result of tobacco use.<ref name=smokingria/> HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet era, rapidly spread following the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use.<ref>{{cite web|title=HIV/AIDS in the Russian Federation|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/EXTECAREGTOPHEANUT/EXTECAREGTOPHIVAIDS/0,,contentMDK:20320143~menuPK:616427~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:571172,00.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> According to official statistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV, but independent experts place the number significantly higher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian regional HIV vaccine center seeks $40–50 mln from budget|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070206/60289838.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spending on HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006, and the 2007 budget doubled that of 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/CountryResponses/Countries/russian_federation.asp Russian Federation AIDS information|title=Russian Federation|accessdate=2008-03-11|publisher=UNAIDS: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS}}</ref> Since the Soviet collapse, there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particularly widespread amongst prison inmates.<ref>{{cite web|title=119,000 TB cases in Russia - health official|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20060127/43221133.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
Russia has introduced several restrictions on ], including a 2020 ban on same-sex marriage and the designation of LGBT+ organisations such as the ] as "]s".<ref>{{cite web | title=Russia, Homophobia and the Battle for 'Traditional Values' | website=Human Rights Watch | date=17 May 2023 | url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/05/17/russia-homophobia-and-battle-traditional-values | access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Russia passes law banning 'LGBT propaganda' among adults |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/24/russia-passes-law-banning-lgbt-propaganda-adults |website=The Guardian |date=24 November 2022 |access-date=11 August 2023 |last1=Sauer |first1=Pjotr }}</ref> | |||
In an effort to stem Russia’s demographic crisis, the government is implementing a number of programs designed to increase the birth rate and attract more migrants to alleviate the problem. The government has doubled monthly child support payments and offered a one-time payment of 250,000 Rubles (around US$10,000) to women who had a second child since 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=]—Federal Research Division|date=October 2006|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Russia.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In 2007, Russia saw the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/International_Business/Russian_policies_ignite_unprecedented_birth_rate_in_2007/articleshow/2750305.cms|publisher=The Economic Times|title=Russian policies ignite unprecedented birth rate in 2007|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> The First Deputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centres in Russia in 2008–2009. Immigration is increasingly seen as necessary to sustain the country's population.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Expert Group Meeting On International Migration and Development|publisher=Population Division; Department of Economic and Social Affairs; United Nations Secretariat|date=6–8 July 2005|url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/ittmigdev2005/P11_Rybakovsky&Ryazantsev.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
=== |
===Corruption=== | ||
{{Main|Corruption in Russia}} | |||
] is spoken]] | |||
Russia's political system has been variously described as a ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fish |first=M. Steven |author-link=Steven Fish |title=What Has Russia Become? |jstor=26532689 |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=50 |number=3 |date=April 2018 |pages=327–346 |publisher=] |location=New York City|doi=10.5129/001041518822704872 }}</ref> an ],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Guriev|first1=Sergei|last2=Rachinsky|first2=Andrei|title=The Role of Oligarchs in Russian Capitalism|year=2005|volume=19|number=1|journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives|pages=131–150|publisher=]|doi=10.1257/0895330053147994 |jstor=4134996|s2cid=17653502 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and a ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Åslund|first=Anders|year= 2019|title=Russia's Crony Capitalism: The Path from Market Economy to Kleptocracy|pages=5–7|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-300-24486-1}}</ref> It was the lowest rated European country in ]'s ] for 2023, ranking 141st out of 180 countries.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 January 2024 |title=Corruptions Perceptions Index 2023 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023/index/rus |access-date=16 February 2024 |publisher=]}}</ref> Russia has a long history of corruption, which is seen as a significant problem.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Reports Highlight Russia's Deep-Seated Culture of Corruption |url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/new-reports-highlight-russias-deep-seated-culture-corruption |publisher=] |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref> It affects various sectors, including the economy,<ref>{{cite news |last=Alferova |first=Ekaterina |date=26 October 2020|script-title=ru:В России предложили создать должность омбудсмена по борьбе с коррупцией|trans-title=Russia proposed to create the post of Ombudsman for the fight against corruption |url=https://iz.ru/1078501/2020-10-26/v-rossii-predlozhili-sozdat-dolzhnost-ombudsmena-po-borbe-s-korruptciei |access-date=5 November 2020|script-website=ru:Известия |website=] |language=ru}}</ref> business,<ref>{{cite web |date=June 2020 |title=Russia Corruption Report |url=https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/russia/ |access-date=5 November 2020 |website=GAN Integrity |archive-date=20 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220035258/https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/russia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |author=Suhara, Manabu |title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |publisher=] |access-date=4 December 2015 }}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Theodore P. |last2=Mendelson |first2=Sarah E. |author2-link=Sarah E. Mendelson |title=Public Experiences of Police Violence and Corruption in Contemporary Russia: A Case of Predatory Policing? |jstor=29734103 |journal=] |volume=42 |number=1 |publisher=] |date=March 2008 |pages=1–44|doi=10.1111/j.1540-5893.2008.00333.x }}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter |first2=Tetyana |last2=Zelenska |year=2010 |title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery |url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf |publisher=] |access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/corruption-pervades-russias-health-system/ |title=Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System |publisher=] |date=28 June 2007 |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |first1=Elena |last1=Denisova-Schmidt |first2=Elvira |last2=Leontyeva |first3=Yaroslav |last3=Prytula |year=2014 |title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine |url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine |access-date=4 December 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref> and the military.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/corruption-russian-armed-forces|title=Corruption in the Russian Armed Forces|last1=Cranny-Evans|first1=Sam|last2=Ivshina|first2=Olga|date=12 May 2022|publisher=] (RUSI)|location=]|access-date=6 October 2022|quote=Corruption in the Russian armed forces, and society in general, has been a long-acknowledged truism.}}</ref> | |||
{{main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}} | |||
=== Law and crime === | |||
Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages.<ref name=britannica/> According to the 2002 census, 142.6 million people speak ], followed by ] with 5.3 million and ] with 2.9 million speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.3. Population by nationalities and knowledge of Russian; 4.4. Spreading of knowledge of languages (except Russian)|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> ] is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual ] the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 68, para. 2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of ] and the most widely spoken ].<ref name=toronto>{{cite web|title=Russian|publisher=University of Toronto|url=http://learn.utoronto.ca/Page625.aspx|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russian belongs to the ] family and is one of three (or, according to some authorities, four) living members of the ]; the others being ] and ] (and possibly ]). Written examples of ] (''Old Russian'') are attested from the 10th century onwards.<ref>{{cite web|last=Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007|title=Russian language|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572449/Russian_Language.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Law of Russia|Crime in Russia}} | |||
The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the ]. Statutes, like the ] and the ], are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.<ref>{{cite web | last=Yılmaz | first=Müleyke Nurefşan İkbal | title=With its Light and Dark Sides; The Unique Semi-Presidential System of the Russian Federation | website=Küresel Siyaset Merkezi | date=31 August 2020 | url=https://www.kureselsiyaset.org/with-its-light-and-dark-sides-the-unique-semi-presidential-system-of-the-russian-federation/ | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Partlett | first=William | title=Reclassifying Russian Law: Mechanisms, Outcomes, and Solutions for an Overly Politicized Field | website=Search eLibrary | date=7 July 2010 | ssrn=1197762 | url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1197762 | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=William E. |title=Criminal Code of the Russian Federation |year= 1999 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> | |||
Russia has the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, is ranked first in Europe and 32nd globally in the Global Organized Crime Index, and is among the countries with the highest number of people in prison.<ref>{{cite web | title=Criminality in Russia | website=The Organized Crime Index | date=4 May 2023 | url=https://ocindex.net/country/russia | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Organized Crime Index | website= The Organized Crime Index | url=https://ocindex.net/ | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Russia behind bars: the peculiarities of the Russian prison system | website=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies | date=7 February 2019 | url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2019-02-07/russia-behind-bars-peculiarities-russian-prison-system | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref> | |||
Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian.<ref name=lomonosov/> Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in English and Russian languages.<ref name=lomonosov>{{cite web|title=Russian language course|publisher=Russian Language Centre — Official Website, Moscow State University|url=http://www.rlcentre.com/russian-language-course.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The language is one of the six ] of the ]. | |||
== |
== Economy == | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Economy of Russia}} | ||
{{Further|Economic history of the Russian Federation|Taxation in Russia}} | |||
], demolished during the Soviet period, was reconstructed from 1990–2000]] | |||
] in Moscow. The city has one of the world's ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Churkina|first1=Natalie|last2=Zaverskiy|first2=Sergey|title=Challenges of strong concentration in urbanization: the case of Moscow in Russia|doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.095|volume=198|year=2017|pages=398–410|journal=Procedia Engineering|publisher=]|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] | |||
Russia has a ] ], following a ] from the ] during the 1990s.<ref name="Eco_info2">—Rosefielde, Steven, and Natalia Vennikova. “Fiscal Federalism in Russia: A Critique of the OECD Proposals". '']'', vol. 28, no. 2, ], 2004, pp. 307–18, {{JSTOR|23602130}}. | |||
], ], ], and ] are Russia’s traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bell|first=Imogen|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=respecting+christianity+islam+buddhism+judaism+and+other&source=web&ots=pppIldMuS1&sig=KikE3NJkzMEdWt4rU9EoeN03-6o|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 16–48% of the population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zuckerman|first=Phil|title=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns, chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2005|isbn=}}</ref> ] is the dominant religion in Russia.<ref name=relig>{{cite web|title=Religion In Russia|publisher=Embassy of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.russianembassy.org/RUSSIA/religion.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the ] while there are a number of ].<ref>{{cite web|title={{ru icon}}Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской Федерации По данным Федеральной регистрационной службы|date=December 2006|url=http://www.religare.ru/article36302.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis.<ref name=encarta/> Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.<ref name=encarta/> Smaller Christian denominations such as ], ] and various ] exist. | |||
—Robinson, Neil. “August 1998 and the Development of Russia's Post-Communist Political Economy". '']'', vol. 16, no. 3, ], Ltd., 2009, pp. 433–55, {{JSTOR|27756169}}. | |||
The ancestors of today’s Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century.<ref name=encarta>{{cite web|last=Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007|title=Russia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_6/Russia.html|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published by the US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians.<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90196.htm | |||
|accessdate=2008-04-08 | |||
|title=Russia | |||
}}</ref> According to a poll by the ], 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves ] and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish.<ref name=religionsurvey/> Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.<ref name=religionsurvey>{{cite web|title={{ru_icon}}Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше|publisher=religare.ru|date=6 June 2007|url=http://www.religare.ru/article42432.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
—Charap, Samuel. “No Obituaries Yet for Capitalism in Russia". ''Current History'', vol. 108, no. 720, ], 2009, pp. 333–38, {{JSTOR|45319724}}. | |||
It is estimated that Russia is home to some 15–20 million Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fact Box: Muslims In Russia|publisher=Radio Free Europe|url=http://www.rferl.org/features/features_Article.aspx?m=07&y=2005&id=B7D5E783-749F-4E6A-B77E-8932ECE7AD53|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref name=timesmuslim>{{cite web|last=Page|first=Jeremy|title=The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church|published=The Times|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article551693.ece|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, surveys say that there are only 7 to 9 million people who adhere to the Islamic faith in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=2869|publisher=Interfax|title=20Mln Muslims in Russia and mass conversion of ethnic Russians are myths - expert|accessdate=2008-04-01}}</ref> Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states.<ref name=financialtimes>{{cite web|title=Russia's Islamic rebirth adds tension|publisher=Financial Times|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3f3fba2c-474f-11da-b8e5-00000e2511c8.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Most Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow, St. Petersburg and western Siberia.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mainville|first=Michael|title=Russia has a Muslim dilemma|work=Page A - 17|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle|date=November 19, 2006|url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/19/MNGJGMFUVG1.DTL|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> ] is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Nettleton|first=Steve|title=Prayers for Ivolginsky|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2000/russia/story/train/ivolginsky.monastery/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, ], ], etc., practice pantheistic and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. ] are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian.<ref name=religion2>{{cite web|title=Russia::Religion|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|date=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38602|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Turkic speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not.<ref name=religion2/> | |||
—Rutland, Peter. “Neoliberalism and the Russian Transition". ''Review of International Political Economy'', vol. 20, no. 2, ], Ltd., 2013, pp. 332–62, {{JSTOR|42003296}}. | |||
==Culture== | |||
{{main|Russian culture}} | |||
—Kovalev, Alexandre, and Alexandre Sokalev. “Russia: Towards a Market Economy". ''New Zealand International Review'', vol. 18, no. 1, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1993, pp. 18–21, {{JSTOR|45234200}}. | |||
===Classical music and ballet=== | |||
{{main|Russian music|Russian ballet}} | |||
]]] | |||
—Czinkota, Michael R. “Russia's Transition to a Market Economy: Learning about Business". ''Journal of International Marketing'', vol. 5, no. 4, ], 1997, pp. 73–93, {{JSTOR|25048706}}.</ref> Much of the country's economic activity is centered on its abundant and varied natural resources, particularly ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59.htm |title=Russia – Natural Resources |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |publisher=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> Russia is classified by the ] as a ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups – World Bank Data Help Desk |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org}}</ref> with the world's ] by nominal GDP and the ] by ]; by some measures, its economy ranks fourth or fifth in the world by PPP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2024 |title=Russia overtakes Japan to become the fourth largest economy in the world in PPP terms |url=https://www.intellinews.com/russia-overtakes-japan-to-become-the-fourth-largest-economy-in-the-world-in-ppp-terms-328108/ |access-date=5 July 2024 |website=www.intellinews.com |language=en}}</ref> ] account for roughly 54% of total GDP, followed by ] (33%), while the ] is the smallest, at less than 4% of total GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russia - Distribution of gross domestic product (GDP) across economic sectors 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/271378/distribution-of-gross-domestic-product-gdp-across-economic-sectors-in-russia/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> Russia has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/labor-force/country-comparison/ |title=Labor force – The World Factbook |publisher=] |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> and a low official ] of 4.1%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation – Unemployment Rate|url=https://www.economy.com/russian-federation/unemployment-rate|access-date=4 April 2022|work=]}}</ref> | |||
Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions of ]. Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classical composer ] and ], who embraced Russian national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions, and the ] led by composers ] and ], which was musically conservative. The later Romantic tradition of ], one of the greatest composers of the ] whose music has come to be known and loved for its distinctly Russian character as well as its rich harmonies and stirring melodies, was brought into the 20th century by ], one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music. | |||
Russia is the world's ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1|title=List of importing markets for the product exported by Russian Federation in 2021|work=]|access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1|title=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Russian Federation in 2021|work=]|access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref> It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022,<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> and up to 60% of its exports in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last=Davydova |first=Angelina |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211115-climate-change-can-russia-leave-fossil-fuels-behind |title=Will Russia ever leave fossil fuels behind? |publisher=BBC |date=24 November 2021 |access-date=3 March 2022 |quote=Overall in Russia, oil and gas provided 39% of the federal budget revenue and made up 60% of Russian exports in 2019.}}</ref> Russia has one of the ] among major economies,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/russian-finances-strong-but-economic-problems-persist-36750 |title=Russian finances strong but economic problems persist |work=] |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=12 February 2022 |quote=Now Russia is one of the least indebted countries in the world – thanks to all the oil revenue.}}</ref> and had the ] ], valued at over $601 billion,<ref>{{cite web |title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation (End of period) |url=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd_base/mrrf/mrrf_7d/ |access-date=15 July 2024 |url-access = limited |publisher=]}}</ref> although half of that is frozen abroad, and a significant amount is believed to have been spent on the Ukrainian war. ] is among the highest among developed countries,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/620225/EPRS_ATA(2018)620225_EN.pdf |title=Socioeconomic inequality in Russia |journal=] |publisher=] |date=April 2018 |last=Russell |first=Martin |access-date=25 January 2022 }}</ref> and there are considerable regional disparities in economic development.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Remington|first=Thomas F.|title=Why is interregional inequality in Russia and China not falling?|volume=48|number=1|date=March 2015|publisher=]|journal=]|pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.01.005 |jstor=48610321}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kholodilin|first1=Konstantin A.|last2=Oshchepkov|first2=Aleksey|last3=Siliverstovs|first3=Boriss|title=The Russian Regional Convergence Process: Where Is It Leading?|year=2012|volume=50|number=3|pages=5–26|journal=Eastern European Economies|publisher=]|doi=10.2753/EEE0012-8775500301 |jstor=41719700|s2cid=153168354 }}</ref> | |||
World-renowned composers of the 20th century included ], ], ], ], and ]. During most of the Soviet Era, music was highly scrutinized and kept within a conservative, accessible idiom in conformity with the Stalinist policy of socialist realism. Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists ] and ], cellist ], pianists ], ] and ], and vocalist ]. | |||
After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment,<ref name="Ellyatt-2021"/> Russia's economy was damaged by a wave of ] in 2014 following the ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Likka|first=Korhonen|title=Economic Sanctions on Russia and Their Effects|year=2019|issn=2190-717X|publisher=]|location=]|access-date=2 October 2022|url=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/216248/1/CESifo-Forum-2019-04-p19-22.pdf|journal=CESifo Forum}}</ref> In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced ],<ref>{{cite web|last=Sonnenfeld|first=Jeffrey|date=22 March 2022|title=Over 300 Companies Have Withdrawn from Russia – But Some Remain|url=https://som.yale.edu/story/2022/over-400-companies-have-withdrawn-russia-some-remain|publisher=]|access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-07/russia-surges-past-iran-to-become-world-s-most-sanctioned-nation|title=Russia Is Now the World's Most-Sanctioned Nation|work=]|date=8 March 2022|access-date=2 October 2022|last=Wadhams|first=Nick|quote=Russia has vaulted past Iran and North Korea to become the world's most-sanctioned nation in the span of just 10 days following President Vladimir Putin's invasion of Ukraine.}}</ref> in a move described as an "all-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system.<ref name="Walsh-2022"/> Due to ], the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Whalen|first1=Jeanne|last2=Dixon|first2=Robyn|last3=Nakashima|first3=Ellen|last4=Ilyushina|first4=Mary|title=Western sanctions are wounding but not yet crushing Russia's economy|newspaper=]|date=23 August 2022|access-date=2 October 2022|quote=Russia has stopped publishing many economic statistics, making it difficult to judge how hard sanctions are hitting, but some data shows signs of distress.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/08/23/russian-sanctions-economy/|url-access=limited}}</ref> Although Russia has maintained relative economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high military spending, household consumption, and capital investment—economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect on the Russian economy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cole |first=Brendan |date=8 July 2024 |title=Russian economy faces "creeping crisis", economists warn |url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-bank-inflation-economy-crisis-1922208 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Newsweek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first=Steve |last=Rosenberg |date=6 June 2024 |title=Russia's economy is growing, but can it last? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4nn7pej9jyo |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=www.bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/is-russias-economy-really-hurting/a-63000166|last=Martin|first=Nik|title=Is Russia's economy really hurting?|work=]|publisher=]|date=6 September 2022|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref> | |||
] and ] in ''Swan Lake'']] | |||
Russian composer ] composed the world's most famous works of ballet—], ], and ]. During the early 20th century, Russian dancers ] and ] rose to fame, and impresario ] and his ]' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garafola|first=Lynn|title=Diaghilev's Ballets Russes|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=576|url=http://www.amazon.com/Diaghilevs-Ballets-Russes-Lynn-Garafola/dp/0195057015|isbn=0195057015}}</ref> Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,<ref>{{cite web|last=Cashin|first=Kathryn Karrh|title=Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet - Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward|url=http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04072005-133328/unrestricted/12_kkc_chap5.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including ], ], and ]. The ] in Moscow and the ] in St. Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://petersburgcity.com/news/culture/2005/11/18/theatre/|title=A Tale of Two Operas|publisher=Petersburg City|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Transport and energy === | ||
{{Main|Transport in Russia|Energy in Russia}} | |||
{{main|Russian literature}} | |||
] is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans-siberian-railway-russia-what-its-like-photos-2019-7 |title=I rode the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway on a 2,000-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world. |work=] |first=Katie |last=Warren |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref>]] | |||
] is considered to be among the most influential and developed in the world, contributing much of the world's most famous literary works.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564269/Russian_Literature.html|title=Russian Literature|last=Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007|accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> Russia's literary history dates back to the 10th century and by the early 19th century a native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writers of all time. This period began with ], considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often described as the "Russian Shakespeare".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Catriona|title=Russian Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions) (Paperback)|publisher=Oxford Paperbacks|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/Russian-Literature-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192801449|isbn=0192801449}}</ref> Amongst Russia's most renowned poets and writers of the 19th century are ], ], ], ], ] and ]. ], ], ], and ] made lasting contributions to Russian prose. | |||
] is mostly controlled by the state-run ]. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's ], exceeding {{convert|87000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison |title=Railways – The World Factbook |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2019}}, Russia has the world's ], with over 1.5 million km of roads,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://government.ru/info/22865/ |title=О развитии дорожной инфраструктуры|trans-title=On the development of road infrastructure |work=] |date=29 April 2016 |access-date=14 January 2021}}</ref> although its road density is among the world's lowest, due in part to its vast land area.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe-central-asia-continue-to-report-the-worlds-highest-road-network-density-followed-by-east-asia-and-pacific/ |title=Europe continues to report the world's highest Road Network Density, followed by East Asia and Pacific. |work=International Road Federation |date=16 December 2020 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> Russia's inland waterways are the world's ], totaling {{convert|102000|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison |title=Waterways – The World Factbook |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> Russia has over ],<ref>{{cite web |title=Airports – The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/airports/country-comparison |access-date=22 July 2024 |work=] |publisher=]}}</ref> ranking seventh in the world, of which the ] is ] in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the ] in ] along the Black Sea.<ref>{{cite web|last=Guzeva|first=Alexandra|date=20 April 2021|title=10 Biggest port cities in Russia|url=https://www.rbth.com/travel/333689-russia-biggest-port-cities|access-date=13 February 2022|website=]|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
Russia was widely described ].<ref>{{cite book | editor = Elizabeth Buchanan |year=2021 | title = Russian Energy Strategy in the Asia-Pacific: Implications for Australia | publisher = Australian National University | page = 86 | isbn = 978-1-76046-339-7 | oclc = 1246214035 | url = {{GBurl|id=bdIwEAAAQBAJ|p=86}}}}</ref> It has the world's largest ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-proved-reserves/country-comparison |title=Natural gas – proved reserves |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=15 February 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174101/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-proved-reserves/country-comparison |url-status=dead }}</ref> the second-largest ],<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition |url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf |access-date=8 November 2020 |website=bp.com |publisher=] |page=45}}</ref> the eighth-largest ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/ |title=Crude oil – proved reserves |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the largest ] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |year=2010 |title=2010 Survey of Energy Resources |url=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser_2010_report_1.pdf |access-date=8 November 2020 |publisher=] |page=102 |isbn=978-0-946121-02-1}}</ref> Russia is also the world's ],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iea.org/articles/energy-fact-sheet-why-does-russian-oil-and-gas-matter|title=Energy Fact Sheet: Why does Russian oil and gas matter? – Analysis|website=International Energy Agency|date=21 March 2022}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-production/country-comparison/ |title=Natural gas – production |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-production/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the second-largest oil ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-production/country-comparison/ |title=Crude oil – production |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-production/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-exports/country-comparison/ |title=Crude oil – exports |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330235135/http://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-exports/country-comparison |url-status=dead }}</ref> Russia's oil and gas production led to deep economic relationships with the ], China, and ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="IEA">{{cite web |title=Gas Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/gas-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of the total gas demand for the EU (including the United Kingdom) increased from 25% in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the ] in February 2022.<ref name="IEA"/> | |||
]]] | |||
By the 1880s Russian literature had begun to change. The age of the great novelists was over and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres of Russian literature for the next several decades which became known as the "Silver Age". Previously dominated by realism, symbolism dominated Russian literature in the years between 1893 and 1914. Leading writers of this age include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
In the mid-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2594003|title=Нефть со всеми вытекающими|date=27 October 2014|website=www.kommersant.ru}}</ref> The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,<ref>Movchan, Andrey (14 September 2015). ] (CarnegieMoscow.org). Retrieved 17 July 2023.</ref> but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP—including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities—amounts to 19.2% in 2019 and 15.2% in 2020; this is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan, and much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/1b5RpebS/Maximov-tezisy.pdf|title=Определение доли нефтегазового сектора в валовом внутреннем продукте Российской Федерации|language=ru|website=rosstat.gov.ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbc.ru/economics/13/07/2021/60ec40d39a7947f74aeb2aae|title=Росстат впервые рассчитал долю нефти и газа в российском ВВП|website=РБК|date=13 July 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://neftegazru.com/news/economics-markets-stocks/688594-oil-gas-share-of-russia-s-gdp-dropped-to-15-in-2020/|title=Oil & gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020|website=neftegazru.com|date=14 July 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://norvanreports.com/oil-gas-share-of-russias-gdp-dropped-to-15-in-2020/|title=Oil & gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020 | NORVANREPORTS.COM | Business News, Insurance, Taxation, Oil & Gas, Maritime News, Ghana, Africa, World|date=14 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Oil-Gas-Share-Of-Russias-GDP-Dropped-To-15-In-2020.html|title=Oil & Gas Share Of Russia's GDP Dropped To 15% In 2020|website=OilPrice.com}}</ref> | |||
Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war, Russian cultural life in was left in chaos. Some established writers left Russia while a new generation of talented writers who had at least some sympathy for the ideals of the revolution was emerging. The most ardent of these joined together in writers organizations with the aim of creating a new and distinctive proletarian (working-class) culture appropriate to the new state. Throughout the 1920s writers enjoyed broad tolerance. In the 1930s censorship over literature was tightened in line with Joseph Stalin's policy of ]. After his death several thaws took place and restrictions on literature were eased. By the 1970s and 1980s, writers were increasingly ignoring the guildlines of socialist realism. The leading writers of the Soviet era included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
Russia is the world's ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/electricity-production/country-comparison |title=Electricity – production |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331093053/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/electricity-production/country-comparison |url-status=dead }}</ref> Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of all ] and 42% of electricity consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |last2=Roser |first2=Max |author2-link=Max Roser |last3=Rosado |first3=Pablo |date=27 October 2022 |title=Energy |url=https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/russia |journal=Our World in Data}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Russia: power production share by source 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1237590/russia-distribution-of-electricity-production-by-source/ |access-date=22 July 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's ] in 1954;<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Long |first=Tony |date=27 June 2012 |title=June 27, 1954: World's First Nuclear Power Plant Opens |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/06/june-27-1954-worlds-first-nuclear-power-plant-opens/ |access-date=8 June 2021 |magazine=]}}</ref> it remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in ].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=- World Nuclear Association |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/russia-nuclear-power#:~:text=Russia's%20first%20nuclear%20power%20plant,today's%20production%20models%20were%20commissioned. |access-date=22 July 2024 |website=world-nuclear.org}}</ref> Russia is the world's ], which accounts for one-fourth of total electricity generation.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{cite web |date=October 2020 |title=Nuclear Power Today |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx |access-date=8 November 2020 |website=world-nuclear.org |publisher=]}}</ref> Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
===Motion pictures=== | |||
{{main|Cinema of Russia}} | |||
While in the industrialized nations of the West, motion pictures had first been accepted as a form of cheap recreation and leisure for the working class, Russian filmmaking came to prominence following the 1917 revolution when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-52145/history-of-the-motion-picture|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=History of the motion picture: The Soviet Union|accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention in the period immediately following the 1917 revolution, resulting in world-renowned films such as '']''.<ref name=film>{{cite web|title=Russia::Motion pictures|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38645|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably ] and ], would become some of the world's most innovative and influential directors. | |||
Russia ratified the ] in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sauer |first=Natalie |date=24 September 2019 |title=Russia formally joins Paris climate pact |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/climate-environment/news/russia-formally-joins-paris-climate-pact/ |access-date=19 December 2021 |work=]}}</ref> The country's ] are the world's ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Hill |first=Ian |date=1 November 2021 |title=Is Russia finally getting serious on climate change? |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/russia-finally-getting-serious-climate-change |access-date=19 December 2021 |publisher=]}}</ref> Coal still accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generation (17.64%).<ref name=":3" /> Russia is the ] as of 2022,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whiteman |first1=Adrian |last2=Akande |first2=Dennis |last3=Elhassan |first3=Nazik |last4=Escamilla |first4=Gerardo |last5=Lebedys |first5=Arvydas |last6=Arkhipova |first6=Lana |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf |title=Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 |access-date=3 January 2022 |location=] |publisher=] |date=2021 |isbn=978-92-9260-342-7}}</ref> with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17.54%).<ref name=":3" /> The use and development of other ] resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.<ref name=":5" /> | |||
]'' movie poster (2005).]] | |||
=== Agriculture and fishery === | |||
Eisenstein also was a student of filmmaker and theorist ], who formulated the groundbreaking editing process called ] at the world's first film school, the ] in Moscow. ], whose kino-glaz (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. In 1932, Stalin made ] the state policy; this stifled creativity but many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, including '']'', '']'' and '']''.<ref name=film/> ]'s comedies of the 1960s and 1970s were immensely popular, with many of the catch phrases still in use today. In 1969, ]'s '']'' was released, starting a genre known as ']s'. The film is watched by ] before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|publisher=Film Society of Lincoln Center|title=White Sun of the Desert / Beloe solntse pustyni|accessdate=2008-01-18}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}} | |||
], Siberia]] | |||
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.<ref name="agriculturebritannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy |title=Russia – Economy |encyclopedia=] |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> It has the world's ], at {{convert|1265267|km2}}. However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is ],<ref name="cia"/> with an additional 7.4% being ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations=RU |title=Arable land (% of land area) – Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "]" of Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system-shock-russias-war-and-global-food-energy-and-mineral-supply-chains|title=System Shock: Russia's War and Global Food, Energy, and Mineral Supply Chains|work=]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=13 April 2022|access-date=24 June 2022|quote=Together, Russia and Ukraine—sometimes referred to as the breadbasket of Europe—account for 29% of global wheat exports, 80% of the world’s sunflower oil, and 40% of its barley.}}</ref> More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used ]s, vegetables, and fruits.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> Russia is the world's ],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-22/russia-s-dominance-of-the-wheat-world-keeps-growing |title=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing |publisher=] |first1=Anatoly |last1=Medetsky |first2=Megan |last2=Durisin |date=23 September 2020 |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/wheat/reporter/rus?redirect=true|title=Wheat in Russia | OEC|website=OEC – The Observatory of Economic Complexity}}</ref> the ] and ], among the largest exporters of ] and ], and the leading producer of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf|title=The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict|date=25 March 2022|publisher=]|location=]|access-date=8 July 2022}}</ref> | |||
Various analysts of ] foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html |title=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis |work=] |first=Abrahm |last=Lustgarten |date=16 December 2020 |access-date=15 June 2021|url-access=limited|quote=Across Eastern Russia, wild forests, swamps and grasslands are slowly being transformed into orderly grids of soybeans, corn and wheat. It’s a process that is likely to accelerate: Russia hopes to seize on the warming temperatures and longer growing seasons brought by climate change to refashion itself as one of the planet’s largest producers of food}}</ref> Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia ] the world's ]; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture |publisher=] |date=2018 |access-date=4 February 2021 |location=] |isbn=978-92-5-130562-1}}</ref> It is home to the world's finest caviar, the ]; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> | |||
]'' movie poster (2006).]] | |||
=== Science and technology === | |||
The 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.<ref name=kino>{{cite web|last=Dzieciolowski|first=Zygmunt|title=Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-Film/russian_film_3726.jsp|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia's total box-office revenue in 2006 was $412 million<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011|publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers|url=http://www.pwc.com/extweb/ncpressrelease.nsf/docid/B373F0C74AA25A7480257309003B9833|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> (by comparison, in 1996 revenues stood at $6 million).<ref name=kino/> Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. '']'' (2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. | |||
{{Main|Science and technology in Russia}} | |||
{{See also|Timeline of Russian innovation|List of Russian scientists|List of Russian inventors}} | |||
<!--section full of name spamming see Canada#Science and technology for proper example--> | |||
] (1711–1765), ] scientist, inventor, poet and artist]] | |||
Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on ] in 2019, with the world's ].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D |website=] Data |date=2017 |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114013730/https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=SJR – International Science Ranking |url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2020 |access-date=3 February 2022 |publisher=]}}</ref> Since 1904, ] were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite news |date=10 December 2019|script-title=ru:Кто из российских и советских ученых и литераторов становился лауреатом Нобелевской премии|trans-title=Which of the Russian and Soviet scientists and writers became the Nobel Prize laureate |url=https://tass.ru/info/7308739 |access-date=8 November 2020|script-website=ru:ТАСС |agency=] |language=ru|newspaper=Tacc }}</ref> Russia ranked 60th in the ] in 2024, down from 45th in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2024 : Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2021/ru.pdf |title=RUSSIAN FEDERATION |work=] |publisher=United Nations |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref> | |||
Since the times of ], who pioneered the ], and ], a prominent tutor; Russian ] became among the world's most influential.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vucinich |first=Alexander |title=Mathematics in Russian Culture |jstor=2708192 |doi=10.2307/2708192 |publisher=] |volume=21 |number=2 |year=1960 |journal=] |pages=161–179}}</ref> ] invented the ], the main framework of modern ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leicester |first=Henry M. |title=Factors Which Led Mendeleev to the Periodic Law |jstor=27757115 |doi=10.2307/27757115 |year=1948 |pages=67–74 |publisher=] |journal=]|volume=1 }}</ref> Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the ]. ] was offered the first ever Clay ] Award for his final proof of the ] in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Frank |title=Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture |jstor=27642690 |volume=116 |number=2 |pages=134–142 |date=February 2009 |journal=] |publisher=]|doi=10.1080/00029890.2009.11920920 |s2cid=6068179 }}</ref> | |||
===Visual arts=== | |||
Early Russian painting focused on ] and vibrant ]'s inherited by Russians from ]. As Moscow rose to power, ] and ] are vital names associated with the beginning of a distinctly Russian art. The ] was created in 1757, aimed to give Russian artists an international role and status. Notable portrait painters from the Academy include ], ], ] and ]. ] flourished in the 19th century and the realists captured Russian identity. Russian landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birch clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries asserted a sense of identity. Other artists focused on ], showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority while ] flourished under the reign of Alexander II.] After the abolition of serfdom in 1861 some artists made the circle of human suffering their focus. Artists sometimes created wide canvasses to depict dramatic moments in Russian history. The ] (wanderers) group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from Academic restrictions. Their paintings had deep social and political meaning. Leading realists include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. By the 1830s the Academy was sending painters overseas to learn. The most gifted of these were ] and ], both of whom were noted for the Romantic historical canvasses. Uniquely Russian styles of painting emerged by the late 19th century that was intimately engaged with the daily life of Russian society. | |||
] was among the ],<ref>{{cite web |last=Marsh |first=Allison |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/who-invented-radio-guglielmo-marconi-or-aleksandr-popov |title=Who Invented Radio: Guglielmo Marconi or Aleksandr Popov? |work=] |publisher=] |date=30 April 2020 |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> while ] and ] were co-inventors of ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shampo |first1=Marc A. |last2=Kyle |first2=Robert A. |last3=Steensma |first3=David P. |title=Nikolay Basov – Nobel Prize for Lasers and Masers |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |date=January 2012 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=e3 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.11.003 |pmid=22212977 |pmc=3498096}}</ref> ] made crucial contributions in the field of ]s, and discovered ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zheludev |first=Nikolay |title=The life and times of the LED – a 100-year history |date=April 2007 |volume=1 |pages=189–192 |doi=10.1038/nphoton.2007.34 |journal=]|issue=4 |bibcode=2007NaPho...1..189Z }}</ref> ] is considered one of the founders of ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghilarov |first=Alexej M. |title=Vernadsky's Biosphere Concept: An Historical Perspective |jstor=3036242 |publisher=The ] |volume=70 |number=2 |journal=] |date=June 1995 |pages=193–203|doi=10.1086/418982 |s2cid=85258634 }}</ref> ] is known for his groundbreaking research in ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gordon |first=Siamon |title=Elie Metchnikoff, the Man and the Myth |journal=Journal of Innate Immunity |pmid=26836137 |date=3 February 2016 |volume=8 |number=3 |pages=223–227 |doi=10.1159/000443331 |pmc=6738810 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ] is known chiefly for his work in ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anrep |first=G. V. |title=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 1849–1936 |jstor=769124 |publisher=] |volume=2 |number=5 |date=December 1936 |pages=1–18 |journal=]|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1936.0001 }}</ref> ] made fundamental contributions to many areas of ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorelik |first=Gennady |title=The Top-Secret Life of Lev Landau |jstor=24995874 |journal=] |volume=277 |number=2 |pages=72–77 |date=August 1997 |publisher=Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0897-72 |bibcode=1997SciAm.277b..72G }}</ref> | |||
The ] is an umbrella term used to define the large, influential wave of ] that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930. The term covers many separate, but inextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namely ], ], ], ] and ]. Notable artists from this era include ], ], ], ], ], and ] amongst others. Members of the ] group of artists advocated the most advanced European techniques. The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the ] and 1932, at which point the ideas of the ] clashed with the newly emerged conservative Stalinist direction of ]. | |||
] was best known for having identified the ] of origin of ] plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Janick |first=Jules |title=Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov: Plant Geographer, Geneticist, Martyr of Science |doi-access=free |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.50.6.772 |date=1 June 2015 |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/772.full.pdf |volume=50 |number=6 |journal=HortScience|pages=772–776 }}</ref> ] was known mainly for ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhengrong |last2=Liu |first2=Yongsheng |year=2017 |title=Lysenko and Russian genetics: an alternative view |journal=] |volume=25 |number=10 |pages=1097–1098 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.117 |issn=1476-5438 |pmc=5602018 |pmid=28905876}}</ref> Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were ]. ] was an ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hunsaker |first=Jerome C. |title=A Half Century of Aeronautical Development |jstor=3143642 |publisher=] |volume=98 |number=2 |pages=121–130 |date=15 April 1954 |journal=]}}</ref> ] was the inventor of the ] and ] television systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/vladimir-zworykin |title=Vladimir Zworykin |work=] |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> ] was the central figure in the field of ] for his work in shaping the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=Edmund Brisco |author-link= E. B. Ford |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1977.0004 |title=Theodosius Grigorievich Dobzhansky, 25 January 1900 – 18 December 1975 |date=November 1977 |journal=] |volume= 23 |pages=58–89 |pmid= 11615738 |doi-access=free |issn=1748-8494}}</ref> ] was one of the foremost advocates of the ] theory.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george-gamow-memorial-lecture-series/distinguished-life-and-career-george-gamow |title= The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow |date= 11 May 2016 |publisher=] |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
], 1949. An example of ].]] | |||
==== Space exploration ==== | |||
By the late 1920s the rigid policy of socialist realism enveloped the visual arts as it did literature and motion pictures and soon the avant-garde had faded from sight. Some artists combined innovation with socialist realism including ], ], ], ] and ]. They employed techniques as varied as ], ], ], and ], but they shared a common distaste for the canons of socialist realism. Soviet artists produced works that were furiously patriotic and anti-fascist in the 1940s. Events and battles from the Great Patriotic War were depicted with stirring patriotism and after the war sculptors made many monuments to the war dead, the greatest of which have a great restrained solemnity. In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, due in part to the traumas of the Revolution. Russian artists such as ], ], and ] spread their work and ideas internationally. These Russian artists studied internationally in Paris and Munich and their involuntary exile spread the impact of Russian art globally. | |||
], Russian ] that operated in ]]] | |||
] is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of ] and ] can be traced back to ], the father of theoretical ], whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as ], ], and many others who contributed to the success of the ] in the early stages of the ] and beyond.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Asif A. |title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 |date=2000 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-160-61305-0}}</ref>{{rp|6–7,333}} | |||
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial ], '']'', was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by ]. Many other Soviet and Russian ] ensued. In 1963, ] became the first and youngest ], having flown a solo mission on ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1963-023A |title=Vostok 6 |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref> In 1965, ] became the first human to conduct a ], exiting the ] during ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html |title=The First Spacewalk |publisher=BBC |first=Paul |last=Rincon |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> | |||
=== Cartoons and Comics === | |||
{{main|History of Russian animation}} | |||
In 1957, ], a ], became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard ].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wellerstein |first=Alex |url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero |title=Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero |magazine=] |date=3 November 2017 |access-date=18 January 2022}}</ref> In 1966, ] became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a ], the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-006A |title=Luna 9 |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=1 June 2021 }}</ref> In 1968, ] brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.<ref>{{cite web |last=Betz |first=Eric |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/the-first-earthlings-around-the-moon-were-two-soviet-tortoises |title=The First Earthlings Around the Moon Were Two Soviet Tortoises |work=] |date=19 September 2018 |access-date=18 January 2022 }}</ref> In 1970, ] became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avduevsky |first1=V. S. |last2=Ya Marov |first2=M. |last3=Rozhdestvensky |first3=M. K. |last4=Borodin |first4=N. F. |last5=Kerzhanovich |first5=V. V. |date=1 March 1971 |title=Soft Landing of Venera 7 on the Venus Surface and Preliminary Results of Investigations of the Venus Atmosphere |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<0263:SLOVOT>2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free |pages=263–269 |publisher=] |location=Moscow|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|volume=28 |issue=2 |bibcode=1971JAtS...28..263A }}</ref> In 1971, ] became the first spacecraft to land on ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Perminov |first=V.G. |title=The Difficult Road to Mars – A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union |date=July 1999 |publisher=] History Division |isbn=0-16-058859-6 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15.pdf |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=14 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714111920/https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|34–60}} During the same period, '']'' became the first ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod-01/in-depth/ |title=Lunokhod 01 |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=1 June 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331072547/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod-01/in-depth/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> while '']'' became the world's first ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-world-s-first-space-station |title=50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station |work=] |publisher=] |date=19 April 2021 |access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> | |||
Russian and Soviet comics and cartoons are very rich, but so far nearly unexplored field for Western ] and history. As most of Russia's production of animation for ] and ] was created during ] times, it may also be referred to as the "Soviet animation." | |||
Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Satellite Database |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=]}}</ref> Between the final flight of the ] program in 2011 and the 2020 ]'s ], ] were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ].<ref>{{cite news |title=SpaceX successfully launches first crew to orbit, ushering in new era of spaceflight |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/30/21269703/spacex-launch-crew-dragon-nasa-orbit-successful |work=The Verge |date=30 May 2020}}</ref> ] launched in August 2023, was the first of the ] Moon exploration programme.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia launches Luna-25 moon lander, its 1st lunar probe in 47 years |url=https://www.space.com/russia-luna-25-moon-mission-launch-success |work=Space.com |date=10 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
] from '']'' (1947).]] | |||
=== Tourism === | |||
The first animator in Russia was ], who was of Polish descent and is therefore also known by the name of Wladyslaw Starewicz. Being a trained biologist, he started to make ] with embalmed insects for educational purposes, but soon realized the possibilities of his medium to become one of the undisputed masters of ] later in his life. His first few films, made in ], were ] on the family lives of cockroaches, and were so revolutionary that they earned Starevich a decoration from ]. Starevich's 41-minute ] film '']'' was the first example of the use of ] and live action in the same scene. After Starevich's emigration following the ], animation in Russia came to a standstill for years. Only by the mid-to-late-]s could Soviet authorities be convinced to finance experimental studios. These were typically part of a bigger film studio and were in the beginning most often used to produce short animated clips for ] purposes. | |||
{{Main|Tourism in Russia}} | |||
] in Saint Petersburg, a ]]] | |||
According to the ], Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.<ref name="unwto">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.6 |title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer |journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer English Version |publisher=] (UNWTO) |year=2020 |volume=18 |page=18 |language=en |doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng |issn=1728-9246 |issue=6}}</ref> According to ], the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Выборочная статистическая информация, рассчитанная в соответствии с Официальной статистической методологией оценки числа въездных и выездных туристских поездок – Ростуризм |trans-title=Selected statistical information calculated in accordance with the Official Statistical Methodology for Estimating the Number of Inbound and Outbound Tourist Trips – Rostourism |url=https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie-pokazateli-vzaimnykh-poezdok-grazhdan-rossiyskoy-federatsii-i-grazhdan-inostrannykh-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya-statisticheskaya-informatsiya-rasschitannaya-v-sootvetstvii-s-ofitsialnoy-statisticheskoy-metodologiey-otsenki-chisla-vezdnykh-i-vyezdnykh-turistskikh-poezdok/ |access-date=11 November 2020 |website=tourism.gov.ru |publisher=] |language=ru |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122202242/https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie-pokazateli-vzaimnykh-poezdok-grazhdan-rossiyskoy-federatsii-i-grazhdan-inostrannykh-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya-statisticheskaya-informatsiya-rasschitannaya-v-sootvetstvii-s-ofitsialnoy-statisticheskoy-metodologiey-otsenki-chisla-vezdnykh-i-vyezdnykh-turistskikh-poezdok/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11.6 billion.<ref name="unwto" /> In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://knoema.com/atlas/Russian-Federation/topics/Tourism/Travel-and-Tourism-Total-Contribution-to-GDP/Contribution-of-travel-and-tourism-to-GDP-percent-of-GDP|title=Russian Federation Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995–2019 |website=Knoema}}</ref> In the wake of the ], tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6.3 million foreign visitors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> | |||
Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the ], a ] of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the ],<ref>{{cite news |last=Tomb |first=Howard |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/27/travel/getting-to-the-top-in-the-caucasus.html |title=Getting to the Top In the Caucasus |work=] |date=27 August 1989 |access-date=4 December 2021|url-access=limited}}</ref> and journeys on the famous ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 January 2015 |title=Tourism Highlights 2014 |publisher=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization) |year=2014 |access-date=20 January 2015}}</ref> Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include ], the ], the ], the ] and Lake Baikal.<ref>{{cite web |last=Vlasov |first=Artem |date=17 December 2018|script-title=ru:Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России|trans-title=The most popular sights of Russia are named |url=https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii |access-date=15 December 2020 |website=] |language=ru}}</ref> | |||
In ], ] sent a film reel with some shorts of ] to the ]. ], then only an animator, recalls his impressions of that screening in an interview in ]'s film ''The Spirit of Genius''. He was absolutely overwhelmed by the liquidity of the films' images and enthusiastic about the new possibilities for animation that Disney's ways seemed to offer. | |||
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern ]; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Paul |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow-travel-guide/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow-travel-guide/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=48 hours in... Moscow, an insider guide to Russia's mighty metropolis |work=] |date=7 March 2021 |access-date=4 December 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> ], the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, ], crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hammer |first=Joshua |work=] |date=3 June 2011 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias-white-nights-in-st-petersburg.html |title=White Nights of St. Petersburg, Russia |access-date=4 December 2021|url-access=limited}}</ref> Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the ], the ], and the ]; and for theatres such as the ] and the ]. The ] and the ] are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/|access-date=20 February 2022|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> | |||
]'' is a popular series in Russia and the former Soviet Union (1969).]] | |||
== Demographics == | |||
Higher officials shared this impression, too, and in ], the ]-Studio was created from the small and relatively independent trickfilm units of ], ] and ] in order to focus on the creation of Disney-style animation, exclusively using ] technique. Already since ], when a congress of ] writers had proclaimed the necessity of ], the influence of ] and the ] on animation had dwindled. Now, esthetic experiments were shoved off the agenda, and for over twenty years, Soyuzmultfilm, as the studio was called from ] onwards, worked in a ] way, using ] technique and ]. It became the leading animation studio in the ], producing an ever-growing number of children's and educational animation shorts and features, but the experimental spirit of the founding years was lost. | |||
{{Main|Demographics of Russia|Russians|List of cities and towns in Russia|List of cities and towns in Russia by population}} | |||
] | |||
{{multiple image | |||
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| title = Ethnic groups across Russia | |||
| image1 = Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people 2010 Census English.png | |||
| caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census}} | |||
| image2 = Percentage of Russians by Federal Subjects (2021 Census).png | |||
| caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2021 census}} | |||
}} | |||
Russia had a population of 144.7 million in ] (excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),<ref name="gks.ru-popul" /> growing from 142.8 million in ].<ref>{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref> It is the ] in Europe and ] in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST |title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area) |work=] |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> With a ] of {{convert|8|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|inhabitants |inhabitants|}}, Russia is one of the world's ] countries,<ref name="cia"/> with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/29.htm |title=Russia – Demographics |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref> The country is highly ], with two-thirds of the population living in ], | |||
When ] in ] proclaimed the end of the personality cult about ], he started a process of political and cultural renewal in the country. Even though animators still needed a while to free themselves from the long tradition of "Éclair", from the ] onwards, animation films gain completely new qualities. | |||
The starting point for this was ]'s film '']'' (]). Not only had he changed the animation style to something that resembled what the ] was doing, but for the first time since the ] years, he was able to tackle a contemporary story. | |||
Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its ] exceeding its ], which some analysts have called a ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Koehn |first=Jodi |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis |title=Russia's Demographic Crisis |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining ], increased ], and increased immigration.<ref>{{cite web |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html |title=Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners? |publisher=] |quote="Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses." |date=19 June 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the ] resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.<ref>{{cite web |last=Saver |first=Pjotr |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/13/russias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline |title=Russia's population undergoes largest ever peacetime decline, analysis shows |work=] |date=13 October 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 |quote=Russia's natural population has undergone its largest peacetime decline in recorded history over the last 12 months...}}</ref> Following the ], the demographic crisis has deepened,<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://jamestown.org/program/russias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating/|title=Russia's Demographic Collapse Is Accelerating|last=Goble|first=Paul|volume=19|issue=127|date=18 August 2022|location=Washington, D.C.|journal=Eurasia Daily Monitor|publisher=]|access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref> owing to reportedly high military fatalities and renewed ] caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=Ukraine war threatens to deepen Russia's demographic crisis|date=4 April 2022|last1=Cocco|first1=Federica|last2=Ivanonva|first2=Polina|work=]|access-date=6 October 2022|location=London}}</ref> | |||
] (or "Vinni Pukh") was a relatively favorite character in the Soviet Union (1969).]] | |||
In 2022, the ] across Russia was estimated to be 1.42 children born per woman,<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости |trans-title=Total fertility rate |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/SMD_7.1.xlsx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810203543/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/SMD_7.1.xlsx |archive-date=10 August 2023 |access-date=10 August 2023 |work=] |language=ru |format=XLSX}}</ref> which is below the ] of 2.1 and among ].<ref>{{cite web |date=15 January 2020 |title=Russia's Putin seeks to stimulate birth rate |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51120165 |access-date=5 January 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's ], with a median age of 40.3 years.<ref name="cia" /> | |||
Khitruk's revolutionary approach paved the way for a vast number of young animation directors that in the following years developed their own distinctive styles and approaches. One of the most political was ], whose film '']'' (]) was severely cut by censors, but shelved nevertheless. ] is known as the founder of the cinema journal ''Vesyolaya Karusel'' (''The Happy Merry-Go-Round'', since ]) that gave an opportunity to many young directors to make their first own films. Among them were ], ], ], ] and others. The ] saw the birth of the Soviet Union's most popular animation series, '']'' (''Well, Just You Wait!''), directed by ]. These seemingly simple miniatures about a wolf chasing a hare through soviet-style ] worlds owe a great deal of their popularity to the cunning ]s built into their parts. | |||
Russia is a ] with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.<ref>{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/32.htm |title=Russia – Ethnic Composition |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref> There are over ]. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic ], and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php |title=EAll- Russian population census 2010 – Population by nationality, sex and subjects of the Russian Federation |work=Demoscope Weekly |year=2010 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> while over four-fifths of Russia's population was of ]—of whom the vast majority were ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597 |title=Russia – The Indo-European Group |encyclopedia=] |quote="East Slavs—mainly Russians but including some Ukrainians and Belarusians—constitute more than four-fifths of the total population and are prevalent throughout the country." |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> with a substantial minority of ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kowalev |first1=Viktor |last2=Neznaika |first2=Pavel |title=Power and Ethnicity in the Finno-Ugric Republics of the Russian Federation: The Examples of Komi, Mordovia, and Udmurtia |jstor=41103741 |volume=30 |number=3 |pages=81–100 |publisher=] |year=2000 |journal=]|doi=10.1080/08911916.2000.11644017 |s2cid=152467776 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bartlett |first=Roger |title=The Russian Germans and Their Neighbours |journal=] |volume=73 |number=3 |pages=499–504 |publisher=] |date=July 1995 |jstor=4211864}}</ref> According to the United Nations, Russia's ] is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;<ref>{{cite news |last=Kirk |first=Ashley |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/12111108/Mapped-Which-country-has-the-most-immigrants.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/12111108/Mapped-Which-country-has-the-most-immigrants.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Mapped: Which country has the most immigrants? |date=21 January 2016 |work=] |access-date=30 June 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> most of which are from ], mainly from ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2017-03-14/russia-s-alternative-universe-immigrants-welcome |title=Russia Wants Immigrants the World Doesn't |publisher=] |first=Leonid |last=Ragozin |date=14 March 2017 |access-date=5 July 2023}}</ref> | |||
After the end of the ], the situation for Russian animators changed dramatically. State subsidies diminished significantly on the one hand, and the number of ]s competing for that amount of money rose a good deal on the other. Most of the studios during the 1990s lived on animation for ] and on doing commissioned works for big studios from ] and elsewhere. Nevertheless, there were a few very successful international co-productions, e.g. ]'s ]-winning '']'' (], from ]'s ]) or ]'s '']'' (], from ]'s play) that earned the director an ]. | |||
{{Largest cities of Russia}} | |||
=== Language === | |||
]'' is a good example of Russia's animation of today (2006).]] | |||
{{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}} | |||
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center | |||
| align = right | |||
| title = Minority languages across Russia | |||
| image1 = Linguistic map of the Altaic, Turkic and Uralic languages (en).png|caption1=] and ] spoken across Russia | |||
| image2 = Caucasus-ethnic en.svg|caption2=The ] is ]-] diverse.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Lazarev |first1=Vladimir |last2=Pravikova |first2=Ludmila |date=2005 |title=The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity |url=http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF |editor-first1=James |editor-last1=Cohen |editor-first2=Kara T. |editor-last2=McAlister |editor-first3=Kellie |editor-last3=Rolstad |editor-first4=Jeff |editor-last4=MacSwan |page=1325 |book-title=ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism |publisher=Cascadilla Press |location=Somerville, MA |quote=The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism.}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
Russian is the ] and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.<ref name="Chevalier-2006"/> It is the most spoken ] in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken ].<ref name="language"/> Russian is one of two official languages aboard the ],<ref>{{cite web |last=Wakata |first=Koichi|author-link=Koichi Wakata |url=https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html |title=My Long Mission in Space |publisher=] |quote=The official languages on the ISS are English and Russian... |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> as well as one of the six ].<ref name="language">{{cite web |url=https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian |title=Russian |publisher=] |quote="Russian is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the largest native language in Europe. Of great political importance, it is one of the official languages of the United Nations – making it a natural area of study for those interested in geopolitics." |access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> | |||
Russia is a ] nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2011 |last=Iryna |first=Ulasiuk |title=Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=32 |number=1 |pages=71–83 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2010.536237 |s2cid=145612470 |issn=0143-4632 |quote=Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595 |title=Russia – Ethnic groups and languages |encyclopedia=] |quote="Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders." |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref> According to the ], 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke ], and 1.1 million spoke ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |script-title=ru:Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года |trans-title=All-Russian population census 2010 |website=Том 4. Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство |publisher=] |language=ru |access-date=24 August 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307194352/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |archive-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to ] in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm |title=Chapter 3. The Federal Structure |publisher=] |quote="2. The Republics shall have the right to establish their own state languages. In the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the Republics they shall be used together with the state language of the Russian Federation. 3. The Russian Federation shall guarantee to all of its peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development." |access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref> However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jankiewicz |first1=Szymon |last2=Knyaginina |first2=Nadezhda |last3=Prina |first3=Federic |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/208165/1/208165.pdf |title=Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity |date=13 March 2020 |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=59–91 |journal=] |doi=10.1163/15730352-bja10003 |publisher=] |s2cid=216273023 |issn=0925-9880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bondarenko |first1=Dmitry V. |last2=Nasonkin |first2=Vladimir V. |last3=Shagieva |first3=Rozalina V. |last4=Kiyanova |first4=Olga N. |last5=Barabanova |first5=Svetlana V. |year=2018 |title=Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion? |url=https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf |journal=Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods |pages=166–182 |volume=8 |number=5 |issn=2251-6204}}</ref> | |||
], the former juggernaut of Russian animation studios (at one time employing as many as 400 animators and other staff), was beset by corrupt administrators who sold off all the rights to all the films previously made by the studio without telling shareholders or employees. Notably, in the mid-1990s ] illegally took over the company and used hired thugs to keep the animators in line and the government officials from asserting legal authority. The legal director of Soyuzmultfilm kept a very low profile after having been beat up in an alley and forced to go to the hospital with injuries to the head, and during this period many documents were signed by Skulyabin illegally on behalf of Soyuzmultfilm. | |||
=== Religion === | |||
As Russia's economic situation became increasingly stable, so did the market for animation, and during the last three years a number of feature-length animation films from Russian studios have emerged (e.g. ]'s '']'', 2003, from ]'s fairy tale, and ]'s 2006 '']'', based on early history of ] - the highest-grossing Russian animated film to date). While the Russian animation community is yet far from reaching the splendor it possessed before the end of the Soviet Union, a significant recovery is being made and it is becoming more and more clear that the revived Russian animation industry will be very different from what it was in the late ]. According to ], head of Solnechny Dom, several Russian studios are currently working on some ten animated feature films. | |||
{{Main|Religion in Russia}} | |||
] in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia.]] | |||
Russia is constitutionally a ] that officially enshrines freedom of religion.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Russia |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref> The largest religion is ], chiefly represented by the ],<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012">{{cite web|title=Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities|year=2012|publisher=Среда (Sreda)|url=https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1|format=PDF}} See also the results' '''''' and the static mappings: {{cite map|title=Religions in Russia by federal subject|journal=Ogonek|volume=34|issue=5243|date=27 August 2012|url=http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154615/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-date=21 April 2017}} The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with the , the , the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: {{cite journal|title=Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities|url=http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej|journal=Russian Journal|date=10 December 2012|access-date=1 August 2019|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224141716/http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej|url-status=dead}}</ref> which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."<ref name=":2" /> ], ], ], and ] are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".<ref>{{cite book|last=Bourdeaux|first=Michael|chapter=Trends in Religious Policy|chapter-url={{GBurl|id=EPP3ti4hysUC|p=46}}|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2003|isbn=978-1857431377|pages=46–52 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Geraldine|title=Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415490023}} p. 127.</ref> | |||
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of ] and some ] in the ] region.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> Large populations of Buddhists are found in ], ], ], and they are the vast majority of the population in ].<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> Many Russians practise other religions, including ] (Slavic Neopaganism),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beskov|first=Andrey|year=2020|title=Этнорелигиозное измерение современной русской идентичности: православие vs неоязычество|trans-title=Ethno-Religious Dimension of Modern Russian Identity: Orthodoxy vs Neo-Paganism|journal=Studia Culturae|publisher=ANO DPO|location=Saint Petersburg|volume=3|number=45|pages=106–122|issn=2310-1245|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349573805|language=ru}}</ref> ] (Scythian Neopaganism),<ref>{{cite journal|author-last=Foltz|author-first=Richard|author-link=Richard Foltz|title=Scythian Neo-Paganism in the Caucasus: The Ossetian Uatsdin as a 'Nature Religion'|journal=Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture|volume=13|number=3|year=2019|pages=314–332|doi=10.1558/jsrnc.39114|s2cid=213692638|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338821308}}</ref> other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Andreeva|first=Julia Olegovna|year=2012|chapter=Представления о народных традициях в движении 'Звенящие кедры России'|trans-chapter=Representations of national traditions in the movement 'Ringing Cedars of Russia'|title=Аспекты будущего по этнографическим и фольклорным материалам: сборник научных статей|trans-title=Prospects of the future in ethnographic and folklore materials: Collection of scientific articles|chapter-url=http://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-204-3/978-5-88431-204-3_14.pdf|editor=T. B. Shchepanskaya|publisher=]|location=Saint Petersburg|pages=231–245|language=ru|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806200229/https://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-204-3/978-5-88431-204-3_14.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> various movements of ],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tkatcheva|first=Anna|title=Neo-Hindu Movements and Orthodox Christianity in Post-Communist Russia|journal=India International Centre Quarterly|volume=21|number=2/3|pages=151–162|date=1994|jstor=23003642}}</ref> ]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kharitonova|first=Valentina|title=Revived Shamanism in the Social Life of Russia|journal=Folklore|volume=62|pages=37–54|date=2015|issn=1406-0949|doi=10.7592/FEJF2015.62.kharitonova|doi-access=free}}</ref> and ], various ] movements such as ], and other faiths.<ref>{{cite book|year=2006|editor-surname1=Bourdeaux|editor-given1=Michael|editor-surname2=Filatov|editor-given2=Sergey|title=Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания|trans-title=Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences|place=Moscow|publisher=]; Logos|volume=4|language=ru|isbn=5987040574}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Menzel|editor-first1=Brigit|editor-last2=Hagemeister|editor-first2=Michael|editor-last3=Glatzer Rosenthal|editor-first3=Bernice|title=The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions|publisher=Kubon & Sagner|year=2012|isbn=978-3866881976|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903042320/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country;<ref>{{cite web|last=Sibireva|first=Olga|url=https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133/|title=Freedom of Conscience in Russia: Restrictions and Challenges in 2020|publisher=]|date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209154706/https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133|archive-date=9 February 2022}}</ref> notably, in 2017 the ] were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Knox|first=Zoe|year=2019|title=Jehovah's Witnesses as Extremists: The Russian State, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights|journal=The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review|volume=46|number=2|pages=128–157|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|doi=10.1163/18763324-04602003|hdl=2381/43756|s2cid=164831768|issn=1876-3324|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10196396 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> | |||
===Sports=== | |||
{{main|Sport in Russia}} | |||
] in ] was a venue for the ]]] | |||
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the ], published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% ], ] or ]—25% were ], 13% were ], 6.5% were Muslims,{{efn|name=ArenaAtlasIslam|The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely ] and ], which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/>}} 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (], other Paganisms, ] and ]), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were ] and 0.1% were Hindus.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> | |||
Russians have been successful at a number of sports and continuously finishing in the top rankings at the ]. During the Soviet era, the national team placed first in the total number of medals won at 14 of its 18 appearances;<ref>{{cite web|title=Summer Olympics Through The Years|publisher=Information Please|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipsa/A0114335.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era.<ref>{{cite web|title=The main game in a dragon's lair|publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald|url=http://www.smh.com.au/olympics/articles/2004/09/02/1093939063726.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Since the ], Soviet and later Russian athletes have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The ] were held in Moscow while the ] will be hosted by ]. | |||
In 2024, the ] (FOM) found that 61.8% of Russians identify as Orthodox Christians, 2.6% as other Christians, 9.5% as Muslims, 21.2% as not religious, 1.4% follow other religions and 3.5% are unsure about their belief.<ref name="FOM 2024">{{cite web|title=Русская православная церковь|url=https://fom.ru/TSennosti/15011|publisher=Фонд Общественное Мнение, ФОМ (Public Opinion Foundation)|language=ru|date=2 May 2024|access-date=10 June 2024|archive-date=16 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516060957/https://fom.ru/TSennosti/15011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="FOM 2024 Tables">{{cite web|title=Русская православная церковь | |||
Soviet gymnasts and track-and-field athletes, weight lifters, wrestlers and boxers were consistently among the best in the world.<ref name=sport>{{cite web|title=Russia::Sports and recreation|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38650|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Even since the collapse of the Soviet empire, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competition in these areas. As in most of the world, ] enjoys wide popularity in Russia. Although ] was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at almost all the ] and ] they contested.<ref name=sport/> | |||
|url=https://fom.ru/posts/download/15011|publisher=Фонд Общественное Мнение, ФОМ (Public Opinion Foundation)|language=ru|date=2 May 2024|access-date=10 June 2024|archive-date=3 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503192150/https://fom.ru/posts/download/15011|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the survey, Orthodoxy is more widespread among women, people aged 60 and older, and people living in the Central and Southern Federal Districts, while Islam is the dominant religion in the North Caucasian Federal District. | |||
=== Education === | |||
Figure skating is another popular sport; in the 1960s, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in figure skating, especially in ] and ]. At every ] from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history.<ref>{{cite web|title=Winter Olympics Through The Years|publisher=Information Please|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipsa/A0115110.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Since the end of the Soviet era, ] has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. ] is a widely popular pastime; from 1927, Soviet and Russian ] have held the ] almost continuously. | |||
{{Main|Education in Russia}} | |||
], the most prestigious educational institution in Russia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university |title=Lomonosov Moscow State University |work=] |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]] | |||
Russia has an adult ] of 100%,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=RU |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> and has ] for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.<ref name="Nuffic-2019"/> It grants ] to its citizens by constitution.<ref name="CEPES">{{cite book |date=1997 |last=Kouptsov |first=Oleg |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839 |title=Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries |location=] |publisher=] |page=25 |isbn=929-0-69146-8}}</ref> The ] is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the ] is responsible for science and higher education.<ref name="Nuffic-2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf |title=Education system Russia |publisher=] |version=3 |location=The Hague |date=October 2019 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726203317/https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the ] of ] in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm |title=Population with tertiary education |website=] Data |doi=10.1787/0b8f90e9-en |year=2022 |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
Russia's ] education system is highly developed and optional,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taratukhina |first1=Maria S. |last2=Polyakova |first2=Marina N. |last3=Berezina |first3=Tatyana A. |last4=Notkina |first4=Nina A. |last5=Sheraizina |first5=Roza M. |last6=Borovkov |first6=Mihail I. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000149142_eng |title=Early childhood care and education in the Russian Federation |year=2006 |publisher=] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.<ref name="Nuffic-2019"/> An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.<ref name="Educationb">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625 |title=Russia – Education |encyclopedia=] |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
: ''Main list: ]'' | |||
{{Russian topics}} | |||
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:<ref name="CEPES"/> first-degree courses usually take five years.<ref name="Educationb"/> The oldest and largest ] in Russia are ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ridder-Symoens |first=Hilde de |title=History of the University in Europe: Volume 2, Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800) |url={{GBurl|id=ZHMjzvAxHF0C}} |date=1996 |publisher=] |series=] |pages=80–89 |isbn=978-0-521-36106-4}}</ref> There are ten highly prestigious ] across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for ]s in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow |title=Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students |publisher=] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
==References== | |||
{{reflist|3}} | |||
== |
=== Health === | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Healthcare in Russia}} | ||
] in ]<ref>{{cite news |last=Morton |first=Elise |url=https://www.calvertjournal.com/features/show/9981/beyond-the-game-sochi-seaside-walking-guide-soviet-sanatoriums-gardens |work=] |title=Russian rivieia: from Soviet sanatoriums to lush gardens, your walking guide to seaside Sochi |date=25 May 2018 |access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref>]] | |||
{{wikiatlas|Russia}} | |||
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, ] for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cook |first=Linda |url=https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/3C45C5A972BF063BC1257DF1004C5420/$file/Cook.pdf |date=February 2015 |work=] |publisher=United Nations |title=Constraints on Universal Health Care in the Russian Federation |location=Geneva |access-date=3 January 2022 }}</ref> The ] oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.expatica.com/ru/healthcare/healthcare-basics/healthcare-in-russia-104030/ |title=Healthcare in Russia: the Russian healthcare system explained |work=] |date=8 January 2021 |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> | |||
*—News agency based in Moscow | |||
*—Newspapers and magazines in Russia | |||
* English-language information service | |||
* Bibliographic database of German publications on Russia (about 175 000 positions) | |||
Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=21 April 2021|quote=Data retrieved on January 30, 2022.}}</ref> Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reshetnikov |first1=Vladimir |last2=Arsentyev |first2=Evgeny |last3=Bolevich |first3=Sergey |last4=Timofeyev |first4=Yuriy |last5=Jakovljević |first5=Mihajlo |date=24 May 2019 |journal=] |page=1848 |volume=16 |issue=10 |title=Analysis of the Financing of Russian Health Care over the Past 100 Years |doi=10.3390/ijerph16101848 |pmc=6571548 |pmid=31137705|doi-access=free }}</ref> Russia has one of the world's most female-biased ]s, with 0.859 males to every female,<ref name=cia/> due to its high male ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Nuwer |first=Rachel |author-link=Rachel Nuwer |date=17 February 2014 |access-date=7 January 2022 |title=Why Russian Men Don't Live as Long |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/science/why-russian-men-dont-live-as-long.html |work=] |url-access=limited}}</ref> In 2021, the overall ] at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/210/document/13207 |title=Демографический ежегодник России |publisher=] (Rosstat) |access-date=1 June 2022 |language=ru |trans-title=The Demographic Yearbook of Russia}}</ref> and it had a very low ] (5 per 1,000 ]s).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?Locations=RU&locations=RU |title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> | |||
;Government resources | |||
* | |||
*—Official site of the parliamentary lower house {{ru icon}} | |||
*—Official site of the parliamentary upper house | |||
*—Official presidential site | |||
*—Official governmental portal {{ru icon}} | |||
*—Official issue of the Federal Assembly {{ru icon}} | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lakunchykova |first1=Olena |last2=Averina |first2=Maria |last3=Wilsgaard |first3=Tom |last4=Watkins |first4=Hugh |last5=Malyutina |first5=Sofia |last6=Ragino |first6=Yulia |last7=Keogh |first7=Ruth H |last8=Kudryavtsev |first8=Alexander V |last9=Govorun |first9=Vadim|last10=Cook|first10=Sarah |last11=Schirmer |first11=Henrik |last12=Eggen |first12=Anne Elise |last13=Hopstock |first13=Laila Arnesdatter |last14=Leon |first14=David A |doi=10.1136/jech-2020-213885 |doi-access=free |title=Why does Russia have such high cardiovascular mortality rates? Comparisons of blood-based biomarkers with Norway implicate non-ischaemic cardiac damage |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health |year=2020 |volume=74 |issue=9 |pages=698–704 |pmid=32414935 |pmc=7577103}}</ref> ] is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Federation |url=https://data.worldobesity.org/country/russian-federation-179/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=World Obesity Federation Global Obesity Observatory |language=en}}</ref> However, Russia's historically high ] is the biggest health issue in the country,<ref>{{cite journal |last=McKee |first=Martin |title=Alcohol in Russia |date=1 November 1999 |pages=824–829 |volume=34 |issue=6 |journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism |doi=10.1093/alcalc/34.6.824 |pmid=10659717|doi-access=free}}</ref> as it remains ], despite a stark decrease in the last decade.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Russia's alcohol policy: a continuing success story |journal=] |quote="Russians are officially drinking less and, as a consequence, are living longer than ever before...Russians are still far from being teetotal: a pure ethanol per capita consumption of 11·7 L, reported in 2016, means consumption is still one of the highest worldwide, and efforts to reduce it further are required." |date=5 October 2019 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32265-2 |last1=The Lancet |volume=394 |issue=10205 |page=1205 |pmid=31591968|doi-access=free}}</ref> ] is another health issue in the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shkolnikov |first1=Vladimir M. |display-authors=etal |title=Time trends in smoking in Russia in the light of recent tobacco control measures: synthesis of evidence from multiple sources |date=23 March 2020 |journal=BMC Public Health |doi=10.1186/s12889-020-08464-4 |doi-access=free |volume=20 |number=378 |page=378 |pmc=7092419 |pmid=32293365 }}</ref> The country's ], although ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.SUIC.P5?locations=RU |title=Suicide mortality rate (per 100,000 population) – Russian Federation |publisher=] |access-date=3 January 2022}}</ref> remains a significant social issue.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |title=Preventing suicide: Russian Federation adapts WHO self-harm monitoring tool |publisher=] |date=9 October 2020 |access-date=3 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
{{Template group | |||
|title = Geographic locale | |||
== Culture == | |||
|list = | |||
{{Main|Russian culture}} | |||
{{Countries of Europe}} | |||
] in Moscow, at night]] | |||
{{Countries of Asia}} | |||
] and ] have played an important role in the development of ] and thought.<ref name="McLean-1962">{{cite journal |last=McLean |first=Hugh |title=The Development of Modern Russian Literature |journal=] |volume=21 |number=3 |pages=389–410 |date=September 1962 |doi=10.2307/3000442 |jstor=3000442 |publisher=]|s2cid=163341589 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank |first=S. |title=Contemporary Russian Philosophy |date=January 1927 |pages=1–23 |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=37 |number=1 |doi=10.5840/monist192737121 |jstor=27901095|s2cid=146985312 }}</ref> The Russians have also greatly influenced classical music,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Swan |first=Alfred J. |title=The Present State of Russian Music |jstor=738554 |publisher=] |journal=] |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=29–38 |date=January 1927|doi=10.1093/mq/XIII.1.29 }}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lifar | first=Sergei |title=The Russian Ballet in Russia and in the West |date=October 1969 |jstor=127159 |doi=10.2307/127159 |pages=396–402 |journal=] |volume=28 |number=4 }}</ref> ],<ref name="Riordan-1993">{{cite journal |last=Riordan |first=Jim |title=Rewriting Soviet Sports History |year=1993 |publisher=] |jstor=43609911 |volume=20 |number=4 |journal=Journal of Sport History |pages=247–258}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Snow |first=Francis Haffkine |title=Ten Centuries of Russian Art |doi-access=free |doi=10.2307/25587683 |jstor=25587683 |volume=1 |number=2 |pages=130–135 |date=November 1916 |journal=The Art World}}</ref> and ].<ref name="Bulgakova-2012">{{cite web |last=Bulgakova |first=Oksana |url=https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=russian_culture |title=The Russian Cinematic Culture |year=2012 |pages=1–37 |access-date=13 January 2022 |publisher=]}}</ref> The nation has also made pioneering ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hachten |first=Elizabeth A. |title=In Service to Science and Society: Scientists and the Public in Late-Nineteenth-Century Russia |jstor=3655271 |publisher=The ] |journal=] |year=2002 |volume=17 |pages=171–209|doi=10.1086/649363 |s2cid=144835649 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ipatieff |first=V.N. |title=Modern Science in Russia |jstor=125254 |doi=10.2307/125254 |year=1943 |pages=68–80 |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=2 |number=2}}</ref> | |||
{{Countries bordering the Baltic Sea}} | |||
{{Countries bordering the Black Sea}} | |||
Russia is home to ], 21 out of which are cultural; while 31 more sites lie on the tentative list.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru |title=Russian Federation |work=] World Heritage Centre |access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> The large global ] has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the ], dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in ] and ].<ref name="Curtis-1998-3"/> The ] and ] are often used as ]s of the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Platoff |first=Anne M. |title=The 'Forward Russia' Flag: Examining the Changing Use of the Bear as a Symbol of Russia |journal=Raven: A Journal of Vexillology |volume=19 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt5xz8x2zc/qt5xz8x2zc.pdf?t=n02jtk |pages=99–126 |doi=10.5840/raven2012197 |year=2012 |issn=1071-0043 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Riabov |first=Oleg |title=The Symbol of the Motherland in the Legitimation and Delegitimation of Power in Contemporary Russia |journal=] |issn=0090-5992 |year=2020 |doi=10.1017/nps.2019.14 |pages=752–767 |volume=48 |number=4|s2cid=214578255 }}</ref> ] are considered a cultural icon of Russia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture |page=19 |first=Hubbs |last=Joanna |year=1993 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-253-20842-2}}</ref> | |||
{{Countries bordering the Caspian Sea}} | |||
=== Holidays === | |||
{{main|Public holidays in Russia}} | |||
] being celebrated along the ] in Saint Petersburg]] | |||
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/other/holidays/ |title=Public Holidays in Russia |publisher=] |access-date=9 January 2022}}</ref> The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by ] on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lagunina |first1=Irina |last2=O'Connor |first2=Coilin |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-christmas-new-near-traditions-food-customs/31010307.html |title=Russian New Year: At The Heart Of A Wide Tapestry Of Winter Traditions |publisher=] |date=30 December 2020 |access-date=9 January 2022}}</ref> ], dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 February 2011 |script-title=ru:День защитника Отечества. История праздника |trans-title=Defender of the Fatherland Day. history of the holiday |url=https://ria.ru/20110223/336868820.html |access-date=19 December 2021 |script-website=ru:РИА Новости|agency=] |language=ru|newspaper=Риа Новости }}</ref> ] on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190307-russians-splurge-flowers-international-womens-day |title=Russians splurge on flowers for International Women's Day |publisher=] |date=7 March 2019| access-date=9 January 2022 }}</ref> ], originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/05/01/in-pictures-may-day-through-history |title=In pictures: May Day through history |work=] |date=1 May 2020 |access-date=9 January 2022 }}</ref> | |||
], which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the ], is celebrated on 9 May as an annual ] in Moscow's Red Square;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ilyushina |first1=Maria |last2=Hodge |first2=Nathan |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/06/24/europe/victory-day-moscow-parade-coronavirus-2020-intl/index.html |title=Russia kicks off lavish Victory Day parade following coronavirus delay |publisher=CNN |date=24 June 2020 |access-date=9 January 2022 }}</ref> and marks the famous ] civil event.<ref>{{cite web |last=Prokopyeva |first=Svetlana |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-immortal-regiment-grassroots-to-quasi-religious-cult/28482905.html |title=Russia's Immortal Regiment: From Grassroots To 'Quasi-Religious Cult' |publisher=] |date=12 May 2017 |access-date=9 January 2022 }}</ref> Other patriotic holidays include ] on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's ] from the collapsing Soviet Union;<ref>{{cite web |last=Yegorov |first=Oleg |url=https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/330502-russia-day-holiday |title=What do Russians celebrate on June 12? |work=] |date=12 June 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022 }}</ref> and ] on 4 November, commemorating the ] which marked the end of the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://tass.com/society/1357591 |title=Russia celebrates National Unity Day |agency=] |date=3 November 2021 |access-date=9 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
There are many popular non-public holidays. ] is celebrated on 14 January.<ref>{{cite web |last=Guzeva |first=Alexandra |url=https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/333267-old-new-year-russia |title=Why Russians celebrate New Year TWICE |work=] |date=13 January 2021 |access-date=10 January 2022}}</ref> ] is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.<ref>{{cite web |last=Godoy |first=Maria |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/03/14/174097702/its-russian-mardi-gras-bring-on-the-pancakes-and-butter |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=10 January 2022 |title=It's Russian Mardi Gras: Time For Pancakes, Butter And Fistfights |publisher=] }}</ref> ] on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dambach |first=Kai |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russia-marks-cosmonautics-day-in-pictures/g-57175251 |title=Russia marks Cosmonautics Day – in pictures |work=] |publisher=] |date=12 April 2020 |access-date=10 January 2022 }}</ref> Two major Christian holidays are Easter and ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Leonov |first=Tatyana |title=Celebrate: Russian Orthodox Easter |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter |work=] |date=5 April 2018 |access-date=12 January 2022 }}</ref> | |||
=== Art and architecture === | |||
{{Main|Russian artists|Russian architecture|List of Russian architects}} | |||
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| caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=], '']'' (1833)}} | |||
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{{Template group | |||
Early Russian painting is ] and vibrant ]s. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter ] created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.<ref name="Art">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/46.htm |title=Russia – Architecture and Painting |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref> The ], which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.<ref name="Curtis-1998-2"/> In the 18th century, academicians ], ], ] became influential.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grover |first=Stuart R. |title=The World of Art Movement in Russia |jstor=128091 |doi=10.2307/128091 |pages=28–42 |volume=32 |number=1 |journal=] |publisher=] |date=January 1973}}</ref> The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by ] and ], both of whom were known for ] historical canvases.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2018 |volume=77 |number=1 |jstor=26565352 |publisher=] |journal=] |last=Dianina |first=Katia |title=The Making of an Artist as National Hero |pages=122–150|doi=10.1017/slr.2018.13 |s2cid=165942177 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sibbald |first=Balb |title=If the soul is nourished ... |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=5 February 2002 |volume=166 |number=3 |pages=357–358 |pmc=99322}}</ref> ], another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Leek|first=Peter|year=2012|title=Russian Painting|publisher=Parkstone International|isbn=978-1-780-42975-5|page=178}}</ref> | |||
|title = International organisations | |||
|list = | |||
In the 1860s, a group of critical ] (]), led by ], ] and ] broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Valkenier |first=Elizabeth Kridl |title=The Peredvizhniki and the Spirit of the 1860s |journal=] |year=1975 |volume=34 |number=3 |pages=247–265 |publisher=] |doi=10.2307/127973 |jstor=127973}}</ref> The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of ]; represented by ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reeder |first=Roberta |title=Mikhail Vrubel': A Russian Interpretation of "fin de siècle" Art |jstor=4207296 |publisher=] |journal=] |volume=54 |number=3 |date=July 1976 |pages=323–334}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Archer |first=Kenneth |title=Nicholas Roerich and His Theatrical Designs: A Research Survey |jstor=1478046 |doi=10.2307/1478046 |volume=18 |number=2 |publisher=Dance Studies Association |journal=] |pages=3–6 |year=1986|s2cid=191516851 }}</ref> The ] flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were ],<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=CAA |pages=437–439 |doi=10.2307/3049132 |jstor=3049132 |journal=] |date=September 1973 |volume=55 |number=3 |last=Birnholz |first=Alan C. |title=Notes on the Chronology of El Lissitzky's Proun Compositions}}</ref> ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Salmond |first=Wendy |title=The Russian Avant-Garde of the 1890s: The Abramtsevo Circle |journal=The Journal of the Walters Art Museum |volume=60/61 |year=2002 |pages=7–13 |publisher=The ] |jstor=20168612}}</ref> | |||
{{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)|state=collapsed}} | |||
{{Council of Europe}} | |||
The history of ] begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Conant |first=Kenneth John |title=Novgorod, Constantinople, and Kiev in Old Russian Church Architecture |journal=] |doi=10.2307/3020237 |jstor=3020237 |publisher=] |volume=3 |number=2 |date=August 1944 |pages=75–92}}</ref> Following the ], for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Voyce |first=Arthur |year=1957 |title=National Elements in Russian Architecture |journal=] |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=6–16 |doi=10.2307/987741 |issn=0037-9808 |jstor=987741}}</ref> ] and other Italian architects brought ] trends into Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jarzombek |first1=Mark M. |last2=Prakash |first2=Vikramaditya |last3=Ching |first3=Frank |title=A Global History of Architecture |edition=2nd |date=2010 |page=544 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-40257-3}}</ref> The 16th century saw the development of the unique ]es; and the ] design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lidov |first=Alexei |title=The Canopy over the Holy Sepulchre. On the Origin of Onion-Shaped Domes |url=https://www.academia.edu/2694753 |journal=] |year=2005 |pages=171–180}}</ref> In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and ], gradually paving the way for the ] of the 1680s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=Lindsey A. J. |title=Western European Graphic Material as a Source for Moscow Baroque Architecture |volume=55 |number=4 |date=October 1977 |pages=433–443 |jstor=4207533 |publisher=] |journal=]}}</ref> | |||
{{G8 nations}} | |||
{{BRIC}} | |||
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for ] architecture led to the ] of ] and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century; ], ], and ], created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.<ref name="Art"/> During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of ].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Most Intentional City: St. Petersburg in the Reign of Catherine the Great |last=Munro |first=George |publisher=] Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8386-4146-0 |location=] |page=233}}</ref> Under Alexander I, ] became the ''de facto'' architectural style.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ivask |first=George |title=The "Empire" Period |journal=] |year=1954 |volume=13 |number=3 |pages=167–175 |publisher=] |doi=10.2307/125968 |jstor=125968}}</ref> The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the ] and ] style.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wortman |first1=Richard S. |last2=Marker |first2=Gary |title=Visual Texts, Ceremonial Texts, Texts of Exploration: Collected Articles on the Representation of Russian Monarchy |date=2014 |section= The "Russian Style" in Church Architecture as Imperial Symbol after 1881 |isbn=978-1-618-11347-4 |publisher=] |jstor=j.ctt21h4wkb.15 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21h4wkb.15 |doi-access=free |pages=208–237}}</ref> In the early 20th century, ] became a trend.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brumfield |first=William C. |title=Anti-Modernism and the Neoclassical Revival in Russian Architecture, 1906–1916 |publisher=] |journal=] |pages=371–386 |volume=48 |number=4 |date=December 1989 |doi=10.2307/990455 |jstor=990455}}</ref> Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brumfield |first=William |title=The Decorative Arts in Russian Architecture: 1900-1907 |jstor=1503933 |doi=10.2307/1503933 |volume=5 |pages=12–27 |journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts |publisher=] Board of Trustees |year=1987}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fer |first=Briony |title=Metaphor and Modernity: Russian Constructivism |jstor=1360263 |publisher=] |pages=14–30 |volume=12 |number=1 |year=1989 |journal=Oxford Art Journal|doi=10.1093/oxartj/12.1.14 }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |title=To the New Shore: Soviet Architecture's Journey from Classicism to Standardization |last=Zubovich-Eady |first=Katherine |year=2013 |publisher=] |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120150146/https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
{{UN Security Council|state=collapsed}} | |||
{{Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group (BLACKSEAFOR)}} | |||
=== Music === | |||
{{East Asia Summit (EAS)}} | |||
{{Main|Music of Russia}} | |||
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}} | |||
] (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by ]]] | |||
{{Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)}} | |||
Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.<ref name="Curtis-1998-4">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/44.htm |title=Russia – Music |year=1998 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer ] along with other members of ], who were later succeeded by the ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carpenter |first=Ellon D. |year=2002 |title=Review of A History of Russian Music: From Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar |jstor=900748 |journal=] |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=74–77 |doi=10.1353/not.2002.0113 |s2cid=191601515 |issn=0027-4380}}</ref> and the ] led by composers ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Garden |first=Edward |title=Classic and Romantic in Russian Music |jstor=732909 |volume=50 |number=1 |publisher=] |pages=153–157 |date=January 1969 |journal=]|doi=10.1093/ml/L.1.153 }}</ref> The later tradition of ], one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by ]. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include ], ],<ref name="Curtis-1998-4"/> ], ] and ], and later ], ],<ref name="music2"/> ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gillies |first=Richard Louis |title=Otchalivshaia Rus': Georgii Sviridov and the Soviet Betrayal of Rus' |journal=] |volume=97 |number=2 |publisher=] |pages=227–265 |date=April 2019 |doi=10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.97.2.0227|s2cid=151076719 }}</ref> and ].<ref name="music2"/> | |||
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}} | |||
{{Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC)}} | |||
During the Soviet era, ] also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two ]—] and ],<ref name="music2">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Music |title=Russia – Music |encyclopedia=] |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> and performers such as ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/28/nyregion/superstar-evokes-superpower-diva-s-voice-adoring-fans-hear-echoes-soviet-days.html?scp=5&sq=pugacheva&st=cse |title=A Superstar Evokes a Superpower; In Diva's Voice, Adoring Fans Hear Echoes of Soviet Days |work=] |first=Alison |last=Smale |date=28 February 2000 |access-date=7 July 2021|url-access=limited}}</ref> ], even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.<ref name="music2"/> By the 1980s, ] became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as ], ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20141013-meet-the-bob-dylan-of-russia |title=Boris Grebenshikov: 'The Bob Dylan of Russia' |publisher=BBC |first=Sally |last=McGrane |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news |last=Pellegrinelli |first=Lara |url=https://www.npr.org/2008/02/06/18752518/ddt-notes-from-russias-rock-underground |title=DDT: Notes from Russia's Rock Underground |publisher=] |date=6 February 2008 |access-date=10 July 2021}}</ref> and ];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/leningrad-rock-club-scorpions-meine-soviet-union-wind-of-change-tsoi/31157285.html |title='Crazy Pirates': The Leningrad Rockers Who Rode A Wind Of Change Across The U.S.S.R. |publisher=] |first=Coilin |last=O'Connor |date=23 March 2021 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> the latter's leader ], was in particular, a gigantic figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-music-kino-tsoi/27185480.html |title=Musician, Songwriter, Cultural Force: Remembering Russia's Viktor Tsoi |publisher=] |date=12 August 2015 |access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> ] has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/tatu-bad-to-be-true-20030614-gdvvq0.html |title=Tatu bad to be true |work=] |date=14 June 2003 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> | |||
{{Slavic-speaking nations}} | |||
{{Quartet on the Middle East|state=collapsed}} | |||
=== Literature and philosophy === | |||
{{Main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy}} | |||
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| caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=] (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as '']''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thirlwell |first=Adam |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/oct/08/classics.leonikolaevichtolstoy |title=A masterpiece in miniature |work=] |date=8 October 2005 |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>}} | |||
| image2 = Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg | |||
| caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=] (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include '']''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dahlkvist |first=Tobias |date=October 2015 |title=The Epileptic Genius: The Use of Dostoevsky as Example in the Medical Debate over the Pathology of Genius |jstor=43948762 |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=76|number=4 |pages=587–608 |doi=10.1353/jhi.2015.0028 |pmid=26522713 |s2cid=37817118 |issn=0022-5037}}</ref>}} | |||
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] is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.<ref name="McLean-1962"/> It can be traced to the ], when epics and chronicles in ] were composed.<ref>Letopisi: Literature of Old Rus'. ''Biographical and Bibliographical Dictionary''. ed. by Oleg Tvorogov. Moscow: Prosvescheniye ("Enlightenment"), 1996. ({{langx|ru|link=no| // Литература Древней Руси. Биобиблиографический словарь / под ред. О.В. Творогова. – М.: Просвещение, 1996.}})</ref> By the ], literature had grown in importance, with works from ], ], ], and ].<ref name="literature"/> From the early 1830s, during the ], literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Prose |first1=Francine |last2=Moser |first2=Benjamin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/30/books/review/what-makes-the-russian-literature-of-the-19th-century-so-distinctive.html |title=What Makes the Russian Literature of the 19th Century So Distinctive? |work=] |date=25 November 2014 |access-date=19 July 2021|url-access=limited}}</ref> ] permitted a flowering of poetic talent: ] and later his protégé ] came to the fore.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Emerson |first=Caryl |jstor=20057504 |publisher=] |volume=29 |number=4 |year=1998 |pages=653–672 |journal= ] |title=Pushkin, Literary Criticism, and Creativity in Closed Places |doi=10.1353/nlh.1998.0040 |s2cid=144165201}}</ref> Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="literature">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/43.htm |title=Russia – Literature |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the ] |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref> | |||
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The first great Russian novelist was ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Strakhovsky |first=Leonid I. |title=The Historianism of Gogol |jstor=2491790 |doi=10.2307/2491790 |volume=12 |number=3 |date=October 1953 |pages=360–370 |journal=The American Slavic and East European Review (Slavic Review) |publisher=]}}</ref> Then came ], who mastered both short stories and novels.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Henry Chamberlin |first=William |title=Turgenev: The Eternal Romantic |jstor=125154 |publisher=] |doi=10.2307/125154 |volume=5 |number=2 |pages=10–23 |journal=]|year=1946 }}</ref> ] and ] soon became internationally renowned. ] wrote prose satire,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Neuhäuser |first=Rudolf |title=The Early Prose of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Dostoevskii: Parallels and Echoes |journal=] |jstor=40867755 |volume=22 |number=3 |year=1980 |pages=372–387 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1980.11091635}}</ref> while ] is best remembered for his shorter fiction.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muckle |first=James |title=Nikolay Leskov: educational journalist and imaginative writer |publisher=Australia and New Zealand Slavists' Association |year=1984 |pages=81–110 |journal=New Zealand Slavonic Journal |jstor=40921231}}</ref> In the second half of the century ] excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jul/03/classics |title=A Chekhov lexicon |last=Boyd |first=William |date=3 July 2004 |access-date=15 January 2022 |work=]}}</ref> Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist ],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pirie |first1=Gordon |last2=Chandler |first2=Robert |title=Eight Tales from Ivan Krylov |journal=] |publisher=] |jstor=40340118 |volume=18 |number=1 |year=2009 |pages=64–85 |doi=10.3366/E096813610800037X}}</ref> non-fiction writers such as the critic ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gifford |first=Henry |title=Belinsky: One Aspect |journal=] |jstor=4204011 |volume=27 |number=68 |year=1948 |pages=250–258}}</ref> and playwrights such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brintlinger |first=Angela |title=The Persian Frontier: Griboedov as Orientalist and Literary Hero |journal=] |jstor=40870888 |volume=45 |number=3/4 |year=2003 |pages=371–393 |doi=10.1080/00085006.2003.11092333 |s2cid=191370504}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Beasly |first=Ina |title=The Dramatic Art of Ostrovsky. (Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky, 1823–86) |journal=] |jstor=4202212 |volume=6 |number=18 |year=1928 |pages=603–617}}</ref> The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the ]. This era had poets such as ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Markov |first=Vladimir |title=Balmont: A Reappraisal |jstor=2493225 |journal=] |volume=28 |number=2 |year=1969 |pages=221–264 |doi=10.2307/2493225|s2cid=163456732 }}</ref> It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as ], Nobel Prize winner ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="literature"/> | |||
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After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and ] parts. In the 1930s, ] became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was ], who laid the foundations of this style.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tikhonov |first=Nikolay |author-link=Nikolai Tikhonov (writer)|title=Gorky and Soviet Literature |date=November 1946 |pages=28–38 |volume=25 |number=64 |publisher=] |jstor=4203794 |journal=]}}</ref> ] was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=4212557 |last=Lovell |first=Stephen |title=Bulgakov as Soviet Culture |volume=76 |number=1 |pages=28–48 |journal=] |year=1998 |publisher=]}}</ref> ]'s novel ] has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include ],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grosshans |first=Henry |title=Vladimir Nabokov and the Dream of Old Russia |jstor=40753878 |publisher=] |pages=401–409 |year=1966 |journal=] |volume=7 |number=4}}</ref> and ]; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Freedman |first=Carl |title=Critical Theory and Science Fiction |author-link=Carl Freedman (writer) |date=2000 |publisher=] |page=71 |isbn=978-0-819-56399-6}}</ref> Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist ], who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rowley |first=David G. |title=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Russian Nationalism |journal=] |jstor=260964 |publisher=] |pages=321–337 |volume=32 |number=3 |date=July 1997|doi=10.1177/002200949703200303 |s2cid=161761611 }}</ref> | |||
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] | |||
] has been greatly influential. ] is known as one of the fathers of ] ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Aileen |title=The Destruction of Idols: Alexander Herzen and Francis Bacon |jstor=2709278 |doi=10.2307/2709278 |publisher=] |journal=] |year=1980 |volume=41 |number=4 |pages=635–662}}</ref> ] is referred to as the father of ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rezneck |first=Samuel |title=The Political and Social Theory of Michael Bakunin |jstor=1945179 |doi=10.2307/1945179 |pages=270–296 |volume=21 |number=2 |journal=] |year=1927 |publisher=]|s2cid=147141998 }}</ref> ] was the most important theorist of ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Adams |first=Matthew S. |title=Rejecting the American Model: Peter Kropotkin's Radical Communalism |jstor=26227268 |pages=147–173 |volume=35 |number=1 |journal=] |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=2014}}</ref> ]'s writings have significantly inspired scholars.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schuster |first=Charles I. |title=Mikhail Bakhtin as Rhetorical Theorist |jstor=377158 |doi=10.2307/377158 |volume=47 |number=6 |pages=594–607 |journal=] |year=1985 |publisher=]|s2cid=141332657 }}</ref> ] gained international following as the leading theoretician of ], and co-founded the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bevir |first=Mark |title=The West Turns Eastward: Madame Blavatsky and the Transformation of the Occult Tradition |jstor=1465212 |pages=747–767 |publisher=] |volume=62 |number=3 |journal=] |year=1994|doi=10.1093/jaarel/LXII.3.747 }}</ref> ], a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brinkley |first=George |year=1998 |editor-last=Harding |editor-first=Neil |editor2-last=Pipes |editor2-first=Richard |title=Leninism: What It Was and What It Was Not |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1408333 |journal=The Review of Politics |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=151–164 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500043965 |jstor=1408333 |s2cid=144930608 |issn=0034-6705}}</ref> ], on the other hand, founded ].<ref>{{Citation |title=The myth of Trotskyism |year=1973 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/leon-trotsky-and-the-politics-of-economic-isolation/myth-of-trotskyism/95EE597BFA047615C393337F30CF63AF |work=Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation |pages=3–16 |editor-last=Day |editor-first=Richard B. |series=Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies |place=Cambridge |publisher=] |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511524028.002 |isbn=978-0-521-52436-0 |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref> ] was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brom |first=Libor |title=Dialectical Identity and Destiny: A General Introduction to Alexander Zinoviev's Theory of the Soviet Man |jstor=1347433 |doi=10.2307/1347433 |volume=42 |number=1/2 |year=1988 |pages=15–27 |publisher=Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association |journal=Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature|s2cid=146768452 }}</ref> ], known for his ] views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rutland|first=Peter|date=December 2016|title=Geopolitics and the Roots of Putin's Foreign Policy|journal=]|publisher=]|volume=43|issue=3–4|pages=425–436|doi=10.1163/18763316-04304009|jstor=26549593}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
] | |||
=== Cuisine === | |||
] | |||
{{See also|Russian cuisine}} | |||
] is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.]] | |||
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of ], wheat, ], and ] provide the ingredients for various breads, ]s and cereals, as well as for many drinks. ], of many varieties,<ref>{{cite web |last=Azhnina |first=Maria |url=https://www.rbth.com/russian_kitchen/2017/07/13/7-kinds-of-russian-bread-youll-want-to-bite-the-crust-off-of_801997 |title=7 kinds of Russian bread you'll want to bite the crust off of |work=] |date=13 July 2017 |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref> is very popular across Russia.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thatcher |first=Gary |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0916/obread.html |title=When it comes to bread, Russians don't loaf |work=] |date=16 September 1985 |access-date=7 August 2021}}</ref> Flavourful soups and stews include ], ], ], ], and ]. ] (a heavy ]) and ] are often added to soups and salads.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909 |title=Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream |work=] |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=15 May 2021 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Shearlaw |first=Maeve |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise |title=Understanding Russia's obsession with mayonnaise |work=] |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Darra |author-link=Darra Goldstein |title=A Taste of Russia: A Cookbook of Russian Hospitality |date=1999 |edition=2nd |page=54 |publisher=Russian Information Service |isbn=978-1-880-10042-4}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Michele |title=In the Kitchen: The New Bible of Home Cooking |date= 2018 |isbn=978-1-743-58555-9 |publisher=Hardie Grant Publishing |page=66}}</ref> and ] are native types of ]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sacharow |first=Alla |title=Classic Russian Cuisine: A Magnificent Selection of More Than 400 Traditional Recipes |publisher=] |year=1993 |page=281 |isbn=978-1-628-72079-2}}</ref> ],<ref name="Volokh-1983">{{cite book |last1=Volokh |first1=Anne |last2=Manus |first2=Mavis |title=The Art of Russian Cuisine |date=1983 |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-026-22090-3}}</ref>{{rp|266}} ],<ref name="Volokh-1983"/>{{rp|320}} ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Grigson |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Grigson |title=Jane Grigson's Vegetable Book |date=2007 |publisher=] |page=144 |isbn=978-0-803-25994-2}}</ref> and ] are popular meat dishes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Naylor |first=Tony |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/jul/22/from-sizzling-shashlik-to-spicy-seekh-kebabs-barbecue-recipes-from-around-the-world |title=From sizzling shashlik to spicy seekh kebabs: barbecue recipes from around the world |work=] |date=22 July 2020 |access-date=5 January 2021}}</ref> Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (]) usually filled with meat.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eremeeva |first=Jennifer |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/02/06/north-meets-south-in-mini-golubtsy-a72851 |title=North Meets South in Mini Golubtsy |work=] |date=10 February 2021 |access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref> Salads include ],<ref>{{cite web |last=Cloake |first=Felicity |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/aug/05/how-to-make-the-perfect-russian-salad-felicity-cloake |title=How to make the perfect Russian salad |work=] |date=5 August 2020 |access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/russian-kitchen/326159-russian-vinegret-salad-super-easy |title=Russian Vinegret salad: Super-easy and super-traditional |work=] |date=13 September 2017 |access-date=5 January 2022 }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/global-snack-herring-under-a-fur-coat/av-55811920|title=Global Snack: Herring under a fur coat |work=] |publisher=] |date=12 April 2020 |access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
Russia's ] is ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/07/04/kvas-russias-national-tipple-a70784 |title=Kvas: Russia's National Tipple |work=] |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=4 July 2020 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> and the national alcoholic drink is ]; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-drink-vodka-like-a-russian |title=How To Drink Vodka Like a Russian |work=] |first=Dan |last=Nosowitz |date=7 April 2016 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://qz.com/179708/map-where-the-worlds-biggest-vodka-drinkers-are/ |title=Map: Where the world's biggest vodka drinkers are |work=] |first=Roberto A. |last=Ferdman |date=23 February 2014 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> while ] is the most popular alcoholic beverage.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |script-title=ru:Обзор российского рынка алкогольной продукции. IV квартал 2020 |title=Obzor rossiyskogo rynka alkogol'noy produktsii. IV kvartal 2020 |publisher=Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation |page=11 |lang=ru |date=February 2021 |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422110728/http://www.ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ] has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Russia%20Wine%20Market%20Overview_Moscow%20ATO_Russian%20Federation_04-21-2021 |title=Russia Wine Market Overview |work=] |publisher=] |date=22 April 2021 |access-date=7 January 2022 }}</ref> ] for centuries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Teslova |first=Elena |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/russian-samovars-make-tea-time-distinctive-tradition/1720329 |publisher=] |title=Russian samovars make tea-time distinctive tradition |date=31 January 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 }}</ref> | |||
=== Mass media and cinema === | |||
{{Main|Media of Russia|Cinema of Russia}} | |||
] in Moscow, the ] in Europe<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/2017/08/08/the-high-life-how-to-get-to-ostankino-tower-and-what-to-do-there_818720 |title=The high life: How to get to Ostankino Tower and what to do there |work=] |last=Sinelschikova |first=Yekaterina |date=8 August 2017 |access-date=23 December 2021}}</ref>]] | |||
There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |title=Russia – Media Landscape |work=] |first=Natalya |last=Krasnoboka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320003807/http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> ] is the most popular medium in Russia.<ref name="bbcmedia">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17840134 |title=Russia profile – Media |publisher=BBC |date=8 June 2021 |access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref> Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include ], ], ], ], and ]. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, {{Lang|ru-latn|]}}, ], {{Lang|ru-latn|]}}, ], and ] are popular. State-run ] and ] are the leading news channels, while ] is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.<ref name="bbcmedia"/> Russia has the ] in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newzoo.com/insights/infographics/russia-games-market-2018/ |title=Russia Games Market 2018 |work=Newzoo |date=11 July 2018 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923234044/https://newzoo.com/insights/infographics/russia-games-market-2018/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
Russian and later ] was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as '']'', which was named the ] at the ] in 1958.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Jamie |jstor=20451166 |title=Soviet Cinema, 1929–41: The Development of Industry and Infrastructure |journal=] |volume=58 |number=1 |year=2006 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1080/09668130500401715 |s2cid=153570960}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hodgson |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41 |title=Eisenstein, Sergei – Battleship Potemkin – 1925 Russia |publisher=] |date=4 December 2020 |access-date=10 July 2021}}</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably ] and ], would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle |title=Sergei Eisenstein: How the "Father of Montage" Reinvented Cinema |work=] |first=Mike |last=Brown |date=22 January 2018 |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky |title=Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky |work=] |quote=He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters. |first=Carmen |last=Gray |date=27 October 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref> Eisenstein was a student of ], who developed the groundbreaking ] of film editing at the world's first film school, the ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography |title=All-Union State Institute of Cinematography |encyclopedia=] |access-date=29 June 2021}}</ref> ]'s "]" theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yale.edu/2019/08/12/yale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera |title=Yale film scholar on Dziga Vertov, the enigma with a movie camera |work=] |first=Kendall |last=Teare |date=12 August 2019 |access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including '']'', '']'', and '']''.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012"/> | |||
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012"/> The comedies of ] and ] of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html |title=Eldar Ryazanov And His Films |publisher=] |date=30 November 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Prokhorova |first1=Elena |last2=Beumers |first2=Birgit |title=A History of Russian Cinema |date=2008 |section=The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy |isbn=978-1-84520-215-6 |publisher=] |pages=519–542}}</ref> In 1961–68 ] directed an ]-winning ] of Leo Tolstoy's epic '']'', which was ] made in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012"/> In 1969, ]'s '']'' was released, a very popular film in a genre of ]; the film is traditionally watched by ] before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905102633/http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html |archive-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=] |title=White Sun of the Desert|access-date=18 January 2008}}</ref> After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197 |title=The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry |work=] |first=Ben |last=Aris |date=18 January 2019|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> | |||
=== Sports === | |||
{{Main|Sport in Russia}} | |||
], former ] tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/03/08/how-maria-sharapova-earned-285-mill-during-her-tennis-career/ |title=How Maria Sharapova Earned $285 Million During Her Tennis Career |work=] |first=Kurt |last=Badenhausen |date=8 March 2016 |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>]] | |||
] is the most popular sport in Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorokhov |first=Vitalii Aleksandrovich |title=Forward Russia! Sports Mega-Events as a Venue for Building National Identity |journal=] |year=2015 |volume=43 |issue=2 |page=278 |publisher=] |doi=10.1080/00905992.2014.998043|s2cid=140640018 }}</ref> The ] became the first European champions by winning ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb0ecf360cc-a9532565e049-1000--euro-1960-all-you-need-to-know/ |title=EURO 1960: all you need to know |work=] |date=13 February 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and reached the finals of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025d-0f859f66fcba-c8d3aa08dfa3-1000--classics-ussr-vs-netherlands-1988/ |title=Classics: Soviet Union vs Netherlands, 1988 |work=] |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> Russian clubs ] and ] won the ] in 2005 and 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/0253-0d806e352f9f-e83f37a18d8b-1000--sporting-cska-moskva-watch-their-2005-final/ |title=Sporting-CSKA Moskva: watch their 2005 final |work=] |date=7 August 2015 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/11/18/how-a-brilliant-zenit-saint-petersburg-lifted-the-uefa-cup-in-2008/ |title=How a brilliant Zenit Saint Petersburg lifted the UEFA Cup in 2008 |work=] |first=Joe |last=Terry |date=18 November 2019 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> The ] reached the semi-finals of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/jun/26/russiaspainlive |title=Euro 2008: Russia v Spain – as it happened |work=] |first=Sean |last=Ingle |date=26 June 2008 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> Russia was the host nation for the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/confederationscup/ |title=2018 FIFA Confederations Cup Russia 2017 |publisher=] |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/russia2018/ |title=2018 FIFA World Cup Russia |publisher=] |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=24 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224033040/https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/russia2018/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-fifa-world-cup-uefa/|title=FIFA and UEFA suspend Russian national teams and clubs from all competitions "until further notice"|last=Brito|first=Christopher|work=]|date=28 February 2022|access-date=13 June 2022}}</ref> | |||
] is very popular in Russia, and the ] dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.<ref name="Riordan-1993"/> ] is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/sport/2013/02/14/bandy_a_concise_history_of_the_extreme_sport_22867.html |title=Bandy: A concise history of the extreme sport |work=] |first=Ilya |last=Trisvyatsky |date=14 February 2013 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> The ] won the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007 |title=EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007 |work=] |first=Javier |last=Gancedo |date=16 September 2007 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and the Russian basketball club ] is among the most successful European basketball teams.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burks |first1=Tosten |last2=Woo |first2=Jeremy |url=http://grantland.com/features/euroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols/ |title=Follow the Bouncing Ball |work=] |date=4 August 2015 |access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> The annual Formula One ] was held at the ] in the ], until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html |title=Russia – Sochi |publisher=] |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632|last=Benson|first=Andrew|title=Formula 1 terminates contract with Russian Grand Prix|work=]|date=3 March 2022|access-date=7 July 2022}}</ref> | |||
Historically, ] have been one of the most successful contenders in the ].<ref name="Riordan-1993" /> Russia is the leading nation in ]; and Russian ] is considered to be the world's best.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/olympics/2016/08/19/russian-mastery-in-synchronized-swimming-yields-double-gold/89000222/ |title=Russian mastery in synchronized swimming yields double gold |work=] |date=19 August 2016 |access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> ] is another popular sport in Russia, especially ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22276736/figure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons |title=Figure skating is on thin ice. Here's how to fix it. |work=] |first=Rebecca |last=Jennings |date=18 February 2021 |access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thewest.com.au/sport/tennis/rublev-dominates-second-round-open-match-ng-s-2049116 |title=Russian domination at the Australian Open |date=11 February 2021 |work=] |last=Caffrey |first=Oliver |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref> ] is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2009/09/how-did-russians-get-so-good-at-chess.html |title=Why are the Russians so good at chess? |work=] |first=Christopher |last=Beam |date=25 September 2009 |access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> The ] were held in Moscow,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/moscow-1980 |title=Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results |newspaper=Olympics.com |publisher=] |date=24 April 2018 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and the ] and the ] were hosted in Sochi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results |publisher=] |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 |publisher=] |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> However, Russia has also had 43 ]s stripped from its athletes due to ], which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keh |first1=Andrew |last2=Panja |first2=Tariq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html |title=Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer |work=] |date=8 December 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022|url-access=limited}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | |||
{{Portal|Russia}} | |||
* ] | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
== References == | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
== Sources == | |||
* {{Free-content attribution | |||
| title = Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security | |||
| author = ] | |||
| publisher = the International Energy Agency | |||
| documentURL = https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security | |||
| license statement URL = https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/af2ef37e-cbf5-49ce-b05a-ecb5725f9769/ListordescriptionofCC-licensedContent_20220406.pdf | |||
| license = CC BY 4.0 | |||
}} | |||
==Further reading== | |||
{{main|Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}} | |||
{{refbegin|30em}} | |||
* Bartlett, Roger P. ''A history of Russia'' (2005) | |||
* Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. ''Russia Beyond Putin'' (]) | |||
* Brown, Archie, ed. ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1982) | |||
* {{cite book | last1=Dutkiewicz | first1=P. | last2=Richard | first2=S. | last3=Vladimir | first3=K. | title=The Social History of Post-Communist Russia | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-317-32846-9 | url={{GBurl|id=vo7DCwAAQBAJ|pg=PP1}} | access-date=11 April 2022}} | |||
* Florinsky, Michael T. ed. ''McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1961). | |||
* Frye, Timothy. ''Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia'' (2021) | |||
* Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. ''Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia'' (Yale UP, 2019) | |||
* Hosking, Geoffrey A. ''Russia and the Russians: a history'' (2011) | |||
* Kort, Michael. ''A Brief History of Russia'' (2008) | |||
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Russia | volume= 23 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link=Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2=John Thomas|last3=Phillips|first3=Walter Alison |author3-link=Walter Alison Phillips|pages = 869–912}} | |||
* Lowe, Norman. ''Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History'' (2002) | |||
* Millar, James R. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol 2003). | |||
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. ''A History of Russia'' (9th ed. 2018) | |||
* Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020) | |||
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century'' (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) | |||
* Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014) ; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics. | |||
* Walker, Shauin. ''The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past'' (2018, Oxford UP) | |||
{{refend}} | |||
== External links == | |||
{{Sister project links|voy=Russia}} | |||
{{Wikisource portal|Russia}} | |||
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Revision as of 13:22, 24 December 2024
Country spanning Europe and Asia For other uses, see Russia (disambiguation).
Russian FederationРоссийская Федерация (Russian) | |
---|---|
Flag Coat of arms | |
Anthem: Государственный гимн Российской Федерации Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii "State Anthem of the Russian Federation" | |
Recognised territory of Russia is shown in dark green; claimed but internationally unrecognised territory is shown in light green. Show globeShow region with labelsShow map of Europe | |
Capitaland largest city | Moscow 55°45′21″N 37°37′02″E / 55.75583°N 37.61722°E / 55.75583; 37.61722 |
Official and national language | Russian |
Recognised regional languages | 35 regional official languages |
Ethnic groups (2021; including Crimea) | |
Religion (2024) |
|
Demonym(s) | Russian |
Government | Federal semi-presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship |
• President | Vladimir Putin |
• Prime Minister | Mikhail Mishustin |
Legislature | Federal Assembly |
• Upper house | Federation Council |
• Lower house | State Duma |
Formation | |
• Kievan Rus' | 882 |
• Vladimir-Suzdal | 1157 |
• Principality of Moscow | 1282 |
• Tsardom of Russia | 16 January 1547 |
• Russian Empire | 2 November 1721 |
• Monarchy abolished | 15 March 1917 |
• Soviet Union | 30 December 1922 |
• Declaration of State Sovereignty | 12 June 1990 |
• Russian Federation | 12 December 1991 |
• Current constitution | 12 December 1993 |
• Union State formed | 8 December 1999 |
Area | |
• Total | 17,098,246 km (6,601,670 sq mi) (within internationally recognised borders) |
• Water (%) | 13 (including swamps) |
Population | |
• 2024 estimate |
|
• Density | 8.4/km (21.8/sq mi) (187th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $6.909 trillion (4th) |
• Per capita | $47,299 (43rd) |
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $2.184 trillion (11th) |
• Per capita | $14,953 (65th) |
Gini (2020) | 36.0 medium inequality |
HDI (2022) | 0.821 very high (56th) |
Currency | Ruble (₽) (RUB) |
Time zone | UTC+2 to +12 |
Drives on | Right |
Calling code | +7 |
ISO 3166 code | RU |
Internet TLD |
Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world by area, extending across eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries. It is the world's ninth-most populous country and Europe's most populous country. Russia is a highly urbanised country, with 16 of its population centres having more than 1 million inhabitants. Its capital and largest city is Moscow. Saint Petersburg is Russia's second-largest city and its cultural capital.
The East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated; the Grand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia's monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the world's first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. At the expense of millions of lives, the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s and later played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space.
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. A new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014, which has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory including Crimea in 2014 and four other regions in 2022 during an ongoing invasion.
Russia is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, and WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as CIS, CSTO, and EAEU/EEU. It possesses the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and has the third-highest military expenditure. Russia is generally considered a great power and is a regional power. Internationally, Russia ranks very low in measurements of democracy, human rights and freedom of the press; the country also has high levels of perceived corruption. As of 2024, Russia has a high-income economy which ranks eleventh in the world by nominal GDP and fourth at purchasing power parity, relying on its vast mineral and energy resources; the world's second-largest for oil production and natural gas production. Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Etymology
Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and RutheniaAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English name Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from Medieval Latin: Russia, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from Russi, 'the Russians' and the suffix -ia. In modern historiography, this state is usually denoted as Kievan Rus' after its capital city. Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was Ruthenia.
In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek name for Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía). A new form of the name Rus', Росия (Rosiya), was borrowed from the Greek term and first attested in 1387. The name Rossiia appeared in Russian sources in the late 15th century, but until the end of the 17th century the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus', the Russian land (Russkaia zemlia), or the Muscovite state (Moskovskoe gosudarstvo), among other variations. In 1721, Peter the Great changed the name of the state from Tsardom of Russia (Russian: Русское царство, romanized: Russkoye tsarstvo) or Tsardom of Muscovy (Russian: Московское царство, romanized: Moskovskoye tsarstvo) to Russian Empire (Rossiiskaia imperiia).
There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective русский, russkiy refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective российский, rossiiskiy denotes Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun россиянин, rossiianyn, "Russian" in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.
According to the Primary Chronicle, the word Rus' is derived from the Rus' people, who were a Swedish tribe, and where the three original members of the Rurikid dynasty came from. The Finnish word for Swedes, ruotsi, has the same origin. Later archeological studies mostly confirmed this theory.
History
Main article: History of RussiaEarly history
Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homelandThe first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia. Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus. Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago. Fossils of Denny, an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave. Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.
The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia. The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo, and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in western Russia. Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya. Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.
The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia. Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic. Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk, which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare. The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies, was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars. The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century. After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.
The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c. 1500 years ago. The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov. Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.
Kievan Rus'
Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; Kievan Rus'; and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and UkraineThe establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars. Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate, and launched several military expeditions to Bulgaria, Byzantium and Persia.
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda. The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west. By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base, leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.
Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.
Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries. Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols. Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.
Grand Duchy of Moscow
Main article: Grand Duchy of MoscowThe destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands". When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased. Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.
Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the Golden Horde and consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'". After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms. Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.
Tsardom of Russia
Main article: Tsardom of Russia See also: Moscow, third RomeIn development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand duke Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned the first tsar of Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government. During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga, and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains. However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade. In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow. In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks. In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis; whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.
Imperial Russia
Main article: Russian EmpireUnder Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia. He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin. However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.
Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe. In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea. As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus. Catherine's successor, her son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues. Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809, and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska. In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made. In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.
Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts
During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris. Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.
Great liberal reforms and capitalism
Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War. During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists. The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.
Constitutional monarchy and World War
Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.
Revolution and civil war
Main articles: Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, and Dissolution of the Russian EmpireIn 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts. In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government, and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state. The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army. In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.
The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces. In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror. By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians. Millions became White émigrés, and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.
Soviet Union
Main article: History of the Soviet UnionCommand economy and Soviet society
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics. Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15 republics; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.
Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s. Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line. The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.
Stalinism and modernization
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule; and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933; which killed 5.7 to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR. The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.
World War II and United Nations
Main article: Soviet Union in World War IIThe Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland, in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. The Soviet Union later invaded Finland, and occupied and annexed the Baltic states, as well as parts of Romania. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.
Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis; the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost. Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow. Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered. Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million, accounting for about half of all World War II casualties. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947. However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.
Superpower and Cold War
After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria. Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states. After becoming the world's second nuclear power, the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance, and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.
Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development
After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps. The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw. At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age. Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.
Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation
Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy. In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War. In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.
Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government. This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union. On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation. In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR. In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.
Independent Russian Federation
Main article: History of Russia (1991–present) Further information: Presidency of Boris Yeltsin, Russia under Vladimir Putin, and Presidency of Dmitry MedvedevTransition to a market economy and political crises
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy". The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs. Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight. The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed, and millions plunged into poverty; while extreme corruption, as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.
Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization
In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers. The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections. From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces. Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts. In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble. High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.
Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding
Further information: PutinismOn 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin. Putin then won the 2000 presidential election, and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.
Putin won a second presidential term in 2004. High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly. Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state. In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits; this period has been described as a "tandemocracy".
Following a diplomatic crisis with neighbouring Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it occupies in Georgia. It was the first European war of the 21st century.
Invasion of Ukraine
Main article: Russian invasion of UkraineIn early 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in neighbouring Ukraine, Russia annexed Crimea after a disputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged under Russian occupation. The annexation generated an insurgency in the Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of an undeclared war against Ukraine. Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and pro-Russian protests in the region, although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.
In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. The invasion marked the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II, and was met with international condemnation, as well as expanded sanctions against Russia.
As a result, Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March, and was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council in April. In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives, Putin announced a "partial mobilisation", Russia's first mobilisation since Operation Barbarossa. In the end of September, Putin proclaimed the annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions, the largest annexation in Europe since World War II. Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognized and widely denounced as illegal. As a result of the invasion, hundreds of thousands of people are estimated to have been killed or injured, while Russia has been accused of numerous war crimes. The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia's demographic crisis.
In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defense, capturing Rostov-on-Don, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off. The leader of the rebellion, Yevgeny Prigozhin, was later killed in a plane crash.
Geography
Main article: Geography of RussiaRussia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia. It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi). Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south. Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents, and has the same surface area as Pluto.
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and Europe); the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia). The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia. The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.
Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans, has links with a great number of seas. Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are disputed with Japan), and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart; and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers, has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water. Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water. Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe. Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources. The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the longest river in Europe; and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent. The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.
Climate
Main article: Climate of RussiaThe size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F), and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.
The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters. In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate. The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief. The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia. Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires, and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Russia See also: List of ecoregions in RussiaRussia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics. About half of Russia's territory is forested, and it has the world's largest area of forest, which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.
Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism). Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area. They include 45 biosphere reserves, 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves. Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia. Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Russia Vladimir PutinPresidentMikhail Mishustin
Prime Minister
Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:
- Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council, adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the president.
- Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. The president may issue decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.
- Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent" and the "party of power". Under the administrations of Vladimir Putin, Russia has experienced democratic backsliding, and has been described as an authoritarian dictatorship. Putin's policies are generally referred to as Putinism.
Political divisions
Main article: Political divisions of RussiaRussia, by 1993 constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but no regions have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.
The federal subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly. They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects. Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.
Federal subjects | Governance |
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46 oblasts | The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres. |
22 republics | Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs. |
9 krais | For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers. |
4 autonomous okrugs | Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority. |
3 federal cities | Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine). |
1 autonomous oblast | The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. |
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of RussiaRussia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains diplomatic relations with 190 United Nations member states, four partially-recognised states, and three United Nations observer states; along with 144 embassies. Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The country is generally considered a great power, though its status as a modern great power has been questioned following the struggles it has faced while invading Ukraine starting in 2022. Russia is also a former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union. Russia is a member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC. Russia also takes a leading role in organisations such as the CIS, the EAEU, the CSTO, the SCO, and BRICS.
Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states. Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity. India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era. Russia wields influence across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia; and the two regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".
In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the post-Soviet states include a war with Georgia in 2008 and a war with Ukraine beginning in 2014. Russia has also sought to increase its influence in the Middle East, most significantly through military intervention in the Syrian civil war. Cyberwarfare and airspace violations, along with electoral interference, have been used to increase perceptions of Russian power. Russia's relations with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—especially the United States, the European Union, the United Nations and NATO—have collapsed; especially since the annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the beginning of a full-scale invasion in 2022. Relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically; due to shared political interests. Turkey and Russia share a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship. Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally. Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic, Asia-Pacific, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, two-thirds of the world's population live in countries such as China or India that are neutral or leaning towards Russia.
Military
Main article: Russian Armed ForcesThe Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops. As of 2021, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20 million reserve personnel. It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.
Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia. Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines, and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers. Russia maintains the world's third-highest military expenditure, spending $109 billion in 2023, corresponding to around 5.9% of its GDP. In 2021 it was the world's second-largest arms exporter, and had a large and entirely indigenous defence industry, producing most of its own military equipment.
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in RussiaViolations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.
Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey. Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 144th out of 167 countries in 2023. In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 155th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2022. The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and human rights activists for unfair elections, crackdowns on opposition political parties and protests, persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists, and censorship of mass media and internet.
Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia. To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings, arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians. In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations. Chechens and Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups. During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars. Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.
Russia has introduced several restrictions on LGBT rights, including a 2020 ban on same-sex marriage and the designation of LGBT+ organisations such as the Russian LGBT Network as "foreign agents".
Corruption
Main article: Corruption in RussiaRussia's political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy, an oligarchy, and a plutocracy. It was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2023, ranking 141st out of 180 countries. Russia has a long history of corruption, which is seen as a significant problem. It affects various sectors, including the economy, business, public administration, law enforcement, healthcare, education, and the military.
Law and crime
Main articles: Law of Russia and Crime in RussiaThe primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Statutes, like the Russian Civil Code and the Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.
Russia has the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, is ranked first in Europe and 32nd globally in the Global Organized Crime Index, and is among the countries with the highest number of people in prison.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Russia Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in RussiaRussia has a mixed market economy, following a turbulent transition from the Soviet planned model during the 1990s. Much of the country's economic activity is centered on its abundant and varied natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas. Russia is classified by the World Bank as a high-income country, with the world's ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest by PPP; by some measures, its economy ranks fourth or fifth in the world by PPP. Services account for roughly 54% of total GDP, followed by industry (33%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, at less than 4% of total GDP. Russia has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's eighth-largest, and a low official unemployment rate of 4.1%.
Russia is the world's thirteenth-largest exporter and the 21st-largest importer. It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022, and up to 60% of its exports in 2019. Russia has one of the lowest levels of external debt among major economies, and had the fifth-largest foreign exchange reserves, valued at over $601 billion, although half of that is frozen abroad, and a significant amount is believed to have been spent on the Ukrainian war. Inequality of household income and wealth is among the highest among developed countries, and there are considerable regional disparities in economic development.
After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment, Russia's economy was damaged by a wave of international sanctions imposed in 2014 following the Russo-Ukrainian War and annexation of Crimea. In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts, becoming the most sanctioned country in the world, in a move described as an "all-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system. Due to the resulting negative impact, the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022. Although Russia has maintained relative economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high military spending, household consumption, and capital investment—economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect on the Russian economy.
Transport and energy
Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in RussiaRailway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-longest, exceeding 87,000 km (54,100 mi). As of 2019, Russia has the world's fifth-largest road network, with over 1.5 million km of roads, although its road density is among the world's lowest, due in part to its vast land area. Russia's inland waterways are the world's longest, totaling 102,000 km (63,380 mi). Russia has over 900 airports, ranking seventh in the world, of which the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the Port of Novorossiysk in Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.
Russia was widely described as an energy superpower. It has the world's largest proven gas reserves, the second-largest coal reserves, the eighth-largest oil reserves, and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe. Russia is also the world's leading natural gas exporter, the second-largest natural gas producer, and the second-largest oil producer and exporter. Russia's oil and gas production led to deep economic relationships with the European Union, China, and former Soviet and Eastern Bloc states. For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of the total gas demand for the EU (including the United Kingdom) increased from 25% in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.
In the mid-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP. The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices, but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP—including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities—amounts to 19.2% in 2019 and 15.2% in 2020; this is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan, and much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
Russia is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer. Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of all primary energy and 42% of electricity consumption. Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's first nuclear power plant in 1954; it remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in fast neutron reactors. Russia is the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer, which accounts for one-fourth of total electricity generation. Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.
Russia ratified the Paris Agreement in 2019. The country's greenhouse gas emissions are the world's fourth-largest. Coal still accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generation (17.64%). Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022, with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17.54%). The use and development of other renewable energy resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.
Agriculture and fishery
Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in RussiaRussia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force. It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural, with an additional 7.4% being arable. The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe. More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits. The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland. Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat, the largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, and the leading producer of fertilizer.
Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region. Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018. It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Russia See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventorsRussia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world's tenth-highest budget. It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers. Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace. Russia ranked 60th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 45th in 2021.
Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor; Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential. Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry. Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.
Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio, while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser. Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes. Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology. Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning. Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants. Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism. Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer. Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems. Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis. George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.
Space exploration
Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6. In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.
In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2. In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon. In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon. In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus. In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars. During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover, while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.
Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest. Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle program in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS. Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in RussiaAccording to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits. According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019. Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11.6 billion. In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6.3 million foreign visitors.
Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains, and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway. Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers. Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals. Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery; and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Russia, Russians, List of cities and towns in Russia, and List of cities and towns in Russia by population Ethnic groups across RussiaEthnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 censusPercentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2021 censusRussia had a population of 144.7 million in 2021 (excluding Crimea and Sevastopol), growing from 142.8 million in 2010. It is the most populous country in Europe and ninth most populous in the world. With a population density of 8 inhabitants per square kilometre (21 inhabitants/sq mi), Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries, with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its western part. The country is highly urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in towns and cities,
Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis. In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration. However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened, owing to reportedly high military fatalities and renewed emigration caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.
In 2022, the total fertility rate across Russia was estimated to be 1.42 children born per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among the lowest in the world. Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's oldest populations, with a median age of 40.3 years.
Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities. There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities; while over four-fifths of Russia's population was of European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs, with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples. According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million; most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly from Central Asia.
Largest cities or towns in Russia 2024 estimate | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Federal subject | Pop. | Rank | Name | Federal subject | Pop. | ||
Moscow Saint Petersburg |
1 | Moscow | Moscow | 13,149,803 | 11 | Rostov-on-Don | Rostov Oblast | 1,140,487 | Novosibirsk Yekaterinburg |
2 | Saint Petersburg | Saint Petersburg | 5,597,763 | 12 | Krasnodar | Krasnodar Krai | 1,138,654 | ||
3 | Novosibirsk | Novosibirsk Oblast | 1,633,851 | 13 | Omsk | Omsk Oblast | 1,104,485 | ||
4 | Yekaterinburg | Sverdlovsk Oblast | 1,536,183 | 14 | Voronezh | Voronezh Oblast | 1,046,425 | ||
5 | Kazan | Tatarstan | 1,318,604 | 15 | Perm | Perm Krai | 1,026,908 | ||
6 | Krasnoyarsk | Krasnoyarsk Krai | 1,205,473 | 16 | Volgograd | Volgograd Oblast | 1,018,898 | ||
7 | Nizhny Novgorod | Nizhny Novgorod Oblast | 1,204,985 | 17 | Saratov | Saratov Oblast | 887,365 | ||
8 | Chelyabinsk | Chelyabinsk Oblast | 1,177,058 | 18 | Tyumen | Tyumen Oblast | 861,098 | ||
9 | Ufa | Bashkortostan | 1,163,304 | 19 | Tolyatti | Samara Oblast | 667,956 | ||
10 | Samara | Samara Oblast | 1,158,952 | 20 | Makhachkala | Dagestan | 622,091 |
Language
Main articles: Russian language and Languages of Russia Minority languages across RussiaAltaic and Uralic languages spoken across RussiaThe North Caucasus is ethno-linguistically diverse.Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia. It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language. Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country. According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian. The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development. However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.
Religion
Main article: Religion in RussiaRussia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion. The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church, which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture." Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of peoples in the North Caucasus and some Turkic peoples in the Volga-Ural region. Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva. Many Russians practise other religions, including Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism), Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism), other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism, various movements of Hinduism, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism, and other faiths. Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country; notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims, 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.
In 2024, the Public Opinion Foundation (FOM) found that 61.8% of Russians identify as Orthodox Christians, 2.6% as other Christians, 9.5% as Muslims, 21.2% as not religious, 1.4% follow other religions and 3.5% are unsure about their belief. According to the survey, Orthodoxy is more widespread among women, people aged 60 and older, and people living in the Central and Southern Federal Districts, while Islam is the dominant religion in the North Caucasian Federal District.
Education
Main article: Education in RussiaRussia has an adult literacy rate of 100%, and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18. It grants free education to its citizens by constitution. The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education. Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%. It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.
Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional, some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate. An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive: first-degree courses usually take five years. The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University. There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.
Health
Main article: Healthcare in RussiaRussia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program. The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.
Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019. Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations. Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female, due to its high male mortality rate. In 2021, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females), and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).
The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases. Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese. However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country, as it remains one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade. Smoking is another health issue in the country. The country's high suicide rate, although on the decline, remains a significant social issue.
Culture
Main article: Russian cultureRussian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development of European literature and thought. The Russians have also greatly influenced classical music, ballet, sport, painting, and cinema. The nation has also made pioneering contributions to science and technology and space exploration.
Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 21 out of which are cultural; while 31 more sites lie on the tentative list. The large global Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry. The Russian Bear and Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country. Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.
Holidays
Main article: Public holidays in RussiaRussia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays. The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays. Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February. International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays. Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.
Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated on 9 May as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square; and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event. Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union; and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January. Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday. Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space. Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.
Art and architecture
Main articles: Russian artists, Russian architecture, and List of Russian architects Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1833)The Winter Palace served as the official residence of the Emperor of Russia.Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art. The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia. In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential. The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases. Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.
In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings. The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism; represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich. The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.
The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the church architecture of Kievan Rus'. Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by Byzantine architecture. Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia. The 16th century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches; and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture. In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century; Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed. During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture. Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto architectural style. The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style. In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend. Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau, Constructivism, and Socialist Classicism.
Music
Main article: Music of RussiaUntil the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances. In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein. The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Georgy Sviridov, and Alfred Schnittke.
During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava, and performers such as Alla Pugacheva. Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms. By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium, DDT, and Kino; the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure. Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.
Literature and philosophy
Main articles: Russian literature and Russian philosophy Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as War and Peace.Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include Crime and PunishmentRussian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed. It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed. By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin. From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama. Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.
The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol. Then came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels. Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire, while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction. In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist. Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov, non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky, and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky. The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, and Konstantin Balmont. It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style. Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era. Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov, and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers. Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.
Russian philosophy has been greatly influential. Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian populism. Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism. Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism. Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars. Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society. Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism. Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism. Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century. Aleksandr Dugin, known for his fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".
Cuisine
See also: Russian cuisineRussian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring.
Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass, and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century. The country has the world's highest vodka consumption, while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage. Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century. Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.
Mass media and cinema
Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of RussiaThere are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax. Television is the most popular medium in Russia. Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations. Russia has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.
Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin, which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958. Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors. Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography. Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism. Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today. In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union. In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.
Sports
Main article: Sport in RussiaFootball is the most popular sport in Russia. The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960, and reached the finals of Euro 1988. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008. The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008. Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup. However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.
Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence. Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport. The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007, and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams. The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games. Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best. Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing. Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players. Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow, and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi. However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.
See also
Notes
- Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.
- Russian: Россия, romanized: Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]
- Russian: Российская Федерация, romanized: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]
- The fourteen countries bordering Russia are: Norway and Finland to the northwest; Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine to the west, as well as Lithuania and Poland (with Kaliningrad Oblast); Georgia and Azerbaijan to the southwest; Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the south; China and North Korea to the southeast. Russia also shares maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the two partially recognised breakaway states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia that it occupies in Georgia.
- Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege
- Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.
- Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
- Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.
- In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.
- Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014, and territories set up following the Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022.
- The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.
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Sources
- This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security, International Energy Agency, the International Energy Agency.
Further reading
Main articles: Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus', Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613), and Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)- Bartlett, Roger P. A history of Russia (2005) online
- Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. Russia Beyond Putin (Daedalus) online
- Brown, Archie, ed. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1982) online
- Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016). The Social History of Post-Communist Russia. Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-32846-9. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
- Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).
- Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021) excerpt
- Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019) excerpt
- Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011) online
- Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) online
- Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch; Bealby, John Thomas; Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Russia" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–912.
- Lowe, Norman. Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History (2002) excerpt
- Millar, James R. ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol 2003). online
- Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018) 9th edition 1993 online
- Rosefielde, Steven. Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020) excerpt
- Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) excerpt
- Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014) excerpt; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
- Walker, Shauin. The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past (2018, Oxford UP) excerpt
External links
Government
- Official Russian governmental portal
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members (archived 4 October 2013)
General information
- Wikimedia Atlas of Russia
- Geographic data related to Russia at OpenStreetMap
- Russia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Russia at UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 22 October 2008)
- Russia from BBC News
- Russia at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Key Development Forecasts for Russia from International Futures
Other
- Post-Soviet Problems from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives (archived 15 December 2012)
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