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{{short description|Childbirth in human females under the age of 20}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
'''Teenage pregnancy''' is defined as a teenaged or underaged girl (usually within the ages of 13–19) becoming ]. The term in everyday speech usually refers to women who have not reached ], which varies across the world, who become pregnant.
| name = Teenage pregnancy
| synonyms = Teen pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy
| image = Preventing Teen Pregnancy in the US-CDC Vital Signs-April 2011.pdf
| alt =
| caption = A US government poster on teen pregnancy. Over 1,100 teenagers, mostly aged 18 or 19,<ref name="Historic">{{cite journal |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db89.htm |title=Birth Rates for U.S. Teenagers Reach Historic Lows for All Age and Ethnic Groups |author1=Hamilton, Brady E. |author2=Ventura, Stephanie J. |journal=NCHS Data Brief |date=10 April 2012 |issue=89 |pages=1–8 |publisher=] |pmid=22617115 |access-date=18 April 2012}}</ref> give birth every day in the United States.
| pronounce =
| field = ]
| symptoms = ] under the age of 20<ref name=WHO2004/>
| complications = {{hlist | ] | ] | ]}}<ref name=WHO2018/>
| onset =
| duration =
| types =
| causes =
| risks =
| diagnosis =
| differential =
| prevention = {{hlist | ] | ]<ref name=Ori2016/> | ] }}
| treatment =
| medication =
| prognosis =
| frequency = 23 million per year in the developed world, 2018.<ref name=WHO2018/>
| deaths = Leading cause of death in 15 to 19 year old females, 2018.<ref name=WHO2018/>
}}


<!-- Definition -->
The average age of ] (first menstrual period) in the United States is 12 years old, though this figure varies by ethnicity<ref>{{cite article| title = When Little Girls Become Women: Early Onset of Puberty in Girls | url=http://www.center4research.org/children11.html| accessdate = 2009-07-22 | year=2001| author=]}}</ref> and weight, and first ] occurs only irregularly until after this. The average age of menarche has been declining and continues to do so. Whether ] leads to early pregnancy depends on a number of factors, both societal and personal. Worldwide, rates of teenage pregnancy range from 143 per 1000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1000 in South Korea.<ref name=ncbi>{{cite journal |author=Treffers PE |title= |language=Dutch; Flemish |journal=Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd |volume=147 |issue=47 |pages=2320–5 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14669537 }}</ref><ref name=oecd>UNICEF. (2001). {{PDFlink||888&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>
'''Teenage pregnancy''', also known as '''adolescent pregnancy''', is ] in a ] under the age of 20.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pietras |first1=Joanna |last2=Jarząbek-Bielecka |first2=Grażyna |last3=Mizgier |first3=Małgorzata |last4=Markowska |first4=Anna |title=Adolescent pregnancy – medical, legal and social issues |journal=] |date=2024 |volume=37 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/14767058.2024.2391490 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


Worldwide, pregnancy complications are the leading cause of death for women and girls 15 to 19 years old.<ref name="WHO2018">{{cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy |website=World Health Organization |access-date=2 November 2018 |date=23 February 2018}}</ref> The definition of teenage pregnancy includes those who are ] in their country.<ref name="WHO2004">{{cite book|title=Adolescent Pregnancy|date=2004|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-9241591454|page=5|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42903/1/9241591455_eng.pdf|access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> The ] defines ''adolescence'' as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years.<ref name="WHO1">{{cite web |title=Adolescent health |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/adolescent-health#tab=tab_1 |access-date=7 November 2022 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Pregnancy can occur with ] after the start of ], which can happen before the ] (''menarche'').<ref>{{cite web |last=Hirsch |first=Larissa |date=September 2016 |title=Can a Girl Get Pregnant if She Has Never Had Her Period? |url=http://kidshealth.org/teen/expert/periods/pre_period.html |website=]}}</ref> In healthy, well-nourished girls, the first period usually takes place between the ages of 12 and 13.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=8734600 | date=2022 | last1=Marques | first1=P. | last2=Madeira | first2=T. | last3=Gama | first3=A. | title=Menstrual cycle among adolescents: Girls' awareness and influence of age at menarche and overweight | journal=Revista Paulista de Pediatria | volume=40 | pages=e2020494 | doi=10.1590/1984-0462/2022/40/2020494 | pmid=35019010 }}</ref>
Pregnant teenagers face many of the same ] issues as women in their 20s and 30s. However, there are additional medical concerns for younger mothers, particularly those under fifteen and those living in developing countries.<ref name=savethechildren>{{cite journal |author=Mayor S |title=Pregnancy and childbirth are leading causes of death in teenage girls in developing countries |journal=BMJ |volume=328 |issue=7449 |page=1152 |year=2004 |month=May |pmid=15142897 |pmc=411126 |doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1152-a |url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7449/1152-a}}</ref> For mothers between 15 and 19, age in itself is not a risk factor, but additional risks may be associated with socioeconomic factors.<ref name=makinson>{{cite journal |author=Makinson C |title=The health consequences of teenage fertility |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=132–9 |year=1985 |pmid=2431924 |doi=10.2307/2135024 }}</ref>


<!-- Health effects -->
] supporting teenage pregnancy as a ] in ] include lower ]al levels, higher rates of ], and other poorer "life outcomes" in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a ] in many communities and cultures. For these reasons, there have been many studies and campaigns which attempt to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage pregnancies.<ref name=natcamp>The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). {{PDFlink||147&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref> In other countries and cultures, particularly in the ], teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not involve a social stigma.<ref>Population Council (2006) ''Population Briefs'', January 2006, Vol. 12, No. 1. Retrieved April 18, 2007.</ref> Among ] ], the ] and ] have the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while ] and ] have the lowest.<ref>http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/peo_tee_bir_rat-people-teenage-birth-rate, which cites http://www.unicef-irc.org/cgi-bin/unicef/Lunga.sql?ProductID=328</ref>
Pregnant teenagers face many of the same pregnancy-related issues as older women.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nolen |first1=Stephanie |title=What Pregnancy and Childbirth Do to the Bodies of Young Girls |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/18/health/young-girls-pregnancy-childbirth.html |website=] |date=July 18, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeha |first1=D. |last2=Usta |first2=I. |last3=Ghulmiyyah |first3=L. |last4=Nassar |first4=A. |title=A review of the risks and consequences of adolescent pregnancy |journal=Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine |date=2015 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.3233/NPM-15814038|pmid=25766198 }}</ref> Teenagers are more likely to experience pregnancy complications or ] than women aged 20 or older. There are additional concerns for those under the age of 15 as they are less likely to be physically developed to sustain a healthy pregnancy or to give birth.<ref name=savethechildren>{{cite journal | author = Mayor S |title = Pregnancy and childbirth are leading causes of death in teenage girls in developing countries | journal = BMJ | volume = 328 | issue = 7449 | pages = 1152 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15142897 | pmc = 411126 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1152-a }}</ref> For girls aged 15–19, risks are associated more with ] factors than with the biological effects of age.<ref name=makinson>{{cite journal | author = Makinson C | title = The health consequences of teenage fertility | journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 17| issue = 3 | pages = 132–139 | year = 1985 | pmid = 2431924 | doi = 10.2307/2135024 | jstor = 2135024 }}</ref> Risks of ], ], ], and ] are not connected to ] by the time a girl is 16, as they are not observed in births to older teens after controlling for other risk factors, such as access to high-quality ].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Loto OM, Ezechi OC, Kalu BK, Loto A, Ezechi L, Ogunniyi SO | title = Poor obstetric performance of teenagers: Is it age- or quality of care-related? | journal = Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 395–398 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15203579 | doi = 10.1080/01443610410001685529 | s2cid = 43808921 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raatikainen |first1=Kaisa |last2=Heiskanen |first2=Nonna |last3=Verkasalo |first3=Pia K. |last4=Heinonen |first4=Seppo |date=1 April 2006 |title=Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care |url=http://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/16/2/157/505752/Good-outcome-of-teenage-pregnancies-in-highquality |journal=European Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=157–161 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/cki158 |pmid=16141302 |issn=1464-360X|doi-access=free }}</ref>


<!-- Risk factors and prevention -->
== Global incidence ==
Teenage pregnancies are related to ], including lower ] levels and ].<ref name=WHO2018/> Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of ] and is often associated with a ].<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/26326035|title=Young mothers face stigma and abuse, say charities|work=BBC News|date=25 February 2014}}</ref> Teenage pregnancy in developing countries often occurs within marriage and approximately half are planned.<ref name=WHO2018/> However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with ] and poor health care to cause medical problems. When used in combination, ] and access to ] can reduce unintended teenage pregnancies.<ref name=Ori2016>{{cite journal|last1=Oringanje|first1=Chioma|last2=Meremikwu|first2=Martin M|last3=Eko|first3=Hokehe|last4=Esu|first4=Ekpereonne|last5=Meremikwu|first5=Anne|last6=Ehiri|first6=John E|title=Interventions for preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2016|pages=CD005215|date=3 February 2016|issue=2|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd005215.pub3|pmid=26839116|pmc=8730506|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002607/260770e.pdf|title=International technical guidance on sexuality education: An evidence-informed approach|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100259-5|location=Paris|pages=18}}</ref>
{{main|Global incidence of teenage pregnancy}}


<!-- Epidemiology -->
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
In 2023, globally, about 41 females per 1,000 gave birth between the ages of 15 and 19, compared with roughly 65 births per 1,000 in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> From 2015 to 2021, an estimated 14 percent of adolescent girls and young women globally reported giving birth before age 18.<ref name="UNICEF2022">{{cite web|url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |title=Early childbearing can have severe consequences for adolescent girls|publisher=]|date=December 2022}}</ref> The adolescent birth rate is higher in lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC), compared to higher- income countries. In the developing world, approximately 2.5 million females aged 15 to 19 years old have children each year.<ref name=WHO2018/> Another 3.9 million have ].<ref name=WHO2018/> It is more common in rural than urban areas.<ref name=WHO2018/>
|+

Teen birth and abortion rates, 1996<ref name=UNICEF-2001>{{cite paper|url = http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf | title = A league table of teenage births in rich nations | publisher = UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence | date = July 2001 | author = UNICEF | version = Innocenti Report Card No.3 | format = PDF}}</ref><br />
In 2021, 13.3 million babies, or about 10 percent of the total worldwide, were born to mothers under 20 years old.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf|title=World Population Prospects 2022. Summary of Results|location=New York|author=]. Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref>
<small>per 1000 women 15–19</small>
|-
!Country
!birth rate
!abortion rate
!Combined rate
|-
| ] || 7.7 || 3.9 || 11.6
|-
| ] || 7.5 || 4.9 || 12.4
|-
| ] || 6.6 || 6.7 || 13.3
|-
| ] || 12.2 || 1.3 || 13.5
|-
| ] || 9.9 || 5.2 || 15.1
|-
| ] || 13.0 || 5.3 || 18.3
|-
| ] || 9.8 || 9.6 || 19.4
|-
| ] || 9.4 || 13.2 || 22.6
|-
| ] || 8.2 || 15.4 || 23.6
|-
| ] || 7.7 || 17.7 || 25.4
|-
| ] || 13.6 || 18.3 || 31.9
|-
| ] || 20.1 || 12.4 || 32.5
|-
| ] || 21.5 || 20.6 || 42.1
|-
| ] || 30.5 || 13.1 || 43.6
|-
| ] || 20.1 || 23.9 || 44
|-
| ] || 22.3 || 22.1 || 44.4
|-
| ] || 29.6 || 21.3 || 50.9
|-
| ] || 33.4 || 22.5 || 55.9
|-
| ] || 29.9 || 30.2 || 60.1
|-
| ] || 55.6 || 30.2 || 85.8
|}


{{TOC limit}}
{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|+ '''Live births per 1000 women 15–19 years old, 2002:'''<ref name=globalis> UNFPA, State of World Population 2003, Retrieved Jan 22, 2007.</ref>
==Definition==
]
The ] defines ] as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years.<ref name="WHO1"/>
!Country

!Teenage birth rate
The mother's age is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ''ends'', not by the estimated date of conception.<ref name="Kost">{{cite web|vauthors=Kost K, Henshaw S, Carlin L | title = U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions: National and State Trends and Trends by Race and Ethnicity| year = 2010| url = http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/USTPtrends.pdf| quote = Pregnancies are the sum of births, abortions and miscarriages. Please note that in these tables, "age" refers to the woman’s age when the pregnancy ended. Consequently, actual numbers of pregnancies that occurred among teenagers are higher than those reported here, because most of the women who conceived at age 19 had their births or abortions after they turned 20 and, thus, were not counted as teenagers.}}</ref> Consequently, the statistics do not include pregnancies that began at age 19, but that ended on or after the woman's 20th birthday.<ref name="Kost" /> Similarly, statistics on the mother's marital status are determined by whether she is married at the end of the pregnancy, not at the time of conception.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mosher |first1=William D. |last2=Jones |first2=Jo |last3=Abma |first3=Joyce C. |date=24 July 2012 |title=Intended and unintended births in the United States: 1982-2010 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23115878/ |journal=National Health Statistics Reports |issue=55 |pages=1–28 |issn=2164-8344 |pmid=23115878}}</ref>
<small>per 1000 women 15–19</small>

|-
==History==
| {{flag|South Korea}}
Teenage pregnancy, with conceptions normally involving girls between ages 16 and 19, was far more normal in previous centuries, and common in developed countries in the 20th century. Among Norwegian women born in the early 1950s, nearly a quarter became teenage mothers by the early 1970s. The rates have steadily declined throughout the developed world since that 20th-century peak. Among those born in Norway in the late 1970s, less than 10% became teenage mothers, and rates have fallen since then.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lappegård |first1=Trude |title=New fertility trends in Norway |journal=Demographic Research |date=15 March 2000 |volume=2 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2000.2.3 |jstor=26348001 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jun/23/broadband-falling-teenage-pregnancy-rates-research-internet|title=Is broadband responsible for falling teenage pregnancy rates?|author=Alex Hern|work=The Guardian|date=23 June 2015}}</ref>
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In the United States, the ] of 1996 included the objective of reducing the number of young Black and Latina single mothers on welfare, which became the foundation for teenage pregnancy prevention in the United States and the founding of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, now known as Power to Decide.<ref name="BusinessInsider">{{Cite web|url=https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/New/other/sotu.html|title=PRESIDENT WILLIAM JEFFERSON CLINTON STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS|website=clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov}}</ref>
| {{flag|Japan}}

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==Effects==
|-
According to the ] (UNFPA), "Pregnancies among girls less than 18 years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty."<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy">{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/adolescent-pregnancy |title=Adolescent Pregnancy |year=2013 |publisher= UNFPA}}</ref> Health consequences include not yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death for girls under age 15 in low and middle income countries is higher than for women in their twenties.<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy"/> Teenage pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential as many are forced to drop out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.<ref name="unfpa.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy|title=Adolescent pregnancy - UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund}}</ref>
| {{flag|China}}

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Studies have examined the ], ], and ] impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary. Other factors, such as ] or ], may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adolescent pregnancy|url=https://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy|access-date=19 February 2022|website=United Nations Population Fund|language=en}}</ref><ref>Stepp, G. (2009) . vision.org</ref>
|-

| {{flag|Switzerland}}
A holistic approach is required in order to address teenage pregnancy. This means not focusing on changing the behaviour of girls but addressing the underlying reasons of adolescent pregnancy such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and coercion. This approach should include "providing age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing ], sexual violence and coercion, building gender-equitable societies by empowering girls and engaging men and boys and ensuring adolescents' access to sexual and reproductive health information as well as services that welcome them and facilitate their choices".<ref name="unfpa.org"/>
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In the United States one third of high school students reported being sexually active. In 2011–2013, 79% of females reported using birth control. Teenage pregnancy puts young women at risk for health issues, economic, social and financial issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2015/p0407-teen-pregnancy.html|title=Few teens use the most effective types of birth control{{!}} CDC Online Newsroom {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=26 July 2017|date=7 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/american-teens-sexual-and-reproductive-health|title=American Teens' Sexual and Reproductive Health|date=1 June 2016|work=Guttmacher Institute|access-date=26 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>
| {{flag|Netherlands}}

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===Teenager===
|-
Being a young mother in a first world country can affect one's ]. Teen mothers are more likely to ] of ].<ref name=natcamp>The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). {{cite web|url=http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/pdf/notjust.pdf |title=Not Just Another Single Issue: Teen Pregnancy Prevention's Link to Other Critical Social Issues |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011106/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/pdf/notjust.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}&nbsp;{{small|(147&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved 27 May 2006.</ref> A 2001 study found that women who gave birth during their teens completed ] 10–12% as often and pursued ] 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofferth SL, Reid L, Mott FL | title = The effects of early childbearing on schooling over time | journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 33 | issue = 6 | pages = 259–267 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11804435 | doi = 10.2307/3030193 | jstor = 3030193 }}</ref>
| {{flag|Spain}}
''Young motherhood'' in an ] can affect ] and ]. A 2009 study found that teenage girls who are pregnant or are mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sean-c-powers.com/TeenagePregnancy.html |title=The Psychological Effects of Teenage Women During Pregnancy |access-date=5 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116185041/http://sean-c-powers.com/TeenagePregnancy.html |archive-date=16 January 2009 }}</ref>
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According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two years of having their first.<ref name="Statistics on Teen Pregnancy">"Statistics on Teen Pregnancy". National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy</ref> Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another life.<ref name="Day 2009" /> Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months, resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and dangerous outcomes for the babies.<ref name="Day 2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cornelius MD, Goldschmidt L, Willford JA, Leech SL, Larkby C, Day NL | title = Body Size and Intelligence in 6-year-olds: Are Offspring of Teenage Mothers at Risk? | journal = Maternal and Child Health Journal | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 847–856 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18683038 | pmc = 2759844 | doi = 10.1007/s10995-008-0399-0 }}</ref> Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have closely spaced repeat births, include marriage and education. The likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kalmuss DS, Namerow PB | title = Subsequent childbearing among teenage mothers: the determinants of a closely spaced second birth | journal = Fam Plann Perspect | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 149–53, 159 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7957815 | doi = 10.2307/2136238 | jstor = 2136238 }}</ref>
| {{flag|Singapore}}

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===Child===
|-
Early motherhood can affect the ] of the infant. The children of teen mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many other lifelong conditions.<ref name="Gibbs-2012">{{Cite journal | last1 = Gibbs | first1 = CM. | last2 = Wendt | first2 = A. | last3 = Peters | first3 = S. | last4 = Hogue | first4 = CJ. | title = The impact of early age at first childbirth on maternal and infant health | journal = Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol | volume = 26 Suppl 1 | pages = 259–84 |date=Jul 2012 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01290.x | pmid = 22742615 | pmc = 4562289 }}</ref> Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and socio-emotional delays.<ref name="Day 2009"/> ] and ]al issues are increased in children born to teen mothers.<ref name=aap>{{cite journal | title = American Academy of Pediatrics: Care of adolescent parents and their children | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | pages = 429–34 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11158485 | doi = 10.1542/peds.107.2.429 | last1 = American Academy Of Pediatrics. Committee On Adolescence Committee On Early Childhood Adoption | first1 = Dependent Care | s2cid = 71188516 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofferth SL, Reid L | title = Early Childbearing and Children's Achievement And Behavior over Time | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–49 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11990638 | doi = 10.2307/3030231 | jstor = 3030231 | s2cid = 13558045 }}</ref> One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to ] their infant through ] such as ], ], and ], or to be ] and ] toward their needs.<ref name=aap/> Another found that those who had more ] were less likely to show ] toward their children or to rely upon ].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Crockenberg S | title = Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers | journal = Child Dev | volume = 58 | issue = 4 | pages = 964–75 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3608666 | doi = 10.2307/1130537 | jstor = 1130537 }}
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Poor ] in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the children being held back a grade level, scoring lower on standardized tests, and/or failing to graduate from secondary school.<ref name=natcamp/> Daughters born to adolescent ]s are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.<ref name=natcamp/><ref name="Furstenberg"/> Sons born to teenage mothers are three times more likely to ] in ].<ref>Maynard, Rebecca A. (Ed.). (1996).'' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126231940/http://www.urban.org/pubs/khk/index.htm |date=26 November 2005 }}.'' Retrieved 27 May 2006.</ref>
] found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women under age 20 worldwide, more than 90% in developing countries. ] and ] are the leading cause of ] among women between the ages of 15 and 19 in such areas.<ref name=savethechildren/> The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in ], where women tend to marry at an early age.<ref name=ncbi/> In ], for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.<ref name=subsahara>Locoh, Therese. (2000). "." ''WIN News.'.' Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>


===Medical===
In the ], early ] sometimes means adolescent pregnancy, particularly in ] regions where the rate is much higher than it is in ] areas. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in ] and ], although it remains relatively high. In the industrialized Asian nations such as ] and ], teenage birth rates are among the lowest in the world.<ref name=escap>Mehta, Suman, Groenen, Riet, & Roque, Francisco. United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (1998). . Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>
===Prenatal care===
Maternal and ] health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of ] and ] is higher among adolescent mothers.<ref name=makinson/><ref name=natcamp/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Belsky DH | title = Prenatal care and maternal health during adolescent pregnancy: A review and meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 444–456 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7811676 | doi = 10.1016/1054-139X(94)90491-K }}</ref> In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15 and 19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and a baby with a lower birth weight than mothers between 20 and 24 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Banerjee B, Pandey G, Dutt D, Sengupta B, Mondal M, Deb S | title = Teenage pregnancy: A socially inflicted health hazard | journal = Indian Journal of Community Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–231 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20049301 | pmc = 2800903 | doi = 10.4103/0970-0218.55289 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive ], often seeking it in the ], if at all.<ref name=makinson/> The ] reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to have health issues in childhood or be ] than those born to older women.<ref>Guttmacher Institute. (September 1999). {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403024149/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_teen_sex.html |date=3 April 2005 }}. Retrieved 29 May 2006.</ref>
The overall trend in ] since 1970 has been a decreasing ], an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}} Most continental ] countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good ] and high levels of ] use (in the case of the ] and ]), ] and ]tization (in the case of ] and ]) or both (in the case of ]).<ref name=oecd/>


In the United States, teenage ] who become pregnant face barriers to receiving healthcare because they are the least insured group in the country.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28">{{Cite journal|last=Sterling|first=Sandra P.|date=2009|title=Contraceptive Use Among Adolescent Latinas Living in the United States: The Impact of Culture and Acculturation|journal=Journal of Pediatric Health Care|volume=23|issue=1|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/j.pedhc.2008.02.004|pmid=19103403}}</ref>
The teenage birth rate in the ] is the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high.<ref name=oecd/> The U.S. teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock.<ref></ref> The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s; this decline manifested across all ]s, although teenagers of ] and ] ] retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of ]s and ]s. The ] attributed about 25% of the decline to ] and 75% to the effective use of ].<ref>." Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>
<ref name=guttermacher>Wind, Rebecca. The Guttmacher Institute. (February 19, 2004).</ref> However, in 2006 the teenage birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr57/nvsr57_07.pdf |title=www.cdc.gov |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> This could imply that teen pregnancy rates are also on the rise, however the rise could also be due to other sources: a possible decrease in the number of abortions or a decrease in the number of miscarriages, to name a few.
The ] teenage birth has also trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens in the period between 1992–2002.<ref name=teenpregna>Dryburgh, H. (2002). Teenage pregnancy. Health Reports, 12 (1), 9–18; Statistics Canada . (2005). Health Indicators, 2005, 2. Retrieved from </ref>


Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those who do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers appear to result from lack of access to adequate medical care.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Raatikainen K, Heiskanen N, Verkasalo PK, Heinonen S | title = Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care | journal = The European Journal of Public Health | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–161 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16141302 | doi = 10.1093/eurpub/cki158 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
==Causes of teenage pregnancy==
In some societies, early ] and traditional ]s are important factors in the rate of teenage pregnancy. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility.<ref name=subsahara/> In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities compared to the rate in cities.<ref name=escap/> The lack of education on safe sex, whether it’s from parents, schools, or otherwise, is a cause of teenage pregnancy. Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality. Some teens have said to be pressured into having sex with their boyfriend when the teen was young and yet no one had taught these teens how to deal with this pressure or to say "no".<ref>Macleod, C. (1999). The 'causes' of teenage pregnancy: Review of South African research--Part 2. South African Journal of Psychology, 29(1), 8. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.</ref>


Many pregnant teens are at risk of ] from poor ]s common in adolescence, including attempts to ] through ], ]s, ], ], and consumption of ].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gutierrez Y, King JC | title = Nutrition during teenage pregnancy | journal = Pediatric Annals | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–108 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8493060 | doi=10.3928/0090-4481-19930201-07}}</ref>
In societies where adolescent marriage is uncommon, young age at first ] and lack of ] use may be factors in teen pregnancy.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=toosoon>, US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 25, 2007.</ref> Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned.<ref name=toosoon/><ref name=psi> Policy Studies Institute, University of Westminster, 30 Oct 1998</ref>


Inadequate ] is an even more marked problem among teenagers in ].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanchez PA, Idrisa A, Bobzom DN, Airede A, Hollis BW, Liston DE, Jones DD, Dasgupta A, Glew RH | title = Calcium and vitamin D status of pregnant teenagers in Maiduguri, Nigeria | journal = Journal of the National Medical Association | volume = 89 | issue = 12 | pages = 805–811 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9433060 | pmc = 2608295 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Peña E, Sánchez A, Solano L | title = Profile of nutritional risk in pregnant adolescents | journal = Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–149 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14528603 }}</ref> ] result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting ].<ref name=savethechildren/> The ] estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as high for girls aged 15–19 than for women aged 20–24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged 10–14 than for women aged 20–24. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as ].<ref name=subsahara/>
===Adolescent sexual behavior===

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls aged under 15, as an underdeveloped ] can lead to difficulties in ]. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by ] in ]. In developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to ], ], ], or ].<ref name=savethechildren/><ref name="unfpa.org"/> For mothers who are older than fifteen, age is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.<ref name=makinson/>

===Antenatal care===
In 2022, UNICEF noted that:

{{blockquote|84 percent of pregnant adolescents aged 15-19 attended at least one antenatal care visit as compared to 88 percent of all women and girls aged 15-49. Fewer adolescent girls received skilled delivery care as compared to all women and girls (77 to 84 percent). Additionally, fewer adolescent girls received postnatal care for themselves as compared to all women and girls (66 percent vs 69 percent).<ref name="UNICEF dec22"/>}}

The agency noted regional disparities, noting that in West and Central Africa, "48 percent of newborns to adolescent mothers had a postnatal contact as compared to 52 percent of newborns to all mothers".<ref name="UNICEF dec22">{{cite web |title=Early childbearing |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |website=UNICEF Data |publisher=]}}</ref>

===Economics===

The lifetime ] caused by teenage pregnancy in different countries varies, from 1% to 30% of the annual GDP, with 30% being the figure in ].<ref name="UNFPA">{{Cite news| title = Population and poverty| author = United Nations Population Fund| newspaper = United Nations Population Fund| date = 2014| access-date = 22 March 2019| url = https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty}}</ref> In the United States, teenage pregnancy costs taxpayers between $9.4 and $28 billion in 2016, due to factors such as foster care and lost tax revenue.<ref name="HHS">{{Cite web| title = Negative Impacts of Teen Childbearing| author = United States Department of Health and Human Services| date = 2016| access-date = 22 March 2019| url = https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/reproductive-health-and-teen-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-and-childbearing/teen-childbearing/index.html| archive-date = 21 March 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190321175033/https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/reproductive-health-and-teen-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-and-childbearing/teen-childbearing/index.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> A 2014 study estimated that an increase in economic productivity from ending teenage pregnancy in Brazil and India would be worth $3.5 billion and $7.7 billion respectively.<ref name="UNFPA"/>

Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.<ref>O’Halloran, Peggy (April 1998) . moappp.org. Retrieved 3 December 2011.</ref> The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.<ref name=natcamp/> One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were ] at the time of giving birth.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Coley RL, Chase-Lansdale PL | title = Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood. Recent evidence and future directions | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–166 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9491745 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.152 }}</ref> A 2002 study found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought ] within the first five years of their child's life.<ref name=natcamp/>

A 1999 study of 100 teenaged mothers in the ] found that only 11% received a ], while the remaining 89% were ].<ref>Social Exclusion Unit. (1999). . Retrieved 29 May 2006.</ref> Most British teenage mothers live in ], with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.<ref name=dfes>. everychildmatters.gov.uk</ref>

==Risk factors==

===Culture===
Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher in societies where it is traditional for girls to marry young and where they are encouraged to bear children as soon as they are able. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's ].<ref name=subsahara/> Countries where ]s are common experience higher levels of teenage pregnancies. In the ], early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities than in cities.<ref name=escap/> Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = MacLeod | first1 = C. | title = The 'Causes' of Teenage Pregnancy: Review of South African Research – Part 2 | journal = South African Journal of Psychology | volume = 29 | pages = 8–16 | year = 1999 | doi = 10.1177/008124639902900102 | s2cid = 144455158 }}</ref>

]s also influence the decision to have children. In societies where children are set to work at an early age, it is economically attractive to have many children.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wi1PmIdkVA8C&q=having+children+to+avoid+poverty+in+old+age&pg=PA254|title=Cultural Selection|isbn=9780792355793|last1=Fog|first1=A.|date=28 February 1999|publisher=Springer }}</ref>

In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young age at first ] and lack of use of ] methods (or their inconsistent and/or incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen pregnancy.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=toosoon>, US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 25 January 2007.</ref> Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned.<ref name=toosoon/><ref name=psi> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324184650/http://www.psi.org.uk/news/pressrelease.asp?news_item_id=37 |date=24 March 2017 }} Policy Studies Institute, University of Westminster, 30 October 1998</ref> Many Western countries have instituted ] programs, the main objective of which is to reduce unplanned pregnancies and ]. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.<ref name=guttmacher2>Guttmacher Institute. (2005). . Retrieved 8 August 2006.{{clarify|date=May 2011|reason=This is a long list of reports: Which one did the information actually come from?}}</ref>

Teenage pregnancies are common among ] because they marry earlier.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avci |first1=Ilknur Aydin |last2=Cavusoglu |first2=Figen |last3=Aydin |first3=Mesiya |last4=Altay |first4=Birsen |title=Attitude and practice of family planning methods among Roma women living in northern Turkey |journal=International Journal of Nursing Sciences |date=17 January 2018 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=33–38 |doi=10.1016/j.ijnss.2018.01.002 |pmid=31406798 |pmc=6626220 }}</ref>

===Other family members===
Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of ] and ] and more likely to accept ], ], and ] at younger ages. Younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of ] and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to ]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author = East PL | title = Do adolescent pregnancy and childbearing affect younger siblings? | journal = Family Planning Perspectives| volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 148–153 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8853279 | doi = 10.2307/2136190 | jstor = 2136190 }}</ref> If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased probability of getting pregnant themselves.<ref name="Jacobson"/> Once an older daughter has a child, parents often become more accepting as time goes by.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1207/s1532480xads0202_1| title = Impact of Adolescent Childbearing on Families and Younger Sibling: Effects that Increase Younger Siblings' Risk for Early Pregnancy| journal = Applied Developmental Science| volume = 2| issue = 2| pages = 62–74| year = 1998| last1 = East | first1 = P. L. }}</ref> A 2011 study in Norway found that the probability of a younger sister having a teenage pregnancy went from 1:5 to 2:5 if the elder sister had a baby as a teenager.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-14442709 | work=BBC News | title=Teenage pregnancy is 'contagious' | date=9 August 2011}}</ref>

===Sexuality===
{{See also|Adolescent sexuality}} {{See also|Adolescent sexuality}}
In most countries, most males experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th birthday.<ref name=GImen>Guttmacher Institute (2003) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927100558/http://www.guttmacher.org/presentations/itor_slides_US.html |date=27 September 2013 }} pp. 19–21.</ref> Males in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia.<ref name=GImen />
According to information available from the ], sex by age 20 is the normal age across the world, and countries with low levels of adolescent pregnancy accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.<ref name=guttmacher2>Guttmacher Institute. (2005). . Retrieved August 8, 2006.</ref>

In a 2005 ] study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn't really want to do".<ref name=kaiser>{{cite web|url=http://www.kff.org/youthhivstds/upload/U-S-Teen-Sexual-Activity-Fact-Sheet.pdf |title=U.S.Teen Sexual Activity |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216015345/http://www.kff.org/youthhivstds/upload/U-S-Teen-Sexual-Activity-Fact-Sheet.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 }}&nbsp;{{small|(147&nbsp;KB)}} Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2005. Retrieved 23 January 2007</ref> Several polls have indicated ] as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.<ref name="pollingdata">The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). . teenpregnancy.org (April 1997).</ref><ref name=psychologytoday>Allen, Colin. (22 May 2003). "." ''Psychology Today.'' Retrieved 14 July 2006.</ref> The increased sexual activity among adolescents is manifested in increased teenage pregnancies and an increase in ].

===Role of drug and alcohol use===
Inhibition-reducing ] and ] may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity.<ref>Theuri, Joseph and Nzioka, David (2021). Alcohol and drug abuse as ecological predictors of risk taking behaviour among secondary school students in Kajiado North Sub-County, Kajiado County, Kenya. African Journal of Empirical Research, 2 (1), 50-55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.51867/ajer.v2i1.9</ref> If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. ]. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking them to teenage pregnancy are ], ], ] and other ]s. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are ], such as ], ], and ], of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of ] – it appears that teenage ] ] have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their peers who do not use opioids, and peers who do use ], ], cannabis, and ].<ref name=oecd/><ref name="kaiser"/><ref name=Besharov/><ref>Sax, Leonard (2005) . Doubleday books, p.&nbsp;128, {{ISBN|0786176814}}</ref>


===Early puberty===
However, in a ] study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn’t really want to do".<ref name=kaiser>{{PDFlink||147&nbsp;KB}} Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2005. Retrieved 23 Jan 2007</ref> Several polls have indicated ] as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.<ref name=" pollingdata">The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). . Retrieved July 13, 2006.</ref><ref name=psychologytoday>Allen, Colin. (May 22, 2003). "." ''Psychology Today.'.' Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> Inhibition-reducing ] and ] may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity. If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. ]. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking to teenage pregnancy are ], ], and ]s, including ]. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are ], such as ], ], and ], of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of ] – it appears that teenage ] ] have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their non-using, and ], ], and ] using peers. Amphetamines are widely prescribed to treat ] – internationally, the countries with the highest rates of recorded amphetamine prescription to teenagers also have the highest rates of teenage pregnancy.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=kaiser/><ref name=Besharov/><ref>, Leonard Sax, M.D., Ph.D., 2005, Doubleday books, p. 128. See also comments made by Dr. ] on NPR's Fresh Air, September 23, 2003.</ref>
{{main|Precocious puberty}}


Girls who mature early (precocious puberty) are more likely to engage in sexual intercourse at a younger age, which in turn puts them at greater risk of teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=16322170 | doi=10.1542/peds.2005-0542 | volume=116 | issue=6 | title=Early puberty and adolescent pregnancy: the influence of alcohol use | year=2005 | journal=Pediatrics | pages=1451–6 | last1=Deardorff |first1=J |last2=Gonzales |first2=NA |last3=Christopher |first3=FS |last4=Roosa |first4=MW |last5=Millsap |first5=RE| citeseerx=10.1.1.558.9628 | s2cid=36296702 }}</ref>
===Contraception===

===Lack of contraception===
{{main|Birth control}} {{main|Birth control}}


Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.<ref name=" pollingdata"/><ref name=" britsexed ">Slater, Jon. (2000). "." ''The UNESCO Courier.'.' Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref> Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1000 women. The 2010 target is currently looking highly ambitious. Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.<ref>Adams, A., & D'Souza, R. (2009). Teenage contraception. General Practice Update, 2(6), 36-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.</ref> Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.<ref name="pollingdata"/><ref name="britsexed">Slater, Jon. (2000). "." ''The UNESCO Courier'' Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref> Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government of the UK set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1,000 women.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Adams, A. |author2=D'Souza, R.|year=2009|title= Teenage contraception|journal= General Practice Update|volume= 2|issue=6|pages= 36–39}}</ref>
Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. ]s are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example ] and ], often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Adams, A. |author2=D'Souza, R.|year=2009|title= Teenage contraception|journal= General Practice Update|volume= 2|issue=6|pages= 36–39}}</ref>

In the US, according to the 2002 ], sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of 15–19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 15–44).<ref name=trusell&Wynn>National Surveys of Family Growth{{cite journal | vauthors = Trussell J, Wynn LL | title = Reducing unintended pregnancy in the United States | journal = Contraception | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–5 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18082659 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2007.09.001 | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/january-2008 | access-date = 8 September 2008 | archive-date = 19 August 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180819115227/http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Contraception-Journal/January-2008 | url-status = dead }}</ref> More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended.<ref name=speidel>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2008.06.001| title = The potential of long-acting reversible contraception to decrease unintended pregnancy| journal = Contraception| volume = 78| issue = 3| pages = 197–200| year = 2008| last1 = Speidel | first1 = J. J. | last2 = Harper | first2 = C. C. | last3 = Shields | first3 = W. C. | pmid=18692608}}
</ref> Over half of ] were to women not using ],<ref name=trusell&Wynn /> most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.<ref name=speidel /> 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 '']'' magazine poll admitted to having had ] with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 '']'' poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.<ref name="pollingdata"/>

In 1995, the ] surveyed 1,027 students in the US in grades 7–12 to compare the use of contraceptives among Whites, Blacks, and ]s. 36.2% of Hispanics said they never used contraception during intercourse, compared to 23.3% of Black teens and 17.0% of White teens who did not use contraceptives during intercourse.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28"/>


In a 2012 US study, over 1,000 females were surveyed to find out factors contributing to not using contraception. Of those surveyed, almost half had been involved in unprotected sex within the previous three months. These women gave three main reasons for not using contraceptives: trouble obtaining birth control (the most frequent reason), lack of intention to have sex, and the misconception that they "could not get pregnant".<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 22555219| year = 2012| last1 = Biggs| first1 = M. A.| title = Unprotected intercourse among women wanting to avoid pregnancy: Attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs| journal = Women's Health Issues| volume = 22| issue = 3| pages = e311–8| last2 = Karasek| first2 = D| last3 = Foster| first3 = D. G.| doi = 10.1016/j.whi.2012.03.003}}</ref>
In the United States, according to the 2002 National Surveys of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than those of other ages to use contraceptives (18% of 15- to 19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% average for women ages 15 to 44).<ref name=trusell&Wynn>National Surveys of Family Growth{{cite journal | journal = Contraception | title = Reducing unintended pregnancy in the United States | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/january-2008| author = James Trussell and L.L. Wynn |date=January 2008}}</ref> More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended.<ref name=speidel>{{cite journal|journal = Contraception | year = 2008 | month = September | title = The Potential of Long-acting Reversible Contraception to Decrease Unintended Pregnancy | author = J. Joseph Speidel, Cynthia C. Harper, and Wayne C. Shields | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/september-2008 }}
</ref> Over half of ] were to women not using ],<ref name=trusell&Wynn /> most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.<ref name=speidel /> 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 ''Seventeen'' magazine poll admitted to having had ] with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 '']'' poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.<ref name=" pollingdata"/>
In a 2011 study for the ], researchers found that from a comparative perspective, however, teenage pregnancy rates in the US are less nuanced than one might initially assume. "Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across , the high U.S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers."<ref name="DJE">{{cite web|last=Darroch|first=Jacqueline E.|title=Teenage Sexual and Reproductive Behavior in Developed Countries: Can More Progress Be Made?|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/eurosynth_rpt.pdf|publisher=The Alan Guttmacher Institute|access-date=14 February 2011|author2=Jennifer J. Frost |author3=Susheela Singh }}</ref> Thus, the cause for the discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to contraceptive-based issues.


Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.<ref></ref> Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a 2007 study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6279601.stm | work=BBC News | title=Teenage pregnancy myth dismissed | date=22 January 2007 | access-date=25 May 2010}}</ref>


In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use ]s incorrectly or forget to take ]. ] are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users.<ref name=Besharov>Besharov, Douglas J. & Gardiner, Karen N. (1997). . ''Children and Youth Services Review, 19 (5/6),'' 341–67. Retrieved July 13, 2006.</ref> Reversible longer term methods such as ]s, ], or injections (], ]), require less frequent user action, lasting from a month to years, and may prevent pregnancy more effectively in women who have trouble following routines, including many young women. The simultaneous use of more than one contraceptive measure further decreases the risk of unplanned pregnancy, and if one is a condom barrier method, the transmission of sexually transmitted disease is also reduced.<ref></ref> In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use ]s incorrectly, forget to take ], or fail to use the contraceptives they had previously chosen. ] are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users.<ref name=Besharov>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0190-7409(97)00022-4| pmid = 12295352| title = Trends in Teen Sexual Behavior| journal = Children and Youth Services Review| volume = 19| issue = 5–6| pages = 341–367| year = 1997| last1 = Besharov | first1 = D. J. | last2 = Gardiner | first2 = K. N. | citeseerx = 10.1.1.673.5213}}</ref> Long-acting contraceptives such as ]s, subcutaneous ]s, and contraceptive injections (such as ] and ]), which prevent pregnancy for months or years at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier methods consistently.


According to ''Encyclopedia of Women's Health'', published in 2004, there has been an increased effort to provide contraception to adolescents via family planning services and school-based health, such as HIV prevention education.<ref name="Teen Pregnancy"/>
===Age discrepancy in relationships===
According to the conservative lobbying organization ], studies in the US indicate that age discrepancy between the teenage girls and the men who impregnate them is an important contributing factor. Teenage girls in relationships with older boys, and in particular with adult men, are more likely to become pregnant than teenage girls in relationships with boys their own age. They are also more likely to carry the baby to term rather than have an abortion. A review of California's 1990 vital statistics found that men older than high school age fathered 77 percent of all births to high school-aged girls (ages 16–18), and 51 percent of births to junior high school-aged girls (15 and younger). Men over age 25 fathered twice as many children of teenage mothers than boys under age 18, and men over age 20 fathered five times as many children of junior high school-aged girls as did junior high school-aged boys. A 1992 Washington state study of 535 adolescent mothers found that 62 percent of the mothers had a history of being raped or sexual molested by men whose ages averaged 27 years. This study found that, compared with nonabused mothers, abused adolescent mothers initiated sex earlier, had sex with much older partners, and engaged in riskier, more frequent, and promiscuous sex. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of children born to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older.<ref>Gracie Hsu, Family Research Council <small>(courtesy link)</small></ref>


===Sexual abuse=== ===Sexual abuse===
{{main|Sexual abuse}} {{See also|Sexual abuse}}


Studies have found that between 11 and 20 percent of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60 percent of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary; the Guttmacher Institute found that 60 percent of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males who on average were six years their senior. One in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.<ref></ref> Studies from South Africa have found that 11–20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape. About 60% of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary. The Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males, who on average were six years their senior.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 19372525| pmc = 3515795| year = 2009| last1 = Speizer| first1 = I. S.| title = Sexual violence and reproductive health outcomes among South African female youths: A contextual analysis| journal = American Journal of Public Health| volume = 99| pages = S425–31| last2 = Pettifor| first2 = A| last3 = Cummings| first3 = S| last4 = MacPhail| first4 = C| last5 = Kleinschmidt| first5 = I| last6 = Rees| first6 = H. V.| issue = Suppl 2| doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2008.136606}}</ref> In 2003, one in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.<ref>Cullinan, Kerry . www.csa.za.org. 23 November 2003</ref>


Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70 percent of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls; by contrast, 25 percent for women who did not give birth as teens were molested.<ref></ref><ref>Elizabeth M. Saewyc, Lara Leanne Magee and Sandra E. Pettingell (2004) </ref><ref>Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, Volume 36, Number 3, May/June 2004</ref><ref> University of Southern California, Science Blog, 2004</ref> Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70% of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls. By contrast, 25% of women who did not give birth as teens were molested.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Saewyc EM, Magee LL, Pettingell SE | title = Teenage pregnancy and associated risk behaviors among sexually abused adolescents | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 98–105 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15306268 | doi = 10.1363/3609804 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Saewyc | first1 = E. M. | last2 = Magee | first2 = L. L. | last3 = Pettingell | first3 = S. E. | title = Teenage pregnancy and associated risk behaviors among sexually abused adolescents | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 98–105 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1363/3609804| pmid = 15306268 }}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120629082937/http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1998/D/199803609.html |date=29 June 2012 }} University of Southern California, Science Blog, 2004</ref>


In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered ]. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see ]). In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered ]. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see ]).


===Dating violence=== ===Dating violence===
{{main|Dating violence}} {{See also|Dating abuse|Teen dating violence}}


Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |author=Rosen D |title="I Just Let Him Have His Way" Partner Violence in the Lives of Low-Income, Teenage Mothers |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=6–28|year=2004 |doi=10.1177/1077801203256069 |url=http://vaw.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/1/6}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Quinlivan J |title=Teenage pregnancy |journal=O & G |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=25–6 |format=PDF |date=Winter 2006 |url=http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/publications/o-g_pdfs/OG-Winter-2006/teenage-pregnancy.pdf |accessdate=2009-06-22}}</ref><ref></ref><ref name=autogenerated2></ref> They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviours on part of their boyfriends.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Women under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18.<ref></ref> A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence.<ref></ref> Similar results have been found in studies in the United States. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of ] within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.<ref name=autogenerated2/> Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |author=Rosen D |title="I Just Let Him Have His Way" Partner Violence in the Lives of Low-Income, Teenage Mothers |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=6–28|year=2004 |doi=10.1177/1077801203256069|s2cid=72957028 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Quinlivan J |title=Teenage pregnancy |journal=O&G |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=25–6 |date=Winter 2006 |url=http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/publications/o-g_pdfs/OG-Winter-2006/teenage-pregnancy.pdf |access-date=22 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720215040/http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/publications/o-g_pdfs/OG-Winter-2006/teenage-pregnancy.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2008 }}</ref> They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviors on part of their boyfriends. Girls under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18. A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence. Similar results have been found in studies in the US. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of ] within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.


In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of the girls aged 11–15 years and 56% of girls aged 16–19 years reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.<ref></ref> In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of girls aged 11–15 and 56% of girls aged 16–19 reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927202303/http://www.cpeip.fsu.edu/resourceFiles/resourceFile_73.pdf |date=27 September 2013 }}. Florida State University Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy (2005)</ref>


===Socioeconomic factors=== ===Socioeconomic factors===
] illustration from ''Street Arabs and Gutter Snipes'' by George Carter Needham, Boston, 1884.]]
Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. A hospital-based cohort study was undertaken over 4 months among women admitted to a rural hospital in West Bengal. The study cohort consisted of teenage mothers between 15–19 years old and a control cohort of mothers between 20–24 years old. Data included demographic variables, available medical records, and complications viz. anemia, preterm delivery, and low birth weight. Anemia was defined as a hemoglobin level below 10 gm% during the last trimester of pregnancy, preterm delivery was defined as occurring within 37 weeks of gestation, and low birth weight was defined as babies weighing less than 2500&nbsp;grams at birth. The Result: Teenage pregnancy comprised 24.17% of total pregnancies occurring in the hospital during the study period.<ref>Banerjee, B., Pandey, G., Dutt, D., Sengupta, B., Mondal, M., & Deb, S. (2009). Teenage Pregnancy: A Socially Inflicted Health Hazard. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 34(3), 227-231. doi:10.4103/0970-0218.55289.</ref>


Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. ] is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy.<ref name=Besharov/> Economically poor countries such as ] and ] have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as ] and ].<ref name=globalis> UNFPA, State of World Population 2003. Retrieved 22 January 2007.</ref>
]
] is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy.<ref name=Besharov/> Economically poor countries such as ] and ] have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as ] and ].<ref name=globalis/>


In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18s are concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.<ref>"" (Spring 2007)''Health Statistics Quarterly Volume 33''</ref> In ], the teenage birth rate in the well-off ] is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer ] it is 10.0 per 1000.<ref name=oecd/> Sociologist ] noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in ]:<ref>Males, Mike (2001) , c Youth Today.</ref> In the UK in 2001, around half of all pregnancies to those under 18 were concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.<ref>"" (Spring 2007)''Health Statistics Quarterly Volume 33''</ref> For example, in ] in 2001, the teenage birth rate in the well-off ] is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer ] it is 10.0 per 1,000.<ref name=oecd/> Similarly, in the US in 2001, sociologist ] noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in ]:<ref>Males, Mike (2001) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013092427/http://home.earthlink.net/~mmales/yt-sex.htm |date=13 October 2018 }}, c Youth Today.</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
Teen pregnancy costs the United States over $7 billion annually.
<ref></ref>
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|- |-
!County !County
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|100 |100
|} |}
<small>* per 1000 women aged 15–19</small> <small>* per 1,000 women aged 15–19</small>


Teen pregnancy cost the US over $9.1 billion in 2004, including $1.9 billion for health care, $2.3 billion for child welfare, $2.1 billion for incarceration, and $2.9 billion in lower tax revenue.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512174552/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/55373.php |date=12 May 2011 }}. ''Medical News Today''. Retrieved 3 December 2011.</ref>
There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or ] before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.<ref name=psi/>

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant, and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.<ref name=psi/>


===Childhood environment=== ===Childhood environment===
Women exposed to abuse, ], and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences.<ref>Tamkins, T. (2004) Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, March–April, 2004</ref> Studies have also found that boys raised in homes with a battered mother, or who experienced physical violence directly, were significantly more likely to impregnate a girl.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, ''et al.'' |title=Abused boys, battered mothers, and male involvement in teen pregnancy |journal=Pediatrics |volume=107 |issue=2 |page=E19 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11158493 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/2/e19 |doi=10.1542/peds.107.2.e19}}</ref> Girls exposed to abuse, ], and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/swr/20.3.131|title=The link between childhood maltreatment and teenage pregnancy|journal= Social Work Research |year=1996|volume= 20 |issue=3|pages= 131–141|author=Smith, Carolyn }}</ref> In a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences.<ref>Tamkins, T. (2004) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104231437/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NNR/is_2_36/ai_n6069104/pg_1 |date=4 November 2007 }} Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, March–April 2004</ref> A 2001 study suggested that boys raised by mothers who experienced physical abuse, or who experienced domestic violence directly, were more likely to be involved in a teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, Croft JB, Williamson DF, Santelli J, Dietz PM, Marks JS | title = Abused boys, battered mothers, and male involvement in teen pregnancy | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | page = E19 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11158493 | doi = 10.1542/peds.107.2.e19 }}</ref>


Studies have also found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity, and the lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the United States and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.<ref>Ellis, Bruce J. et al. (2003) Child Development, v74 n3 p801-21 May–Jun 2003</ref><ref>Quigley, Ann (2003) Health Behavior News Service, May 27, 2003</ref> A 2003 study found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity. The lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the US and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L | title = Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? | journal = Child Development | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 801–821 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12795391 | pmc = 2764264 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00569 }}</ref><ref>Quigley, Ann (2003) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906023159/http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/familyresources/a/teensex503_2.htm |date=6 September 2015 }} Health Behavior News Service, 27 May 2003</ref>


Low ]al expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Allen E, Bonell C, Strange V, ''et al.'' |title=Does the UK government's teenage pregnancy strategy deal with the correct risk factors? Findings from a secondary analysis of data from a randomised trial of sex education and their implications for policy |journal=J Epidemiol Community Health |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=20–7 |year=2007 |month=January |pmid=17183010 |doi=10.1136/jech.2005.040865 |url=http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/61/1/20 |pmc=2465587}}</ref> A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens.<ref name=" Jacobson ">{{cite journal |author=East PL, Jacobson LJ |title=The younger siblings of teenage mothers: a follow-up of their pregnancy risk |journal=Dev Psychol |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=254–64 |year=2001 |month=March |pmid=11269393 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.254 }} Low ]al expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Allen E, Bonell C, Strange V, Copas A, Stephenson J, Johnson AM, Oakley A | title = Does the UK government's teenage pregnancy strategy deal with the correct risk factors? Findings from a secondary analysis of data from a randomised trial of sex education and their implications for policy | journal = J Epidemiol Community Health | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17183010 | pmc = 2465587 | doi = 10.1136/jech.2005.040865 }}</ref> A girl is more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens.<ref name="Furstenberg">{{cite journal |vauthors=Furstenberg FF, Levine JA, Brooks-Gunn J | title = The children of teenage mothers: patterns of early childbearing in two generations | journal = Fam Plann Perspect | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 54–61 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2347409 | doi = 10.2307/2135509 | jstor = 2135509 }}</ref><ref name="Jacobson">{{cite journal |vauthors=East PL, Jacobson LJ | title = The younger siblings of teenage mothers: a follow-up of their pregnancy risk | journal = Dev Psychol | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 254–64 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11269393 | pmc = 3878983 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.254 }}
</ref><ref name=" Furstenberg ">{{cite journal |author=Furstenberg FF, Levine JA, Brooks-Gunn J |title=The children of teenage mothers: patterns of early childbearing in two generations |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=54–61 |year=1990 |pmid=2347409 |doi=10.2307/2135509 }}</ref> A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of ] between parents and child and also to inadequate ].<ref name=" pollingdata"/> </ref> A majority of respondents in a 1988 ] survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of ] between parents and child and also to inadequate ].<ref name="pollingdata"/>


] youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the United States, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly 3 times the rate for girls in the general population.<ref>{{PDFlink||42.1&nbsp;KB}} A Joint Project of The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy and UCAN (Uhlich Children’s Advantage Network) 16 Feb 2006</ref> ] youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the US, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly three times the rate for girls in the general population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teenpregnancy.org/fostercare/Foster_Care_Project_FactSheet2.pdf |title=Fostering Hope: Preventing Teen Pregnancy Among Youth in Foster Care |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011130/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/fostercare/Foster_Care_Project_FactSheet2.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}&nbsp;{{small|(42.1&nbsp;KB)}} A Joint Project of The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy and UCAN (Uhlich Children’s Advantage Network) 16 February 2006</ref>


== Media influence == === Media influence ===
A study conducted in 2006 found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were also more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves.<ref>L’Engle, Kelly Ladin, Jane D.Brown, and Kristin Kenneavy. (2006). The mass media are an important context for adolescents’ sexual behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 186–192.</ref> A 2006 study found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = L'Engle |first1=KL |last2=Brown |first2=JD |last3=Kenneavy |first3=K | title = The mass media are an important context for adolescents' sexual behavior | journal = Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 186–192 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16488814 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.020 }}</ref> According to '']'', "teens exposed to the most sexual content on TV are twice as likely as teens watching less of this material to become pregnant before they reach age 20".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1855842,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081106102203/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1855842,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=6 November 2008 | magazine=Time | first=Alice | last=Park | title=Sex on TV Increases Teen Pregnancy, Says Report | date=3 November 2008}}</ref>


==Prevention==
==Limiting teenage pregnancies==
Comprehensive ] and access to ] appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Oringanje |first1=Chioma |last2=Meremikwu |first2=Martin M |last3=Eko |first3=Hokehe |last4=Esu |first4=Ekpereonne |last5=Meremikwu |first5=Anne |last6=Ehiri |first6=John E |title=Interventions for preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=3 February 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=2 |pages=CD005215 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005215.pub3 |pmid=26839116 |pmc=8730506 }}</ref> It is unclear which type of intervention is most effective.<ref name=":0" />
Many health educators have argued that comprehensive ] would effectively reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, although opponents argue that such education encourages more and earlier sexual activity.


In the US free access to a ] along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of abortions by more than 75%.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Secura|first1=Gina M.|last2=Madden|first2=Tessa|last3=McNicholas|first3=Colleen|last4=Mullersman|first4=Jennifer|last5=Buckel|first5=Christina M.|last6=Zhao|first6=Qiuhong|last7=Peipert|first7=Jeffrey F.|title=Provision of No-Cost, Long-Acting Contraception and Teenage Pregnancy|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=2 October 2014|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1316–1323|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1400506|pmid=25271604|pmc=4230891}}</ref> Currently there are four federal programs aimed at preventing teenage pregnancy: Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP), Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP), Title V Sexual Risk Avoidance Education, and Sexual Risk Avoidance Education.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fernandes-Alcantara|first1=Adrienne L.|title=Teen Pregnancy: Federal Prevention Programs|date=30 April 2018|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, DC|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45183.pdf|access-date=5 May 2018}}</ref>
In the UK, the teenage pregnancy strategy, which was run first by the ] and is now based out of the Children, Young People and Families directorate in the ], works on several levels to reduce teenage pregnancy and increase the social inclusion of teenage mothers and their families by:
*joined up action, making sure branches of government and health and education services work together effectively;
*prevention of teenage pregnancy through better sex education and improving contraceptive and advice services for young people, involving young people in service design, supporting the parents of teenagers to talk to them about sex and relationships, and targeting high-risk groups;
*better support for teenage mothers, including help returning to education, advice and support, work with young fathers, better childcare and increasing the availability of supported housing.


===Education===
The teenage pregnancy strategy has had mixed success. Although teenage pregnancies have fallen overall, they have not fallen consistently in every region, and in some areas they have increased. There are questions about whether the 2010 target of a 50% reduction on 1998 levels can be met.
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.<ref name=dutchmodel>{{cite journal|author=Valk, Guus|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001201/120152e.pdf|title= The Dutch Model|journal=The UNESCO Courier|volume=53|issue=7|page=19|date=July 2000|access-date= 3 July 2011}}</ref>


In the United States 2016, 39 states and the District of Columbia out of the 50 states required some form of sex education of HIV education.<ref name="Sex and HIV Education">{{Cite web|date=14 March 2016|title=Sex and HIV Education|url=https://www.guttmacher.org/state-policy/explore/sex-and-hiv-education|access-date=21 October 2020|website=Guttmacher Institute|language=en}}</ref> Out of these 39 states and the District of Columbia, 17 states require that the sexual education provided be medically accurate, and 3 states prohibit a program from promoting sexual education in a religious way. These three states include California, Colorado, and Louisiana. 19 of those 39 states stress the importance of only having sex when in a committed marriage.<ref name="Sex and HIV Education"/>
In the United States the topic of sex education is the subject of much contentious debate. Some schools provide "abstinence-only" education and ]s are increasingly popular. A 2004 study by Yale and Columbia Universities found that fully 88 percent of those who pledge abstinence have premarital sex anyway.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hauser |first=Emily L. |title=Advise, console |work=Opinion |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=2008-09-07 |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2008/sep/07/opinion/chi-teen-pregnancy-thinksep07 |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref> Most public schools offer "abstinence-plus" programs that support abstinence but also offer advice about contraception. A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.<ref name=joe>Moncloa, Fe, Johns, Marilyn, Gong, Elizabeth J., Russell, Stephen, Lee, Faye, & West, Estella. (2003). . ''Journal of Extension, 41 (2).'.' Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>


From this data, 11 states currently have no requirement for sexual education for any years of schooling, meaning these 11 states may have no sexual education at all. This could mean these states are allowed to teach sexual education in any way they would like, including in medically inaccurate ways. This point is also valid for those 22 states that do not require sexual education to be medically accurate. Comprehensive sexual education has been proven to work to reduce the risk of teen pregnancies.<ref name="Sexuality Education">{{Cite web|title=Sexuality Education|url=https://advocatesforyouth.org/resources/fact-sheets/sexuality-education-2/|access-date=21 October 2020|website=Advocates for Youth|language=en}}</ref>
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.<ref name=dutchmodel>Valk, Guus. (2000). . ''The UNESCO Courier. Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>


Without a nationwide mandate for medically accurate programs, teenagers in the United States are at risk for missing out on valuable information that can protect them. It is unfair to expect teenagers to make educated decisions about sex that can lead to teen pregnancy when they have never been properly educated about the issue. A program developed by experts in public health and sexual education titled ''National Sexuality Education Standards,'' is a valuable resource that describes what the minimum requirements of sexual education should be across the nation.<ref name="Sexuality Education"/> Giving teenagers the tools that are outlined in that roadmap would have positive effects, as it gives teenagers the resources to make educated decisions. Currently, there is not a national implementation of this program in the United States.
In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Indonesia and Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools.<ref name=escap/> Non-governmental agencies such as the ] provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against ] have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female ] and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as ], Indonesia, and the Indian state of ].


Teen pregnancy can be reduced by sex education, as a 2022 study in 55 US ] showed. The study used federal funded sex education programs as a proxy for sex education, but provided no details about funding levels, the number of students reached, or the amount of time spent on sex education. The reduction of teenage births, not pregnancy, was significant, with a 3% reduction, indicating that an increase in funding, education, or reach could decrease teenage pregnancy even further.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mark|first1=Nicholas D. E.|last2=Wu|first2=Lawrence L.|date=22 February 2022|title=More comprehensive sex education reduced teen births: Quasi-experimental evidence|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=119|issue=8|pages=e2113144119|doi=10.1073/pnas.2113144119|doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424|pmid=35165192|pmc=8872707|bibcode=2022PNAS..11913144M }}</ref> Although 3% sounds like a small number, given a teenage girl population of 10 million females aged 15–19 in 2020,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=U.S. population by age and gender 2019|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/241488/population-of-the-us-by-sex-and-age/|access-date=22 February 2022|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref> and ~190,000 teenage births per year, a 3% reduction would translate to about 6,000 prevented teenage births per year when extrapolated to the whole nation.
==Outcomes==
===Medical outcomes===
Maternal and ] health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of ] and ] is higher among adolescent mothers.<ref name=makinson/><ref name=natcamp/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Belsky DH |title=Prenatal care and maternal health during adolescent pregnancy: a review and meta-analysis |journal=J Adolesc Health |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=444–56 |year=1994 |month=September |pmid=7811676 |doi=10.1016/1054-139X(94)90491-K }}</ref> Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive ], often seeking it in the ], if at all.<ref name=makinson/> The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to suffer from health issues in childhood or be ] than those born to older women.<ref>Guttmacher Institute. (1999, September). . Retrieved May 29, 2006.</ref>
However, studies have indicated that young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those that do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers, many of whom do not have health insurance, appear to result from lack of access to high-quality medical care.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Raatikainen K, Heiskanen N, Verkasalo PK, Heinonen S |title=Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care |journal=Eur J Public Health |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=157–61 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=16141302 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/cki158 |url=http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/16/2/157}}</ref>
Many pregnant teens are subject to ] from poor ]s common in adolescence, including attempts to ] through ], ]s, ], ], and consumption of ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gutierrez Y, King JC |title=Nutrition during teenage pregnancy |journal=Pediatr Ann |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=99–108 |year=1993 |month=February |pmid=8493060}}</ref>


===Abstinence only education===
Inadequate ] is an even more marked problem among teenagers in ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanchez PA, Idrisa A, Bobzom DN, ''et al.'' |title=Calcium and vitamin D status of pregnant teenagers in Maiduguri, Nigeria |journal=J Natl Med Assoc |volume=89 |issue=12 |pages=805–11 |year=1997 |month=December |pmid=9433060 |pmc=2608295 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Peña E, Sánchez A, Solano L |title= |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Arch Latinoam Nutr |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=141–9 |year=2003 |month=June |pmid=14528603 }}</ref> ] result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting ].<ref name=savethechildren/> The ] estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as great for women between 15 and 19 years than for those between the ages of 20 and 24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged between 10 and 14 than for women of about twenty years of age. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name=subsahara/>
], promoting abstinence for the prevention of unplanned pregnancy and ], 2005]]


Some schools provide ]. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only sex education.<ref name=Obs07>{{cite journal |last1=Ott |first1=Mary A |last2=Santelli |first2=John S |title=Abstinence and abstinence-only education |journal=Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=October 2007 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=446–452 |doi=10.1097/GCO.0b013e3282efdc0b |pmid=17885460 |pmc=5913747 }}</ref> It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing ] risk in the developed world,<ref name="Underhill2007">{{cite journal|last=Underhill|first=K|author2=Operario, D |author3=Montgomery, P |title=Abstinence-only programs for HIV infection prevention in high-income countries|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=17 October 2007|issue=4|pages=CD005421|pmid=17943855|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005421.pub2|editor1-last=Operario|editor1-first=Don}}</ref> and does not decrease rates of ] when compared to comprehensive sex education.<ref name="Obs07"/> It does not decrease the sexual activity rates of students, when compared to students who undertake comprehensive sexual education classes.<ref name=Kohler08>{{cite journal|last=Kohler|first=Pamela|author3=Manhart, Lisa|author2=Lafferty, William |title=Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|date=April 2008|volume=42|issue=4|pages=344–351|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.026|pmid=18346659|s2cid=16986622 }}</ref>
Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years of age and younger, as an underdeveloped ] can lead to difficulties in ]. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by ] in ]; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to ], ], ], or ].<ref name=savethechildren/> For mothers in their late teens, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.<ref name=makinson/>


===Assistance===
===Socioeconomic and psychological outcomes===
] (NFP) is a non-profit organization operating in the United States and the UK designed to serve the needs of young mothers who may have special needs in their first pregnancy.
Several studies have examined the ], ], and ] impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as ] or ], may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can use family and community support, social services and child-care support to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.
Each mother served is partnered with a registered nurse early in her pregnancy and receives ongoing nurse home visits that continue through her child's second birthday. NFP intervention has been associated with improvements in maternal health, child health, and economic security.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nurse-Family Partnership |url=https://evidencebasedprograms.org/programs/nurse-family-partnership/ |website=Social Programs that Work |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref>


====Impact on the mother==== ===Public policy===
====Canada====
Being a ''young mother'' in an industrialized country can affect one's ]. Teen mothers are more likely to ] of ].<ref name=natcamp/> Recent studies, though, have found that many of these mothers had already dropped out of school prior to becoming pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy were as likely to graduate as their peers.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth during their teens completed ] 10–12% as often and pursued ] 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.<ref>Hofferth, Sandra L., Reid, Lori, Mott, & Frank L. (2001). . ''Family Planning Perspectives, 33 (6).'' Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref>
In 2018, ]'s Institut national de santé publique (INSPQ) began implementing adjustments to the Protocole de contraception du Québec (Québec Contraception Protocol). The new protocol allows ]s to prescribe hormonal birth control, an IUD or emergency birth control to women, as long as they comply with prescribed standards in the Prescription infirmière: Guide explicatif conjoint, and are properly trained in providing contraceptives. In 2020, Québec will offer online training to registered nurses, provided by the Ordre des infirmières et infirmiers du Québec (OIIQ). Nurses that do not have training in the areas of sexually transmitted and blood borne infections may have to take additional online courses provided by the INSPQ.<ref>Institut national de santé publique du Québec. 2018. .</ref>


==== United States ====
''Young motherhood'' in an industrialized country can affect ] and ]. Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.<ref></ref> The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.<ref name=natcamp/> One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were ] at the time of giving birth.<ref>Levine Coley, Rebekah & Chase-Lansdale, Lindsay. (1997). . ''American Psychologist.'' Retrieved May 29, 2006.</ref> Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought ] within the first five years of their child's life.<ref name=natcamp/> A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the ] found that only 11% received a ], while the remaining 89% were ].<ref>Social Exclusion Unit. (1999). . Retrieved May 29, 2006.</ref> Most British teenage mothers live in ], with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.<ref name=dfes>{{PDFlink |1=}}</ref> Teenage women who are pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sean-c-powers.com/TeenagePregnancy.html |title=The Psychological Effects of Teenage Women During Pregnancy |accessdate=2009-01-05}}</ref> Professor John Ermisch at the institute of social and economic research at Essex University and Dr Roger Ingham, director of the centre of sexual health at Southampton University – found that comparing teenage mothers with other girls with similarly deprived social-economic profiles, bad school experiences and low educational aspirations, the difference in their respective life chances was negligible.<ref></ref>
]
In the US, one policy initiative that has been used to increase rates of contraceptive use is ]. Title X of the ] ({{USPL|91|572}}) provides family planning services for those who do not qualify for ] by distributing "funding to a network of public, private, and nonprofit entities services on a sliding scale based on income."<ref>{{cite web|last=The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy|title=Policy Brief: Title X Plays a Critical Role in Preventing Unplanned Pregnancy|url=http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/pdf/Briefly_PolicyBrief_TitleX.pdf|access-date=15 February 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807191610/http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/pdf/Briefly_PolicyBrief_TitleX.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> Studies indicate that, internationally, success in reducing teen pregnancy rates is directly correlated with the kind of access that Title X provides: "What appears crucial to success is that adolescents know where they can go to obtain information and services, can get there easily and are assured of receiving confidential, nonjudgmental care, and that these services and contraceptive supplies are free or cost very little."<ref name="DJE" /> In addressing high rates of unplanned teen pregnancies, scholars agree that the problem must be confronted from both the biological and cultural contexts.


In September 2010, the ] approved $155 million in new funding for comprehensive sex education programs designed to prevent teenage pregnancy. The money is being awarded "to states, non-profit organizations, school districts, universities and others. These grants will support the replication of teen pregnancy prevention programs that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research as well as the testing of new, innovative approaches to combating teen pregnancy."<ref>{{cite web|last=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|title=HHS Awards Evidence-based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Grants|url=https://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2010pres/09/20100930a.html|access-date=15 February 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110070257/http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2010pres/09/20100930a.html|archive-date=10 January 2011}}</ref> Of the total of $150 million, $55 million is funded by ] through the Personal Responsibility Education Program, which requires states receiving funding to incorporate lessons about both abstinence and contraception.
Teenage Motherhood may actually make economic sense for '''poorer''' young women, some research suggests. For instance, long-term studies by Duke economist V. Joseph Hotz and colleagues, published in 2005, found that by age 35, former teen moms had earned more in income, paid more in taxes, were substantially less likely to live in poverty and collected less in public assistance than similarly poor women who waited until their 20s to have babies. Women who became mothers in their teens — freed from child-raising duties by their late 20s and early 30s to pursue employment while poorer women who waited to become moms were still stuck at home watching their young children — wound up paying more in taxes than they had collected in welfare.<ref>{{cite news |last=Males |first=Mike |authorlink=Mike Males |title=The real mistake in 'teen pregnancy' |work=Opinion |publisher=] |date=2008-07-13 |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-op-males13-2008jul13,0,4392044.story |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref> Eight years earlier, the federally commissioned report "Kids Having Kids" also contained a similar finding, though it was buried: "Adolescent childbearers fare slightly better than later-childbearing counterparts in terms of their overall economic welfare."{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}


==== Developing countries ====
One-fourth of adolescent mothers will have a second child within 24 months of the first. Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have a closely-spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kalmuss DS, Namerow PB |title=Subsequent childbearing among teenage mothers: the determinants of a closely spaced second birth |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=149–53, 159 |year=1994 |pmid=7957815 |doi=10.2307/2136238 }}</ref>
In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as ] have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools.<ref name="escap" /> Non-governmental agencies such as the ] and ] provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against ] have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female ] and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as ], ], and the Indian state of ].


====Impact on the child==== ===Other===
A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.<ref name=joe>{{cite journal |author1=Fe Moncloa |author2=Marilyn Johns |author3=Elizabeth J. Gong |author4=Stephen Russell |author5=Faye Lee |author6=Estella West |year=2003 |url=http://www.joe.org/joe/2003april/tt1.php |title=Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention Practitioner Handbook |journal=Journal of Extension |volume=41 |issue=2 |access-date=3 December 2011 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808044201/https://www.joe.org/joe/2003april/tt1.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Early motherhood can affect the ] of the infant. The occurrence of ] and ]al issues is increased in children born to teen mothers.<ref name=aap>{{cite journal |title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Care of adolescent parents and their children |journal=Pediatrics |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=429–34 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11158485 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/2/429 |doi=10.1542/peds.107.2.429 |author1=American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Adolescence and Committee on Early Childhood and Adoption, and Dependent Care}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hofferth SL, Reid L |title=Early Childbearing and Children's Achievement And Behavior over Time |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=34 |issue=1 |page= 41|year=2002 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3404102.html |doi=10.2307/3030231}}</ref> One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to ] their infant through ] such as ], ], and ], or to be ] and ] toward his or her needs.<ref name=aap/> Another found that those who had more ] were less likely to show ] toward their children or to rely upon ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Crockenberg S |title=Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers |journal=Child Dev |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=964–75 |year=1987 |month=August |pmid=3608666 |doi=10.2307/1130537 }}
</ref>


==Prevalence==
Poor ] in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to ] from secondary school, be held back a ], or score lower on ].<ref name=natcamp/> Daughters born to adolescent ]s are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.<ref name=natcamp/><ref name=" Furstenberg "/> A son born to a young woman in her teens is three times more likely to ] in ].<ref>Maynard, Rebecca A. (Ed.). (1996). ''.'' Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref>
{{main|Prevalence of teenage pregnancy}}
]


In reporting teenage pregnancy rates, the number of pregnancies per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19,. when the pregnancy ends, is generally used.<ref>. Statcan.gc.ca (5 June 2007). Retrieved 2011-12-03.</ref>
====Impact on other family members====
Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of ] and ] and more likely to accept ], ], and ] at younger ages; younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of ] and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to ]s.<ref>East, Patricia L. (1996).
.
''Family Planning Perspectives, 28 (4)''. Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref> An additional study discovered that those with an older sibling who is a teen parent often end up babysitting their nieces and nephews and that young girls placed in such a situation have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves.<ref name=" Jacobson " />
Social workers play an important role in intervention with families.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} They work with the families to address common problems and health issues in order to promote a positive outcome for both the family and the baby.


In 2003, worldwide teenage pregnancy rates ranged from 143 per 1,000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1,000 in South Korea.<ref name=oecd>UNICEF. (2001).{{cite web |url= http://www.unicef-icdc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf |title= A League Table of Teenage Births in Rich Nations |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060629123124/http://www.unicef-icdc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf |archive-date= 29 June 2006 }}&nbsp;{{small|(888&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref><ref name="ncbi">{{cite journal | author = Treffers PE | title = Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem | journal = Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde | volume = 147 | issue = 47 | pages = 2320–2325 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14669537 }}</ref> In the US in 2013, 82% of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 were unplanned.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marnach ML, Long ME, Casey PM | title = Current Issues in Contraception | journal = Mayo Clinic Proceedings | volume = 88 | issue = 3 | pages = 295–299 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23489454 | doi = 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.01.007 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Among ] ] in 2001, the US, the UK and ] had the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while ] and ] had the lowest.<ref>. unicef-irc.org {{ISBN|88-85401-75-9}}</ref>
==Teenage fatherhood==
In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the so-called ]). In countries such as ] the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=escap/>


According to the ], "In every region of the world – including high-income countries – girls who are poor, poorly educated or living in rural areas are at greater risk of becoming pregnant than those who are wealthier, well-educated or urban. This is true on a global level, as well: 95 percent of the world's births to adolescents (aged 15–19) take place in developing countries. Every year, some 3 million girls in this age bracket resort to ]s, risking their lives and health."<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy"/>
In other countries, such as the ] and the ], the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the fathers of their children.<ref name=oecd/><ref>National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2007). </ref> In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married.<ref>"" ''Office For National Statistics''</ref> Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. Research has shown that when teenage fathers are included in decision-making during pregnancy and birth, they are more likely to report increased involvement with their children in later years.<ref>Fagan, Jay; Barnett, Marina; Bernd, Elisa; and Whiteman, Valerie (2003) Fathering, Oct 2003</ref> In the U.S, eight out of ten teenage fathers do not marry their child's mother.<ref></ref>


In a 2001 ] survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the UK and the US, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the UK and the US, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have had sex.<ref name="oecd" /> In 2004, approximately 15 million girls under the age of 20 in the world had a child each year. Estimates were that 20–60% of these pregnancies in developing countries are mistimed or unwanted.<ref name="Teen Pregnancy"> (2004) in ''Encyclopedia of Women's Health''.</ref>
However, "teenage father" may be a misnomer in many cases. Studies by the ] and the ] found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older.<ref>De Vita, Carol J. (1996) "The United States at Mid-Decade," Population Bulletin, vol. 50, no. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, Inc., March 1996)</ref><ref>Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics (1991). Monthly Vital Statistics Report, vol. 42, no. 3, Supplement 9. National Center for Health Statistics, Sept. 1993</ref> The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40 percent of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.<ref>Family Planning Perspectives, July/August 1995.</ref> A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.<ref>California Resident Live Births, 1990, by Age of Father, by Age of Mother, California Vital Statistics Section, Department of Heath Services, 1992.</ref> In the UK 72% of jointly registered births to women under the age of 20, the father is over the age of 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.<ref> ''Office For National Statistics'' pp 14–15. ''Note: 24% of births to women under 20 were solo registrations where the age of the father cannot be determined.''</ref>


In 2022, UNICEF reported that from 2000 to 2022, "the global adolescent birth rate for the age group 10–14 has declined by over 50 percent, from 3.3 to 1.6 per 1,000 adolescent girls aged 10–14", and "for the age group 15–19 has declined by over 30 percent, from 65 to 43 births per 1,000 adolescent girls aged 15–19".<ref name="UNICEF2022"/> UNICEF noted that these declines were "tied to improvements in almost all regional rates".<ref name="UNICEF2022"/>
==List of famous teenage parents==
{{Refimprove|section|date=December 2008}}
<!-- If you add to this list be sure to include a citation; this is required for any currently living person, per wikipedia policy ]. -->


In 2004, ] found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women aged under 20 worldwide, with more than 90% in developing countries. ] and ] are the leading cause of ] among women aged 15–19 in such areas.<ref name=savethechildren/>
===Pre-20th century===
*Medieval ] ] was 14, 16 and 17 years old when she gave birth to her first three children by her husband King ]: ], ] and ] respectively. She and Henry also had two additional children born several years later: ] and Katherine.
*], the first wife of ] gave birth to her first child Edward at the age of 13. Although Edward did not survive infancy, she had six additional children with her husband before dying in childbirth from her last child, ].
*At the age of 13, ] gave birth to her only child, who later became ].
*Napoleon's mother, ], gave birth to five children before she was 20. Only two of them survived: Napoleon and his elder brother Joseph Bonaparte.
*], translator and guide to ], gave birth to her son ] in 1805, while on expedition, and traveled with him to the ] and back. Although Sacagawea's exact birth date is unknown, she was around 17 years old at the time of the birth.


===20th century=== ===Sub-Saharan Africa===
The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in ], where women tend to marry at an early age.<ref name=ncbi/> In 2023, in Western and Central Africa, and Eastern and Southern Africa, over 25% of adolescent girls and young women gave birth before age 18. In these regions, this amounts to an estimated 11 million young women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early childbearing and teenage pregnancy rates by country |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=UNICEF DATA |language=en-US}}</ref>
*] was 18 when in 1961 she gave birth to the 44th President of the United States, ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Zimmerman |first=Jonathan |title=Poverty, not sex ed, key factor in teen pregnancy |work=Open Forum |pages=B–7 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=2008-09-04 |url= http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/09/03/EDFG12NIUM.DTL |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*] had a girl, Christina Claire Ciminella, on May 30, 1964, the same day her high school diploma was mailed to her. Michael Ciminella was not the biological father but married Naomi to give Christina his surname. Christina is now most notably known as ], an American singer.<ref>http://www.naomijudd.com/thejudds.php</ref>
*].<ref>http://bollywood501.com/classic_f/dimple_kapadia/</ref>
*] dropped out of ] in order to have her daughter, ] in 1987. The father was an American Marine. Anouska is now studying acting in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news |title=?; WHY ARE THEY FAMOUS? |format=fee required for full access |work=] |publisher=] |date=1996-08-18 |url= http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19960818/ai_n14062709 |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*] aka Lil’ Wayne had his baby, Reginae, with his now ex-wife Antonia "Toya" Johnson when he was 15 and she 14.<ref>{{cite news |last=Odum |first=Shanel |title=Toya Carter Speaks Out (Part 2) |publisher=] |date=2007-10-01 |url=http://www.vibe.com/news/news_headlines/2007/10/toya_carter_2/ |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref></ref>
*Child actress turned diplomat ] was 19 when she gave birth to her first child, Linda Susan, in 1948.<ref name="EdwardsP355">Edwards 355</ref><ref>Black 419–21</ref><ref name="WindelerP68">Windeler 68</ref>


In ] in 1999, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.<ref name=subsahara>{{cite journal |last1=Locoh |first1=Thérèse |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ae/article/view/22558 |title=Early Marriage and Motherhood in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=African Environment |date=1999 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=31–42 |s2cid=70677057 }}</ref> A 2018 study found that socio-cultural factors, economic factors, environmental factors, individual factors, and health service-related factors were responsible for the high rates of teenage pregnancy in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yakubu |first1=Ibrahim |last2=Salisu |first2=Waliu Jawula |title=Determinants of adolescent pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review |journal=Reproductive Health |date=December 2018 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=15 |doi=10.1186/s12978-018-0460-4 |pmid=29374479 |pmc=5787272 |s2cid=28017533 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===21st century===
*Pop singer ], winner of ] 2004, was 14 when she gave birth to a daughter named Zion Quari' in 2001; in 2005 she released a controversial song about single motherhood titled Baby Mama.<ref>http://www.popstarsplus.com/music_fantasiabarrino.htm=</ref>
*], a member of the pop band Hanson, was 19 when his 18-year-old wife Natalie gave birth to their first child, a son named Jordan Ezra, in 2002.<ref></ref>
*], of the controversial Russian pop band ], was 19 when she gave birth to her daughter Viktoria Pavlovna Volkova in September 2004; she had spoken publicly about having an abortion the year before.<ref></ref>
*Singer and actress ] was 18 when she gave birth to her first child, Daniel Julez Smith Junior, in October, 2004.<ref>{{cite web |last=Grossman |first=Wendy |coauthors=Peterson, Todd |date=2004-10-26 |title=Solange Knowles Gives Birth to a Boy |work=] |publisher=] |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,734570,00.html |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biography for Solange Knowles |publisher=] |url=http://akas.imdb.com/name/nm1090271/bio#tn15content |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*], who joined the pop group The Pussycat Dolls after winning a reality tv show, was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter in 2005.<ref>{{cite news |last=Starr Seibel |first=Deborah |title=BRONX CHEER — 'PUSSYCAT' WINNER ESCAPED SCHOOL OF HARD KNOCKS |publisher=] |date=2007-05-06 |url=http://www.nypost.com/seven/05062007/tv/bronx_cheer_tv_deborah_starr_seibel.htm |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Mel |title=Asia speaks about her win of Search for the Next Doll |publisher=] |date=2007-05-08 |url= http://www.buddytv.com/articles/pussycat-dolls-present-the-search-for-the-next-doll/pussycat-dolls-present-the-sea-6302.aspx |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Cleverocity |title=Pussycat Dolls Present: The Search for the Next Doll |work=Television |publisher=] |date=2007-05-08 |url= http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2007/05/08/707376-pussycat-dolls-present-the-search-for-the-next-doll |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*Oscar-nominated actress ] was 17 when she gave birth to her first child, a girl named Felicity-Amore, in 2007.<ref></ref>
*], who is the younger sister of pop singer ], gave birth to daughter Maddie Briann Aldridge at 17 on June 19, 2008. The father is Casey Aldridge. She announced she was pregnant at just 16.<ref></ref>
*], 18, the teenage daughter of ]'s ] former<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/07/26/palin.resignation/index.html#cnnSTCText</ref> Alaskan Governor ], gave birth on December 27, 2008 to a son named Tripp.<ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/celebrities/ci_11332675</ref>
*], French actress and daughter of ], gave birth to son Marlowe Jack Tiger Mitchell in 2002 at age 19.<ref name="Times">{{cite web|url=http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/article1599012.ece|title=Wild child|work=Times Online|year=8th April 2007|author=Summer Litchfield|accessdate=2008-01-26}}</ref>


===India===
==Agencies for lowering high pregnancy rates in the United States==
In the ], early ] sometimes results in adolescent pregnancy, particularly in ] regions where the rate is much higher than it is in ] areas. In 2008, teen pregnancy in ] was high, with 62 pregnant teens out of every 1,000 women.<ref name="Teen pregnancies higher in India than even UK, US">{{cite news|last=Dawan|first=Himanshi|title=Teen pregnancies higher in India than even UK, US|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com//articleshow/3711379.cms?intenttarget=no|access-date=2 May 2013|newspaper=The Economic times|date=28 November 2008}}</ref> India is fast approaching to be the most populous country in the world by 2050 and increasing teenage pregnancy, an important factor for the population rise, is likely to aggravate the problems.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kumar A, Singh T, Basu S, Pandey S, Bhargava V | title = Outcome of teenage pregnancy | journal = Indian Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 74 | issue = 10 | pages = 927–931 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17978452 | doi = 10.1007/s12098-007-0171-2 | s2cid = 37537112 }}</ref>


===Asia===
Recently, the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy was formed. They are dedicated to solving the issue of teen pregnancy in the ]. Another US organization dedicated to the prevention of unplanned pregnancy in teens is Stay Teen, an ad campaign and website.
The rates of early marriage and pregnancy in some Asian countries are high. In the 2000s, the rates decreased sharply in ] and ],<ref>{{cite report |last=Jones |first=Gavin |date=2010 |title=Changing Marriage Patterns in Asia |ssrn=1716533 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1716533 |s2cid=53398466 }}</ref> although it remains relatively high in Indonesia. In the industrialized Asian nations ] and ], teenage birth rates remain among the lowest in the world.<ref name=escap>{{cite web |last1=Mehta |first1=Suman |last2=Groenen |first2=Riet |last3=Roque |first3=Francisco |publisher=United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific |year=1998 |url=http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/icpd/sec7.asp |title=Adolescents in Changing Times: Issues and Perspectives for Adolescent Reproductive Health in The ESCAP Region |access-date=7 July 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211123000/http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/icpd/sec7.asp |archive-date=11 February 2012}}</ref>


===Australia===
Every year since 2002, this campaign celebrates the National Day to Prevent Teen Pregnancy on the first Wednesday of May. President ] has publicly supported this day.<ref>http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/national/pdf/2009/2009_ND_obama_message.pdf</ref>
{{main|Teenage pregnancy in Australia}}
In 2015, the ] among teenage women in ] was 11.9 births per 1,000 women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats%5Cabs@.nsf/0/8668A9A0D4B0156CCA25792F0016186A?Opendocument|title=Media Release – September most common month for babies born in Australia (Media Release)|first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of|last=Statistics|date=13 December 2017}}</ref> The rate has fallen from 55.5 births per 1,000 women in 1971, probably due to ease of access to effective ], rather than any decrease in ].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = Teenage pregnancy – Better Health Channel|url = http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/teenage_pregnancy|access-date = 31 August 2015|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184909/http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/teenage_pregnancy|archive-date = 23 September 2015}}</ref>


===Europe===
==In the arts, films and literature==
The overall trend in ] since 1970 has been a decreasing ], an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-26338540 | work=BBC News | title=Teen pregnancy rate 'lower still' | date=25 February 2014}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2024|reason=This source only lists the UK instead of all of Europe}} Most continental ] countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good ] and high levels of ] use (in the case of the ] and ]), ] and ]tization (in the case of ] and ]) or both (in the case of ]).<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>
Teenage pregnancy has been used as a theme or plot device in fiction, including ]s, ]s, and ]. The setting may be historical ('']'', ''Hope and Glory'') or contemporary ('']''). While the subject is generally treated in a serious manner ('']''), it can sometimes play up to stereotypes in a comic manner (] in '' ]'').


On the other hand, the teen birth rate is very high in ] and ]. In 2015, Bulgaria had a birth rate of 37 per 1,000 women aged 15–19. Romania had a birth rate of 34 per 1,000 women aged 15–19.<ref name="data.worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.ADO.TFRT|title=Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15–19) – Data|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> The teen birth rate of these two countries is even higher than that of underdeveloped countries like ] and ].<ref name="data.worldbank.org"/>
The pregnancy itself may be the result of ] (Rose in '']''), a ] (] in '']''), a romantic relationship (] in '']''); (] in '']''); or a first time sexual encounter (] in ]) unusually, in '']'', the central character becomes pregnant through ]. The drama often focuses around the discovery of the pregnancy and the decision to opt for ] ('']''), ] ('']'', ]), ] (''],'' '']'' and '']'') or life as a ] (''],'' '']'', '']''). In the German play '']'' (and the ]), the central female character gets pregnant and dies from a botched abortion. '']'' deals with the aftermath of a teenage pregnancy that ends with a dead newborn baby. While the pregnant girl herself is normally the chief protagonist, '']'' centers on a 15-year-old boy whose girlfriend becomes pregnant, while '']'' focuses on the reactions of the family, particularly the soon-to-be grandfather.
Many of the teen births occur in ] populations, who have an occurrence of teenage pregnancies well above the local average.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tol.org/client/article/21599-silence-makes-babies.html|title=Silence Makes Babies – Transitions Online|website=www.tol.org|date=6 July 2010}}</ref>


===United Kingdom===
Other fiction, particularly in a long-running television series, looks at the long-term effects of becoming a parent at a very young age ('']''). In '']'', because ] is only 16 years older than her daughter ], the two are more like sisters than parent and child. '']'' also features the teenage daughter of a woman who was herself a teenage mother. In '']'', Benny Lopez, Deborah Engerman gave birth to George at 16. In the ] television show '']'' centers on Amy Juergens, a 15 year old who becomes a teenage mother after a one night stand. In the popular '']'' television show '']'' the character '']'' was said to have had her sons '']'' at 13, and '']'' at 16. In the japanese drama ], the protagonist Miki Ichinose becomes pregnant with her boyfriend's child at age 14. The show examines the impact of her pregnancy on her, her family, her school life, the life of her boyfriend and his family, and the society in which she resides.
{{main|Teenage pregnancy and sexual health in the United Kingdom}}
The teen pregnancy rate in England and Wales was 23.3 per 1,000 women aged 15 to 17.{{when|date=August 2024}} There were 5,740 pregnancies in girls aged under 18 in the three months to June 2014, data from the ] shows. This compares with 6,279 in the same period in 2013 and 7,083 for the June quarter the year before that. Historically, the UK has had one of the highest teenage pregnancy and abortion rates in Western Europe.


There are no comparable rates for conceptions across Europe, but the under-18 birth rate suggests England is closing the gap. The under-18 birth rate in 2012 in ] was 9.2, compared with an ] average of 6.9. However, the UK birth rate has fallen by almost a third (32.3%) since 2004 compared with a fall of 15.6% in the EU. In 2004, the UK rate was 13.6 births per 1,000 women aged 15–17 compared with an EU average rate of 7.7.
Additionally, ] shows have featured teenage pregnancy stories. ] launched two reality shows about the topic, '']'' and '']'', in 2009. Each show depicts the gritty reality that pregnant teens face from friends and family while going through this life changing event, allowing teens to see what actually happens in this scenario through an outlet other than a scripted plot. ] that look at the author’s own experience of teenage motherhood include '']'' and ''Gather Together in My Name'' by ], ''] '' by ], and '']'' by ].


===United States===
Songs about teenage pregnancy include downbeat tales of abuse ("]"), poverty ("]") and back-alley abortion ("]"), as well as upbeat and defiant tunes such as "]". American pop singer ], who was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter, released a controversial song about single motherhood titled "]", describing the difficulty of raising a child alone with limited financial and family support. (Many U.S. radio stations would not play the song, ostensibly because it contains a ].) "There Goes My Life", a modern ] song by ], focuses on the reaction of the father, who rhetorically asks, "I'm just a kid myself; how am I going to raise one?" As the daughter grows up, his attitude changes, and the song ends with his tearful farewell as she leaves for college. Due to its implied ] message, "There Goes My Life" was sung at the inauguration of ] in 2005 {{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}.
{{main|Teenage pregnancy in the United States}}
]
In 2001, the teenage birth rate in the US was the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high.<ref name=oecd/>{{update inline|date=June 2018}} In 2005, 57% of teen pregnancies resulted in a live birth, 27% ended in an induced abortion, and 16% in a fetal loss.<ref>{{cite web|title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011) Health Disparities and Inequality Report – United States, MMWR, Jan 14, 2011 volume 60|url= http://www.naddssw.org/pages/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/MMWR-health-disparities-Report-2011.pdf#page=107}}</ref> The US teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/05/1/gr050107.html |title=The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy |date=February 2002 |volume=5 |issue=1 |author=Boonstra, Heather |access-date=15 January 2008 |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325042405/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/05/1/gr050107.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s. This decline was across all racial groups. Teenagers of ] and ] descent retain a higher rate of teen pregnancy, in comparison to that of ]s and ]s. In 2006, the ] attributed about 25% of the decline to ] and 75% to the effective use of ].<ref>." Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref>

In 2006, the US teen birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr57/nvsr57_07.pdf |journal=National Vital Statistics Reports|issue= 7|date= 7 January 2009|title=Births: Final Data for 2006|volume=57|author1=Martin, Joyce A. |author2=Hamilton, Brady E. |author3=Sutton, Paul D. |author4=Ventura, Stephanie J. |author5=Menacker, Fay |author6=Kirmeyer, Sharon |author7=Mathews, T.J. }}</ref> In 2010, it reached a historic low: 34.3 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19.<ref name="Historic"/> In 2017, the birth rate for girls ages 15–19 was 18.8 per 1,000.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2020|title=About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC|url=https://www.cdc.gov/teenpregnancy/about/index.htm|access-date=13 May 2021|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us}}</ref> Given a teenage girl population of 10 million females, aged 15–19, in 2020,<ref name=":2" /> this would translate to ~190,000 births per year.

In 2009, the Latina teenage pregnancy rate was 75% higher than the national average.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28"/>

In 2012, the states with the highest teenage birthrates were ], ] and ]. In 2012, the states with the lowest teenage birthrate were ], ] and ].<ref>. CBS News (10 April 2012). Retrieved 2013-09-26.</ref>

===Canada===
Between 1992 and 2002, the ] teenage birth rate steadily declined for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens.<ref name=teenpregna>Dryburgh, H. (2002). Teenage pregnancy. Health Reports, 12 (1), 9–18; Statistics Canada . (2005). Health Indicators, 2005, 2. Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930135322/http://www.sexualityandu.ca/resource-library/statistics/teen-pregnancy-rates |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref> It dropped from 20.1 per 1,000 women in 2000, to 8.4 in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cichprofile.ca/module/1/section/5/page/adolescent-fertility-rates-2000-to-2020/|title=Adolescent fertility rates, 2000 to 2020 – the Health of Canada's Children and Youth|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2022-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104024331/https://cichprofile.ca/module/1/section/5/page/adolescent-fertility-rates-2000-to-2020/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Canada, the stability of familial structure significantly influences the risk of teenage pregnancy. In a 2018 study, experiencing one or more episodes of poverty before the age of 13 made young Canadian girls 75% to 90% more vulnerable to teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Chelsea |last2=Strohschein |first2=Lisa |last3=Crosnoe |first3=Robert |date=October 2018 |title=Family Histories and Teen Pregnancy in the United States and Canada |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |language=en |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=1244–1258 |doi=10.1111/jomf.12512 |issn=0022-2445 |pmc=6289283 |pmid=30555182}}</ref>

==Teenage fatherhood==
In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage, the so-called ]. In countries such as ], the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.<ref name=escap/><ref name=oecd/>

In the US and ], the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the father of their children.<ref name=oecd/><ref>National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2007). </ref> In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple, and 10% are married.<ref>"" ''Office For National Statistics''</ref> Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. US surveys tend to under-report the prevalence of teen fatherhood.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Joyner, K |author2=Peters, H.E. |author3=Hynes, K |title= The Quality of Male Fertility Data in Major U.S. Surveys|journal=Demography |year=2012 |volume=49 |issue=1|doi= 10.1007/s13524-011-0073-9|pmid=22203451 |display-authors=etal |pages=101–124|pmc=3500148}}</ref>

In many cases, "teenage father" may be a misnomer. Studies in the 1990s found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the US are fathered by adult men aged over 20.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=De Vita |author2=Carol J. |url=http://prb.org/Publications/PopulationBulletins/1996/TheUnitedStatesatMidDecade.aspx |title=The United States at Mid-Decade |journal=Population Bulletin |volume=50 |issue=4 |date=March 1996 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724171519/http://prb.org/Publications/PopulationBulletins/1996/TheUnitedStatesatMidDecade.aspx |archive-date=24 July 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/mvsr/supp/mv42_03s.pdf|title=Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1991|journal=Monthly Vital Statistics Report|volume= 42|issue=3, Supplement 9|date=September 1993|author=National Center for Health Statistic}}</ref> In 1995, the Guttmacher Institute reported that over 40% of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older, and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.<ref>Family Planning Perspectives, July/August 1995.</ref> A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.<ref>California Resident Live Births, 1990, by Age of Father, by Age of Mother, California Vital Statistics Section, Department of Health Services, 1992.</ref> In the UK in 2005, in 72% of jointly registered births to women aged under 20, the father is over 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.<ref> ''Office For National Statistics'' pp. 14–15. ''Note: 24% of births to women under 20 were solo registrations where the age of the father cannot be determined.''</ref>

== Intersection of society and culture ==
Teenage pregnancy remains a significant social and cultural issue in many countries around the world. While the rate of teenage pregnancies has declined in recent decades, it continues to be a cause for concern, both from a health perspective and in terms of its impact on the lives of young people.<ref name="who.int">{{Cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>

The causes of teenage pregnancy are complex and multi-faceted, reflecting the interplay between individual behavior, societal norms and cultural attitudes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Akella |first1=Devi |last2=Jordan |first2=Melissa |date=1 April 2015 |title=Impact of Social and Cultural Factors on Teenage Pregnancy |url=https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/jhdrp/vol8/iss1/3 |journal=Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice |volume=8 |issue=1 |issn=2166-5222}}</ref> In many cultures, there is a lack of comprehensive sexual education, which contributes to a lack of understanding about contraception and sexually transmitted infections.<ref name="About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC">{{Cite web |date=15 November 2021 |title=About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/teenpregnancy/about/index.htm |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> There is also a cultural stigma attached to discussing sexual health and relationships, which makes it difficult for young people to access the information and support they need.<ref>{{Citation |last=Shepard |first=Bonnie |title=Chapter 8. Advocacy Strategies for Young People's Sexual and Reproductive Health: Using UN Processes |date=31 December 2009 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9783/9780812206104.110 |work=Reproductive Health and Human Rights |pages=110–123 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |doi=10.9783/9780812206104.110 |isbn=978-0-8122-4152-5 |access-date=4 February 2023}}</ref>

Poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and limited opportunities for education and employment can also contribute to the high rate of teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=United Nations Population Fund |language=en}}</ref> These factors can make it difficult for young people to make informed choices about their sexual health and can limit their ability to access contraception and other forms of protection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FSRH Clinical Guideline: Contraceptive Choices for Young People (March 2010, amended May 2019) - Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare |url=https://www.fsrh.org/standards-and-guidance/documents/cec-ceu-guidance-young-people-mar-2010/ |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.fsrh.org}}</ref>

The effects of some of the teenage they get pregnancy can be far-reaching and long-lasting. Pregnant teenagers are at increased risk of health problems, including complications during pregnancy and childbirth, and are more likely to experience poverty and limited opportunities later in life.<ref name="who.int"/> Their children are also more likely to experience health and developmental problems, and to grow up in poverty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Attree |first=Pamela |date=2006 |title=The social costs of child poverty: a systematic review of the qualitative evidence |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/chi.854 |journal=Children & Society |volume=20 |pages=54–66 |doi=10.1002/chi.854 |issn=0951-0605}}</ref>

Despite these challenges, there are many programs and initiatives aimed at reducing the rate of teenage pregnancy and supporting young people who become pregnant. These efforts include comprehensive sex education programs, access to contraception and family planning services, and support for young mothers.<ref name="About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC"/>

In conclusion, teenage pregnancy is a complex issue that reflects the interplay between individual behavior, societal norms and cultural attitudes. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive approach that includes education, access to healthcare, and support for young people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brindis |first1=Claire D |last2=Decker |first2=Martha J |last3=Gutmann-Gonzalez |first3=Abigail |last4=Berglas |first4=Nancy F |date=December 2022 |title=Perspectives on Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Strategies in the United States: Looking Back, Looking Forward |journal=Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics |volume= 13 |pages=107–108 |doi=10.2147/ahmt.s402218 |pmid=36597418 |pmc=9805729 |issn=1179-318X |doi-access=free }}</ref> By working together, we can help to reduce the rate of teenage pregnancy and improve the lives of young people and their families.<ref>{{Citation |last=Daguerre |first=Anne |title=Teenage pregnancy and parenthood in England |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt9qgncm.9 |work=When children become parents |pages=67–88 |publisher=Bristol University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qgncm.9 |access-date=4 February 2023}}</ref>

===Politics===
Some politicians condemn pregnancy in unmarried teenagers as a drain on taxpayers, if the mothers and children receive welfare payments and social housing from the government.<ref>Dorothy. Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty. New York: Pantheon Books, 1997. Chapter 3</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=E. A. |last2=Rashid |first2=M |year=2013 |title="Welfare queens" and "teen moms": How the social construction of fertile women impacts unintended pregnancy prevention policy in the United States |journal=] |volume=14 |issue=3–4 |pages=125–32 |doi=10.1177/1527154413510408 |pmid=24376151 |s2cid=27940515}}</ref>

===Media===
In 1989, singer ], a former teacher and graduate from Seton Hall University used his knowledge of issues concerning young students at his school which included teenage pregnancy to compose the song, ''"]"''.<ref>''The R&B Report'', 14–27 August 1989 Vol. 3 No. 11 - </ref> Radio stations became involved in trying to get the message across.<ref>''The R&B Report'', 14–27 August 1989 Vol. 3 No. 11 - </ref> It ended up being a national hit on the ''Billboard''<ref>''Music VF''.com - </ref><ref>rareandobscuremusic, 12 December 1989 - </ref> and ''Cash Box'' charts in 1989.<ref>''Cash Box'', 7 October 1989 - </ref><ref>''Cash Box'', 14 October 1989 - </ref>

==Notable people==
<!-- Only people established with notability on Misplaced Pages (with blue links included) per WP:LISTPEOPLE and WP:NLIST -->
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cardoza |first=Riley |date=2019-03-21 |title=Jamie Lynn Spears on Being the 'Youngest Mom in the Room' at 17 |url=https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-moms/news/jamie-lynn-spears-on-being-the-youngest-mom-in-the-room-at-17/ |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Us Weekly |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oprah Talks to Fantasia Barrino |url=https://www.oprah.com/omagazine/oprah-talks-to-fantasia-barrino/all |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Oprah.com}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-10-06 |title=16-year-old Keisha Castle-Hughes pregnant |url=https://www.today.com/popculture/16-year-old-keisha-castle-hughes-pregnant-1c9430989 |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=TODAY.com}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carvajal |first=Edduin |date=2020-06-28 |title=Toya Wright Was 15 When She Had Lil Wayne's Daughter — Meet the Rapper's Gorgeous Ex-wife |url=https://news.amomama.com/214793-toya-wright-was-15-when-she-gave-birth-l.html |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=AmoMama}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Terrania |first=Camille |date=2024-05-04 |title=Whoopi Goldberg Believes Daughter Got Pregnant At 15 To Take 'Revenge' On Her |url=https://www.enstarz.com/articles/233411/20240504/whoopi-goldberg-daughter-pregnant-15-revenge.htm |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Enstarz |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ritz |first1=David |title=Respect: the life of Aretha Franklin |last2=Franklin |first2=Aretha |date=2014 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=978-0-316-19683-3 |location=New York |pages=58–59}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nelson |first=Janet Laughland |title=King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-31420-7 |location=Oakland, California |page=133}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Old Was Mary When She Gave Birth to Jesus? |url=https://www.christianity.com/holidays/do-we-know-how-old-mary-was-when-she-had-jesus.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Christianity.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Born to teenage mothers===
* ], ] and founder of ], was born to a 17-year-old mother as the result of a teenage pregnancy.<ref>Robinson (2010), pp. 14–15</ref>
* ] was born to a 19-year-old mother.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=15 Celebs Who Were Born To Teen Parents |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2018-09-10-celebs-who-were-born-to-teen-parents/ |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=iHeart |language=en}}</ref>
* ], world renowned guitarist, born to a 16-year-old mother.<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref name=":3" />
* ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=McMillen |first=Matt |title=LeBron James Talks About His Mother |url=https://www.webmd.com/parenting/features/lebron-james-pays-homage-to-the-mothers-in-his-life |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=WebMD |language=en}}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frasier |first=David K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97WJCgAAQBAJ&dq=plato+strain+%2217+year+old%22&pg=PA249 |title=Suicide in the Entertainment Industry |date=March 22, 2005 |publisher=] |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |pages=249|isbn=978-0-7864-2333-0 }}</ref>
* ]<ref>{{Citation |title=HENRY VII |date=2014-12-11 |work=Little Arthur's History of England |pages=256–265 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107775510.036 |access-date=2024-11-23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781107775510.036 |isbn=978-1-108-07686-9 }}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
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==References== ==References==
{{reflist|2}} {{Reflist}}


==Further reading== ==Further reading==

{{refbegin}} {{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Armstrong | first = Bruce | editor = Alex Gitterman | title = Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations | edition = 2nd | year = 2001 | publisher = Columbia University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-231-11396-0 | chapter = Adolescent Pregnancy }}

*{{cite book | last = Baker | first = Philip | title = Teenage Pregnancy and Reproductive Health | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wN-nXmH4FooC | year = 2007 | publisher = RCOG | isbn = 978-1-904752-38-7 }}
* Adams, A., & D'Souza, R. (2009). Teenage contraception. General Practice Update, 2(6), 36-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
* {{cite book | last = Checkland | first = David and James Wong | title = Teen Pregnancy and Parenting: Social and Ethical Issues | year = 1999 | publisher = University of Toronto Press | location = Toronto, Canada; Buffalo, NY | isbn = 978-0-8020-4215-6 }}
* Banerjee, B., Pandey, G., Dutt, D., Sengupta, B., Mondal, M., & Deb, S. (2009). Teenage Pregnancy: A Socially Inflicted Health Hazard. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 34(3), 227-231. doi:10.4103/0970-0218.55289.
* {{cite book | last = Dash | first = Leon | title = When Children want Children: The Urban Crisis of Teenage Childbearing | edition = 1st Illinois paperback | year = 1989 | publisher = University of Illinois Press | location = Urbana, IL | isbn = 978-0-252-07123-2 }}
* Macleod, C. (1999). The 'causes' of teenage pregnancy: Review of South African research—Part 2. South African Journal of Psychology, 29(1), 8. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
* {{cite book | last = Erickson | first = Pamela I. | title = Latina Adolescent Childbearing in East Los Angeles | year = 1998 | publisher = University of Texas Press | location = Austin, TX | isbn = 978-0-292-72093-0 }}
*{{cite book
* {{cite book | last = Kaplan | first = Elaine Bell | title = Not Our Kind of Girl: Unraveling the Myths of Black Teenage Motherhood | year = 1997 | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley, CA | isbn = 978-0-520-08736-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/notourkindofgirl00kapl }}
|last=Armstrong |first=Bruce
* {{cite book | last = Harris | first = Irving B. | title = Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle of Poverty? | year = 1996 | publisher = Yale Child Study Center: Distributed by Yale University Press | location = New Haven, CT | isbn = 978-0-300-06892-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/childreninjeopar00harr }}
|editor=Alex Gitterman
* {{cite book | last = Luker | first = Kristin | title = Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy | year = 1996 | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, MA | isbn = 978-0-674-21702-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/dubiousconceptio00luke }}
|title=Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations
* {{cite journal |last1=Macleod |first1=Catriona Ida |title=Teenage pregnancy |journal=The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality |date=2015 |pages=1355–1404 |doi=10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs506}}
|edition=2nd
* {{cite book | last = Rhode | first = Deborah L. | editor = Nancy Ehrenreich | title = The Reproductive Rights Reader | year = 2007 | publisher = New York University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-8147-2230-5 | chapter = Politics and Pregnancy: Adolescent Mothers and Public Policy }}
|year=2001
* {{cite book | last = Seitz | first = Victoria | editor = Edward Zigler | editor2 = Sharon Lynn Kagan | editor3 = Nancy Wilson Hall | title = Children, Families, and Government: Preparing for the Twenty-First Century | year = 1996 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-521-24219-6 | chapter = Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/childrenfamilies00zigl }}
|publisher=Columbia University Press
* {{cite book | last = Silverstein | first = Helena | title = Girls on the Stand: How Courts Fail Pregnant Minors | year = 2007 | publisher = New York University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-8147-4031-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/girlsonstandhowc00silv }}
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=023111396X
|pages=
|chapter=Adolescent Pregnancy
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Checkland |first=David and James Wong
|editor=
|title=Teen Pregnancy and Parenting: Social and Ethical Issues
|edition=
|year=1999
|publisher=University of Toronto Press
|location=Toronto, Canada; Buffalo, NY
|isbn=0802042155
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Dash |first=Leon
|editor=
|title=When Children want Children: The Urban Crisis of Teenage Childbearing
|edition=1st Illinois paperback
|year=2003, 1989
|publisher=University of Illinois Press
|location=Urbana, IL
|isbn=0252071239
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Erickson |first=Pamela I.
|editor=
|title=Latina Adolescent Childbearing in East Los Angeles
|edition=
|year=1998
|publisher=University of Texas Press
|location=Austin, TX
|isbn=0292720939
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Kaplan |first=Elaine Bell
|editor=
|title=Not Our Kind of Girl: Unraveling the Myths of Black Teenage Motherhood
|edition=
|year=1997
|publisher=University of California Press
|location=Berkeley, CA
|isbn=0520087364
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Harris|first=Irving B.
|editor=
|title=Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle of Poverty?
|edition=
|year=1996
|publisher=Yale Child Study Center: Distributed by Yale University Press
|location=New Haven, CT
|isbn=0300068921
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Luker |first=Kristin
|editor=
|title=Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy
|year=1996
|publisher=Harvard University Press
|location=Cambridge, MA
|isbn=0674217020
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Rhode |first=Deborah L.
|editor=Nancy Ehrenreich
|title=The Reproductive Rights Reader
|edition=
|year=2007
|publisher=New York University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=9780814722305
|pages=
|chapter=Politics and Pregnancy: Adolescent Mothers and Public Policy
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Seitz |first=Victoria
|editor=Edward Zigler, Sharon Lynn Kagan, and Nancy Wilson Hall
|title=Children, Families, and Government: Preparing for the Twenty-First Century
|edition=
|year=1996
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=0521242193
|pages=
|chapter=Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Silverstein |first=Helena
|editor=
|title=Girls on the Stand: How Courts Fail Pregnant Minors
|edition=
|year=2007
|publisher=New York University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=9780814740316
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
{{refend}} {{refend}}


==External links== == External links ==
{{Medical resources
*{{dmoz|Health/Teen_Health/Teen_Pregnancy|Teen Pregnancy}}
| DiseasesDB =
*{{dmoz|Society/Sexuality/Children_and_Adolescents/Teen_Pregnancy_Prevention|Teen Pregnancy Prevention}}
| ICD11 = {{ICD11|QA43.5}}
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|Z33}}, {{ICD10|Z35.6}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|650}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus =
| MeSH =
| GeneReviewsNBK =
| GeneReviewsName =
}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes lcheading=Teenage pregnancy}}


*
===Organizations===
* *
* , a special issue from the Journal of Applied Research on Children (2011)
*
*
*
*

===Articles===
*{{broken link|date=October 2009}}
*
* by Philip Baker, RCOG


{{Women's health|state=collapsed}}
{{Reproductive health}} {{Reproductive health}}
{{Sexual ethics}} {{Sexual ethics}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Teenage Pregnancy}}
<!--来自 吴语维基百科//-->
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Latest revision as of 17:44, 25 December 2024

Childbirth in human females under the age of 20 Medical condition
Teenage pregnancy
Other namesTeen pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy
A US government poster on teen pregnancy. Over 1,100 teenagers, mostly aged 18 or 19, give birth every day in the United States.
SpecialtyObstetrics
SymptomsPregnancy under the age of 20
Complications
Prevention
Frequency23 million per year in the developed world, 2018.
DeathsLeading cause of death in 15 to 19 year old females, 2018.

Teenage pregnancy, also known as adolescent pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female under the age of 20.

Worldwide, pregnancy complications are the leading cause of death for women and girls 15 to 19 years old. The definition of teenage pregnancy includes those who are legally considered adults in their country. The World Health Organization defines adolescence as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years. Pregnancy can occur with sexual intercourse after the start of ovulation, which can happen before the first menstrual period (menarche). In healthy, well-nourished girls, the first period usually takes place between the ages of 12 and 13.

Pregnant teenagers face many of the same pregnancy-related issues as older women. Teenagers are more likely to experience pregnancy complications or maternal death than women aged 20 or older. There are additional concerns for those under the age of 15 as they are less likely to be physically developed to sustain a healthy pregnancy or to give birth. For girls aged 15–19, risks are associated more with socioeconomic factors than with the biological effects of age. Risks of low birth weight, premature labor, anemia, and pre-eclampsia are not connected to biological age by the time a girl is 16, as they are not observed in births to older teens after controlling for other risk factors, such as access to high-quality prenatal care.

Teenage pregnancies are related to social issues, including lower educational levels and poverty. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage and is often associated with a social stigma. Teenage pregnancy in developing countries often occurs within marriage and approximately half are planned. However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with malnutrition and poor health care to cause medical problems. When used in combination, educational interventions and access to birth control can reduce unintended teenage pregnancies.

In 2023, globally, about 41 females per 1,000 gave birth between the ages of 15 and 19, compared with roughly 65 births per 1,000 in 2000. From 2015 to 2021, an estimated 14 percent of adolescent girls and young women globally reported giving birth before age 18. The adolescent birth rate is higher in lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC), compared to higher- income countries. In the developing world, approximately 2.5 million females aged 15 to 19 years old have children each year. Another 3.9 million have abortions. It is more common in rural than urban areas.

In 2021, 13.3 million babies, or about 10 percent of the total worldwide, were born to mothers under 20 years old.

Definition

The World Health Organization defines adolescence as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years.

The mother's age is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ends, not by the estimated date of conception. Consequently, the statistics do not include pregnancies that began at age 19, but that ended on or after the woman's 20th birthday. Similarly, statistics on the mother's marital status are determined by whether she is married at the end of the pregnancy, not at the time of conception.

History

Teenage pregnancy, with conceptions normally involving girls between ages 16 and 19, was far more normal in previous centuries, and common in developed countries in the 20th century. Among Norwegian women born in the early 1950s, nearly a quarter became teenage mothers by the early 1970s. The rates have steadily declined throughout the developed world since that 20th-century peak. Among those born in Norway in the late 1970s, less than 10% became teenage mothers, and rates have fallen since then.

In the United States, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 included the objective of reducing the number of young Black and Latina single mothers on welfare, which became the foundation for teenage pregnancy prevention in the United States and the founding of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, now known as Power to Decide.

Effects

According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), "Pregnancies among girls less than 18 years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty." Health consequences include not yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death for girls under age 15 in low and middle income countries is higher than for women in their twenties. Teenage pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential as many are forced to drop out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.

Studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary. Other factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.

A holistic approach is required in order to address teenage pregnancy. This means not focusing on changing the behaviour of girls but addressing the underlying reasons of adolescent pregnancy such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and coercion. This approach should include "providing age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing child marriage, sexual violence and coercion, building gender-equitable societies by empowering girls and engaging men and boys and ensuring adolescents' access to sexual and reproductive health information as well as services that welcome them and facilitate their choices".

In the United States one third of high school students reported being sexually active. In 2011–2013, 79% of females reported using birth control. Teenage pregnancy puts young women at risk for health issues, economic, social and financial issues.

Teenager

Being a young mother in a first world country can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school. A 2001 study found that women who gave birth during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 10–12% as often and pursued post-secondary education 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30. Young motherhood in an industrialized country can affect employment and social class. A 2009 study found that teenage girls who are pregnant or are mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.

According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two years of having their first. Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another life. Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months, resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and dangerous outcomes for the babies. Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have closely spaced repeat births, include marriage and education. The likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.

Child

Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. The children of teen mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many other lifelong conditions. Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and socio-emotional delays. Developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are increased in children born to teen mothers. One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward their needs. Another found that those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely upon punishment.

Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the children being held back a grade level, scoring lower on standardized tests, and/or failing to graduate from secondary school. Daughters born to adolescent parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves. Sons born to teenage mothers are three times more likely to serve time in prison.

Medical

Prenatal care

Maternal and prenatal health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of premature birth and low birth weight is higher among adolescent mothers. In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15 and 19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and a baby with a lower birth weight than mothers between 20 and 24 years old.

Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive prenatal care, often seeking it in the third trimester, if at all. The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to have health issues in childhood or be hospitalized than those born to older women.

In the United States, teenage Latinas who become pregnant face barriers to receiving healthcare because they are the least insured group in the country.

Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those who do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers appear to result from lack of access to adequate medical care.

Many pregnant teens are at risk of nutritional deficiencies from poor eating habits common in adolescence, including attempts to lose weight through dieting, skipping meals, food faddism, snacking, and consumption of fast food.

Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is an even more marked problem among teenagers in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting HIV. The World Health Organization estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as high for girls aged 15–19 than for women aged 20–24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged 10–14 than for women aged 20–24. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa.

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls aged under 15, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to difficulties in childbirth. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by caesarean section in industrialized nations. In developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to eclampsia, obstetric fistula, infant mortality, or maternal death. For mothers who are older than fifteen, age is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.

Antenatal care

In 2022, UNICEF noted that:

84 percent of pregnant adolescents aged 15-19 attended at least one antenatal care visit as compared to 88 percent of all women and girls aged 15-49. Fewer adolescent girls received skilled delivery care as compared to all women and girls (77 to 84 percent). Additionally, fewer adolescent girls received postnatal care for themselves as compared to all women and girls (66 percent vs 69 percent).

The agency noted regional disparities, noting that in West and Central Africa, "48 percent of newborns to adolescent mothers had a postnatal contact as compared to 52 percent of newborns to all mothers".

Economics

The lifetime opportunity cost caused by teenage pregnancy in different countries varies, from 1% to 30% of the annual GDP, with 30% being the figure in Uganda. In the United States, teenage pregnancy costs taxpayers between $9.4 and $28 billion in 2016, due to factors such as foster care and lost tax revenue. A 2014 study estimated that an increase in economic productivity from ending teenage pregnancy in Brazil and India would be worth $3.5 billion and $7.7 billion respectively.

Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance. The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women. One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth. A 2002 study found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their child's life.

A 1999 study of 100 teenaged mothers in the UK found that only 11% received a salary, while the remaining 89% were unemployed. Most British teenage mothers live in poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.

Risk factors

Culture

Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher in societies where it is traditional for girls to marry young and where they are encouraged to bear children as soon as they are able. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility. Countries where teenage marriages are common experience higher levels of teenage pregnancies. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities than in cities. Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality.

Economic incentives also influence the decision to have children. In societies where children are set to work at an early age, it is economically attractive to have many children.

In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young age at first intercourse and lack of use of contraceptive methods (or their inconsistent and/or incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen pregnancy. Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned. Many Western countries have instituted sex education programs, the main objective of which is to reduce unplanned pregnancies and STIs. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.

Teenage pregnancies are common among Romani people because they marry earlier.

Other family members

Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept human sexual behavior, parenting, and marriage at younger ages. Younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to high-risk behaviors. If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased probability of getting pregnant themselves. Once an older daughter has a child, parents often become more accepting as time goes by. A 2011 study in Norway found that the probability of a younger sister having a teenage pregnancy went from 1:5 to 2:5 if the elder sister had a baby as a teenager.

Sexuality

See also: Adolescent sexuality

In most countries, most males experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th birthday. Males in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia.

In a 2005 Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn't really want to do". Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex. The increased sexual activity among adolescents is manifested in increased teenage pregnancies and an increase in sexually transmitted diseases.

Role of drug and alcohol use

Inhibition-reducing drugs and alcohol may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity. If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. Correlation does not imply causation. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking them to teenage pregnancy are alcohol, cannabis, "ecstasy" and other substituted amphetamines. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are opioids, such as heroin, morphine, and oxycodone, of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of libido – it appears that teenage opioid users have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their peers who do not use opioids, and peers who do use alcohol, "ecstasy", cannabis, and amphetamine.

Early puberty

Main article: Precocious puberty

Girls who mature early (precocious puberty) are more likely to engage in sexual intercourse at a younger age, which in turn puts them at greater risk of teenage pregnancy.

Lack of contraception

Main article: Birth control

Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information. Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government of the UK set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1,000 women.

Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.

In the US, according to the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of 15–19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 15–44). More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended. Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using contraceptives, most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use. 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.

In 1995, the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health surveyed 1,027 students in the US in grades 7–12 to compare the use of contraceptives among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. 36.2% of Hispanics said they never used contraception during intercourse, compared to 23.3% of Black teens and 17.0% of White teens who did not use contraceptives during intercourse.

In a 2012 US study, over 1,000 females were surveyed to find out factors contributing to not using contraception. Of those surveyed, almost half had been involved in unprotected sex within the previous three months. These women gave three main reasons for not using contraceptives: trouble obtaining birth control (the most frequent reason), lack of intention to have sex, and the misconception that they "could not get pregnant".

In a 2011 study for the Guttmacher Institute, researchers found that from a comparative perspective, however, teenage pregnancy rates in the US are less nuanced than one might initially assume. "Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across , the high U.S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers." Thus, the cause for the discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to contraceptive-based issues.

Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a 2007 study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.

In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly, forget to take oral contraceptives, or fail to use the contraceptives they had previously chosen. Contraceptive failure rates are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users. Long-acting contraceptives such as intrauterine devices, subcutaneous contraceptive implants, and contraceptive injections (such as Depo-Provera and combined injectable contraceptive), which prevent pregnancy for months or years at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier methods consistently.

According to Encyclopedia of Women's Health, published in 2004, there has been an increased effort to provide contraception to adolescents via family planning services and school-based health, such as HIV prevention education.

Sexual abuse

See also: Sexual abuse

Studies from South Africa have found that 11–20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape. About 60% of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary. The Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males, who on average were six years their senior. In 2003, one in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.

Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70% of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls. By contrast, 25% of women who did not give birth as teens were molested.

In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered statutory rape. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see age of consent).

Dating violence

See also: Dating abuse and Teen dating violence

Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving. They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviors on part of their boyfriends. Girls under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18. A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence. Similar results have been found in studies in the US. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of birth control sabotage within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.

In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of girls aged 11–15 and 56% of girls aged 16–19 reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.

Socioeconomic factors

A young poverty-stricken girl clutches her child. Frontispiece illustration from Street Arabs and Gutter Snipes by George Carter Needham, Boston, 1884.

Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy. Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan.

In the UK in 2001, around half of all pregnancies to those under 18 were concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived. For example, in Italy in 2001, the teenage birth rate in the well-off central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1,000. Similarly, in the US in 2001, sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California:

County Poverty rate Birth rate*
Marin County 5% 5
Tulare County (Caucasians) 18% 50
Tulare County (Hispanics) 40% 100

* per 1,000 women aged 15–19

Teen pregnancy cost the US over $9.1 billion in 2004, including $1.9 billion for health care, $2.3 billion for child welfare, $2.1 billion for incarceration, and $2.9 billion in lower tax revenue.

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant, and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.

Childhood environment

Girls exposed to abuse, domestic violence, and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. In a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences. A 2001 study suggested that boys raised by mothers who experienced physical abuse, or who experienced domestic violence directly, were more likely to be involved in a teenage pregnancy.

A 2003 study found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity. The lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the US and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.

Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor. A girl is more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens. A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of communication between parents and child and also to inadequate parental supervision.

Foster care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the US, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly three times the rate for girls in the general population.

Media influence

A 2006 study found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves. According to Time, "teens exposed to the most sexual content on TV are twice as likely as teens watching less of this material to become pregnant before they reach age 20".

Prevention

Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy. It is unclear which type of intervention is most effective.

In the US free access to a long acting form of reversible birth control along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of abortions by more than 75%. Currently there are four federal programs aimed at preventing teenage pregnancy: Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP), Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP), Title V Sexual Risk Avoidance Education, and Sexual Risk Avoidance Education.

Education

The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.

In the United States 2016, 39 states and the District of Columbia out of the 50 states required some form of sex education of HIV education. Out of these 39 states and the District of Columbia, 17 states require that the sexual education provided be medically accurate, and 3 states prohibit a program from promoting sexual education in a religious way. These three states include California, Colorado, and Louisiana. 19 of those 39 states stress the importance of only having sex when in a committed marriage.

From this data, 11 states currently have no requirement for sexual education for any years of schooling, meaning these 11 states may have no sexual education at all. This could mean these states are allowed to teach sexual education in any way they would like, including in medically inaccurate ways. This point is also valid for those 22 states that do not require sexual education to be medically accurate. Comprehensive sexual education has been proven to work to reduce the risk of teen pregnancies.

Without a nationwide mandate for medically accurate programs, teenagers in the United States are at risk for missing out on valuable information that can protect them. It is unfair to expect teenagers to make educated decisions about sex that can lead to teen pregnancy when they have never been properly educated about the issue. A program developed by experts in public health and sexual education titled National Sexuality Education Standards, is a valuable resource that describes what the minimum requirements of sexual education should be across the nation. Giving teenagers the tools that are outlined in that roadmap would have positive effects, as it gives teenagers the resources to make educated decisions. Currently, there is not a national implementation of this program in the United States.

Teen pregnancy can be reduced by sex education, as a 2022 study in 55 US counties showed. The study used federal funded sex education programs as a proxy for sex education, but provided no details about funding levels, the number of students reached, or the amount of time spent on sex education. The reduction of teenage births, not pregnancy, was significant, with a 3% reduction, indicating that an increase in funding, education, or reach could decrease teenage pregnancy even further. Although 3% sounds like a small number, given a teenage girl population of 10 million females aged 15–19 in 2020, and ~190,000 teenage births per year, a 3% reduction would translate to about 6,000 prevented teenage births per year when extrapolated to the whole nation.

Abstinence only education

A notice in Ghana, promoting abstinence for the prevention of unplanned pregnancy and HIV/AIDS, 2005

Some schools provide abstinence-only sex education. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only sex education. It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world, and does not decrease rates of unplanned pregnancy when compared to comprehensive sex education. It does not decrease the sexual activity rates of students, when compared to students who undertake comprehensive sexual education classes.

Assistance

Nurse-Family Partnership (NFP) is a non-profit organization operating in the United States and the UK designed to serve the needs of young mothers who may have special needs in their first pregnancy. Each mother served is partnered with a registered nurse early in her pregnancy and receives ongoing nurse home visits that continue through her child's second birthday. NFP intervention has been associated with improvements in maternal health, child health, and economic security.

Public policy

Canada

In 2018, Québec's Institut national de santé publique (INSPQ) began implementing adjustments to the Protocole de contraception du Québec (Québec Contraception Protocol). The new protocol allows registered nurses to prescribe hormonal birth control, an IUD or emergency birth control to women, as long as they comply with prescribed standards in the Prescription infirmière: Guide explicatif conjoint, and are properly trained in providing contraceptives. In 2020, Québec will offer online training to registered nurses, provided by the Ordre des infirmières et infirmiers du Québec (OIIQ). Nurses that do not have training in the areas of sexually transmitted and blood borne infections may have to take additional online courses provided by the INSPQ.

United States

US statistics in April 2015

In the US, one policy initiative that has been used to increase rates of contraceptive use is Title X. Title X of the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act of 1970 (Pub. L. 91–572) provides family planning services for those who do not qualify for Medicaid by distributing "funding to a network of public, private, and nonprofit entities services on a sliding scale based on income." Studies indicate that, internationally, success in reducing teen pregnancy rates is directly correlated with the kind of access that Title X provides: "What appears crucial to success is that adolescents know where they can go to obtain information and services, can get there easily and are assured of receiving confidential, nonjudgmental care, and that these services and contraceptive supplies are free or cost very little." In addressing high rates of unplanned teen pregnancies, scholars agree that the problem must be confronted from both the biological and cultural contexts.

In September 2010, the US Department of Health and Human Services approved $155 million in new funding for comprehensive sex education programs designed to prevent teenage pregnancy. The money is being awarded "to states, non-profit organizations, school districts, universities and others. These grants will support the replication of teen pregnancy prevention programs that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research as well as the testing of new, innovative approaches to combating teen pregnancy." Of the total of $150 million, $55 million is funded by Affordable Care Act through the Personal Responsibility Education Program, which requires states receiving funding to incorporate lessons about both abstinence and contraception.

Developing countries

In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools. Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation and Marie Stopes International provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against child marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran, Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala.

Other

A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.

Prevalence

Main article: Prevalence of teenage pregnancy
The adolescent birth rate in women aged 10–19 years, 2016

In reporting teenage pregnancy rates, the number of pregnancies per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19,. when the pregnancy ends, is generally used.

In 2003, worldwide teenage pregnancy rates ranged from 143 per 1,000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1,000 in South Korea. In the US in 2013, 82% of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 were unplanned. Among OECD developed countries in 2001, the US, the UK and New Zealand had the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while Japan and South Korea had the lowest.

According to the UNFPA, "In every region of the world – including high-income countries – girls who are poor, poorly educated or living in rural areas are at greater risk of becoming pregnant than those who are wealthier, well-educated or urban. This is true on a global level, as well: 95 percent of the world's births to adolescents (aged 15–19) take place in developing countries. Every year, some 3 million girls in this age bracket resort to unsafe abortions, risking their lives and health."

In a 2001 UNICEF survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the UK and the US, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the UK and the US, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have had sex. In 2004, approximately 15 million girls under the age of 20 in the world had a child each year. Estimates were that 20–60% of these pregnancies in developing countries are mistimed or unwanted.

In 2022, UNICEF reported that from 2000 to 2022, "the global adolescent birth rate for the age group 10–14 has declined by over 50 percent, from 3.3 to 1.6 per 1,000 adolescent girls aged 10–14", and "for the age group 15–19 has declined by over 30 percent, from 65 to 43 births per 1,000 adolescent girls aged 15–19". UNICEF noted that these declines were "tied to improvements in almost all regional rates".

In 2004, Save the Children found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women aged under 20 worldwide, with more than 90% in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among women aged 15–19 in such areas.

Sub-Saharan Africa

The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in sub-Saharan Africa, where women tend to marry at an early age. In 2023, in Western and Central Africa, and Eastern and Southern Africa, over 25% of adolescent girls and young women gave birth before age 18. In these regions, this amounts to an estimated 11 million young women.

In Niger in 1999, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18. A 2018 study found that socio-cultural factors, economic factors, environmental factors, individual factors, and health service-related factors were responsible for the high rates of teenage pregnancy in Sub-Saharan Africa.

India

In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage sometimes results in adolescent pregnancy, particularly in rural regions where the rate is much higher than it is in urbanized areas. In 2008, teen pregnancy in India was high, with 62 pregnant teens out of every 1,000 women. India is fast approaching to be the most populous country in the world by 2050 and increasing teenage pregnancy, an important factor for the population rise, is likely to aggravate the problems.

Asia

The rates of early marriage and pregnancy in some Asian countries are high. In the 2000s, the rates decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia, although it remains relatively high in Indonesia. In the industrialized Asian nations such as South Korea and Singapore, teenage birth rates remain among the lowest in the world.

Australia

Main article: Teenage pregnancy in Australia

In 2015, the birth rate among teenage women in Australia was 11.9 births per 1,000 women. The rate has fallen from 55.5 births per 1,000 women in 1971, probably due to ease of access to effective birth control, rather than any decrease in sexual activity.

Europe

The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers. Most continental Western European countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good sex education and high levels of contraceptive use (in the case of the Netherlands and Scandinavia), traditional values and social stigmatization (in the case of Spain and Italy) or both (in the case of Switzerland).

On the other hand, the teen birth rate is very high in Bulgaria and Romania. In 2015, Bulgaria had a birth rate of 37 per 1,000 women aged 15–19. Romania had a birth rate of 34 per 1,000 women aged 15–19. The teen birth rate of these two countries is even higher than that of underdeveloped countries like Burundi and Rwanda. Many of the teen births occur in Roma populations, who have an occurrence of teenage pregnancies well above the local average.

United Kingdom

Main article: Teenage pregnancy and sexual health in the United Kingdom

The teen pregnancy rate in England and Wales was 23.3 per 1,000 women aged 15 to 17. There were 5,740 pregnancies in girls aged under 18 in the three months to June 2014, data from the Office for National Statistics shows. This compares with 6,279 in the same period in 2013 and 7,083 for the June quarter the year before that. Historically, the UK has had one of the highest teenage pregnancy and abortion rates in Western Europe.

There are no comparable rates for conceptions across Europe, but the under-18 birth rate suggests England is closing the gap. The under-18 birth rate in 2012 in England and Wales was 9.2, compared with an EU average of 6.9. However, the UK birth rate has fallen by almost a third (32.3%) since 2004 compared with a fall of 15.6% in the EU. In 2004, the UK rate was 13.6 births per 1,000 women aged 15–17 compared with an EU average rate of 7.7.

United States

Main article: Teenage pregnancy in the United States
The US teen pregnancy rate 15 to 19 year olds, per 1,000, 1973 to 2011, including Black, Hispanic, and White populations

In 2001, the teenage birth rate in the US was the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high. In 2005, 57% of teen pregnancies resulted in a live birth, 27% ended in an induced abortion, and 16% in a fetal loss. The US teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock.

The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s. This decline was across all racial groups. Teenagers of African-American and Hispanic descent retain a higher rate of teen pregnancy, in comparison to that of European-Americans and Asian-Americans. In 2006, the Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25% of the decline to abstinence and 75% to the effective use of contraceptives.

In 2006, the US teen birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years. In 2010, it reached a historic low: 34.3 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19. In 2017, the birth rate for girls ages 15–19 was 18.8 per 1,000. Given a teenage girl population of 10 million females, aged 15–19, in 2020, this would translate to ~190,000 births per year.

In 2009, the Latina teenage pregnancy rate was 75% higher than the national average.

In 2012, the states with the highest teenage birthrates were Mississippi, New Mexico and Arkansas. In 2012, the states with the lowest teenage birthrate were New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Vermont.

Canada

Between 1992 and 2002, the Canadian teenage birth rate steadily declined for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens. It dropped from 20.1 per 1,000 women in 2000, to 8.4 in 2020. In Canada, the stability of familial structure significantly influences the risk of teenage pregnancy. In a 2018 study, experiencing one or more episodes of poverty before the age of 13 made young Canadian girls 75% to 90% more vulnerable to teenage pregnancy.

Teenage fatherhood

In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage, the so-called shotgun wedding. In countries such as India, the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.

In the US and Ireland, the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the father of their children. In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple, and 10% are married. Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. US surveys tend to under-report the prevalence of teen fatherhood.

In many cases, "teenage father" may be a misnomer. Studies in the 1990s found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the US are fathered by adult men aged over 20. In 1995, the Guttmacher Institute reported that over 40% of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older, and almost one in five had partners six or more years older. A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner. In the UK in 2005, in 72% of jointly registered births to women aged under 20, the father is over 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.

Intersection of society and culture

Teenage pregnancy remains a significant social and cultural issue in many countries around the world. While the rate of teenage pregnancies has declined in recent decades, it continues to be a cause for concern, both from a health perspective and in terms of its impact on the lives of young people.

The causes of teenage pregnancy are complex and multi-faceted, reflecting the interplay between individual behavior, societal norms and cultural attitudes. In many cultures, there is a lack of comprehensive sexual education, which contributes to a lack of understanding about contraception and sexually transmitted infections. There is also a cultural stigma attached to discussing sexual health and relationships, which makes it difficult for young people to access the information and support they need.

Poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and limited opportunities for education and employment can also contribute to the high rate of teenage pregnancy. These factors can make it difficult for young people to make informed choices about their sexual health and can limit their ability to access contraception and other forms of protection.

The effects of some of the teenage they get pregnancy can be far-reaching and long-lasting. Pregnant teenagers are at increased risk of health problems, including complications during pregnancy and childbirth, and are more likely to experience poverty and limited opportunities later in life. Their children are also more likely to experience health and developmental problems, and to grow up in poverty.

Despite these challenges, there are many programs and initiatives aimed at reducing the rate of teenage pregnancy and supporting young people who become pregnant. These efforts include comprehensive sex education programs, access to contraception and family planning services, and support for young mothers.

In conclusion, teenage pregnancy is a complex issue that reflects the interplay between individual behavior, societal norms and cultural attitudes. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive approach that includes education, access to healthcare, and support for young people. By working together, we can help to reduce the rate of teenage pregnancy and improve the lives of young people and their families.

Politics

Some politicians condemn pregnancy in unmarried teenagers as a drain on taxpayers, if the mothers and children receive welfare payments and social housing from the government.

Media

In 1989, singer Terry Tate, a former teacher and graduate from Seton Hall University used his knowledge of issues concerning young students at his school which included teenage pregnancy to compose the song, "Babies Having Babies". Radio stations became involved in trying to get the message across. It ended up being a national hit on the Billboard and Cash Box charts in 1989.

Notable people

Born to teenage mothers

See also

References

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