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Revision as of 15:26, 7 September 2011 view sourceHillcountries (talk | contribs)658 edits There is no valid justification why it should be called as Island nation.← Previous edit Revision as of 18:06, 26 December 2024 view source Chanakal (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, New page reviewers, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers16,562 edits Undid revision 1265366606 by Vidun Nethmira (talk) add back with a citation pleaseTag: UndoNext edit →
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{{short description|Island country in South Asia}}
{{pp-dispute|expiry=7th September 2011}}
{{redirect|Ceylon}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Redirect6|Ceylon|the time period of 1948-1972|Dominion of Ceylon}}
{{Use Sri Lankan English|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox country {{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Democratic Socialist Republic of<br>Sri Lanka
|native_name =
| common_name = Sri Lanka
|conventional_long_name = {{Collapsible list |title= <center>Democratic Socialist<br> Republic of Sri Lanka<center> |<br> <center>{{lang|si|ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය}} {{si icon}}</center> <center>{{lang|ta|இலங்கை சனநாயக சமத்துவ குடியரசு}} {{ta icon}}</center>}}
| native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|si|ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය|italics=off}}
<br>
| {{native name|ta|இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு|italics=off}}
|common_name = Sri Lanka
| {{Infobox
|image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg
| subbox = yes
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Sri Lanka.svg
| bodystyle = font-size:75%;font-weight:normal;
|symbol_type = Emblem
| rowclass1 = mergedrow
|national_motto =
| label1 = ]:
|national_anthem = <center>]</center><br />'']''<small><br />Mother Sri Lanka</small>
| data1 = {{transliteration|si|ISO|Śrī Laṅkā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya}}
|image_map = Sri Lanka (orthographic projection).svg
| rowclass2 = mergedrow
|capital = <!--note to editors, do not change (see talk page) -->]<ref>{{Cite web
| label2 = ]:
| url = http://srilanka.travel/index.php?route=information/information&information_id=46
| data2 = {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Ilaṅkai Caṉanāyaka Cōcalicak Kuṭiyaracu}}
| title = Sri Lanka at a Glance
| publisher = Sri Lanka Board of Tourism
| accessdate = 21 August 2011
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Parliament/ParliamentHistory.html
| title = Sri Lanka: Parliament History
| publisher = The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka
| date = 24 November 2011
| accessdate = 17 July 2011}}</ref>
|latd=6 |latm=54 |latNS=N |longd=79 |longm=54 |longEW=E
|largest_city = ]
|official_languages = ], ]
|ethnic_groups = ≈73.9% ],<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web
| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html
| title = CIA World Factbook: Sr Lanka
| publisher = ]
| date = 16 August 2011
| accessdate = 21 August 2011}}</ref><br />≈12.6% ],<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br />≈7.4% ],<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br />≈5.2% ],<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br />≈0.5% Others.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|ethnic_groups_year = 2001
|demonym = Sri Lankan
|government_type = ] ], ]
|leader_title1 = ]
|leader_name1 = ]
|leader_title2 = ]
|leader_name2 = ]
|leader_title3 = ]
|leader_name3 = ]
|leader_title4 = ]
|leader_name4 = ] ]
|sovereignty_type = ]
|sovereignty_note = from the ]
|established_event3 = ] (Self rule)
|established_date3 = February 4, 1948
|established_event4 = ]
|established_date4 = May 22, 1972
|area_rank = 122nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area_km2 = 65,610
|area_sq_mi = 25,332 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
|percent_water = 4.4
|population_estimate = 20,238,000<ref name="unpop">{{Cite journal
| url = http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf
| title = World Population Prospects, Table A.1
| version = 2008 revision
| format = PDF
| publisher = ]
| author = Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division
| year = 2009
| accessdate = 12 March 2009
| ref = harv}}</ref>
|population_estimate_rank = 56th
|population_estimate_year = 2010
|population_census = 20,653,000<ref name="popsl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/Mid%20Year%20Population/midyearsex%20&district.pdf
| title = Estimated mid year population by sex and district - 2010
| publisher = Department of Census and Statistics - Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 21 August 2011}}</ref>
|population_census_year = Mid 2010
|population_density_km2 = 308.4
|population_density_sq_mi = 798.9 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
|population_density_rank = 35th
|GDP_PPP = $106.5 billion<ref name="imfsl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=95&pr1.y=12&c=524&s=NGDP_R%2CNGDP_RPCH%2CNGDP%2CNGDPD%2CNGDP_D%2CNGDPRPC%2CNGDPPC%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPPPSH%2CPPPEX%2CNID_NGDP%2CNGSD_NGDP%2CPCPI%2CPCPIPCH%2CPCPIE%2CPCPIEPCH%2CTM_RPCH%2CTMG_RPCH%2CTX_RPCH%2CTXG_RPCH%2CTXGO%2CTMGO%2CLUR%2CLP%2CGGR%2CGGR_NGDP%2CGGX%2CGGX_NGDP%2CGGXCNL%2CGGXCNL_NGDP%2CNGDP_FY%2CBCA%2CBCA_NGDPD&grp=0&a=
| title = Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Sri Lanka
| publisher = ]
| date = April 2011
| accessdate = 21 August 2011}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank = 65th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2010
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,220<ref name="imfsl"/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $49.68 billion<ref name="imfsl"/>
|GDP_nominal_rank = 73rd
|GDP_nominal_year = 2010
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,435<ref name="imfsl"/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
|Gini = 36
|Gini_rank =
|Gini_year = 2007
|Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span>
|HDI = {{increase}}0.658<ref name="HDI">{{cite web
| url = http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf
| title = Human Development Report 2010. Human development index trends: Table 2
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 4 November 2010}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 91st
|HDI_year = 2010 <!-- Please use the year in which the HDI year data refers to and not the publication year -->
|HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span>
|currency = ]
|currency_code = LKR
|time_zone = ]
|utc_offset = +5:30
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|date_format = dd/mm/yyyy (])
|DST_note =
|utc_offset_DST =
|drives_on = left
|cctld = ], ], ]
|calling_code = ]
|footnotes =
}} }}
}}
| image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg
| image_coat = Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg
| coa_size = 70
| symbol_type = Emblem
| national_motto =
| national_anthem = "]"<br />ශ්‍රී ලංකා මාතා (Sinhala)<br>ஸ்ரீ லங்கா தாயே (Tamil)<br>({{Langx|en|"Mother Sri Lanka"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">]</div>
| image_map = Sri Lanka (orthographic projection).svg
| image_map2 =
| capital = {{ubl|] (legislative)<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Jayewardenepura-Kotte |website=] |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617044803/https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Jayewardenepura-Kotte |url-status=live }}</ref>|] (executive and judicial)<ref>{{cite web |title=Colombo |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombo |website=] |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306022806/https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombo |url-status=live }}</ref><br />{{Coord|6|56|N|79|52|E|type:city}}}}
| largest_city = ]
| official_languages = {{hlist|]|]<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Languages Policy |url=http://www.languagesdept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=38&Itemid=163&lang=en |website=languagesdept.gov.lk |publisher=Department of Official Languages |access-date=20 May 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412193905/http://languagesdept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=38&Itemid=163&lang=en |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
| languages_sub = yes
| languages2_type = Recognised language
| languages2 = ]
| ethnic_groups = {{ubli|75% ]|11% ]|{{nowrap|9% ]}}|4% ]|0.5% Others}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2012<ref name="CIATONGA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sri-lanka/ |title=South Asia: Sri Lanka |date=22 September 2021 |publisher=] |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217185333/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sri-lanka/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| religion = {{ubli|{{nowrap|70% ] (])}}|13% ]|10% ]|7% ]|0.1% Other/none}}
| religion_year = 2012
| demonym = Sri Lankan
| government_type = Unitary ]<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of Sri Lanka |url=https://www.parliament.lk/files/pdf/constitution.pdf |website=] |access-date=24 October 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826023910/http://parliament.lk/files/pdf/constitution.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| leader_title1 = ]
| leader_name1 = ]
| leader_title2 = ]
| leader_name2 = ]
| leader_title3 = ]
| leader_name3 = ]
| leader_title4 = ]
| leader_name4 = ]
| legislature = ]
| sovereignty_type = ]
| established_event1 = ] established<ref>De Silva, K. M. (1981). A History of Sri Lanka. University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-561655-2}}. A History of Sri Lanka.</ref>
| established_date1 = 543 BCE
| established_event2 = ]
| established_date2 = 377 BCE&nbsp;– 1017 CE
| established_event3 = ]
| established_date3 = 1017–1232
| established_event4 = ]
| established_date4 = 1232–1592
| established_event5 = ]
| established_date5 = 1592–1815
| established_event6 = ]
| established_date6 = 1815–1948
| established_event7 = ]
| established_date7 = 4 February 1948
| established_event8 = ]
| established_date8 = 22 May 1972
| established_event9 = ]
| established_date9 = 7 September 1978
| area_km2 = 65,610.2
| area_rank = 120th <!-- Area rank should match ] -->
| area_sq_mi = 25,332 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| percent_water = 4.4
| population_estimate = {{increaseNeutral}} 22,037,000<ref>{{cite web |title=Mid-year Population Estimates by District & Sex, 2014 - 2023 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Population/StaticalInformation/VitalStatistics/ByDistrictandSex |website=statistics.gov.lk |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=8 October 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113153902/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/VitalStatistics/MidYearPopulation/Mid-year%20population%20by%20age%20group.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_census = 20,277,600<ref name="popsl">{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/sm/CPH%202011_R1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206021926/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/sm/CPH%202011_R1.pdf |title=Census of Population and Housing 2011 Enumeration Stage February–March 2012 |work=Department of Census and Statistics – Sri Lanka |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=6 December 2013}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 60th
| population_census_year = 2012
| population_census_rank =
| population_density_km2 = 337.7
| population_density_sq_mi =
| population_density_rank = 43rd
| GDP_PPP = {{decrease}} $318.6&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEO">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=524,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=]|access-date=October 11, 2022|archive-date=12 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112151400/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=524,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|url-status=live}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 60th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}} $14,234<ref name="IMFWEO" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 101th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $84.3&nbsp;billion{{efn|See ].}}<ref name="World Bank national accounts data">{{Cite web |title=GDP (current US$) - Sri Lanka| url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=LK&skipRedirection=true&start=2000|access-date=2024-07-25 |website=www.worldbank.org}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 79th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,293<ref name="IMFWEO" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 132nd
| Gini = 39.8 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year = 2016
| Gini_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=LK |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 May 2018 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519204956/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=LK |url-status=live }}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.780 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022<!--Please use the year to which the HDI year data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=13 March 2024 |title=Human Development Report 2023/2024 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2024 |access-date=13 March 2024 |publisher=] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 78th
| currency = ] (Rs), (රු)
| currency_code = LKR
| time_zone = ]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| utc_offset_DST =
| DST_note =
| time_zone_DST =
| date_format = yyyy-mm-dd{{efn|See ].}}
| drives_on = Left
| calling_code = ]
| iso3166code = LK
| cctld = {{hlist|] | ] | ]}}
| official_website = {{URL|https://www.gov.lk|gov.lk}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic|compact=yes}}


'''Sri Lanka''',{{efn|]: {{IPAc-en|s|r|i|_|ˈ|l|æ|ŋ|k|ə|,_|ʃ|r|iː|_|-}}, ]: {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Sri Lanka.ogg|-|_|ˈ|l|ɑː|ŋ|k|ə}}; {{langx|si|ශ්&zwj;රී ලංකා|Śrī Laṅkā|translit-std=ISO}} ({{IPA-si|ʃriː laŋkaː|IPA}}); {{langx|ta|இலங்கை|Ilaṅkai|translit-std=ISO}} ({{IPA-ta|ilaŋɡaj|IPA}}).}} historically known as '''Ceylon''',{{efn|Many names have been used to refer to the island, with Ceylon being used post-independence and still in use in some cases. For other names, see ].}} and officially the '''Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka''', is an ] in ]. It lies in the ], southwest of the ], separated from the ] by the ] and the ]. It shares a ] with the ] in the southwest and ] in the northwest. ] is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka and the largest city, ] is the administrative and judicial capital which is the nation's political, financial and cultural centre. ] is the second-largest urban area and also the capital of the last native kingdom of Sri Lanka. The most spoken language ], is spoken by the majority of the population (approximately 17 million). ] is also spoken by approximately five million people, making it the second most-spoken language in Sri Lanka.
'''Sri Lanka''' (officially, The '''Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka''') ({{IPAc-en|En-us-Sri Lanka.ogg|ʃ|r|iː|_|ˈ|l|ɑː|ŋ|k|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|s|r|i:|ˈ|l|ɑː|ŋ|k|ə}}, or {{IPAc-en|s|r|i:|ˈ|l|æ|ŋ|k|ə}};<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Sri+Lanka?r=66
| title = "Sri Lanka" in several reference works
| publisher = Dictionary.com
| accessdate = 2010-06-02
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict?stress=-s&in=SRI-LANKA
| title = Carnegie Mellon University Pronouncing Dictionary
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 2010-06-02
}}</ref> {{lang-si|ශ්‍රී ලංකා}}, {{lang-ta|இலங்கை}}) is a country off the southern coast of the ]. The ]n ] was known as '''Ceylon''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|s|ɨ|ˈ|l|ɒ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|s|eɪ|ˈ|l|ɒ|n}}, or {{IPAc-en|s|iː|ˈ|l|ɒ|n}}) until 1972. Sri Lanka is surrounded by the ], the ] and the ], and lies in the vicinity of ] and the ].


Sri Lanka has a population of approximately 22 million and is home to several cultures, languages and ethnicities. The ] form the majority of the population, followed by the ], who are the largest minority group and are concentrated in northern Sri Lanka; both groups have played an influential role in the island's history. Other long-established groups include the ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedda |title=Vedda |encyclopedia=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906024458/http://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedda |url-status=live }}</ref>
As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between ] and ].<ref>British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict".&nbsp;– ''Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum'', </ref> It was an important stop on the ancient ].<ref name=silkr>{{Cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/books/about/Sri_Lanka_and_the_silk_road_of_the_sea.html?id=xmNuAAAAMAAJ
| title = Sri Lanka and the silk road of the sea
| chapter = Sri Lankan Role in the Martime Silk Route, pp. 21
| year = 1990
| accessdate = 21 August 2011
| isbn = 9789559043027
| author1 = Bandaranayake
| first1 = Senake
| last2 = Yuneskō Jātika Maṇḍalaya
| first2 = Sri Lanka
| last3 = Lanka)
| first3 = Madhyama Saṃskr̥Tika Aramudala (Sri
}}</ref> Sri Lanka has also been a center of the ] religion and culture from ancient times and is one of the few remaining abodes of ] in ] along with ], ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/subdivisions/theravada_1.shtml
| title = Religions – Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism
| publisher = ]
| date = 2002-10-02
| accessdate = 2010-06-02
}}</ref> The ] community forms the majority of the population; ], who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ]. Other communities include ], ], ], ] and the aboriginal ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624466/Vedda
| title = Encyclopædia Britannica: Vedda
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 21 August 2011
}}</ref>


Sri Lanka's documented history goes back 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric human settlements dating back 125,000 years.<ref name="histr">{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PD8DseEWyuoC |title=Urbanization and sustainability in Asia: case studies of good practice |author=Roberts, Brian |chapter=Sri Lanka: Introduction |year=2006 |publisher=Asian Development Bank |isbn=978-971-561-607-2}}</ref> The earliest known ], known collectively as the ], date to the ], which took place in 29 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62KQpPX1oVkC&pg=PA69 |title=Essential Buddhism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs and Practices |author=Jack Maguire |date=2001 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-04188-5 |page=69 |quote=...&nbsp;the Pali canon of Theravada is the earliest known collection of Buddhist writings&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd16.htm |title=Religions – Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism |date=2 October 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 February 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306115250/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd16.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Also called the ''Pearl of the Indian Ocean'', or the ''Granary of the East'', Sri Lanka's geographic location and deep harbours have made it of great strategic importance, from the earliest days of the ancient ] trade route to today's so-called ].<ref name="silkr">{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmNuAAAAMAAJ |title=Sri Lanka and the silk road of the sea |chapter=Sri Lankan Role in the Maritime Silk Route |page=21 |year=1990 |isbn=978-955-9043-02-7 |author=Bandaranayake, Senake|publisher=Sri Lanka National Commission for Unesco and the Central Cultural Fund }}</ref><ref>British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict".&nbsp;– ''Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022152654/http://www.airmuseum.ca/mag/0410.html |date=22 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |title=A Brief History of Sri Lanka |website=localhistories.org |access-date=14 August 2017 |archive-date=23 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723124255/http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Because its location made it a major trading hub, it was already known to both East Asians and Europeans as long ago as the ]. During a period of ] in the ], the ] arrived in Sri Lanka and sought to control its maritime trade, with a part of Sri Lanka subsequently becoming a ]. After the ], the ] and the ] took control of those areas. ] was taken by the ], which extended control over the whole island, colonising it as ] from 1815 to 1948. A national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and 1948, Ceylon became a ]. It was succeeded by the ] of Sri Lanka in 1972. Sri Lanka's more recent history was marred by the 26-year ], which began in 1983 and ended in 2009, when the ] defeated the ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016032645/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/18/us-srilanka-war-sb-idUSTRE54D1GR20090518 |date=16 October 2015 }} ] (18 May 2009). Retrieved 18 November 2012.</ref>
Sri Lanka is a ] and a ] which is governed by a ] with its official ] in ], the ]. The country is famous for the production and export of ], ], ]s, ] and ], the last of which is native to the country.<ref name=EB>{{Cite book
| title = Encyclopædia Britannica: Cinnamon
| publisher = ]
| year = 2008
| chapter = Cinnamon
| quote = (species Cinnamomum zeylanicum), bushy evergreen tree of the laurel family (Lauraceae) native to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), the neighboring Malabar Coast of India, and Myanmar (Burma), and also cultivated in South America and the West Indies for the spice consisting of its dried inner bark. The bark is widely used as a ] due to its distinct odor.
}}</ref> The natural beauty of Sri Lanka has led to the title ''The Pearl of the Indian Ocean''.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.cipe.org/featureservice/?p=23
| title = Sri Lanka's Way Forward: The Imperative to Foster Civic Engagement, Dialogue, and Reconciliation among Youth
| publisher = Center for International Private Enterprise
| accessdate = 21 August 2011
}}</ref> The island is laden with lush ]s, white beaches and diverse landscapes with rich ]. The country lays claim to a long and colorful history of over three thousand years, having one of the longest documented histories in the world.<ref name=histr>{{Cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=PD8DseEWyuoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
| title = Urbanization and sustainability in Asia: case studies of good practice
| last = Roberts
| first = Brian
| chapter = Sri Lanka: Introduction
| year = 2006
| accessdate = 21 August 2011
| isbn = 9789715616072
}}</ref> Sri Lanka's rich culture can be attributed to the many different communities on the island.<ref name=geod>{{Cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=xhduAAAAMAAJ
| title = Sri Lanka, past and present: Archaeology, Geography, Economics: selected papers on German research
| last = Domrös
| first = Manfred
| year = 1998
| accessdate = 21 August 2011
| isbn = 9783823612896
}}</ref>


Sri Lanka is a ], ranking 78th on the ]. It is the highest-ranked South Asian nation in terms of development and has the second-highest ] in South Asia. The country has had a long history of engagement with modern international groups; it is a founding member of the ], the ] and the ], as well as a member of the ] and the ].
Sri Lanka is a founding member state of ] and a member ], ], ] and ]. As of 2010, Sri Lanka was one of the ] of the world. Its ] was Asia's best performing stock market during 2009 and 2010.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/18/markets-srilanka-idUSL3E7JI2T620110818
| title = Sri Lanka shares up on retail buying; rupee down
| publisher = ]
| date = 18 August 2011
| accessdate = 18 August 2011
}}</ref>


==Etymology== == Toponymy ==
{{Main|Names of Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Names of Sri Lanka}}


In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the '']'', the legendary ] named the island ] ("] hands" or "copper-red earth"), because his followers' hands were reddened by the ] of the area where he landed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nanda Pethiyagoda Wanasundera |title=Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ts1khhfXm8C&pg=PA26 |year=2002 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1477-3 |page=26}}</ref><ref name="JMS_1997">{{cite book |author=John M. Senaveratna |title=The story of the Sinhalese from the most ancient times up to the end of "the Mahavansa" or Great dynasty |publisher=Asian Educational Services |date=1997 |page=11 |isbn=978-81-206-1271-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X9TeEcMi0e0C&pg=PA11+}}</ref> In ], the term ] ("Island") appears but it is unknown whether it refers to the modern-day state. The Tamil term ] ({{Langx|ta|ஈழம்|translit=īḻam}}) was used to designate the whole island in ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zS4OAQAAMAAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the world's minorities |last=Skutsch |first=Carl |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-57958-470-2 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331023929/https://books.google.com/books?id=zS4OAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_anEcoRJIQC&pg=PT105 |title=Autonomy and Ethnic Conflict in South and South-East Asia |last=Ganguly |first=Rajat |date=20 May 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-31188-8 |language=en}}</ref> The island was known ] as ''Mummudi Cholamandalam'' ("realm of the ] Cholas").<ref>{{Cite book |title=Art of the Imperial Cholas |last=Dehejia |first=Vidya |date=18 October 1990 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-231-51524-5 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref>
In ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: Known in India as Lanka or Singhala, ancient Greek geographers called it ''Taprobane''<ref name='rw-tap'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.rootsweb.com/~lkawgw/slm-taprobane.htm
| title = In Search of Taprobane: the Western discovery and mapping of Ceylon
| accessdate = 2007-06-04
| last = Abeydeera
| first = Ananda
}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|icon|t|ə|ˈ|p|r|ɒ|b|ə|n|iː}}) and ] referred to it as ''{{transl|ar|Serendib}}'' (the origin of the word "]").<ref name='mpl-slt'>{{Cite journal
| title = Sri Lanka&nbsp;— The Pearl of the Orient
| journal = Metropolis
| url = http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyotravel/tokyoworldtravelarchive299/295/tokyoworldtravelinc.htm
| accessdate = 2007-06-04
| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021027171913/http://www.metropolis.co.jp/tokyotravel/tokyoworldtravelarchive299/295/tokyoworldtravelinc.htm
| archivedate= October 27, 2002
| ref = harv
}}</ref> ''{{lang|pt|Ceilão}}'' was the name given to Sri Lanka by the ] when they arrived in 1505,<ref name='at-sls'>{{Cite journal
| title = Sri Lanka: The untold story
| journal = Asia Times
| first = K. T.
| last = Rajasingham
| url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/CH11Df02.html
| accessdate= 2007-06-04
| ref = harv
}}</ref> which was transliterated into English as ''Ceylon''.<ref name='slp-name'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html
| title = Etymologies of Lanka, Serendib, Taprobane and Ceylon
| accessdate = 2007-06-04
| last = Zubair
| first = Lareef
| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070422115208/http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html
| archivedate = April 22, 2007
}}</ref> As a ] ], the island was known as ], and achieved independence under the name ] in 1948.


] geographers called it '']'' ({{langx|grc|Ταπροβανᾶ}}) or ''Taprobanē'' ({{lang|grc|Ταπροβανῆ}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/slm-taprobane.htm |title=In Search of Taprobane: the Western discovery and mapping of Ceylon |author=Abeydeera, Ananda |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151116/http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/slm-taprobane.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> from the word ''Tambapanni''. The Persians and Arabs referred to it as ''Sarandīb'' (the origin of the word "]") from ] ''Siṃhaladvīpaḥ''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.0.hobson.994549 |title=Hobson-Jobson |publisher=Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu |date=1 September 2001 |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227225430/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.0.hobson.994549 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/serendipity |title=Serendipity – definition of serendipity by The Free Dictionary |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date=10 November 2017 |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-date=13 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013192621/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/serendipity |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Ceilão'', the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rajasingham |first1=K. T. |title=Sri Lanka: The untold story |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/CH11Df02.html |website=] |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010814202127/http://atimes.com/ind-pak/CH11Df02.html |archive-date=14 August 2001 |date=11 August 2001 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> was transliterated into English as ''Ceylon''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html |title=Etymologies of Lanka, Serendib, Taprobane and Ceylon |author=Zubair, Lareef |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422115208/http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html |archive-date=22 April 2007}}</ref> As a British ], the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the ] in 1948.
In ] the country is known as ශ්‍රී ලංකා ''{{lang|si-Latn|śrī laṃkā}}'', {{IPA-si|ʃɾiːˈlaŋkaː}}, and the island itself as ලංකාව ''laṃkāva'', {{IPA-si|laŋˈkaːʋə|IPA}}. In ] they are both இலங்கை ''ilaṅkai'', {{IPA-ta|iˈlaŋɡai|IPA}}. The name derives from the ] श्री लंका '']'' (venerable) and '']'' (island),<ref name='nyt-2/14/82-ri'>{{Cite news
| first = Colin
| last = de Silva
| coauthors=
| title = Sri Lanka, The 'Resplendent Isle'
| date = 14 February 1982
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=travel&res=9A01EED61E38F937A25751C0A964948260
| work = ]
| accessdate = 2007-06-04
}}</ref> the name of the island in the ancient Indian epics ] and the ]. In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". In 1978 it was changed to the "] Republic of Sri Lanka".<ref name='78cons-state'>{{Cite journal
| title = Chapter I&nbsp;— The People, The State And Sovereignty
| journal = THe Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html
| accessdate = 2007-06-04
| ref = harv
}}</ref> The name Ceylon is still in use in the names of a number of organisations; in 2011, the Sri Lankan government announced a plan to rename all of those for which it is responsible.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Haviland
| first = Charles
| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12099596
| title = Sri Lanka erases colonial name, Ceylon
| publisher = ]
| date = 2011-01-01
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


The country is now known in Sinhala as ''{{transliteration|si|ISO|Śrī Laṅkā}}'' ({{langx|si|ශ්&zwj;රී ලංකා}}) and in Tamil as ''{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Ilaṅkai}}'' ({{langx|ta|இலங்கை}}, {{IPA-ta|iˈlaŋɡaɪ|IPA}}). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/srilanka/constitutions/1978%20Constitution.pdf |title=The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |publisher=University of Minnesota Human Rights Library |date=7 September 1978 |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202031113/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/srilanka/constitutions/1978%20Constitution.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Chapter I&nbsp;– The People, The State And Sovereignty |journal=The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531083515/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |archive-date=31 May 2014 }}</ref> As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.<ref>{{cite news |author=Haviland, Charles |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12099596 |title=Sri Lanka erases colonial name, Ceylon |publisher=] |date=1 January 2011 |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201204129/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12099596 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Sri Lanka|Ancient history of Sri Lanka}}
===Pre-historic Sri Lanka===
The ] dates back to about 125,000 years ] (BP) and possibly even as early as 500,000 ].<ref name="pps">{{cite web
| last = Deraniyagala
| first = Siran U.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Pre and Protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka
| work = XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings- Forli, 8 – 14 September 1996
| publisher = International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences
| url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html
| accessdate = 09-08-2008
}}</ref> It covers the ], ] and early ]s. ] believe that some burial rites and certain decorative artefacts discovered by the ] in Sri Lanka exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of ]. Among the most important ] ('']'') human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka are, ] (named after the ] ] ], who visited the cave in the 5th century), which dates back to 37,000 ],<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.angelfire.com/in4/visitsl/prehistoric/pahiyagala/pahiyangala.htm
| title = Pahiyangala (Fa-Hiengala) Caves
| publisher = angelfire.com
| year =
}}</ref> ], which dates back to 28,500 ]<ref name="btd">Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, T. Disotell, W. J. Roertgen, J. Chiment and J. Sherry, ''Biological anthropology of upper Pleistocene hominids from Sri Lanka: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena caves'', Ancient Ceylon 6: 165-265.</ref> and ], 12,000 ]. One of the most important archaeological findings from these caves is the ], who first appeared in Sri Lanka about 34,000 ].<ref>{{Cite book
| last = De Silva
| first = K. M.
| authorlink =
| year = 2005
| title = A History of Sri Lanka
| publisher = ]
| location = ]
| isbn = 978-0905-838-50-2
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}</ref>


== History ==
]s on the ] rock fortress in ], fifth century]]
{{Main|History of Sri Lanka}}
] preparing for war against ].]]
One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian ] ], which describes the kingdom of '']'' had been created by the divine sculptor named ], for ], the lord of wealth and the god-king of the semi-divine ].<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Keshavadas
| first = Sant
| title = Ramayana at a Glance
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| year = 1988
| isbn = 8120805453
}}</ref> Later, Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother ], the powerful Emperor who built a mythical ] named ]. The modern city of ] is described as Ravana's airport.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2009/11/15/spe06.asp
| title = Ravana - historical or mythical figure?
| work = Padma Edirisinghe
| publisher = The Sunday Observer
| year = 2009
}}</ref>


=== Prehistory ===
Historical records show that the earliest settlements were formed by the combination of four ''Hela'' tribes named Naga, Yaksha, Deva and Gandhabba. They all were related to the Maha Rishi Pulasthi’s family, described in Ramayana.<ref>{{Cite web
{{Main|Prehistory of Sri Lanka}}
| url = http://www.ramayanaresearch.com/articles/maya_dannawa.html
The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.<ref name="pps">{{cite web |author=Deraniyagala, Siran U. |title=Pre and Protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka |series=XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings – Forli, 8–14 September 1996 |work=International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820080625/http://lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The era spans the ], ], and early ]s. Among the ] human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, ] (37,000 BP), named after the ] traveller ] ];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.angelfire.com/in4/visitsl/prehistoric/pahiyagala/pahiyangala.htm |title=Pahiyangala (Fa-Hiengala) Caves |work=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=2 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902171134/http://www.angelfire.com/in4/visitsl/prehistoric/pahiyagala/pahiyangala.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ] (28,500 BP);<ref name="btd">{{Cite book |author=Kennedy, Kenneth A.R., Disotell, T.W., Roertgen, J., Chiment, J., Sherry, J. |title=Ancient Ceylon 6: Biological anthropology of upper Pleistocene hominids from Sri Lanka: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena caves |pages=165–265}}</ref> and ] (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of ] modern ] which they have named ], and other evidence<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|pp=6–7}}</ref> suggesting that they may have engaged in ] and kept domestic dogs for driving game.<ref>{{cite book |author=Deraniyagal, Siran |title=The Prehistory of Sri Lanka |publisher=] |year=1992 |place=] | page=454 |isbn=978-955-9159-00-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZihuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
| title = Was Maya Dannawa The Architect of Sigiriya?
| publisher = ramayanaresearch.com
| year =
}}</ref> These earliest-known inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the ] people,<ref></ref> an indigenous community living in present-day Sri Lanka, that numbers approximately 3,000. Irish historian ] theorised ], a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of ] from which ] is said to have drawn ], ] and other valuables. Early inhabitats of Sri Lanka spoke the ], which was the early form of modern ].<ref>{{Cite book
| title = A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases
| author = Sir Henry Yule, A. C. Burnell, William Crooke
| page = 344
| year = 2006
| publisher = Asian Educational Services
| isbn = 0700703217
| ref = harv
}}</ref>


The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |title=Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence |author=Deraniyagala, S.U. |work=lankalibrary.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105134736/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.
===Ancient Sri Lanka===
] begins in 543 BC, according to the ], a chronicle written in the ] language, which provides vivid descriptions of the Sri Lankan history.<ref name="mahavamsa.org"></ref> It begins with the ], a semi-legendary king who arrived in Sri Lanka with 700 followers. After consolidating the power, he established the ]. Starting from Vijaya, chronicles like ], ], ] and Rajaveliya describes the reigns of approximately 189 native ]s of Sri Lanka. (''see ]'') Sri Lankan dynasty spanned over a period of 2359 years, from 543 BC to 1815 ], until it came under ].<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/gen3000.html
| title = VIJAYA and the Lankan Monarchs - Family #3000
| publisher = Rootsweb
| year =
}}</ref>


During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30208096.ece |title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way – Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne |work=] (2006) |date=26 January 2006 |access-date=18 September 2020 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126024531/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30208096.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> and shared the same megalithic burials, ], iron technology, farming techniques and ].<ref name="Seneviratne">{{cite book |last=Seneviratne |first=Sudharshan |title=Social base of early Buddhism in south east India and Sri Lanka |date=1984}}</ref><ref name="Karunaratne">{{cite book |last=Karunaratne |first=Priyantha |title=Secondary state formation during the early iron age on the island of Sri Lanka : the evolution of a periphery |date=2010}}</ref> This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the ], prior to the migration of ] speakers.<ref>Robin Conningham – Anuradhapura – The British-Sri Lankan Excavations at Anuradhapura Salgaha Watta
] Rock fortress]]
Volumes 1 and 2 (1999/2006)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seneviratne |first=Sudarshan |year=1989 |title=Pre-state chieftains and servants of the state: a case study of Parumaka |url=http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/archive/handle/123456789/2078 |language=en |journal=The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815201049/http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/archive/handle/123456789/2078 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Seneviratne" />
The Kingdom of Sri Lanka moved to ] in 380 BC, during the reign of King ]. From that day, Anuradhapura served as the ] of the country for nearly 1400 years.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html
| title = World Heritage site: Anuradhapura
| publisher = worldheritagesite.org
| year =
}}</ref> The same king built the first ], the ''Abhaya tank''. They excelled in various ] since then.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://mysrilankaholidays.com/ancient-sinhalese-irrigation.html
| title = Waterworld: Ancient Sinhalese Irrigation
| publisher = mysrilankaholidays.com
| year =
}}</ref> Sri Lankan society was revolutionized during the reign of King ] as ] arrived from ]. Around 3rd century BCE, ] ], who is believed to have been the son of the great ] ] ], arrived in ], Sri Lanka, with Buddhism.<ref name="Macmillan1">{{Cite book
| last = Holt
| first = John Clifford
| contribution = Sri Lanka
| year = 2004
| title = Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism
| editor-last = Buswell, Jr.
| editor-first = Robert E.
| pages = 795–99
| place= USA
| publisher = Macmillan Reference USA
| isbn = 0028659104
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Mahinda's mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the ]. The Buddhist kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of ] and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in ].<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm
| title = Buddhism in Sri Lanka
| publisher = buddhanet.net
| year =
}}</ref> In 288 BC, ] ] brought the ] tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical ] under which ] became enlightened. It is existing upto now, and considered as the oldest tree in the world, with a historical record.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://srimahabodhi.org/index.htm
| title = Jaya Siri Maha Bodhi
| publisher = srimahabodhi.org
| year =
}}</ref>


One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian ] ], which provides details of a kingdom named '']'' that was created by the divine sculptor ] for ], the God of Wealth.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Keshavadas, Sant |title=Ramayana at a Glance |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0545-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XIatVGyjmQC}}</ref> It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his ] stepbrother, ].<ref name="parkrsl">{{Cite book |author=Parker, H. |title=Ancient Ceylon |publisher=] |year=1992 |page=7 |isbn=978-81-206-0208-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nk8xpkY0bqEC}}</ref>
] created by King ].]]
Sri Lanka underwent the first foreign invasion during the reign of King ], who was defeated by ] from ]. First major invasion came in 205 BC by a ] King named ]. ] (161-137 BC) – eldest son of King ], the regional sub-king of ] defeated Elara in the ] and came into power. King Dutugemunu created the second ] in Sri Lanka, ].<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.beyondthenet.net/Saddha/ruvan.pdf
| title = Ruvanveli Seya - The Wonderous Stupa Built by Gods and Men
| publisher = beyondthenet.net
| year =
}}</ref> (first one was ]).


=== Ancient history ===
During its existence, Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least 17 times by neighbouring South Asian dynastys such as ], ], ] and ]. There had been incursions by the kingdoms of ] (modern ]) and from ] as well. Major invasion by 5 Dravidian kings named ], ], ], ] and ] was overcome by ] in 88 BC and from another 6 Dravidian kings in the 5th century AD, by ]. King Dhatusena built the massive reservoir ] and ].<ref name="sarachchandra">{{cite book
{{Main|Pre-Anuradhapura period|Anuradhapura period}}
| last = Sarachchandra
] of Ceylon, first century CE, in a 1535 publication]]
| first = B. S.
| title = අපේ සංස්කෘතික උරුමය
| trans_title = Our Cultural Heritage
| publisher = Silva, V. P.
| pages = 121–122
| year = 1977
| language = Sinhala
}}</ref>


According to the '']'', a ] chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the ]s and ]. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of ], a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from ] (present-day ]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/06-coming-vijaya/ |title=The Coming of Vijaya |work=The Mahavamsa |date=8 October 2011 |access-date=16 October 2015 |archive-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030084837/http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/06-coming-vijaya/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He established the ], near modern-day ]. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately ] described in chronicles such as the '']'', ''Mahāvaṃsa'', '']'', and ''Rājāvaliya''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/gen3000.html |title=Vijaya (Singha) and the Lankan Monarchs – Family #3000 |work=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805174143/http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/gen3000.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
]'s ] of Ceylon, published in the Ptolemy edition by ], showing Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean, first century AD.]]
Sri Lanka was the first Asian country to have a female ruler. ] reigned from 47–42 BC. From the ancient period, Sri Lankan monarchs have attained some remarkable construction achievements like ], the so-called "Fortress in the Sky". It was created by King ]. Sigiriya is a rock fortress surrounded by an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. The fifth century construction is also renowned for marvellous paintings (]s) that it contains.<ref>Bandaranayake, Senake. ''Sinhalese Monastic Architecture''. 1974, page 321</ref> It's also declared by the ] as the 8th ].<ref name="SIGIRIYA-1">{{cite web
| title = UNESCO page - Ancient City of Sigiriya
| publisher = UNESCO.org
| url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/202
| accessdate = 2008-01-18
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.asiaexplorers.com/srilanka/sigiriya.htm
| title = Exploring Sigiriya Rock
| work = AsiaExplorers.com
| accessdate = 2008-05-05}}</ref> Among other constructions are large ], important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate ]s, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a ], is a technologically superior creation based on precise ], allowing water to flow outside the dam keeping the pressure to a minimum.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.slageconr.net/slsnet/9thicsls/individual/abs164.pdf
| title = The water regulation technology of ancient Sri Lankan reservoirs: The Bisokotuwa sluice
| work = slageconr.net
| accessdate = 20 August 2011}}</ref> Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in ] in the 4th century BCE. It was also the world's leading exporter of ], which was exported to ] as early as 1400 ]. Sri Lanka also maintained close ties with European civilizations including ]. For example, King Bhatika Abhaya (BC 22 - 7 AD) had sent an embassy to Rome and got down ] for a net to be cast over the ].<ref name="fli">{{cite web
| url = http://www.flickr.com/photos/menik/2208629145/
| title = International relations in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka
| work = ]
| accessdate = 20 August 2011}}</ref> There were close trade relations between Sri Lanka and ] too. There are records of Sri Lankan ships in China in the 8th century.


Once ] speakers had attained dominance on the island, the '']'' further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil ] to the ] in the early historic period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/07-consecrating-vijaya/ |title=The Consecrating of Vijaya |work=Mahavamsa |date=8 October 2011 |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620071000/https://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/07-consecrating-vijaya/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Medieval Sri Lanka===
], circa 1200 AD.]]
] begins with the fall of the ]. In 993 AD, the invasion of ] ] forced the then Sri Lankan ruler ] to flee to the southern part of the country.<ref name="Siriweera 2004, p. 44">Siriweera (2004), p. 44</ref> Taking advantage of this situation, ] son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017 AD. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas ].<ref name="Siriweera 2004, p. 44"/> They moved the capital to ]<ref>Siriweera (2004), p. 45</ref> This also marked the end of the two great houses of dynasties of ancient Sri Lanka, Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen year long campaign, ] successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.<ref name='cod-shoc'>{{cite book
| last = Codrington
| first =H.W
| title = A Short History of Ceylon
| publisher=Macmillan & Co.
| year = 1926
| location = London
| url = http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html
| isbn = 9780836955965
| oclc = 2154168
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html
| title = A Brief History of Sri Lanka
| accessdate= 2008-09-12
| work = Tim Lambert
| publisher = localhistories.org
| date =
}}</ref> Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from ] to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Relations between Ceylon and Burma in the 11th Century A.D
| last = Bokay
| first = Mon
| authorlink=
| coauthors =
| year = 1966
| publisher = Artibus Asiae Publishers
| location =
| isbn =
| pages = 93
| url = http://www.jstor.org/pss/1522637
}}</ref> During its medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided to three sub-territories, namely ], Pihiti and ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievallanka/1153_1186_parakramabahu~i_Em.html
| title = Ancient Irrigation Works
| work = lakdiva.org
| accessdate = 20 August 2011}}</ref>


], a {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=mid|-tall}} standing Buddha statue from the reign of ], 5th century]]
Sri Lanka's ] was extensively expanded during the reign of king ] (1153–1186 AD).<ref name="parkr">{{cite book
| title = Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution
| author = R. B. Herath
| year = 2002
| publisher = Trafford Publishing
| location =
| isbn = 978-1553-697-93-0
| quote = Parakramabahu 1 further extended the system to the highest resplendent era of hydraulic civilization of the country's history.
| pages = 19
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Aqcqn6M18TwC&pg=PA19&dq=parakramabahu+era&hl=en&ei=vKxTTpXXCsXIrQetttGqDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=parakramabahu%20era&f=false
}}</ref> This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Volume 7
| year = 1875
| publisher = ] for the Royal Asiatic Society
| location = ]
| isbn =
| quote = ...and when at the height of its prosperity, during the long and glorious reign of Parakramabahu the Great...
| pages = 152
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=rPo78i8KrlEC&q
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = The Annals and magazine of natural history: zoology, botany, and geology, Volume 1
| year = 1894
| publisher = ]
| location = ]
| isbn =
| quote = His reign is described by Tumour as having been the most martial, enterprising, and glorious in Singhalese history.
| pages = 324
| url = http://books.google.com/books?ei=GLBTTvemFYbjrAfFvNipDg&ct=result&id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&dq
}}</ref> He built 1470 reservoirs - highest number by a single ruler in the Lankan history, repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs.<ref name="parkr"/> His famous construction is the ],<ref>]) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en
| title = ParakramaBahu I : 1153 - 1186
| work = lakdiva.org
| accessdate = 20 August 2011}}</ref>


The ] (377 BCE{{snd}}1017 CE) began with the establishment of the ] in 380 BCE during the reign of ]. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040107085324/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 January 2004 |title=World Heritage site: Anuradhapura |work=worldheritagesite.org |access-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of ] such as ], ] and palaces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mysrilankaholidays.com/ancient-sinhalese-irrigation.html |title=Waterworld: Ancient Sinhalese Irrigation |work=mysrilankaholidays.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626105945/http://www.mysrilankaholidays.com/ancient-sinhalese-irrigation.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of ], with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html#preface |title=Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History |author=Perera H. R. |work=accesstoinsight.org |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=22 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422013525/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html#preface |url-status=live }}</ref> ], a ] and the son of the ] Emperor ] arrived in ] carrying the message of Buddhism.<ref name="Macmillan1">{{cite book |author=Holt, John Clifford |contribution=Sri Lanka |year=2004 |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism |editor=Buswell, Robert E. Jr. |pages=795–799 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-8160-5459-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dxCHAAACAAJ}}</ref> His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the ].<ref name="mahav1">{{cite web |url=http://mahavamsa.org/2008/05/king-devanampiya-tissa-306-bc/ |title=King Devanampiya Tissa (306 BC – 266 BC) |work=] |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=14 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814102643/http://mahavamsa.org/2008/05/king-devanampiya-tissa-306-bc/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In the early 13th century, Sri Lanka came under the invasion of ], a ] king. But the real threat came from ], a South Indian with uncertain origins, who invaded and captured the ] with an army of 24,000 from ], in 1215 AD.<ref></ref> Unlike the previous invaders, he ], ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Security dilemma of a small state, Part 1
| author = P. V. J. Jayasekera
| year = 1992
| publisher = Institute for International Studies ], Sri Lanka
| location = ]
| isbn = 978-8170-031-48-2
| quote = ..His invasion in 1215 was more or less a looting expedition..
| pages = 25
| url = http://books.google.com/books?ei=GLBTTvemFYbjrAfFvNipDg&ct=result&id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&dq
}}</ref> His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of ] as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native ] to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to ]. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the ].<ref name="Nadarajan p.72">Nadarajan , V ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p.72</ref><ref name="Indrapala, K p.16">Indrapala, K ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p.16</ref> Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of the kingdom of south except one occasion, in 1450, due to a conquest led by king ]'s adopted son, ].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Gnanaprakasar
| first = Swamy
| title = A Critical History of Jaffna
| publisher = Asian Educational Services
| year = 2003
| location = ]
| pages = 122
| isbn = 81-206-1686-3
}}</ref> He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 AD.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Holt
| first = John Clifford
| title = Buddha in the Crown: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1991
| location =
| pages = 304
| isbn = 01-950-6418-6
}}</ref> The next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collection of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including ], ], ], ], ],<ref name=HC>{{citeweb
| url = http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap06.html
| title = The Kotte Dynasty and its Portuguese allies
| accessdate = 2008-01-03
| work = Humphry Coddrington
}}</ref> ] and finally, ]. However, this period is known for some groundbreaking Sinhala Literature feats like ''Sandesha Kaavya''.<ref>As detailed by {{harvnb|Hopkins|2002}}</ref>


Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many ] and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of ], which was destroyed by ]. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the ], including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |title=Buddhism in Sri Lanka |work=buddhanet.net |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=21 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221072955/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 245 BCE, ] ] arrived with the ] tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical ] under which ] became enlightened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Paw|p=6}}</ref> It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://print.dailymirror.lk/features/139-feature/38344.html |title=Historical trees: Overlooked aspect of heritage that needs a revival of interest |author=Gunawardana, Jagath |work=Daily Mirror |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120715154617/http://print.dailymirror.lk/features/139-feature/38344.html |archive-date=15 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Julian |title=Plantation Forestry in the Tropics: Tree Planting for Industrial, Social, Environmental, and Agroforestry Purposes |date=1992 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=9780198542575 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1oF-88qKRsC |access-date=11 May 2022}}</ref>
===Early modern Sri Lanka===
Early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of ] ] and ] ], the son of ] in 1505.<ref name="francal">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.thondaman.org/srilankanhistory.html
| title = Sri Lanka History
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = Thondaman Foundation
}}</ref> Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by ] from the Middle East, ], ], ], ], ] and other parts of Southeast Asia. The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of ] in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592 King ] moved the kingdom to the inland city of ], a location more secure against attack from western invaders.<ref name="isl23">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.island.lk/2005/08/27/satmag1.html
| title = King Wimaladharmasuriya
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = S. B. Karalliyadde - The Island
}}</ref> Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century. In 1619, due to the attacks of Portugese, independent existence of ], came to an end.<ref name="Ceylon, Volume 1 pp.19-47">An historical relation of the island Ceylon, Volume 1, by Robert Knox and JHO Paulusz, pp.19-47.</ref>


Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of ], who was defeated by two horse traders named ] from South India.<ref name="mahav1" /> The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by a ] named ], who overthrew ] and ruled the country for 44 years. ], the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, ], defeated Elara in the ]. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the ] was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties such as the ], ], and ].{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} There also were incursions by the kingdoms of ] (modern ]) and from the ] as well.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}
]]]
During the reign of the King ], ] explorers arrived in the island. In 1638, the king signed a ] with the ] to get rid of Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal area of the island by then.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The Dutch in Ceylon: an account of their early visits to the island, their conquests, and their rule over the maritime regions during a century and a half
| last = Anthonisz
| first = Richard Gerald
| publisher = Asian Educational Services
| year = 2003
| isbn = 8120618459
| pages = 37–43
}}</ref> According to the treaty, Dutch should capture and handover the coastal areas to the Kandyan king and the king should grant the Dutch a monopoly over trade on the entire island. The ] resulted in the victory of Dutch. In 1656, Colombo fell into the hands of Dutch, resulting in the entire coastal area governed by Portugese in the Dutch control. However, the treaty signed, was disrespected by both parties. Dutch remained in the areas they captured. An ethnic group named ] integrated into the Sri Lankan society as a result of ].<ref>Bosma U., Raben R. ''Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500-1920'' (University of Michigan, NUS Press, 2008) </ref>


] ("Lion Rock"), a rock fortress and city, built by King ] (477–495 CE) as a new more defensible capital. It was also used as a Buddhist monastery after the capital was moved back to ].]]
The ] was the last independent ] of Sri Lanka.<ref name="kandyk">{{citeweb
| url = http://sundaytimes.lk/070304/KandyTimes/514_kt1.html
| title = A kingdom is born, a kingdom is lost
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = The Sunday Times
}}</ref> In 1595, King Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred ] - the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the ] - to Kandy, and built the ].<ref name="kandyk"/> Even with intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom was able to survive. A succession crisis emerged in Kandy, upon the King ]'s death in 1739. He was married to a ]-speaking ] princess from South India and was childless by them.<ref name="kandyk"/> Eventually, with the support of ] Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princess, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese ].<ref>K.N.O Dharmadasa, ''Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka'', 1993, p8 - 12</ref>. The new king was crowned as ] later that year. Kings of Nayakkar dynasty, launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.<ref>Codrington, chap.9</ref>


The ] was held at the ] in Sri Lanka under the patronage of ] in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many ] subsequently died of starvation. Because the ] was at that time ] maintained in several recensions by ''dhammabhāṇaka''s (] reciters), the surviving monks recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.{{sfn | Buswell | Lopez | 2013 | p=200}} After the council, ]s containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as ], ], ] and ].
] was introduced to Sri Lanka by ], a British planter in 1867.]]
During the ] ], fearing that ] control of the ] might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they ] Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.<ref name="kandyk">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.colonialvoyage.com/eng/asia/sri_lanka/trincomalee/history_8.html
| title = The first English occupation and the definitive Dutch surrender
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = colonialvoyage.com
}}</ref> Two years later, in 1798, King ], 3rd of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka died of a fever. Following the death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, 18-year-old ''Konnasami'' came into power.<ref name="scnsl">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html
| title = History of Sri Lanka and significant World events from 1796 AD to 1948
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = scenicsrilanka.com
}}</ref> The new king, ] faced a ] invasion in 1803, but was able to retaliate successfully. By then, the entire coastal area was under the ], following the ]. But on 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by British, in the ], finally ending Sri Lankan independence.<ref name="scnsl"/> ], the last native monarch of Sri Lanka was exiled to India.<ref>Codrington, A Short History, chap.11</ref> ], formally ceded the entire country to the ]. Attempts of Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine the British power in 1818 during the ] were thwarted by ] ].<ref name="keppetipola">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/keppetipola2.htm
| title = Keppetipola and the Uva Rebellion
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = lankalibrary.com
}}</ref> Another rebellion ] was defeated by Governor ].<ref name="matale1">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/gongalegoda.htm
| title = Gongale Goda Banda (1809-1849) : The leader of the 1848 rebellion
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = Dr. K. D. G. Wimalaratne, Director, National Archives
}}</ref>


Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: ] (r. 47–42 BCE).<ref name="sigiriya12">{{cite web |title=The History of Ceylon |work=sltda.gov.lk |url=http://www.sltda.gov.lk/history |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808014733/http://www.sltda.gov.lk/history |archive-date=8 August 2014 }}</ref> Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as ], the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of ], who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.<ref name="Ponnamperuma 2013">{{cite book |last=Ponnamperuma |first=Senani |title=Story of Sigiriya |year=2013 |publisher=Panique Pty Ltd |location=Melboune |isbn=978-0-9873451-1-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25zxmgEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Bandaranayake 1999">{{cite book |last=Bandaranayake |first=Senake |title=Sigiriya: City, Palace, and Royal Gardens |year=1999 |publisher=Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Cultural Affairs |location=Colombo |isbn=978-955-613-111-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw9uAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
European colonists established a series of ], ], ], ] cultivation followed by ] and ] plantations and ] mining. The British also brought a large number of ] from ] to work in the plantation economy. The city of ] was developed as the administrative centre and commercial heart with its harbor, and the British established modern schools, colleges, roads and churches that brought Western-style education and culture to the ]. Increasing grievances over ], reports of mistreatment and abuse of natives by colonial authorities gave rise to a ] in the 1930s, when the ] opposed the "Ministers' Memorandum," which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers without granting popular representation or civil freedoms.<ref name="scnsl"/> During ], the ] as an important ] ]. A large segment of the British and American fleet were deployed on the island, as were tens of thousands of soldiers committed to the war against Japan in Southeast Asia. Many Ceylonese fought as part of ],<ref name="astrd">{{citeweb
| url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/04/04/lankan-was-privy-ww-ii-covert-operation
| title = Lankan was privy to WW II covert operation
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = ]
}}</ref> and some Ceylonese expatriates in the ] joined to form a ''Lanka Regiment'' in the ].


In 993 CE, the invasion of ] ] forced the then Sinhalese ruler ] to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, ], son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas ] causing the fall of ]. Subsequently, they moved the capital to ].<ref name="Siriweera 2004, p. 44">{{cite book |last=Siriweera |first=W. I. |title=A Study of the Economic History of Pre Modern Sri Lanka |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7069-7621-2 |pages=44–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OubsAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105344/https://books.google.com/books?id=OubsAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Modern Sri Lanka===
].]]
Following the ], popular pressure for independence intensified. The office of ] was created in advance of independence on 14 October 1947, ] being the first prime minister.<ref name=DS>{{citeweb
| url = http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/68.htm
| title = Sinhalese Parties
| accessdate = 20 August 2011
| work =
}}</ref> On 4 February 1948 the country gained its independence as the ]. The island enjoyed good relations with the United Kingdom and had the ] stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. With ] elected as prime minister, Ceylon began moving towards links with the ]. He introduced the controversial ], which was partially reveresd in 1958. Bandaranaike was ] in 1959.


=== Post-classical period ===
] of Sri Lanka in 1947, headed by ] ] as first ]. Also in the picture, ] ] the ], and the ].]]
{{Main|Polonnaruwa period|Transitional period of Sri Lanka}}
On 21 July 1960 ] took office as prime minister, and became the world's first female prime minister<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/964914.stm |title=SOUTH ASIA &#124; Sirimavo Bandaranaike: First woman premier |publisher=BBC News |date= |accessdate=2011-07-17}}</ref> and the first female ] in post-colonial Asia, however she faced an ] in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, her government instituted socialist economic polices and strengthened ties with the ] and later ], while promoting a policy of non-alignment. However in 1971, Ceylon experienced a ], which was quickly suppressed with international support. In 1972, with the adoption of a new constitution, the country became a ], repudating the previous ] status and changing its name to Sri Lanka. It remained a member of the ].
Following a 17-year-long campaign, ] successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.<ref>Codrington, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807212106/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html |date=7 August 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |title=A Brief History of Sri Lanka |author=Lambert, Tim |work=localhistories.org |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=23 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723124255/http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from ] to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Relations between Ceylon and Burma in the 11th Century AD |volume=23 |pages=93–95 |author=Bokay, Mon |journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum |year=1966 |publisher=Artibus Asiae Publishers |jstor=1522637 |doi=10.2307/1522637 |issn = 1423-0526 }}</ref> During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely, ], Pihiti and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievallanka/1153_1186_parakramabahu~i_Em.html |title=Ancient Irrigation Works |work=lakdiva.org |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102152939/http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievallanka/1153_1186_parakramabahu~i_Em.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>


] in ], 12th century, which depicts the ], shows signs of ] influence.]]
There were continuous political rancor between majoity ] and the minority ] communities during the post-independece era.<ref>{{cite web
Sri Lanka's ] was extensively expanded during the reign of ] (1153–1186).<ref name="ethniccr">{{cite book |title=Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution |author=Herath, R. B. |year=2002 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-55369-793-0 |quote=Parakramabahu 1 further extended the system to the highest resplendent peak of hydraulic civilization of the country's history. |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |url-status=live }}</ref> This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.<ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Volume 7 |year=1875 |publisher=] for the Royal Asiatic Society |place=] |quote=...&nbsp;and when at the height of its prosperity, during the long and glorious reign of Parakramabahu the Great&nbsp;... |page=152 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPo78i8KrlEC |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105344/https://books.google.com/books?id=rPo78i8KrlEC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Beveridge |first=H. |year=1894 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA324 |title=The Site of Karna Suvarna |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=62 |quote=His reign is described by Tumour as having been the most martial, enterprising, and glorious in Singhalese history. |page=324 |via=Google Books |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105344/https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA324#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.<ref name="ethniccr1" /> His most famous construction is the ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-45.html |title=Parakrama Samudra |publisher=International Lake Environment Committee |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605083015/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-45.html |archive-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (]) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en |title=ParakramaBahu I: 1153–1186 |work=lakdiva.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204034638/http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en |archive-date=4 February 2014}}</ref>
| title = Staff profile : Jonathan Spencer
| author = ]
| url = http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/staff/social_anthropology/spencer_jonathan
| accessdate = 20 August 2011
}}</ref> Vital steps to resolve the issue, like ] and Senanayake-Chelvanayakam Pact failed to materialize.<ref name='peebles-history'>{{cite book
| last = Peebles
| first = Patrick
| title = The History of Sri Lanka
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| date = 2006-08-30
| isbn = 978-0313332050
}}</ref> ] between ] and the government mounted in the early 1970s with raise of the ]. Taking the introduction of ] to the University entrance, as the catalyst, Tamil militancy grew steadily in the country's north during this period.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://tamilnation.co/forum/sivaram/940508eelam_history.htm
| title = The Exclusive Right to Write Eelam History
| author = ]
| month = May
| year = 1994
| publisher = Tamil Nation
| accessdate= 2011-07-27
}}</ref> Assassination of ] ] ] in 1975 marked an important turn of these events.<ref name="Hoffman139">{{Cite book
| last = Hoffman
| first = Bruce
| title = Inside Terrorism
| publisher = ]
| location = New York
| year = 2006
| page = 139
| isbn = 0-231-12699-1
}}</ref><ref name="rohang">{{Cite web
| url = http://212.150.54.123/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=57
| title = International and Regional Implications of the Sri Lankan Tamil Insurgency
| author = ]
| month = December
| year = 1998
| publisher =
| accessdate= 2011-07-27
}}</ref> Meanwhile, the government of ] in 1978 introduced a ], together with ] and ]. Sri Lanka became the first ] country to ] its economy.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561
| title = Sri Lanka – an Overview
| publisher = ]
| year =
| accessdate = 2011-07-25
}}</ref> From the 1983, tensions between ethnic groups blew into an on-and-off ] against the government by the ] (the LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers). In 1987, ] launched its ] in Southern Sri Lanka.<ref>]. (1998). Pg.353, ''Sri Lanka's Ethnic Crisis and National Security'', ]: South Asian Network on Conflict Research. ISBN 955-8093-00-9</ref><ref name="iiss1">''International Institute for Strategic Studies'', .</ref><ref></ref> Same year, the ] was signed and ] (IPKF) was deployed in Northern Sri Lanka to find a lasting solution to the ethnic problem. Efforts did not become successful and in 1990, IPKF left the country.<ref name="atimes">{{cite web
| url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html
| title = Chapter 30: Whirlpool of violence, Sri Lanka: The Untold Story
| publisher = Asia Times
| year = 2002
| accessdate = 2011-07-25
}}</ref> From 1985 to 2006, Sri Lankan government and insurgents held 4 rounds of peacetalks, but none of them helped to resolve the conflict. In 2009, ] led by ] ] defeated the LTTE, and brought the entire country under the control of Sri Lankan government.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1183961/Sri-Lankan-TV-broadcasts-video-body-Tamil-Tiger-leader-President-declares-country-liberated-terrorism.html
| title = Sri Lankan TV broadcasts 'video of body of Tamil Tiger leader' as President declares the country liberated from terrorism
| publisher = Daily Mail
| date = 20 May 2009
| accessdate = 18 August 2011
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka
| title = Sri Lanka declares end to war with Tamil Tigers
| publisher = ]
| date = 19 May 2009
| accessdate = 18 August 2011
| location = London
}}</ref> Following the LTTE's defeat, ], the largest political party in Sri Lanka dropped its demand for a ], in favour of a ] solution.<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news
| title = Sri Lanka Tamil party drops statehood demand
| date = 13 March 2010
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8566114.stm
| work = ]
| accessdate = 18 August 2011
}}</ref><ref name="guardn">{{cite news
| title = Sri Lankan Tamils drop demand for separate independent homeland
| date = 14 March 2010
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/mar/14/tamils-drop-calls-for-separate-state
| work = ]
| accessdate = 18 August 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka, emerging after a 26 year war, has become one of the ] of the world.<ref name="meryl">{{cite news
| title = Merryl Lynch lists Sri Lanka among 10 fast growth economies
| date = 8 August 2011
| url = http://www.alphabric.com/2011/08/08/merryl-lynch-lists-sri-lanka-among-10-fast-growth-economies/
| work =
| accessdate = 20 August 2011
}}</ref>


After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, ], an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the ]. He sailed from ]<ref name="ethniccr1">{{cite book |title=Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution |author=Herath, R.B. |year=2002 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-55369-793-0 |pages=18–21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |url-status=live }}</ref> 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he ], ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.<ref>{{cite book |title=Security dilemma of a small state, Part 1 |author=Jayasekera, P.V.J. |year=1992 |publisher=Institute for International Studies ], Sri Lanka |place=] |isbn=978-81-7003-148-2 |quote=..His invasion in 1215 was more or less a looting expedition.. |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of ] as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native ] to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.<ref name="Nadarajan, V p. 72">Nadarajan, V ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72</ref><ref name="Indrapala, K p. 16">Indrapala, K ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16</ref>
===Civil War===
{{Disputed-section|date=August 2011}}
{{POV|date=August 2011}}
{{Main|Sri Lankan Civil War}}
The ] was driving forces behind Sri Lanka's ethnic conflict.<ref name=FW>{{Cite book | last1 = Ganguly| first1 = Šumit(Author)|last2 = Michael| first2 = E. Brown(Editor)|last3 = | first3 = | title =Fighting Words: language policy and ethnic relations in Asia| publisher = The MIT Press | year = 2003| pages = 136–138| url = http://books.google.com/?id=fcoDezu1ABoC| isbn = 9780262523332}}</ref> The Sinhala Only Act was, curiously enough, not in agreement with the constitution of 1947, which forbade language discrimination.<ref name=AV>{{Cite book | last1 = Schmidt| first1 = Bettina(Editor)|last2 = Schroeder| first2 = Ingo(Editor)|last3 = | first3 = | title =Anthropology of Violence and Conflict| publisher = Routledge | year = 2001| page = 185| url = http://books.google.com/?id=Rx-1MdUlzaUC| isbn = 9780415229050}}</ref> The designations of ], the language of the majority community, as the sole official language was the first major step in a process, which eventually destroyed the post-independence "ethnic status-quo".<ref name=SD>{{Cite book | last1 = Lakshman| first1 = W. D.(Author)|last2 = Tisdell| first2 = Clement A.(Author)|last3 =Lakshman | first3 = Weligamage D.(Author)| title =Sri Lanka's Development Since Independence: Socio-Economic Perspectives and Analyses| publisher = Nova Science Pub Inc | year = 2000| pages = 116-118| url = http://books.google.com/?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC| isbn = 978-1560727842}}</ref> The Sinhala Only Act blocked the Tamil quest for continued socioeconomic progress and led to Tamil mobilisation against the State. When peaceful protests were suppressed, extremist actions were legitimized.<ref name=FW/>


Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to ]. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the ].<ref name="Nadarajan, V p. 72" /><ref name="Indrapala, K p. 16" /> The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king ]'s adopted son, ].<ref>{{cite book |author=Gnanaprakasar, Swamy |title=A Critical History of Jaffna |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2003 |place=] |page=122 |isbn=978-81-206-1686-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9H53Sldfv8C |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=o9H53Sldfv8C |url-status=live }}</ref> He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.<ref>{{cite book |author=Holt, John Clifford |title=Buddha in the Crown: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka |publisher=] |year=1991 |page=304 |isbn=978-0-19-506418-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Equally important, the act led to ethnic out bidding and it legitimated Sinhalese jingoism, which only radicalized an otherwise culturally and politically conservative Tamil Community.<ref name=FW/> Although other factors&mdash;such as the government's internal colonisation policies&mdash;played a significant role in Sri Lanka's ethnic relations, the language issue was the most important item on the agenda for both ] and ].<ref name=FW/> Indeed, the Federal Party's crucial contribution to Tamil politics was its emphasis on the role of language as the determinant of nationhood.<ref name=FW/> This determination to attain Tamil nationhood was exemplified by a Tamil parliamentarian who prophetically claimed that "if the Sinhalese will not agree to federation the Tamils will have a fully autonomous Tamil linguistic state by whatever means they can get it, by all the methods of history: rebellion, guerrilla war fare or anything you please.<ref name=FW/>


The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, ], ], ], ],<ref name="HC">Codrington, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210180428/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap06.html |date=10 December 2007 }}</ref> ], and finally, ]. In 1247, the Malay kingdom of ] which was a vassal of ] led by their king ]<ref>India's interaction with Southeast Asia, by Govind Chandra Pande p.286</ref> briefly invaded Sri Lanka from ]. They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Craig J. Reynolds |title=Power, Protection and Magic in Thailand: The Cosmos of a Southern Policeman |publisher=ANU Press |year=2019 |pages=74–75}}</ref> However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of various ] merchant ethnic groups, from ] (Indonesia) to ] (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524202017/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf |date=24 May 2022 }} "Annual trade between China and India through the Malacca Straits had opened by about 200 BCE. Perhaps by that time Austronesian sailors were regularly carrying cloves and cinnamon to India and Sri Lanka, and perhaps even as far as the coast of Africa in boats with outriggers. Certainly they have left numerous traces in canoe design, rigs, outriggers and fishing techniques, and a mention in Greek literature (Christie 1957)."</ref> Chinese admiral ] and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into ] with the local king ]. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Geoff Wade, 2005 |url=http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1778?hl=%22Zheng+He%22 |title=South East Aisa in Ming Shi-lu |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-date=23 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623012455/http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1778?hl=%22Zheng+He%22 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=National Geographic |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0507/feature2/map.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218063244/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0507/feature2/map.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 December 2007 |title=Voyages of Zheng He 1405–1433 |access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Columbia University |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |title=Ming Voyages |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-date=6 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306203037/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=aramco world |url=https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.admiral.zheng.he.htm |title=Admiral Zheng He |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031051234/https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.admiral.zheng.he.htm |archive-date=31 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zheng He erected the ], a stone tablet at ] written in three ] (], ], and ]), to commemorate his visit.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=lankalibrary forum |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 |title=The trilingual inscription of Admiral Zheng He |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620165307/http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 |archive-date=20 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=world heritage site |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412063521/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 April 2010 |title=Zheng He |access-date=13 April 2015 }}</ref> The ] was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the ].
From 1983 to 2009, there was an on-and-off ] between the ] and the ] (LTTE), a ] militant organisation who fought to create an ] state named ] in the ] and ] of the island. On 19 May 2009, however, the President of Sri Lanka officially claimed an end to the insurgency and the defeat of the LTTE, following the death of ] and much of the LTTE's other senior leadership.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8056752.stm |title=Sri Lanka leader hails 'victory' |publisher=BBC News|date=2009-05-19 |accessdate=2010-06-02}}</ref>


=== Early modern period ===
There were credible allegations and evidence that ] were committed by both parties, the ] and the rebel ] (Tamil Tigers), during the ], particularly during the final months of the conflict in 2009. The war crimes included attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by both sides; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment by the Tamil Tigers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/10/22/sri-lanka-us-war-crimes-report-details-extensive-abuses|title=Sri Lanka: US War Crimes Report Details Extensive Abuses|date=22 October 2009|publisher=]|accessdate=17 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2010/12/08/govt-ltte-executed-soldiers/|title=Govt.: LTTE Executed Soldiers|date=8 December 2010|publisher=]|accessdate=17 January 2010}}</ref>
{{Main|Kandyan period}}
{{See also|Portuguese Ceylon|Dutch Ceylon|British Ceylon}}
] explorer ] meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602]]
]|A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by ] cartographer ]]]
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer ], the son of ], in 1505.<ref name="francal">{{cite web |url=http://www.thondaman.org/srilankanhistory.html |title=Sri Lanka History |publisher=Thondaman Foundation |access-date=22 August 2011 |archive-date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111082707/http://www.thondaman.org/srilankanhistory.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of ] and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, ] moved his kingdom to the inland city of ], a location he thought more secure from attack.<ref name="isl23">{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/2005/08/27/satmag1.html |title=King Wimaladharmasuriya |work=S.B. Karalliyadde – The Island |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126054442/http://www.island.lk/2005/08/27/satmag1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the ], the independent existence of the ] came to an end.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Knox, Robert |author-link=Robert Knox (sailor) |year=1681 |title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon |pages=19–47 |publisher=Reprint. Asian Educational Services |place=London |title-link=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon}}</ref>


During the reign of the ], Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a ] with the ] to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dutch in Ceylon: an account of their early visits to the island, their conquests, and their rule over the maritime regions during a century and a half |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2mkUharg6AC |author=Anthonisz, Richard Gerald |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-206-1845-9 |pages=37–43}}</ref> The following ] resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The ], a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C |title=Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920 |author=Bosma, U. |publisher=University of Michigan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-89680-261-2 |chapter=1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105859/https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C |url-status=live }}</ref>
With the end of the war, the government of Sri Lanka called for redevelopment of the nation. The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.<ref name="obs320">{{cite news
| title = Sri Lanka ready for the challenge
| date = 20 March 2011
| url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/03/20/fea01.asp
| work = The Sunday Observer
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/news/sri-lanka-displaced-uncertain-future-government-unlock-camps-20090911 |title=Sri Lanka's displaced face uncertain future as government begins to unlock the camps |publisher=Amnesty International |date=2009-09-11 |accessdate=2011-07-17}}</ref> On May 24, 2009, the ], ], visited the ] which was one of the IDP camps for Tamil civilians. He said <i>"I have traveled around the world and visited similar places, but this is by far the most ''appalling scenes'' I have seen."'' Regarding the access to that camps that was denied to the ] and International aid agencies, Ban said <i>"They should be given unimpeded access and ''freedom of movement'' within the camp. That is what I have asked the foreign minister and the president (for), and I was assured that the leaders of the Sri Lankan government will make sure (of this)."''<ref>http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/24/sri.lanka.united.nations/index.html</ref> By August 2011, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, and 7,440 remained in the camps.<ref name="sitrep819">{{cite news
| title = Situation Report as at 19-08-2011
| date = 19 August 2011
| url = http://www.resettlementmin.gov.lk/download/SituationReport%2019-08-2011.pdf
| work = Ministry of Resettlement in Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref>


The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.<ref name="kandyk">{{cite web |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/070304/KandyTimes/514_kt1.html |title=A kingdom is born, a kingdom is lost |work=The Sunday Times |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=24 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724004438/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/070304/KandyTimes/514_kt1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred ]—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the ]—to Kandy and built the ].<ref name="kandyk" /> In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king ]'s death in 1739. He was married to a ]-speaking ] princess from South India (]) and was childless by her.<ref name="kandyk" />
==Geography and climate==

Eventually, with the support of ] Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right of ''"Unambuwe Bandara"'', the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka |author=Dharmadasa, K.N.O. |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-472-10288-4 |pages=8–12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NQrTmjpRcC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105900/https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NQrTmjpRcC |url-status=live }}</ref> The new king was crowned ] later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.<ref>Codrington, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613031731/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap09.html |date=13 June 2015 }}</ref>
] of Kandy, the last ruling native Sri Lankan monarch]]

During the ], fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, the ] occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony of ]) with little difficulty in 1796.<ref name="colvoyg">{{cite web |url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/trincomalee-first-british-occupation-definitive-dutch-surrender/ |title=The first British occupation and the definitive Dutch surrender |work=colonialvoyage.com |date=18 February 2014 |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=11 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011023258/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/trincomalee-first-british-occupation-definitive-dutch-surrender/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Two years later, in 1798, ], third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.<ref name="scnsl">{{cite web |url=http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html |title=History of Sri Lanka and significant World events from 1796 AD to 1948 |work=scenicsrilanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055412/http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html |archive-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> The young king, now named ], faced a ] invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.<ref name="scnsl" />

By then the entire coastal area was under the ] as a result of the ]. On 14 February 1815, ] was occupied by the British in the ], ending Sri Lanka's independence.<ref name="scnsl" /> Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.<ref>Codrington, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621214254/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap11.html |date=21 June 2015 }}</ref> The ] formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the ] were thwarted by ] ].<ref name="keppetipola">{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/keppetipola2.htm |title=Keppetipola and the Uva Rebellion |work=lankalibrary.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126125830/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/keppetipola2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the ] of 1833.<ref name="corankel" /> They introduced a ] and ] political culture to the country based on the ] and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.<ref name="corankel" /> An ] and a ] were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with ] plantations were largely successful.<ref name="Nubin 2002 115">{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=115}}</ref>

Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the ] stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of ''rajakariya'', requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.<ref name="Nubin 2002 115" /> These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and ] broke out in 1848.<ref name="matale1">{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/gongalegoda.htm |title=Gongale Goda Banda (1809–1849) : The leader of the 1848 rebellion |work=Wimalaratne, K.D.G. |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126130118/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/gongalegoda.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A devastating leaf disease, '']'', struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lennox A. Mills |title=Ceylon Under British Rule, 1795–1932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyHG9ZKl3bwC&pg=PA246 |year=1964 |publisher=Psychology Press |page=246 |isbn=978-0-7146-2019-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105900/https://books.google.com/books?id=YyHG9ZKl3bwC&pg=PA246 |url-status=live }}</ref> The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. ] thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.

] in 1905.]]
By the end of the 19th century, a new educated ] transcending race and ] arose through British attempts to staff the ] and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=116–117}}</ref> New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the ] on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalists reacted against ] activities.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q11ID2xfqD8C |author=Bond, George D. |title=The Buddhist revival in Sri Lanka: Religious tradition, reinterpretation and response |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |year=1992 |pages=11–22 |isbn=978-81-208-1047-1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q11ID2xfqD8C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="tamlwk">{{cite web |url=http://www.tamilweek.com/Cutting_edge_hindu_revivalism_0625.html |title=Cutting edge of Hindu revivalism in Jaffna |date=25 June 2006 |work=Balachandran, P.K. |access-date=18 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304134643/http://www.tamilweek.com/Cutting_edge_hindu_revivalism_0625.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and ] political leadership, which has since been lost.<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=387}}</ref>

The ] actually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.

In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of ],<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=386}}</ref> pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|pp=389–395}}</ref>

The ] of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced ] (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created ], which succeeded the legislative council.<ref name="tamllib">{{cite web |url=http://tamilelibrary.org/teli/slhist.html |title=Chronology of events related to Tamils in Sri Lanka (1500–1948) |work=Hellmann-Rajanayagam, Dagmar |publisher=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194411/http://www.tamilelibrary.org/teli/slhist.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=423}}</ref> In 1937, Tamil leader ] demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the ] of 1944–45.

=== Contemporary history ===
{{Main|History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)}}
{{See also|Sri Lankan independence movement|Sri Lankan Civil War}}
]]]
]
The Soulbury constitution ushered in ], with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.<ref name="countrst68">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/21.htm |title=Sinhalese Parties |work=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401001002/http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/21.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ] became the first ].<ref name="DS">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/68.htm |title=Sinhalese Parties |work=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821135521/http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/68.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Prominent ] leaders including Ponnambalam and ] joined his cabinet.<ref name="tamllib" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=121–122}}</ref> The ] remained stationed at ] until 1956. A countrywide ] against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister ].<ref name="islnksd">{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/2008/08/16/satmag1.html |title=Bandaranaike and Hartal of 1953 |author=Weerakoon, Batty |work=The Island |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126054816/http://www.island.lk/2008/08/16/satmag1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

] was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=123}}</ref> He introduced the controversial ], recognising ] as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.<ref name="FW">{{Cite book |author=Ganguly, Šumit |editor=Brown, Michael E. |title=Fighting Words: language policy and ethnic relations in Asia |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2003 |pages=136–138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC |isbn=978-0-262-52333-2 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105901/https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="AV">{{Cite book |editor1=Schmid, Bettina |editor2=Schroeder, Ingo |title=Anthropology of Violence and Conflict |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx-1MdUlzaUC |isbn=978-0-415-22905-0 |access-date=15 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="a1">{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka Profile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12004081 |work=BBC News |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=14 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614231749/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12004081 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ] (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (]) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (]) with ], leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.<ref>{{cite book |author=Peebles, Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SxO0eISluqEC |title=The History of Sri Lanka |publisher=Greenwood Press |date=2006 |pages=109–111 |isbn=978-0-313-33205-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105903/https://books.google.com/books?id=SxO0eISluqEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government ], contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.<ref>{{cite web |title=Staff profile: Jonathan Spencer |publisher=University of Edinburgh |url=http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/staff/social_anthropology/spencer_jonathan |access-date=15 July 2014 |author-link=University of Edinburgh |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808052143/http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/staff/social_anthropology/spencer_jonathan |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bandaranaike was ] by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/Cl01Df05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011220212820/http://atimes.com/ind-pak/Cl01Df05.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=20 December 2001 |title=Sri Lanka: The untold story – Assassination of Bandaranaike |work=Rajasingham, K. T. |year=2002 |access-date=15 July 2014}}</ref>

{{multiple image |total_width=220
|title = Leaders in 1960
| align = left
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Her Majesty The Queen (1959).jpg
|caption1=]<br /><small>]</small>
|image2= Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Ceylon 1960 (cropped).PNG
|caption2=]<br /><small>Prime Minister</small>
|footer=1960 saw the election of Sirimavo Bandaranaike as Ceylon's Prime Minister and the first time in world history that the heads of both state and government in a country were female.
}}

], the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an ] in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the ] and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a ], which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a ] named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=128–129}}</ref> The ] by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an ] to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,<ref name="affrmact">{{cite web |url=http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-kmdesilva.PDF |pages=248–254 |title=Affirmative Action Policies: The Sri Lankan Experience |author1=De Silva |author2=K. M. |date=July 1997 |publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930154652/http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-kmdesilva.PDF |archive-date=30 September 2011}}</ref> resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jayasuriya, J.E. |title=Education in the Third World |publisher=Indian Institute of Education |year=1981 |place=] | oclc=7925123}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamilnation.co/forum/sivaram/940508eelam_history.htm |title=The Exclusive Right to Write Eelam History |author=Taraki Sivaram |date=May 1994 |publisher=Tamil Nation |author-link=Taraki Sivaram |access-date=20 August 2011 |archive-date=19 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119055553/http://tamilnation.co/forum/sivaram/940508eelam_history.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The assassination of ] ] ] in 1975 by the ] (LTTE) marked a crisis point.<ref name="Hoffman139">{{Cite book |author=Hoffman, Bruce |title=Inside Terrorism |publisher=] |place=New York |year=2006 |page=139 |isbn=978-0-231-12699-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ayrAgAAQBAJ |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105902/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ayrAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="rohang">{{cite web |url=http://www.padippakam.com/document/srilankan_gov/gov002.pdf |title=International and Regional Implications of the Sri Lankan Tamil Insurgency |author=Rohan Gunaratna |date=December 1998 |author-link=Rohan Gunaratna |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101122924/http://www.padippakam.com/document/srilankan_gov/gov002.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The government of ] swept to power in 1977, defeating the ] government.<ref name="attms">{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DA26Df04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020213090010/http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DA26Df04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=13 February 2002 |title=Tamil militancy – a manifestation |author=Rajasingham, K.T. |year=2002 |access-date=15 July 2014}}</ref> Jayawardene introduced a ], together with a ] and a powerful ] modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first ]n country to ] its economy.<ref name="filbrn" /> Beginning in ], ethnic tensions were manifested in an ] against the government by the LTTE. An ] resulted in the start of a civil war, and in response anti-Tamil ] took place, allegedly backed by ] ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.<ref name="Remembering">{{cite news |title=Remembering Sri Lanka's Black July – BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23402727 |website=BBC News |access-date=20 October 2015 |date=23 July 2013 |archive-date=22 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322023421/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23402727 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="lkwbblk">{{cite web |url=http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2010/04/27/the-black-july-1983-that-created-a-collective-trauma/ |title=The Black July 1983 that Created a Collective Trauma |work=Jayatunge, Ruwan M. |publisher=LankaWeb |year=2010 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=3 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703213952/http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2010/04/27/the-black-july-1983-that-created-a-collective-trauma/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.<ref name="sndaytst">{{cite news |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/970119/plus4.html |title=LTTE: the Indian connection |newspaper=Sunday Times |year=1997 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=15 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915053716/http://sundaytimes.lk/970119/plus4.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971212/34650923.html |title=Uppermost in our minds was to save the Gandhis' name |newspaper=Express India |year=1997 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811204127/http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971212/34650923.html |archive-date=11 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2009/07/for-firmer-and-finer-international.html |title=For firmer and finer International Relations |work=Wijesinghe, Sarath |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201181154/http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2009/07/for-firmer-and-finer-international.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1987, the ] was signed and the ] (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.<ref name="Stokke2000a">{{Cite journal |author=Stokke, K. |author2=Ryntveit, A.K. |year=2000 |title=The Struggle for Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka |journal=Growth and Change: A Journal of Urban and Regional Policy |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=285–304 |doi=10.1111/0017-4815.00129|bibcode=2000GroCh..31..285S }}</ref> The same year, the ] launched its ] in Southern Sri Lanka,<ref name="secninsr">{{Cite book |author=Gunaratna, Rohan |title=Sri Lanka's Ethnic Crisis and National Security |publisher=South Asian Network on Conflict Research |place=] |year=1998 |page=353 |isbn=978-955-8093-00-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnhAAAACAAJ |author-link=Rohan Gunaratna |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105902/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnhAAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.<ref name="atimes">{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020416181258/http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=16 April 2002 |title=Chapter 30: Whirlpool of violence, Sri Lanka: The Untold Story |work=Asia Times |year=2002 |access-date=15 July 2014}}</ref> In October 1990, the LTTE ] (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.<ref name="slnp">{{cite web |url=http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2008/11/35271_space.html |title=1990, The War Year if Ethnic Cleansing of the Muslims From North and the East of Sri Lanka |publisher=lankanewspapers.com |year=2008 |access-date=21 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012159/http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2008/11/35271_space.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.<ref name="a1" />

The ] killed over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri Lanka.<ref name="BBC News 2005">{{cite web | title=US presidents in tsunami aid plea | website=BBC News | date=3 January 2005 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4143459.stm#map | access-date=20 December 2021 | archive-date=20 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220175054/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4143459.stm#map | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="wsws1">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/dec2005/sri2-d29.shtml|title=One year after the tsunami, Sri Lankan survivors still live in squalour|publisher=World Socialist Web Site|date=29 December 2005|access-date=24 December 2012|archive-date=23 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123063125/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/dec2005/sri2-d29.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.<ref name="a1" /> In 2009, under the ] of ], the ] defeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the 26 year long civil war on 19 May 2009,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |title=Sri Lanka declares end to war with Tamil Tigers |work=The Guardian |date=19 May 2009 |access-date=18 August 2011 |location=London |first1=Matthew |last1=Weaver |first2=Gethin |last2=Chamberlain |archive-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906141729/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McDonald |first1=Mark |title=Tamil Tigers Confirm Death of Their Leader |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/26/world/asia/26lanka.html |access-date=11 April 2022 |work=] |date=25 May 2009 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411014251/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/26/world/asia/26lanka.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=24 May 2009|title=Tamil Tigers confirm leader's death|work=]|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2009/05/2009524124042406562.html|access-date=2009-05-24|archive-date=25 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525011712/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2009/05/2009524124042406562.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2009-05-24|title=Tamil Tigers admit leader is dead|work=]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8066129.stm|access-date=2009-05-24|archive-date=25 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525011643/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8066129.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |title=Sri Lanka declares end to war with Tamil Tigers |work=The Guardian |date=19 May 2009 |place=London |first1=Matthew |last1=Weaver |first2=Gethin |last2=Chamberlain |access-date=16 December 2016 |archive-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906141729/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |url-status=live }}</ref> Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the course of the 26 year long conflict.<ref name="ABC200509">{{cite news |title=Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524 |newspaper=] |date=20 May 2009 |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923153656/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/srilanka/index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=sri%20lanka&st=cse |work=] |first=Erik |last=Olsen |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=4 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804092738/http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/srilanka/index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=sri%20lanka&st=cse |url-status=live }}</ref>

] carried out by the terrorist group ] on 21 April 2019 resulted in the brutal death of 261 innocent people.<ref name="timeline">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/190428/columns/easter-sunday-massacres-where-do-we-go-from-here-347090.html|title=Easter Sunday massacres: Where do we go from here?|access-date=12 March 2023|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428182021/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/190428/columns/easter-sunday-massacres-where-do-we-go-from-here-347090.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 26 April 2019 an anti ] was carried out against the National Thowheeth Jama'ath by the ] with the operation being successful and National Thowheeth Jama'ath's insurgency ending.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-blasts-hospital-idUSKCN1S5113|title=Wife, daughter of Sri Lanka bombings mastermind will survive blast:...|newspaper=Reuters|date=29 April 2019|access-date=24 May 2019|via=www.reuters.com|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521204214/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-blasts-hospital-idUSKCN1S5113|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adaderana.lk/news/54693/15-bodies-including-children-found-at-blast-site-in-sainthamaruthu|title=15 bodies including children found at blast site in Sainthamaruthu|website=adaderana.lk|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428081702/http://www.adaderana.lk/news/54693/15-bodies-including-children-found-at-blast-site-in-sainthamaruthu|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hirunews.lk/215282/15-bodies-found-from-site-of-shootout-and-explosions-in-saindamaradu6-suicide-bombers-among-them|title=15 bodies found from site of shootout and explosions in Saindamaradu;6 Suicide bombers among them|website=Hiru News|access-date=29 April 2019|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428081706/http://www.hirunews.lk/215282/15-bodies-found-from-site-of-shootout-and-explosions-in-saindamaradu6-suicide-bombers-among-them|url-status=live}}</ref>

] on ]]]
Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when a ] occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilizers, and a multitude of other factors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-23 |title=Everything to Know About Sri Lanka's Economic Crisis |url=https://www.borgenmagazine.com/sri-lankas-economic-crisis/ |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=BORGEN |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519130407/https://www.borgenmagazine.com/sri-lankas-economic-crisis/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worst ] in 73 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-30 |title=Sri Lanka declares worst economic downturn in 73 years |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210430-sri-lanka-declares-worst-economic-downturn-in-73-years |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015180503/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210430-sri-lanka-declares-worst-economic-downturn-in-73-years |archive-date=2021-10-15 |access-date=2021-06-27 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> In August 2021, a food emergency was declared.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2021 |others=Agence France-Presse |title=Sri Lanka declares food emergency as forex crisis worsens |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/sri-lanka-declares-food-emergency-forex-crisis-1847478-2021-08-31 |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406094041/https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/sri-lanka-declares-food-emergency-forex-crisis-1847478-2021-08-31 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2022, Prime Minister ] declared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Lanka's PM says its debt-laden economy has 'collapsed' |url=https://news.sky.com/story/sri-lankas-pm-says-its-debt-laden-economy-has-collapsed-12638329 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622094829/https://news.sky.com/story/sri-lankas-pm-says-its-debt-laden-economy-has-collapsed-12638329 |archive-date=22 June 2022 |access-date=2022-06-22 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref> The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka becomes first Asia-Pacific country in decades to default on foreign debt |url=https://www.newswire.lk/2022/05/19/sri-lanka-becomes-first-asia-pacific-country-in-decades-to-default-on-foreign-debt/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |work=NewsWire |date=19 May 2022 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519121627/https://www.newswire.lk/2022/05/19/sri-lanka-becomes-first-asia-pacific-country-in-decades-to-default-on-foreign-debt/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-11 |title=Sri Lanka to reduce power cut duration from April 18 as rains start – PUCSL |url=https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-to-reduce-power-cut-duration-from-april-18-as-rains-start-pucsl-92927 |access-date=2022-04-28 |website=EconomyNext |language=en |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706194528/https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-to-reduce-power-cut-duration-from-april-18-as-rains-start-pucsl-92927/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to the crisis, massive ] erupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the President ]. The protests culminated with the storming and siege of the ] on July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 July 2022|title=Sri Lanka protesters break into President's House as thousands rally|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/09/asia/sri-lanka-protest-president-saturday-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=9 July 2022|website=CNN|archive-date=15 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715132642/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/09/asia/sri-lanka-protest-president-saturday-intl-hnk/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Gotabaya Rajapaksa Resigns – letter sent to Speaker of Parliament |url=https://www.hirunews.lk/english/309987/president-gotabaya-rajapaksa-resigns-letter-sent-to-speaker-of-parliament |access-date=14 July 2022 |work=Hiru News |date=14 July 2022 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714134628/https://www.hirunews.lk/english/309987/president-gotabaya-rajapaksa-resigns-letter-sent-to-speaker-of-parliament |url-status=live }}</ref> On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters besieged and stormed the ] and burnt it down.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 July 2022 |title=Sri Lankan crisis: Protesters set PM Ranil Wickremesinghe's residence on fire |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/protesters-set-sri-lankan-pm-ranil-wickremesinghe-s-residence-on-fire-101657381849320.html |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Hindustan Times News |language=en |archive-date=13 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713064308/https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/protesters-set-sri-lankan-pm-ranil-wickremesinghe-s-residence-on-fire-101657381849320.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

After ] elected the new president as ] on ], Wickremesinghe took oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/ranil-wickremesinghe-takes-oath-as-sri-lankan-president-video-1978092-2022-07-21|title=Ranil Wickremesinghe takes oath as President of Sri Lanka|website=indiatoday.in|date=2022-07-21|access-date=29 July 2023|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325190951/https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/ranil-wickremesinghe-takes-oath-as-sri-lankan-president-video-1978092-2022-07-21|url-status=live}}</ref> He implemented various economic reforms in efforts to stabilize Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-cuts-policy-rates-to-reduce-inflation-and-boost-economic-recovery/article66919025.ece | title=Sri Lanka cuts policy rates to reduce inflation and boost economic recovery | newspaper=The Hindu | date=June 2023 | access-date=6 October 2023 | archive-date=27 September 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927194156/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-cuts-policy-rates-to-reduce-inflation-and-boost-economic-recovery/article66919025.ece | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2024/03/01/022224oped-srilanka-economic-reform-program-is-starting-to-work|title=Sri Lanka's Economic Reform Program is Starting to Work—Keep at It for a Full Recovery|website=IMF}}</ref> On 23 September 2024, ] was sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president after winning the presidential ] as a left-wing candidate.<ref>{{cite news |title=Anura Kumara Dissanayake sworn in as Sri Lanka's president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqxr03x4dvzo |work=www.bbc.com}}</ref> On 14 November 2024, President Anura Kumara Dissanayake's ] (NPP), a left-leaning alliance, received a two-thirds majority in parliament in Sri Lankan ]<ref>{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka: Left-leaning leader's coalition secures landslide victory |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crr9n2w0lyzo |work=www.bbc.com}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Geography of Sri Lanka}}
] ]


Sri Lanka, an island in ] shaped as a teardrop or a pear/],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmNuAAAAMAAJ |title=Sri Lanka, the Resplendent Isle |first=Richard |last=Simon |publisher=Times Editions |year=1989 |page=79 |isbn=9789812040602 |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405080646/https://books.google.com/books?id=cmNuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> lies on the ], a major ] that was formerly part of the ].<ref>{{cite web |author1=Seth Stein |title=The January 26, 2001 Bhuj Earthquake and the Diffuse Western Boundary of the Indian Plate |url=https://www.earth.northwestern.edu/public/emile/PDF/EAO147.pdf |website=earth.northwestern.edu |access-date=16 November 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411211629/https://www.earth.northwestern.edu/public/emile/PDF/EAO147.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the ], between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jyotisha.00it.com/Lankaco.htm |title=Geographic Coordinates for Sri Lanka Towns and Villages |publisher=jyotisha.00it.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=20 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720060903/http://jyotisha.00it.com/Lankaco.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the ] by the ] and ]. According to ], a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a ] remaining above ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6996621.stm |title=Gods row minister offers to quit |publisher=BBC |date=15 September 2007 |access-date=16 September 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205062935/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6996621.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, until ]s deepened the channel.<ref name="Garg1992">{{cite book |author=Garg, Ganga Ram |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World |volume=A–Aj |year=1992 |publisher=South Asia Books |place=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-261-3489-2 |page=142 |chapter=Adam's Bridge}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jul/04spec.htm |title=Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre? |work=Rediff.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=14 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214082353/http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jul/04spec.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Portions are still as shallow as {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1}}, hindering navigation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Adam's Bridge |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Adams-Bridge |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-date=13 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113002452/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9003680 |url-status=live }}</ref> The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is ], reaching {{convert|2524|m|ft|0}} above sea level.
The island of Sri Lanka lies in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the ]. It lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ].<ref name='coordn'>{{cite web
] from ]]]
| url = http://jyotisha.00it.com/Lankaco.htm
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the ], extending {{convert|335|km|mi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Aves, Edward |year=2003 |title=Sri Lanka |publisher=Footprint Travel Guides |page=372 |place=London |isbn=978-1-903471-78-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_kbgCvVm4UC}}</ref> These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of {{convert|10|m}} or more. The highest is ], with a height of {{convert|263|m|ft|0}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka |title=Introducing Sri Lanka |publisher=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=17 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717232921/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka |url-status=live }}</ref> Sri Lanka's coastline is {{cvt|1,585|km}} long.<ref name="unep">{{cite web |url=http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf |page=86 |title=Depletion of coastal resources |publisher=] | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331091614/http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}</ref> Sri Lanka claims an ] extending 200 ]s, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as ] ]s and shallow beds of coastal and ] ]es.<ref name="faosl">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5627E/x5627e09.htm |title=5 Coral Reefs of Sri Lanka: Current Status And Resource Management |publisher=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=7 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307052654/http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5627e/x5627e09.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| title = Geographic Coordinates for Sri Lanka Towns and Villages
| publisher = jyotisha.00it.com
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka is separated from the ] by the ] and the ]. According to ], a ] to the Indian mainland, known as ], was constructed during the time of ] by the ] architect ]. Often referred to as ], it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above ].<ref name='bbc-9/15/07-grm'>{{cite news
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6996621.stm
| title = Gods row minister offers to quit
| publisher = ]
| date = 2007-09-15
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> According to colonial British reports, this is a natural ] which was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm in 1480.<ref name='rdf-7/4/07-whc'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jul/04spec.htm
| title = Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre?
| publisher = Rediff.com
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


Sri Lanka has 45 ] and 40 ]s.<ref name="unep" /> Sri Lanka's ] ecosystem spans over 7,000 ]s and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the ].<ref name="iucnas">{{cite web |url=http://www.elanguages.org/files/144094 |title=Information Brief on Mangroves in Sri Lanka |publisher=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126103137/http://www.elanguages.org/files/144094 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The island is rich in minerals such as ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="minr">{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?country=lk&product=graphite&graph=production |title=Sri Lanka Graphite Production by Year |publisher=indexmundi.com |year=2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205010400/http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?country=lk&product=graphite&graph=production |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="thor">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/node/13747 |title=Availability of sizeable deposits of thorium in Sri Lanka |work=] | year=2008 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224104852/http://www.asiantribune.com/node/13747 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Existence of ] and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.<ref name="prdssl">{{cite web |url=http://www.prds-srilanka.com/pdfs/Sri_Lanka_Seismic_EIA_Final_Report.pdf |pages=iv–vii |title=Three Dimensional Seismic Survey for Oil Exploration in Block SL-2007-01-001 in Gulf of Mannar–Sri Lanka |publisher=Cairn Lanka |year=2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126072118/http://www.prds-srilanka.com/pdfs/Sri_Lanka_Seismic_EIA_Final_Report.pdf |url-status=usurped }}</ref>
The island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these is the highest point ], reaching {{convert|2524|m|ft|0}} above sea level. The climate of Sri Lanka can be described as tropical and warm. Its position between 5 and 10 north latitude endows the country with a warm climate moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The mean temperature ranges from about {{convert|17|C|F|1}} in the ], where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of approximately {{convert|33|C|F|1|abbr=on}} in other low-altitude areas. The average yearly temperature ranges from {{convert|28|C|F|1|abbr=on}} to nearly {{convert|31|C|F|1|abbr=on}}. Day and night temperatures may vary by {{convert|14|°C-change}} to {{convert|18|°C-change}}.<ref name='temprsl'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/climate.htm
| title = Climate & Seasons: Sri Lanka
| publisher = mysrilanka.com
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref> During the coldest days of January, many people wear coats and sweaters in the highlands and elsewhere.


=== Climate ===
] from ] town.]]
{{Main|Geography_of_Sri_Lanka#Climate}}
May, the hottest period, precedes the summer ] rains. The rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal: as the winds encounter the mountain slopes of the Central Highlands, they unload heavy rains on the slopes and the southwestern areas of the island.The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes receive up to {{convert|2500|mm|in|1}} of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone", which receives between {{convert|1200|mm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|1900|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain annually.<ref name='rainf'>{{cite web
]
| url = http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/rainfall.htm
| title = Sri Lanka Rainfall
| work = mysrilanka.com
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref> Much of the rain in these areas falls from October to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at {{convert|800|mm|in|abbr=on}} to {{convert|1200|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes ]s bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Between December and March, monsoon winds come from the northeast, bringing moisture from the ]. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall, and places like ] experience daytime humidity above 79% all year round,<ref name='humd'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/
| title = Sri Lanka Climate Guide
| publisher = climatetemp.info
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref> rising to almost 90% during the ] in June. ] experiences a daytime low of 60% during the monsoon month of March, but a high of 79% during the November and December rains. In the highlands, Kandy's daytime humidity usually ranges between 75% and 83%.


The climate is ] and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from {{convert|17|°C|°F|1}} in the ], where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of {{convert|33|C|F|1|abbr=on}} in low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from {{convert|28|°C|°F|1|abbr=on}} to nearly {{convert|31|°C|°F|1|abbr=on}}. Day and night temperatures may vary by {{convert|14|C-change|F-change|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|18|C-change|F-change|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/climate.htm |title=Climate & Seasons: Sri Lanka |website=mysrilanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151923/http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/climate.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585&nbsp;km long.<ref name="unep">{{Cite web
| url = http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf
| title = Depletion of coastal resources
| publisher = ]
| year =
}}</ref> It also claims to an ] (EEZ) extending 200 ]s. This is 6.7 times the country’s land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as ] ]s, shallow beds of coastal and ] ]es. Sri Lanka inherits 45 ] and 40 ] too.<ref name="unep" />


The rainfall pattern is influenced by ] winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to {{convert|2500|mm|in|1}} of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between {{convert|1200|and|1900|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain annually.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/rainfall.htm |title=Sri Lanka Rainfall |work=mysrilanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102072708/http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/rainfall.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Flora and fauna==

The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at {{convert|800|to|1200|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes ]s bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/ |title=Sri Lanka Climate Guide |publisher=climatetemp.info |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625222627/http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/ |archive-date=25 June 2012}}</ref> An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714214438/http://cdkn.org/resource/integrating-urban-agriculture-and-forestry-into-climate-change-action-plans-lessons-from-sri-lanka/ |date=14 July 2014 }}, Marielle Dubbeling, the RUAF Foundation, 2014</ref>

=== Flora and fauna ===
{{Main|Environment of Sri Lanka|Wildlife of Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Environment of Sri Lanka|Wildlife of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|List of mammals of Sri Lanka|List of birds of Sri Lanka}}
] is one of three recognized ] of the ], and native to Sri Lanka. The country is home to some 5000 elephants.<ref name='elephses'>{{cite web
] is one of three recognised ] of the ]. The 2011 elephant census estimated a population of 5,879.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Sri-Lanka-Survey-Finds-More-Elephants-Than-Expected-129086673.html |title=Sri Lanka Survey Finds More Elephants Than Expected |date=2 September 2011 |publisher=] | access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129112134/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Sri-Lanka-Survey-Finds-More-Elephants-Than-Expected-129086673.html |archive-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
| url = http://blogs.aljazeera.net/asia/2011/08/14/tracking-sri-lankas-elephant-census
| title = Tracking Sri Lanka's elephant census
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = ]
}}</ref>]]


] of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 global ]s due to high levels of species endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.<ref name="Current Science">{{cite journal |last1=Gunawardene |first1=N. R. |last2=Daniels |first2=A. E. D. |last3=Gunatilleke |first3=I. A. U. N. |last4=Gunatilleke |first4=C. V. S. |last5=Karunakaran |first5=P. V. |last6=Nayak |first6=K. |last7=Prasad |first7=S. |last8=Puyravaud |first8=P. |last9=Ramesh |first9=B. R. |last10=Subramanian |first10=K. A |last11=Vasanthy |first11=G. |title=A brief overview of the Western Ghats—Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot |journal=Current Science |date=10 December 2007 |volume=93 |issue=11 |pages=1567–1572 |url=http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue53/bibliography/115-a-brief-overview-of-the-western-ghats.PDF |access-date=16 November 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118022902/http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue53/bibliography/115-a-brief-overview-of-the-western-ghats.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds.<ref name="mahindapala">{{cite book |last1=Mahindapala |first1=R. |editor1-last=Carew-Reid |editor1-first=J. |title=Biodiversity Planning in Asia |date=2002 |publisher=IUCN |location=Gland, Switzerland |isbn=2-8317-0643-2 |page=451 |url=http://www.icem.com.au/documents/biodiversity/bioplan/sri_lanka.pdf |chapter=Sri Lanka |access-date=17 November 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407151019/http://www.icem.com.au/documents/biodiversity/bioplan/sri_lanka.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723163108/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2014 |title=An interview with Dr. Ranil Senanayake, chairman of Rainforest Rescue International |work=news.mongabay.com |access-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country. ] are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.<ref name="redlist2012">{{cite book |last1=Weerakoon |first1=D. K. |last2=Gunawardena |first2=K. |editor1-last=Weerakoon |editor1-first=D. K. |editor2-last=Wijesundara |editor2-first=S. |title=The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora |date=2012 |publisher=Ministry of Environment |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka |isbn=978-955-0-03355-3 |page=114 |url=http://www.cea.lk/web/images/pdf/redlist2012.pdf |chapter=The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri Lanka |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713202136/http://cea.lk/web/images/pdf/redlist2012.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; The ] and the ]. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Senevirathna |first1=H.M.M.C. |last2=Perera |first2=P.K.P. |title=Wildlife Viewing Preferences of Visitors to Sri Lanka's National Parks: Implications for Visitor Management and Sustainable Tourism Planning |journal=Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment |year=2013 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.31357/JTFE.V3I2.1838 |s2cid=58915438 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Lying within the ], Sri Lanka is one of the 25 ]s in the world.<ref>{{Cite book
| author = ], ] and ]
| year = 2000
| title = Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions
| publisher = ]
| location = ], ]
| isbn = 978-9686397581
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}</ref> Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest ] per 10,000 square km in ].<ref name='envr'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.environmentlanka.com/
| title = Environment Sri Lanka
| work = www.environmentlanka.com
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref> Remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 ]s and 22% of the ]s (''see ]''), are ].<ref name='envrmong'>{{cite web
| url = http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html
| title = An interview with Dr. Ranil Senanayake, chairman of Rainforest Rescue International
| work = news.mongabay.com
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka has a wide range of topographic and climatic variation and this contributes to the special features of its biodiversity.<ref name='envr'/> It contains 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as ]s, ]s, ]s, the unique small loris, a verity of deer, the ], the endangered ], ]s and ]s. Reptiles include ] and marsh and ]. Among many ]s (''see ]'') endemic to the country are, the ] frogs in the hills.<ref name='envrnt'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.environmentlanka.com/ecotour.php
| title = Ecotourism Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
| work = www.environmentlanka.com
}}</ref> Most of the fish are river or marsh dwelling. The ], introduced by the British are found in the cool streams of the Horton plains.
] ''(])'' is an ] subspecies of ] native to Sri Lanka.]]


Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: ], ], ], and ].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |display-authors=1 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Flowering ]s flourish on the arid ]. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as ], ], ], ] and ]. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.PDF |title=Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands – Sri Lanka |page=4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027053304/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2007}}</ref>
Varieties of flowering ]s are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the ]. Among the trees of the dry-land forests, are some valuable species such as ], ], ], ] and ]. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical ], with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of ] flourish in the higher altitudes. Forests at one time covered nearly the entire island, but by the late 20th century lands classified as forests and forest reserves covered around ⅓ of the land.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.PDF
| title = Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands-- Sri Lanka
| format = PDF
| date =
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


] (''Panthera pardus kotiya'') is an ] subspecies of ] native to Sri Lanka.]]
The ] in the southeast protects herds of elephant, ], and ]s, and the ], the largest national park in Sri Lanka, in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as ]s, ]s, ], and ]s. The island has four ]s, ], ], the ], and ].<ref name="unesco biosphere reserves">{{cite web
] in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The ] in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four ]: ], ], the ], and ].<ref name="unesco biosphere reserves">{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/contact.asp?code=SRL |title=Sri Lanka |date=1 September 2006 |publisher=] |access-date=21 May 2009 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204011828/http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/contact.asp?code=SRL |url-status=live }}</ref> Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive ], the ] and the ]. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the ], which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).<ref name="Minneriya">{{cite web |url=http://trabanatours.com/locations/minneriya/ |title=Minneriya National Park |publisher=trabanatours.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=16 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516114439/http://trabanatours.com/locations/minneriya/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| url = http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/contact.asp?code=SRL
| title = Sri Lanka
| date = 01-09-2006
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 2009-05-21
}}</ref> Out of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive ], ] and ]. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Out of the 211 woody trees and lianas so far identified within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The Total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings has been estimated to be around 240,000 individuals per ].


]'' found in ].]]
In addition, Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (''see ]''). It contains several bird sanctuaries including Kumana.<ref name="unesco biosphere reserves">{{cite web
| url = http://www.srilankaecotourism.com/kumana_national_park.htm
| title = Kumana National Wildlife Park
| publisher = www.srilankaecotourism.com
| accessdate = 22 August 2011
}}</ref> During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling {{convert|1900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} as national parks. However the country's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had been fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.<ref name="coverf">{{cite web
| url = http://www.srilankanwaterfalls.net/about/forests.htm
| title = Forests of Sri Lanka
| publisher = srilankanwaterfalls.net
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref><ref name="Encarta">{{cite web
| url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568352_2/sri_lanka.html
| title = Sri Lanka
| publisher = ] Encyclopedia
| accessdate = April 22, 2009
}}</ref>


During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling {{convert|1900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.<ref name="forests">{{cite journal |last1=Ranagalage |first1=M. |last2=Gunarathna |first2=M. H. J. P. |last3=Surasinghe |first3=T. D. |last4=Dissanayake |first4=D. M. S. L. G. |last5=Simwanda |first5=M. |last6=Murayama |first6=Y. |last7=Morimoto |first7=T. |last8=Phiri |first8=D. |last9=Nyirenda |first9=V. R. |last10=Premakantha |first10=K. T. |last11=Sathurusinghe |first11=A. |title=Multi-Decadal Forest-Cover Dynamics in the Tropical Realm: Past Trends and Policy Insights for Forest Conservation in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka |journal=Forests |date=1 August 2020 |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=836 |doi=10.3390/f11080836 |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/11/8/836/pdf |doi-access=free |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110416/https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/forests/forests-11-00836/article_deploy/forests-11-00836-v2.pdf?version=1596439027 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Sri Lanka}}
], now the ].]]


== Government and politics ==
Sri Lanka is the oldest ] in ].<ref name="demcr">{{cite book
{{Main|Government of Sri Lanka|Constitution of Sri Lanka}}
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=O4aAzbmPKIcC&dq
{{expand section|is missing explication of the constitutional socialist nature of the republic that is reflected in the formal name of the country: "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka"|date=July 2022}}
| last = Syed
], near the ] in Colombo. It now serves as the ]'s headquarters.]]
| first = M.H.
| title = Encyclopaedia of Saarc Nations, Volume 3
| publisher = Gyan Publishing House
| quotte = It is anyway known for having the oldest democracy in South Asia, having an electoral system with universal franchise since 1931.
| location = ]
| isbn = 978-8178-351-25-4
| year = 2003
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Norton
| first = James H.K.
| title = India and South Asia
| publisher = ]
| location = ]
| isbn = 978-0072-432-98-5
| year = 2001
}}</ref> The ], created by the ] in 1931 enabled ]s with adult ] (universal adult franchise) in the country.<ref name="janerus">{{cite book
| last = Russell
| first = Jane
| title = Communal Politics Under the Donoughmore Constitution
| publisher = Tisara Publishers
| location = Colombo
| year = 1982
}}</ref> It was the first time, a non-caucasian country within the empires of ] was given ] and the power to control domestic affairs. The ] under the universal adult franchise held in June 1931, for the ].<ref name="demcr"/> ] ] was elected as the Leader of the House.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.parliament.lk/handbook_of_parliament/leaders_of_house.jsp
| title = The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Contents
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> In 1944, the ] was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for Independence was fought on "constitutionalist" lines under the leadership of ].<ref>{{cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=QI7HNNa48WMC&dq
| last = Kanapathipillai
| first = Valli
| title = Citizenship and Statelessness in Sri Lanka: The Case of the Tamil Estate Workers
| publisher = Anthem Press
| quote = DS Senanayake, as the leader of the UNP and the first prime minister of Sri Lanka, wore the robes of a “constitutionalist” who peacefully pressured the British for constitutional rights
| page = 187
| location = ]
| year = 2009
}}</ref> The draft constitution was enacted in the same year and Senanayake was appointed as the Prime Minister from the ]. The Soulbury constitution ushered in ] status and Independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.<ref name="janerus"/>


Sri Lanka is a ] ] and a ] which is governed by a ].<ref name="constnt">{{cite web |title=Chapter 1 – The People, The State and Sovereignty |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531083515/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |archive-date=31 May 2014 |access-date=15 July 2014 |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka}}</ref> Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Norton, James H.K. |title=India and South Asia |publisher=] | place=United States |isbn=978-0-07-243298-5 |year=2001}}</ref> Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a ] in ]. The amendment of ], including clauses on national symbols, religion, term limits, the reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state, and the entrenchment mechanism itself, requires both a two-thirds majority in Parliament and approval in a nationwide ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Walpola |first=Thilina |date=2024-07-15 |title=Creating confusion about a crystal-clear Article 83 (b) |url=https://island.lk/creating-confusion-about-a-crystal-clear-article-83-b/ |access-date=2024-11-19 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Op-ed: Are there limits to amending Sri Lanka's constitution? |url=https://constitutionnet.org/news/op-ed-are-there-limits-amending-sri-lankas-constitution |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=ConstitutionNet |language=en}}</ref> The Constitution of Sri Lanka officially declares it to be a ].<ref>{{cite constitution|article=Preamble|section=Preamble|country=the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka|language=|ratified=7 September 1978|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Preamble.html|access-date=}}</ref>
Current politics in Sri Lanka is led by rival coalitions led by the ]ist, ] ] (UPFA), an offspring of ] (SLFP),<ref name="walnub">{{cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Iudi2JJLaUAC&dq
| last = Nubin
| first = Walter
| title = Sri Lanka: current issues and historical background
| publisher = ]
| location = ]
| page = 122
| isbn = 978-1590-335-73-4
| year = 2002
}}</ref> and the comparatively ], pro-] ] (UNP).<ref name="walnub"/> Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, Sri Lanka had 67 registered political parties.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html
| title = Political Parties in Sri Lanka
| publisher = Department of Election, Sri Lanka
| date = July 2011
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> Out of these, ] (LSSP), established in 1935 is the oldest political party in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.dailynews.lk/2010/12/18/fea01.asp
| title = Sri Lanka’s oldest political party
| publisher = Daily News
| date = 18 December 2010
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was considered to be the largest single political party in Sri Lanka until recently.<ref name="unpl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.unplanka.com/
| title = UNP: The Story of the Major Tradition
| publisher = unplanka.com
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> It is the only political group which had a representation in all parliaments since the independence.<ref name="unpl"/> SLFP was founded by ], who was the ] of Local Administration when he left the UNP in July 1951.<ref name="slfps">{{cite web
| url = http://www.dailynews.lk/2009/11/16/fea03.asp
| title = Charting a new course for Sri Lanka’s success
| publisher = Daily News
| date = 16 November 2009
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> SLFP recorded its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in ].<ref name="slfps"/> Following the parliamentary election in ], ] became the prime minister and world's first elected ].<ref name="bbcsirimavo">{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_2784000/2784527.stm
| title = Ceylon chooses world's first woman PM
| publisher = ]
| date = 20 July 2960
| accessdate = 25 August 2011
}}</ref>


In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
The ] counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, ],<ref name="socs">{{cite book
* '''Executive''': The ] is the ]; the ] of the armed forces; ], and is popularly elected for a five-year term.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Executive Presidency |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921054039/http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=15 July 2014 |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka}}</ref> The president heads the ] and appoints ] from elected ].<ref>{{cite web |date=20 November 2003 |title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Contents |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118180853/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html |archive-date=18 November 2014 |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka}}</ref> The president is immune from legal proceedings while in the office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential Immunity |url=http://www.constitution.lk/static_pages/view/26 |publisher=constitution.lk}}{{dead link|date=July 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Following the passage of the ] in 2015, the president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=m4Y9AAAAYAAJ&q
* '''Legislative''': The ] is a ] 225-member legislature with 196 members elected from 22 multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution of the Parliamentary System |url=http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616221401/http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp |archive-date=16 June 2010 |publisher=]}}</ref> Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament at any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.<ref name="parliam">{{cite web |title=The Legislative Power of Parliament |url=http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616221100/http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp |archive-date=16 June 2010 |publisher=]}}</ref> The president's deputy and ], the ], leads the ] in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
| author = Society of Jesus in India
]
| title = New review, Volume 23
* '''Judicial''': Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a ] – the highest and final superior court of record,<ref name="parliam" /> a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.<ref name="unpanh">{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka public administration |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023242.pdf |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=] |page=2 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055202/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023242.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Criminal law is based almost entirely on ]. Basic civil law derives from ]. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are ].<ref name="lawsd">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Sri Lanka |newspaper=U.S. Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=] |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604192233/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Because of ancient customary practices and religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the ], and ] law are followed in special cases.<ref name="custmryl">{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka Society & Culture: Customs, Rituals & Traditions |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit.html |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=lankalibrary.com |archive-date=18 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618224748/http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the ] and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
| publisher = Macmillan and co. ltd.
| location = ]
| page = 78
| isbn =
| year = 1946
}}</ref> founded the ] (ACTC) in 1944. Because of Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by ] broke away in 1949 and formed the ] (ITAK) ''aka'' Federal Party. It was the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next 2 decades.<ref name="poltitak">{{cite book
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC&dq
| author = Lakshman, W. D. and ]
| title = Sri Lanka's development since independence: socio-economic perspectives and analyses
| publisher = ]
| location = ]
| page = 80
| isbn = 978-1560-727-84-2
| year = 2000
}}</ref> Federal party advocated a more aggressive stance vis-à-vis the Sinhalese.<ref name="postcolhist">{{cite web
| url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/postcolonial_history.htm
| title = Sri Lanka: Post Colonial History
| publisher = Lanka Library
| accessdate = 25 August 2011
}}</ref> With the constitutional reforms of 1972, these parties created a common front, the Tamil United Front (later ]). ], formed in October 2001 is the current successor of these Tamil political parties which had undergone much turbulences as Tamil militants' rise to power in late 1970s.<ref name="postcolhist"/><ref name="tnas">{{cite web
| url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/24/sri-lanka-tamil-national-alliance-denies-having-talks-buddhist-prelates
| title = Sri Lanka Tamil National Alliance denies having talks with Buddhist prelates
| publisher = ]
| date = 24 February 2011
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> ], a ] political party, founded by ] in 1965, serves as the 3rd force in the current political context.<ref name="jvpnew">{{cite web
| url = http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf
| title = Revolutionary Idealism and Parliamentary Politics
| publisher = Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences
| date = December 2010
| accessdate = 23 August 2011
}}</ref> It endorses radical leftist policies, with respect to the traditionalist leftist politics of LSSP and ].<ref name="postcolhist"/>


===Government=== === Politics ===
{{Main|Constitution of Sri Lanka|Elections in Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Politics of Sri Lanka|Elections in Sri Lanka}}
{{Sri Lankan symbols}} {{Sri Lankan symbols}}
Sri Lanka is a ], ] ] and a ] which is governed by a ], with a mixture of a ] and a ].<ref name="constnt">{{cite web
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html
| title = Chapter 1 - The People, The State and Sovereignty
| publisher = The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 25 August 2011
}}</ref> It constitutes a ] governed under the ]. Most provisions of the Constitution of Sri Lanka can be amended by a ] in ]. However, the amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval at a nation-wide ].
]


The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the ] and ] ] (UPFA), an offspring of ] (SLFP), and the comparatively ] and pro-] ] (UNP). After 2018, two major political parties have split from these two parties: The ] split from the UNP, and the ] split from the UPFA. The third wing party ] has gained popularity after 2022.
The Sri Lankan government has 3 branches:
* ''']''': The ] is the ], the ] of the ], as well as ], and is popularly elected for a six-year term.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html
| title = The Executive Presidency
| publisher = The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the parliament. The President appoints and heads a ] of ] composed of elected ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html
| title = The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Contents
| publisher = The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka
| date = 2003-11-20
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> President is immune from legal proceedings while in office in respect of any acts done or omitted to be done by him either in his official or private capacity.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.constitution.lk/static_pages/view/26
| title = Presidential Immunity
| publisher = constitution.lk
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> With the 18th amendment to the constitution in 2010, the President has no term limit, which previously stood at 2.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://groundviews.org/2010/09/02/the-18th-amendment-to-the-constitution-process-and-substance/
| title = The 18th Amendment to the Constitution: Process and Substance
| publisher = groundviews.org
| date = 2 September 2010
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref>


<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=95}}</ref> Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919123154/http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 September 2011 |title=Political Parties in Sri Lanka |publisher=Department of Election, Sri Lanka |date=July 2011 |access-date=23 August 2011 }}</ref> Of these, the ] (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/12/18/fea01.asp |title=Sri Lanka's oldest political party |work=Daily News |date=18 December 2010 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824024913/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/12/18/fea01.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''']''': The ], is a ] 225-member ] with 196 members elected in multi-seat ] and 29 by ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp
| title = Evolution of the Parliamentary System
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified ] system by district to a six-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.<ref name="parliam">{{cite web
| url = http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp
| title = The Legislative Power of Parliament
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> President's deputy, the ], leads the ] in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.


The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.<ref name="unpl">{{cite web |url=http://www.unplanka.com/ |title=UNP: The Story of the Major Tradition |publisher=unplanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518080126/http://unplanka.com/ |archive-date=18 May 2014}}</ref> It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.<ref name="unpl" /> SLFP was founded by ] in July 1951.<ref name="slfps">{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/11/16/fea03.asp |title=Charting a new course for Sri Lanka's success |work=Daily News |date=16 November 2009 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=20 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220161248/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/11/16/fea03.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in the ].<ref name="slfps" /> Following the parliamentary election in ], ] became the prime minister and the world's first elected ].<ref name="bbcsirimavo">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_2784000/2784527.stm |title=Ceylon chooses world's first woman PM |publisher=BBC |date=20 July 1960 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307032617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_2784000/2784527.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''']''': Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a ] - the highest and final superior court of record,<ref name="parliam"/> a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. Its highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.<ref name="unpanh">{{cite web
| url = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023242.pdf
| title = Sri Lanka public administration
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> The ] is almost entirely based on ]. Basic ] relates to the ] and ]. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are ].<ref name="lawsd">{{cite web
| url = http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm
| title = Background Note: Sri Lanka
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 25 August 2011
}}</ref> In addition Sinhala customary law and ] too are practiced.<ref name="unpanh"/> The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the ] and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.


], the ] counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,<ref name="socs">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4Y9AAAAYAAJ |author=Society of Jesus in India |title=New review, Volume 23 |publisher=Macmillan and co. ltd. |place=India |page=78 |year=1946 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110417/https://books.google.com/books?id=m4Y9AAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> founded the ] (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by ] broke away in 1949 and formed the ] (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.<ref name="poltitak">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC|first1=Lakshman|last1=W. D.|author-link2=Clem Tisdell|last2=Tisdell|first2=Clem|title=Sri Lanka's development since independence: socio-economic perspectives and analyses|publisher=]|place=]|page=80|isbn=978-1-56072-784-2|year=2000|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=6 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110417/https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC|url-status=live}}</ref> The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.<ref name="postcolhist">{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/postcolonial_history.htm |title=Sri Lanka: Post Colonial History |publisher=Lanka Library |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126130640/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/postcolonial_history.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later ]). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the ].<ref name="postcolhist" /><ref name="tnas">{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/24/sri-lanka-tamil-national-alliance-denies-having-talks-buddhist-prelates |title=Sri Lanka Tamil National Alliance denies having talks with Buddhist prelates |newspaper=] |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=23 August 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123053/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/24/sri-lanka-tamil-national-alliance-denies-having-talks-buddhist-prelates |url-status=live }}</ref> ], a ] political party founded by ] in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.<ref name="jvpnew">{{cite web |url=http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf |page=139 |title=Revolutionary Idealism and Parliamentary Politics |publisher=Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences |date=December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920090225/http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2011}}</ref> It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the ].<ref name="postcolhist" /> Founded in 1981, the ] is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.<ref name="muslcon">{{cite web |url=http://www.sangam.org/2011/02/SL_Muslims.php?uid=4258 |title=Sri Lankan Muslims: Between ethno-nationalism and the global ummah |work=Dennis B. McGilvray |publisher=] |date=January 2011 |access-date=29 April 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306194038/http://www.sangam.org/2011/02/SL_Muslims.php?uid=4258 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Administrative divisions===
{{Sri Lankan Provinces and districts|float=right}}{{Main|Provinces of Sri Lanka|Districts of Sri Lanka|Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|List of cities in Sri Lanka|List of towns in Sri Lanka}}


President ] lost the ], ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, ], decided not to seek re-election in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka President Sirisena abandons re-election bid |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka-president-sirisena-abandons-re-election-bid |work=The Straits Times |date=6 October 2019 |language=en |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123143110/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka-president-sirisena-abandons-re-election-bid |url-status=live }}</ref> The Rajapaksa family regained power in November ] when Mahinda's younger brother and former wartime defence chief ] won the election, and he was later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2020/03/05/sri-lankas-ruling-party-calls-an-election-hoping-for-a-landslide |title=Sri Lanka's ruling party calls an election, hoping for a landslide |date=5 March 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309095940/https://www.economist.com/asia/2020/03/05/sri-lankas-ruling-party-calls-an-election-hoping-for-a-landslide |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/17/world/asia/sri-lanka-Gotabaya-Rajapaksa-election.html |title=Gotabaya Rajapaksa Wins Sri Lanka Presidential Election |first1=Dharisha |last1=Bastians |first2=Kai |last2=Schultz |date=17 November 2019 |work=The New York Times |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304005105/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/17/world/asia/sri-lanka-Gotabaya-Rajapaksa-election.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Their firm grip of power was consolidated in the ] in August 2020. The family's political party, ] (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/9/mahinda-rajapaksa-sworn-in-as-sri-lankas-pm-after-record-victory |title=Mahinda Rajapaksa sworn in as Sri Lanka's PM |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=7 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307092414/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/9/mahinda-rajapaksa-sworn-in-as-sri-lankas-pm-after-record-victory |url-status=live }}</ref>
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into 9 ]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html
| title = The Constitution of Sri Lanka - Eighth Schedule
| publisher = Priu.gov.lk
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> and 25 ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html
| title = The Constitution of Sri Lanka - First Schedule
| publisher = Priu.gov.lk
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


In 2022, a ] started due to the power struggle between ] ] and the ]. The crisis was fuelled by ] and also due to the worsening ] since 2019. The anti-government sentiment across various parts of Sri Lanka has triggered unprecedented political instability, creating shockwaves in the political arena.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajapaksa Clan Losing Grip on Power in Sri Lanka |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/04/rajapaksa-clan-losing-grip-on-power-in-sri-lanka/ |access-date=2022-04-10 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US |archive-date=30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430192710/https://thediplomat.com/2022/04/rajapaksa-clan-losing-grip-on-power-in-sri-lanka/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
;Provinces


On July 20, 2022, ] was elected as the ninth President via a ].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jayasinghe |first1=Uditha |last2=Pal |first2=Alasdair |last3=Ghoshal |first3=Devjyot |title=Sri Lanka gets new president in six-time PM Wickremesinghe |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/sri-lanka-could-tip-back-chaos-if-six-time-pm-voted-president-2022-07-20/ |work=Reuters |date=21 July 2022 |language=en |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929043828/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/sri-lanka-could-tip-back-chaos-if-six-time-pm-voted-president-2022-07-20/ |url-status=live }}</ref> President Ranil Wickremesinghe was defeated by left-leaning ] in 2024 presidential ].<ref>{{cite news |title=New Sri Lanka President Anura Kumara Dissanayake sworn in – DW – 09/23/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/new-sri-lanka-president-anura-kumara-dissanayake-sworn-in/a-70297993 |work=dw.com |language=en}}</ref>
Provinces ({{lang-si|පළාත}}{{lang-ta|மாகாணம்}}) have existed in Sri Lanka since the 19th century. But they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for a ] of the ].<ref name="official">{{cite web
| url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html
| title = Provincial Councils
| publisher = The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka
| date = 2010-09-03
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> The provincial council is an autonomous body and is not under any Ministry. It undertakes activities which had earlier been undertaken by the Central Government Ministries, Departments, Corporations and Statutory Authorities.<ref name="official"/> But importantly, land and police authorities are not given to provincial councils in practice.<ref name="landpolc">{{cite web
| url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/lanka-heads-for-collision-course-with-india/802524/
| title = Lanka heads for collision course with India: Report
| publisher = Indian Express
| date = 12 June 2011
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref><ref name="landpolc2">{{cite web
| url = http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296:accepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1:latest&Itemid=121
| title = Accepting reality and building trust
| work = Jehan Perera
| publisher = peace-srilanka.org
| date = 14 September 2010
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> Between 1988 and 2006 the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the ].<ref name="lnpx">{{cite web
| url = http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html
| title = North-East merger illegal:SC
| publisher = LankaNewspapers.com
| date = 17 October 2006
| accessdate = 22 August 2009
}}</ref><ref name="norteastn">{{cite web
| url = http://southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cnotes4%5Cnote344.html
| title = North East De-merger-At What Cost? Update No.107
| work = R Hariharan (retd.)
| publisher = southasiaanalysis.org
| date = 19 October 2010
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> Prior to 1987, all administration was handled by a ] civil service which had been in place since ]. Each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:


== Administrative divisions ==
{| class="toc" border="0" style="width:50%; font-size:90%"
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka}}

For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html |title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Eighth Schedule |publisher=Priu.gov.lk |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025856/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html |archive-date=16 October 2014 }}</ref> and twenty-five ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html |title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – First Schedule |publisher=Priu.gov.lk |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025819/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html |archive-date=16 October 2014 }}</ref>

=== Provinces ===
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a ] of the government.<ref name="official">{{cite web |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html |title=Provincial Councils |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka |date=3 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707214924/http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html |archive-date=7 July 2009 }}</ref> Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,<ref name="official" /> but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.<ref name="landpolc">{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/lanka-heads-for-collision-course-with-india/802524/ |title=Lanka heads for collision course with India: Report |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=12 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="landpolc2">{{cite web |url=http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296:accepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1:latest&Itemid=121 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006012934/http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296%3Aaccepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1%3Alatest&Itemid=121 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 October 2010 |title=Accepting reality and building trust |work=Jehan Perera |publisher=peace-srilanka.org |date=14 September 2010 }}</ref> Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the ].<ref name="lnpx">{{cite web |url=http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html |title=North-East merger illegal: SC |publisher=LankaNewspapers.com |date=17 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524142033/http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html |archive-date=24 May 2009 }}</ref><ref name="norteastn">{{cite web |url=http://southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cnotes4%5Cnote344.html |title=North East De-merger-At What Cost? Update No. 107 |work=Hariharan, R. |publisher=southasiaanalysis.org |date=19 October 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613022544/http://southasiaanalysis.org/notes4/note344.html |archive-date=13 June 2010}}</ref> Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:

{{Sri Lankan Provinces and districts|float=left}}
{| cellspacing="2px"
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:85%;"
|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:right;"
! style="width:160px;"| ] !! style="width:85px;" | Capital !! style="width:75px;" | Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>) !! style="width:70px;" | Population (2012)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/pophousat/cph2011/pages/activities/Reports/SriLanka.pdf |title=Census of Population and Housing Sri Lanka 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=26 March 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119041206/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/pophousat/cph2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/SriLanka.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> !! style="width:100px;" | Density<br />(Persons per km<sup>2</sup>) !! style="width:100px;" | Provincial GDP share (%) (2022)<ref>{{cite web |title=Provincial Gross Domestic Product (PGDP) - 2022 |url=https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/press/pr/press_pgdp_2022_e.pdf |website=cbsl.gov.lk |publisher=Central Bank of Sri Lanka |access-date=26 February 2024 |date=2023 }}</ref> !! style="width:100px;" | Sri Lanka Prosperity Index (2021)<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka Prosperity Index - 2021 |url=https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/press/pr/press_20221230_sri_lanka_prosperity_index_2021_e.pdf |website=cbsl.gov.lk |publisher=Central Bank of Sri Lanka |access-date=26 September 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330010354/https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/press/pr/press_20221230_sri_lanka_prosperity_index_2021_e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|5,674 || style="text-align:right"|2,571,557 || style="text-align:right"| 453 || style="text-align:right"|10.0 || style="text-align:right"|0.559
! colspan="8" style="background:#629BAB; color:white; font-weight:bold" | Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka
|- style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"
! style="background:lavender; width:10%" | ]
! style="background:lavender; width:10%" | ]
! style="background:lavender; width:10%" | ] (km²)
! style="background:lavender; width:10%" | ]<br>(sq mi)
! style="background:lavender; width:10%" | ]
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|9,996 || style="text-align:right"|1,555,510 || style="text-align:right"| 155 || style="text-align:right"|5.2 || style="text-align:right"|0.519
| ]
| ]
| align="right" | 5,674
| align="right" | {{convert|5674|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| align="right" | 2,423,966
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|10,714 || style="text-align:right"|1,266,663 || style="text-align:right"| 118 || style="text-align:right"|5.0 || style="text-align:right"|0.521
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 9,996
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | {{convert|9996|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 1,460,939
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|7,812 || style="text-align:right"|2,380,861 || style="text-align:right"| 305 || style="text-align:right"|11.2 || style="text-align:right"|0.541
| ]
| ]
| align="right" | 10,714
| align="right" | {{convert|10714|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| align="right" | 1,104,664
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|8,884 || style="text-align:right"|1,061,315 || style="text-align:right"| 119 || style="text-align:right"|4.1 || style="text-align:right"|0.564
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 8,884
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | {{convert|8884|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 1,311,776
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|4,902 || style="text-align:right"|1,928,655 || style="text-align:right"| 393 || style="text-align:right"|7.1 || style="text-align:right"|0.499
| ]
| ]
| align="right" | 7,812
| align="right" | {{convert|7812|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| align="right" | 2,169,892
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|5,559 || style="text-align:right"|2,477,285 || style="text-align:right"| 446 || style="text-align:right"|9.1 || style="text-align:right"|0.582
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 4,902
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | {{convert|4902|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 1,801,331
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|8,488 || style="text-align:right"|1,266,463 || style="text-align:right"| 149 || style="text-align:right"|4.9 || style="text-align:right"|0.468
| ]
| ]
| align="right" | 5,559
| align="right" | {{convert|5559|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| align="right" | 2,278,271
|- |-
| ] || ] || style="text-align:right"|3,709 || style="text-align:right"|5,851,130 || style="text-align:right"| 1,578 || style="text-align:right"|43.4 || style="text-align:right"|0.802
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0" | ]
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 8,488
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | {{convert|8488|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| style="background:#f0f0f0; text-align:right" | 1,177,358
|- |-
| Sri Lanka || ] and ] || style="text-align:right" |65,610 || style="text-align:right"|20,359,439 || style="text-align:right"| 310 || style="text-align:right"|100 || style="text-align:right"|0.796
| ]
| ]
| align="right" | 3,709
| align="right" | {{convert|3709|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}}
| align="right" | 5,361,200
|} |}
|}
{{clear}}


;Districts and local authorities === Districts and local authorities ===
Each district is administered under a ]. The districts are further subdivided into 256 ], and these to approximately 14,008 ] divisions.<ref name="tstasgov">{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf |page=3 |title=List of Codes for the Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka 2001 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519151751/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2011}}</ref> The districts are known in Sinhala as ''disa'' and in Tamil as ''māwaddam''. Originally, a ''disa'' (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a ], notably Matale and Uva.

Sri Lanka is also divided into 25 ] ({{lang-si|දිස්ත්‍රි‌ක්‌ක ''sing.'' දිස්ත්‍රික්කය}}{{lang-ta|மாவட்டம்}}).<ref name="distrsl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.ds.gov.lk/dis_sec/dis_eng/District_Secretariats.php
| title = District Secretariats Portal
| publisher = District an Divisional Secretariats
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> Each district is administered under a ]. The districts are further subdivided into 256 ], and these in turn to approximately 14,008 ] divisions.<ref name="tstasgov">{{cite web
| url = http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf
| title = List of Codes for the Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka 2001
| publisher = Department of Census and Statistics
| accessdate = 26 August 2011
}}</ref> The Districts are known in Sinhala as ''Disa'' and in Tamil as ''Maawaddam''. Originally a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a ], notably Matale and Uva. The ], who is known as ''District Secretary'', administers a district.


There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).<ref>{{Cite book |author=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |title=Commonwealth Local Government Handbook |place=London |isbn=978-0-9542917-9-2 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM1oHe3eTIC |author-link=Commonwealth Secretariat |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110419/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM1oHe3eTIC |url-status=live }}</ref> Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named ''korale'' and ''rata'', and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Dilesh Jayanntha |year=2006 |title=Electoral Allegiance in Sri Lanka |place=London |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-02975-9 |pages=82–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkr3ra6gR2YC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110418/https://books.google.com/books?id=nkr3ra6gR2YC |url-status=live }}</ref> Later, the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.
There are also 3 other types of local authorities. These are, Municipal Councils (18), Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabhas (''aka'' Pradesha Sabhai) (256).<ref>{{Cite book
| author = ]
| year = 2004
| title = Commonwealth Local Government Handbook
| location = ]
| isbn = 978-0954-291-79-2
| page = 146
}}</ref> Local authorities were originally based on the feudal ], the ''korale''s and ''rata''s. They were formerly known as 'D.R.O. Divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'.<ref>{{Cite book
| author = Dilesh Jayanntha
| year = 2006
| title = Electoral Allegiance in Sri Lanka
| location = ]
| publisher = ]
| isbn = 978-0521-029-75-9
| page = 82-85
}}</ref> Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the Divisions were known as 'A.G.A. Divisions'. Currently, the Divisions are administered by a 'Divisional Secretary', and are known as a ].
{{List of Sri Lankan cities by population}}


==Foreign relations and military== == Foreign relations ==
{{Main|Foreign relations of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka Armed Forces}} {{Main|Foreign relations of Sri Lanka}}{{See also|Sri Lanka and the Non-Aligned Movement}}
] gifting ], a baby elephant to US President ] in 1984]]
{{See also|South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|Non-Aligned Movement}}
] with ] ], at ], in June 2011.]]


Sri Lanka is a founding member of the ] (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated ].<ref name="relatns">{{Cite news |title=Foreign Relations |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/74.htm |work=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331174753/http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/74.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Sri Lanka became a member of the ] in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ].
Since its independence in 1948, Sri Lanka has maintained and expanded relationships with most of the countries in the world. Analysis of its foreign relationships helps to recognise two most important traits. One is its commitment in principle to nonalignment, being a a founding member of the ] (NAM). Second one is the attempt to preserve satisfactory relations with ] without sacrificing its independence.<ref name='relatns'>{{Cite news
| title = Foreign Relations
| url = http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/74.htm
| work = countrystudies.us
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> It became a member of the ] in 1955. Sri Lanka also is a member of the ], the ], ], ], ] and the ]. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.


The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.<ref name="relatns" /> Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Colombo Plan at 57 |url=http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4 |work=] | author=Jayasekera, Upali S. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113150629/http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4 |archive-date=13 January 2012}}</ref> At the ] in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free ] and refused to accept payment of reparations for ] damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sri Lanka excels at the San Francisco Peace Conference |url=http://pdfs.island.lk/2009/09/07/p12.pdf |work=The Island |date=7 September 2009 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111157/http://pdfs.island.lk/2009/09/07/p12.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important ] in 1952.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Lanka-China bilateral ties at its zenith |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp |work=The Sunday Observer |date=3 October 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082628/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> Sri Lanka played a vital role at the ] in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bandung Conference of 1955 and the resurgence of Asia and Africa |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2005/04/21/fea01.htm |work=The Daily News |date=21 April 2005 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231075624/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2005/04/21/fea01.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
One of the two parties that have governed Sri Lanka since its independence, ], is traditionally biased towards the West, with respect to its left-leaning counterpart, ].<ref name='relatns'/> Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with the then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the ] at Commonwealth Foreign Minister’s Conference held in Colombo in 1950.<ref name='colpln'>{{Cite news
| title = Colombo Plan at 57
| url = http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4
| work = ]
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> In a remarkable move, Sri Lanka spoke in defence for a free ], while many coutries were reluctant to allow a free Japan, at the ] in 1951, and refused to accept the payment of reparations for that damage it had done to the country during ], that would harm Japan's economy.<ref name='sanfrnc'>{{Cite news
| title = Sri Lanka excels at the San Francisco Peace Conference
| url = http://pdfs.island.lk/2009/09/07/p12.pdf
| work = The Island
| date = 7 Sptember 2009
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the ] was formed in 1949. Two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.<ref name='rrpact'>{{Cite news
| title = Lanka-China bilateral ties at its zenith
| url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp
| work = The Sunday Observer
| date = 3 October 2010
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka played a vital role in ] in 1955, which was an important step toward the crystallization of the NAM.<ref name='bandcn'>{{Cite news
| title = Bandung Conference of 1955 and the resurgence of Asia and Africa
| url = http://www.dailynews.lk/2005/04/21/fea01.htm
| work = The Daily News
| date = 21 April 2005
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref>


The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under ] in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary ] paid a visit to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Lanka-Cuba relations should be strengthened |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/01/14/new24.html |work=The Daily News |date=14 January 2004 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231070650/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/01/14/new24.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] of 1964<ref>{{Cite news |title=29 October 1964 |url=http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/ |work=Pact.lk |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128112857/http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/ |archive-date=28 January 2015 }}</ref> and ] of 1974<ref>{{Cite news |title=Statelessness abolished? |url=http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News |work=cope.nu |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813065808/http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News |archive-date=13 August 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the ] over the status of ]. In 1974, ], a small island in ], was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite news |title=India-Sri Lanka: 1921 Conference On Fisheries And Ceding Of Kachchatheevu – Analysis |url=http://www.albanytribune.com/22082011-india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis/ |work=Albany Tribune |date=22 August 2011 |author=Suryanarayan, V. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402073824/http://www.albanytribune.com/22082011-india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis/ |archive-date=2 April 2012}}</ref> By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the ] was held in Colombo in 1976.<ref>{{Cite news |title=NAM Golden Jubilee this year |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp |work=The Sunday Observer |date=10 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095243/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of ].<ref name="atimes" /><ref name="indnrel">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/09700160008455216 |title=Indo-Sri Lankan security perceptions: Divergences and convergences |journal=Strategic Analysis |volume=24 |issue=2 |page=343 |year=2000 |last1=Murthy |first1=P. |s2cid=154512767}}</ref> As a result, ] and subsequently deployed an ] in 1987.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fIndia |title=India airlifts aid to Tamil rebels |newspaper=The New York Times |date=5 June 1987 |author=Weisman, Steven R. |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=19 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219034919/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2FNews%2FWorld%2FCountries%20and%20Territories%2FIndia |url-status=live }}</ref> In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31707.pdf |page=6 |title=Sri Lanka: Background and U.S. Relations |publisher=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126061136/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31707.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/02/09/russia-and-sri-lanka-strengthen-bilateral-relations |title=Russia and Sri Lanka to strengthen bilateral relations |newspaper=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201213355/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/02/09/russia-and-sri-lanka-strengthen-bilateral-relations |url-status=live }}</ref> and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/04/world-leaders-send-warm-greeting-sri-lanka-independence-day |title=World leaders send warm greeting to Sri Lanka on Independence Day |newspaper=] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201213317/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/04/world-leaders-send-warm-greeting-sri-lanka-independence-day |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 took a sharp turn from the pro-western policies of UNP government. Sri Lanka immediately recognised the new ] under ] in 1959. Shortly after, Cuba's legendary revolutionary ] paid a visit to Sri Lanka.<ref name='chevist'>{{Cite news
| title = 'Lanka-Cuba relations should be strengthened'
| url = http://www.dailynews.lk/2004/01/14/new24.html
| work = The Daily News
| date = 14 January 2004
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> The '']-] Pact'' of 1964<ref name='sspact'>{{Cite news
| title = 29 October 1964
| url = http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/
| work = Pact.lk
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> and ''Sirima-] Pact'' of 1974<ref name='sgpact'>{{Cite news
| title = Statelessness abolished?
| url = http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News
| work = cope.nu
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the ] over the status of ]. In 1974, ], a small island in ] was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.<ref name='kach'>{{Cite news
| title = India-Sri Lanka: 1921 Conference On Fisheries And Ceding Of Kachchatheevu – Analysis
| url = http://www.albanytribune.com/india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis-22082011/
| work = Albany Tribune
| date = 22 August 2011
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM and ] held the fifth NAM summit of 1976.<ref name='namsm'>{{Cite news
| title = NAM Golden Jubilee this year
| url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp
| work = Sunday Observer
| date = 10 July 2011
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tensed under the government of ].<ref name="atimes1">{{cite web
| url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html
| title = Chapter 30: Whirlpool of violence, Sri Lanka: The Untold Story
| publisher = Asia Times
| year = 2002
| accessdate = 2011-07-25
}}</ref><ref name="indnrel">{{cite web
| url = http://www.idsa-india.org/an-may-08.html
| title = Indo-Sri Lankan Security Perceptions: Divergences and Convergences
| publisher = idsa-india.org
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> As a result, India ] in Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed the ] in 1987.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fIndia
| title = India airlifts aid to tamil rebels
| publisher = ]
| date = 5 June 1987
| first = Steven R.
| last = Weisman
| accessdate = April 9, 2010
}}</ref> In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31707.pdf
| title = Sri Lanka: Background and U.S. Relations
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> ]<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/02/09/russia-and-sri-lanka-strengthen-bilateral-relations
| title = Russia and Sri Lanka to strengthen bilateral relations
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/04/world-leaders-send-warm-greeting-sri-lanka-independence-day
| title = World leaders send warm greeting to Sri Lanka on Independence Day
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 27 August 2011
}}</ref>


== Military ==
]
The ], comprising the ], the ], and the ], come under the purview of the ].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sri-lanka/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Sr Lanka |publisher=] |date=16 August 2011 |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217185333/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sri-lanka/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2010 |pages=370–371 |author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies |editor=Hackett, James |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=] | place=London |isbn=978-1-85743-557-3 |ref=IISS2010}}</ref> Sri Lanka has not enforced ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_con-military-conscription |title=Conscription (most recent) by country |publisher=NationMaster |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231015536/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_con-military-conscription |url-status=live }}</ref> Paramilitary units include the ], the ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/sri-lanka-coast-guard-sets-up-bases/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194800/http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/sri-lanka-coast-guard-sets-up-bases/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2016 |title=Sri Lanka coast guard sets up bases |publisher=Lanka Business Online |date=10 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04 |title=Coast Guard bill passed in Parliament |publisher=] | date=7 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213156/http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04 |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref>


Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by ] militants of the ] and a 26-year-long conflict with the ]. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8063409.stm |title=How Sri Lanka's military won |work=BBC News |date=22 May 2009 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307021811/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8063409.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Doucet |first=Lyse |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308610 |title=UN 'failed Sri Lanka civilians', says internal probe |work=BBC News |date=13 November 2012 |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308610 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in ] ] operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in ], ], and ].<ref name="unmissions09">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2012/March12_3.pdf |title=UN Mission's Summary detailed by Country – March 2012 |page=33 |publisher=] |date=April 2012 |access-date=29 April 2012 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212201338/http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2012/March12_3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
The ], comprising the ], the ] and the ], comes under the ] of the ] (MoD).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web
| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html
| title = CIA World Factbook: Sr Lanka
| publisher = ]
| date = 16 August 2011
| accessdate = 21 August 2011}}</ref> The total strength of the three services is around 259,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The Military Balance 2010, pp. 370-371
| author1 = International Institute for Strategic Studies
| authorlink1 = International Institute for Strategic Studies
| author2 = Hackett, James (ed.)
| date = 2010-02-03
| publisher = ]
| location = ]
| isbn = 1857435575
| ref = IISS2010
}}</ref> Sri Lanka has not enforced ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_con-military-conscription
| title = Conscription (most recent) by country
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> In support of the armed forces there are three paramilitary units functioning under purview of the Ministry of Defence, which are the ], the ] and the ]<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/fullstory.php?nid=507417129
| title = Sri Lanka coast guard sets up bases
| publisher = Lanka Business Online
| date = 2009-08-10
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04
| title = Coast Guard bill passed in Parliament
| publisher = ]
| date = 2009-10-07
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


Sri Lanka is the 100th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf}}</ref>
Since independence from ] in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been on internal security, due to three major insurgencies, two by ] militants of the ] and a 30 year long conflict with the ] which has been ] as a ] by ]. Due to these conflicts, the armed forces had expanded to its current size and are in a continuous mobilized state for the last 30 years.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8063409.stm
| title = How Sri Lanka's military won
| publisher = ]
| date = 22 May 2009
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> Marking a rare occurrence in modern military history, Sri Lankan military was able to bring a decisive end to the ] in May 2009.<ref name='mod-defeat'>{{Cite news
| title = LTTE defeated; Sri Lanka liberated from terror
| date = 2009-05-18
| url = http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090518_10
| work = ]
| accessdate = 2009-05-18
}}</ref> Sri Lanka claimed itself as the first country in the modern world to eradicate ] on its own soil.<ref name='mod-defeat12'>{{Cite news
| title = The latest 'horror drama'
| date = 2009-05-22
| url = http://defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20100522_09
| work = ]
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka receives considerable military assistance from Pakistan and China.<ref name='IANS1'>{{Cite news
| first = Rahul
| last = Bedi
| title = Sri Lanka turns to Pakistan, China for military needs
| date = 2007-06-02
| publisher = Urdustan.com
| url = http://www.indianmuslims.info/news/2007/jun/02/sri_lanka_turns_pakistan_china_military_needs.html
| work = IANS
| accessdate = 2007-06-02
}}</ref> Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in ] ] operations since the early 1960s. Even though its armed forces were then engaged in an internal conflict, Sri Lanka, since 2002, contributed with forces as permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in ], ] and notably the ].<ref name="unmissions09">{{cite web
| url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/2009/feb09_5.pdf
| title = UN Mission's Contributions by Country
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref><ref name="unfacts">{{cite web
| url = http://www.un.org/depts/dpko/missions/minustah/facts.html
| title = United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 2007-11-25
}}</ref>


==Economy== == Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Economy of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|Tea production in Sri Lanka|Tourism in Sri Lanka|Transport in Sri Lanka}} {{See also|Agriculture in Sri Lanka|Tea production in Sri Lanka|Tourism in Sri Lanka|Transport in Sri Lanka}}
]


According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's ] in terms of ] is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of ]. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a ] famous for its production and export of ], ], and ], which remains a trademark national export.<ref name="plnyn">{{cite web |url=http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html |title=Echoes of a Plantation Economy |publisher=historyofceylontea.com |author=Fernando, Maxwell |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117155721/http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html |archive-date=17 January 2012}}</ref> The ] under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.<ref name="startim">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia |title=The Strategic Importance of Sri Lanka to Australia |publisher=asiapacificdefencereporter.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140807181932/http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia |archive-date=7 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and a ] established. In 1977, the ] economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.<ref name="filbrn">{{cite web |url=http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561 |title=Sri Lanka – an Overview |publisher=] |access-date=20 August 2011 |archive-date=16 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316231316/http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561 |url-status=live }}</ref>
According to the ], Sri Lanka claims to a US$50 billion economy as of 2010.<ref name="imfsl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=95&pr1.y=12&c=524&s=NGDP_R%2CNGDP_RPCH%2CNGDP%2CNGDPD%2CNGDP_D%2CNGDPRPC%2CNGDPPC%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPPPSH%2CPPPEX%2CNID_NGDP%2CNGSD_NGDP%2CPCPI%2CPCPIPCH%2CPCPIE%2CPCPIEPCH%2CTM_RPCH%2CTMG_RPCH%2CTX_RPCH%2CTXG_RPCH%2CTXGO%2CTMGO%2CLUR%2CLP%2CGGR%2CGGR_NGDP%2CGGX%2CGGX_NGDP%2CGGXCNL%2CGGXCNL_NGDP%2CNGDP_FY%2CBCA%2CBCA_NGDPD&grp=0&a=
| title = Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Sri Lanka
| publisher = ]
| date = April 2011
| accessdate = 21 August 2011}}</ref> It has a ] of US$106.5 billion in terms of ]. Sri Lanka is next only to ] in the South Asian region in terms of ], with a nominal value of US$2,435 and PPP value of US$5,220.<ref name="imfsl"/> It recorded a GDP growth of 8.2% in 2010 and it is estimated that GDP will grow by 9.5% in 2011, becoming one of the ] of the world.<ref name="imfsl"/> ] was the best performing stock exchange in Asia in 2009 and 2010, by almost tripling in value during that time.<ref name="stoxch">{{cite web
| url = http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/18/markets-srilanka-idUSL3E7JI2T620110818
| title = Sri Lanka shares up on retail buying; rupee down
| publisher = ]
| date = 18 August 2011
| accessdate = 18 August 2011
}}</ref>


] in Colombo. ], Ceylinco House and Cinnamon Lakeside Hotel are also visible in the image.]] ] in Colombo. ], Bank of Ceylon and Galadari Hotel are also visible in the image.]]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a ], famous for its production and export of ], ] and ], which remains a trademark national export.<ref name="plnyn">{{cite web
| url = http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html
| title = Echoes of a Plantation Economy
| publisher = historyofceylontea.com
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.<ref name="startim">{{cite web
| url = http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia
| title = The Strategic Importance of Sri Lanka to Australia
| publisher = asiapacificdefencereporter.com
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> From 1948 to 1977 ] strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a ] established. In 1977 the ] was introduced to the country, incorporating ], ] and the promotion of ].<ref name="filbrn">{{cite web
| url = http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561
| title = Sri Lanka – an Overview
| publisher = ]
| year =
| accessdate = 2011-07-25
}}</ref>


While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of ], ], ] and ]. Main economic sectors of the country are ], ], ], rice production and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment contributes highly in foreign exchange, most of them from the ].<ref name="treasry">{{cite web While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.<ref name="treasry">{{cite web |url=https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/2a7fd7a7-2ce2-4b4a-afc3-6e61ff0c993c |title=Annual Report 2010 |publisher=Ministry of Finance – Sri Lanka |year=2011 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707104601/https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/2a7fd7a7-2ce2-4b4a-afc3-6e61ff0c993c |url-status=live }}</ref>
| url = http://www.treasury.gov.lk/FPPFM/fpd/pdfdocs/annualReport2010/AnnualReport2010-eng.pdf
| title = Annaul Report 2010
| publisher = Ministry of Finance - Sri Lanka
| year = 2011
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> As of 2010, service sector makes up 60% of GDP, industial sector 28% and agriculture sector 12%.<ref name="treasry"/> Private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.<ref name="adbrep">{{cite web
| url = http://www.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf
| title = Country Partnership Strategy
| publisher = ]
| year = October 2008
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> India is the largest trading partner of Sri Lanka.<ref name="ionflof">{{cite web
| url = http://www.infolanka.com/news/IL/1521.htm
| title = 65th Independence Day of India celebrates in Sri Lanka
| publisher = InfoLanaka
| year = August 2011
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> Economic disparies exist between the provinces, with ] contributing to 45.1% of the GDP, ] and ], 10.7% and 10% respectively.<ref name="ecdisp">{{cite web
| url = http://sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt24.html
| title = Western Province share of national GDP falling: CB
| publisher = Sunday Times
| date = 17 July 2011
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref> With the end of the war, ] reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.<ref name="northpr">{{cite web
| url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/07/18/sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-northern-province-has-recorded-highest-gdp-growth-rate-229-cent-last-yea
| title = Sri Lanka’s Northern province has recorded the highest GDP growth rate of 22.9 per cent last year
| publisher = ]
| date = 18 July 2011
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref>


{{As of|2020}}, the service sector makes up 59.7% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.2%, and the agriculture sector 8.4%.<ref name="Annual Report 2020">{{cite web |title=Annual Report 2020 |url=https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/0b7d1935-6235-4156-97b6-752d6a8039d0 |website=treasury.gov.lk |publisher=] |access-date=23 May 2022 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523190037/https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/0b7d1935-6235-4156-97b6-752d6a8039d0 |url-status=live }}</ref> The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.<ref name="adbrep">{{cite web |url=http://www.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf |page=1 |title=Country Partnership Strategy |publisher=] | year=2008 |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115144722/http://www2.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013}}</ref> China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.<ref name="Sri Lanka's Trading Partners">{{cite web |url=https://www.lki.lk/blog/who-are-sri-lankas-top-trading-partners/ |title=Sri Lanka's Top Trading Partners |publisher=Lakshman Kadiragamar Institute |year=2018 |access-date=14 October 2018 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617093141/https://www.lki.lk/blog/who-are-sri-lankas-top-trading-partners/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.<ref name="ecdisp">{{cite news |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt24.html |title=Western Province share of national GDP falling: CB |newspaper=Sunday Times |date=17 July 2011 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113958/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt24.html |url-status=live }}</ref> With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.<ref name="northpr">{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/07/18/sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-northern-province-has-recorded-highest-gdp-growth-rate-229-cent-last-yea |title=Sri Lanka's Northern province has recorded the highest GDP growth rate of 22.9 per cent last year |newspaper=] |date=18 July 2011 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122500/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/07/18/sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-northern-province-has-recorded-highest-gdp-growth-rate-229-cent-last-yea |url-status=live }}</ref>
], which is considered the "cleanest" tea in the world. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.<ref name="clnst">{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldteanews.com/page.cfm/Action=Exhib/ExhibID=98
| title = Sri Lanka Tea Board
| publisher = worldteanews.com
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref>]]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka has doubled since 2005.<ref name="toplsl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.tops.lk/article35231-parliament-per-capita-income-has-doubled.html
| title = Per capita income has doubled
| publisher = tops.lk
| year = May 2011
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> During the same period, proverty has dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment has dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, ] of ] has quadrupled and ] has doubled.<ref name="treasry"/> 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified, 87.3% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.<ref name="treasry"/> Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a ] of 0.36 in 2010.<ref name="toplsl">{{cite web
| url = http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/PovertyIndicators2009_10.pdf
| title = Inequality drops with poverty
| publisher = Department of Census and Statistics
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka's cellular subscriber base has shown a staggering 550% growth, from 2005 to 2010.<ref name="treasry"/> Sri Lanka was the first country in the South Asian region to introduce ] (Third Generation), 3.5G ], 3.75G ] and 4G ] mobile broadband Internet technologies.<ref name="voindnt">{{cite web
| url = http://voicendata.ciol.com/content/top_stories/111083007.asp
| title = Saarc: Sri Lanka Takes a Lead
| publisher = voicendata.ciol.com
| date = 31 August 2011
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref>


], which ] considers the cleanest tea in the world in terms of pesticide residues. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.<ref name="clnst">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldteanews.com/page.cfm/Action=Exhib/ExhibID=98 |title=Sri Lanka Tea Board |publisher=worldteanews.com |access-date=7 September 2011 }}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>]]
The ] of the ] has listed Sri Lanka as a transitive economy, moving from factor-driven stage to efficiency-driven stage, ranking 52nd in the global competitiveness.<ref>{{citation
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.<ref name="toplsl">{{cite web |url=http://www.tops.lk/article35231-parliament-per-capita-income-has-doubled.html |title=Per capita income has doubled |publisher=tops.lk |year=2011 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320123833/http://www.tops.lk/article35231-parliament-per-capita-income-has-doubled.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, ] of the ] quadrupled, and the ] doubled.<ref name="treasry" /> 99% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 93.2% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 53.1% have access to pipe-borne water.<ref name="Annual Report 2020" /> Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a ] of 0.36 in 2010.<ref name="statgovineq">{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/PovertyIndicators2009_10.pdf |page=3 |title=Inequality drops with poverty |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=27 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627062832/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/PovertyIndicators2009_10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| url = http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GCR_Report_2011-12.pdf
| first = Klaus
| last = Schwab
| year = 2011
| title = The Global Competitiveness Report 2011-2012
| publisher = World Economic Forum
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 7 September 2011
}}</ref> It also ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation and 41st in goods market efficiency out of the 142 countries surveyed. Sri Lanka ranks 8th in the ], registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.<ref name="wgix">{{cite web
| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11220564
| title = Australia and New Zealand top World Giving Index'
| publisher = ]
| date = 8 September 2010
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> In 2010, ] placed Sri Lanka at number 1 position in 31 places to visit.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html
| title = The 31 Places to Go in 2010
| work = The New York Times
| date = 2010-01-24
| accessdate = 2010-06-02
}}</ref> ] classified Sri Lanka as an ] in 2010, and ] classified it as a ] in February 2011.<ref>{{cite web
| author = Joe Weisenthal
| url = http://www.businessinsider.com/willem-buiter-3g-countries-2011-2?slop=1
| title = 3G Countries
| publisher = Businessinsider.com
| date = 2011-02-22
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in ] (HDI) with 0.658 points.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://hdrstats.undp.org/images/explanations/LKA.pdf
| title = Explaining HDI value and rank changes in Human Development Report 2010
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref>


The 2011 ], published by the ], described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GCR_Report_2011-12.pdf |pages=326–327 |author=Schwab, Klaus |year=2011 |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701161530/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GCR_Report_2011-12.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the ], registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.<ref>{{cite web |title=CAF world giving index 2016 |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/1950a_wgi_2016_report_web_v2_241016.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |website=cafonline.org |publisher=Charities aid foundation |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025184737/https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/1950a_wgi_2016_report_web_v2_241016.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2010, '']'' placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html |title=The 31 Places to Go in 2010 |work=The New York Times |date=24 January 2010 |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=19 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119022604/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ] classifies Sri Lanka as a ] as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indexologyblog.com/2018/04/26/a-closer-look-at-indices-country-classifications/ |title=A Closer Look at Indices Country Classifications – Indexology® Blog &#124; S&P Dow Jones Indices |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711161138/https://www.indexologyblog.com/2018/04/26/a-closer-look-at-indices-country-classifications/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ] well above other South Asian countries in the ] (HDI) with an index of 0.750.
Although poverty has reduced by 50% during last 5 years, ] remains a problem among children. 29% of the children under 5 years of age are reported to be underweight.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.unicef.org/srilanka/activities_1667.htm
| title = Malnutrition: The situation
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> Nearly 58% of infants between 6 and 11 months and 38% of children between 12 and 23 months are ]. While ] remains the major infectious disease,<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8138917.stm
| title = Sri Lanka dengue eradication push
| publisher = ]
| date = 9 July 2009
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> ]es (NCDs) account for 85% of ill health, disability and early death in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldbank.lk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/SRILANKAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:22839556~menuPK:232812~pagePK:2865066~piPK:2865079~theSitePK:233047,00.html
| title = Tackling Non-Communicable Diseases in Sri Lanka
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 1 September 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lankans have a ] of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.<ref name="treasry"/> Infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1000 births and maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1000 births, which is in par with figures of the developed countries. The universal, "pro-poor"<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.island.lk/2008/05/31/features1.html
| title = Our Pro-poor health care policy rewarded
| publisher = The Island
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref> health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html
| title = Universal Health Care
| publisher = quickoverview.com
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref>


By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the ] (IMF).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/05/02/why-sri-lankas-economic-outlook-is-looking-less-rosy.html |title=Why Sri Lanka's economic outlook is looking less rosy |last=Shaffer |first=Leslie |date=2 May 2016 |publisher=CNBC |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote=While the government is aiming to raise its low revenue collection, partly through an increase in the value-added tax rate ... the country has a spotty record on tax collection. |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120133/https://www.cnbc.com/2016/05/02/why-sri-lankas-economic-outlook-is-looking-less-rosy.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5&nbsp;billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9&nbsp;billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5&nbsp;billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/09/30/sri-lankas-debt-crisis-is-so-bad-the-government-doesnt-even-know-how-much-money-it-owes/ |title=Sri Lanka's Debt Crisis Is So Bad The Government Doesn't Even Know How Much Money It Owes |last=Shepard |first=Wade |date=30 September 2016 |work=] |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote="We still don't know the exact total debt number," Sri Lanka's prime minister admitted to parliament earlier this month. |archive-date=1 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001150730/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/09/30/sri-lankas-debt-crisis-is-so-bad-the-government-doesnt-even-know-how-much-money-it-owes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150&nbsp;million originally planned, a full US$162.6&nbsp;million (SDR 119.894&nbsp;million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program, the Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which was noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25&nbsp;billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2016/11/18/PR16515-Sri-Lanka-IMF-Completes-First-Review-of-the-Extended-Arrangement-Under-the-EFF |title=IMF Completes First Review of the Extended Arrangement Under the EFF with Sri Lanka and Approves US$162.6 Million Disbursement |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=18 November 2016 |website=IMF |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote= completed the first review of Sri Lanka's economic performance under the program supported by a three-year extended arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility (EFF) arrangement. |archive-date=20 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120140933/https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2016/11/18/PR16515-Sri-Lanka-IMF-Completes-First-Review-of-the-Extended-Arrangement-Under-the-EFF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2018/06/19/Sri-Lanka-2018-Article-IV-Consultation-and-the-Fourth-Review-Under-the-Extended-Arrangement-45997 |title=Sri Lanka : 2018 Article IV Consultation and the Fourth Review Under the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Sri Lanka |website=IMF |language=en |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625141232/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2018/06/19/Sri-Lanka-2018-Article-IV-Consultation-and-the-Fourth-Review-Under-the-Extended-Arrangement-45997 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://economynext.com/China_on_track_to_bail_out_Sri_Lanka_with_US$1.25bn_in_2018-3-11431.html |title=China on track to bail out Sri Lanka with US$1.25bn in 2018 |website=economynext.com |language=en |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805112826/https://economynext.com/China_on_track_to_bail_out_Sri_Lanka_with_US$1.25bn_in_2018-3-11431.html |archive-date=5 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Sri Lanka has a A and B class road network exceeding {{convert|12000|km|mi|-1}}.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm
| title = National Highways in Sri Lanka (Class "A" and "B" Roads)
| publisher = Road Development Authority
| accessdate = 5 September 2011
}}</ref> It consists of 35 ] connecting major cities. In addition, several ] are being built.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm
| title = Southern Expressway
| publisher = Road Development Authority
| accessdate = 5 September 2011
}}</ref> The ], operated by the state-run ] operator, ], spans {{convert|1447|km|mi|-1}}.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en
| title = Statistics - Sri Lanka Railways
| publisher = Ministry of Transport Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 5 September 2011
}}</ref> Sri Lanka also has three ], at ], ], and ], in addition to the newest port being built at ]. Its ] ] is the ].


In September 2021, Sri Lanka declared a major ].<ref name="BBC News 2021 crisis">{{cite web|date=1 September 2021|title=Covid: Sri Lanka in economic emergency as food prices soar|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58390292|access-date=10 September 2021|website=BBC News|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130122230/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58390292|url-status=live}}</ref> The Chief of its Central Bank has stepped down amid the crisis.<ref name="Bloomberg 2021">{{cite web|last=Ondaatjie|first=Anusha|date=10 September 2021|title=Sri Lanka Central Bank Chief Steps Down Amid Reserves Crisis|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-10/sri-lanka-central-bank-governor-lakshman-to-step-down-sept-14|access-date=10 September 2021|website=Bloomberg|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910101236/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-10/sri-lanka-central-bank-governor-lakshman-to-step-down-sept-14|url-status=live}}</ref> The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".<ref name="Al Jazeera 2021 crisis">{{cite web|date=7 September 2021|title=Sri Lanka parliament approves state of emergency – Food News|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/7/sri-lanka-parliament-emergency-food-prices-economic-crisis|access-date=10 September 2021|website=Al Jazeera|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907035532/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/7/sri-lanka-parliament-emergency-food-prices-economic-crisis|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sri Lanka parliament passes emergency regulations to seize food stocks, warehouses|date=6 September 2021|url=https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-parliament-passes-emergency-regulations-to-seize-food-stocks-warehouses-85840/|access-date=11 September 2021|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906131412/https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-parliament-passes-emergency-regulations-to-seize-food-stocks-warehouses-85840/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Demographics==

]
Tourism, which provided the economy with an input of foreign currency, has significantly declined as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.<ref name="The New York Times 2021sri"/>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Sri Lanka}}

Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than {{cvt|100,000|km}} of paved roads,<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114922/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSARREGTOPTRANSPORT/1812598-1130163750121/20988151/Sri_Lanka_Benchmarking_Summary_21-12-04.pdf |date=2 April 2015 }} World Bank</ref> it has one of the highest road densities in the world ({{cvt|1.5|km|disp=or}} of paved roads per every {{cvt|1|km2|disp=or}} of land). The road network consists of 35 ] and ] ]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Southern Expressway |url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415105137/http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm |archive-date=15 April 2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=Road Development Authority}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Colombo_Katunayaka Expressway |url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/cke.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417080550/http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/cke.htm |archive-date=17 April 2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=Road Development Authority}}</ref> A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm |title=Class A, B & E Roads |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428015938/http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm |archive-date=28 April 2016}}</ref> C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.

The ], operated by the state-run ] operator ], spans {{convert|1447|km|mi|-1}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics – Sri Lanka Railways |url=http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228064539/http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en |archive-date=28 December 2012 |publisher=Ministry of Transport Sri Lanka}}</ref> Sri Lanka also has three ]s at ], ], and ], in addition to the newest port being built at ].

=== Transition to biological agriculture ===

In June 2021, Sri Lanka imposed a nationwide ban on inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. The program was welcomed by its advisor ],<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 June 2021|title=Sri Lanka's shift towards organic farming|url=https://navdanyainternational.org/sri-lankas-shift-towards-organic-farming/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Navdanya international|language=en-US|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905105342/https://navdanyainternational.org/sri-lankas-shift-towards-organic-farming/|url-status=live}}</ref> but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming,<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Opinion {{!}} The ban on chemical fertilizer and the way forward of Sri Lankan Tea Industry|url=https://agrigateglobal.com/amp/reads/opinion/opinion-the-ban-on-chemical-fertilizer-and-the-way-forward-of-sri-lankan-tea-industry/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Agrigate Global|language=en-US|quote=By diverting the attention of policymakers towards pointless nonscientific arguments instead of promoting such integrated management systems and high technological fertilizer production, will be only a time-wasting effort and meanwhile, the global demand for Ceylon Tea will generate diminishing returns. At present, there are about 500,000 direct beneficiaries from the tea industry and about 600 factories are operating around the country. In general, the livelihood of around 3 million people is directly and indirectly woven around the domestic tea industry. The researchers and the experienced growers have predicted that a 50 percent reduction in the yield has to be anticipated with the ban of chemical fertilizer. The negative implication of this yield reduction is such that there is a risk of collapsing the banking sector which is centralized around the tea industry in the major tea growing areas including Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kaluthara, and Kegalle.|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104247/https://agrigateglobal.com/amp/reads/opinion/opinion-the-ban-on-chemical-fertilizer-and-the-way-forward-of-sri-lankan-tea-industry/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Opinion {{!}} Inorganic Fertilizer and Agrochemicals Ban in Sri Lanka and Fallacies of Organic Agriculture|url=https://agrigateglobal.com/amp/reads/opinion/inorganic-fertilizer-and-agrochemicals-ban-in-sri-lanka-and-fallacies-of-organic-agriculture/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Agrigate Global|language=en-US|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015032253/https://agrigateglobal.com/amp/reads/opinion/inorganic-fertilizer-and-agrochemicals-ban-in-sri-lanka-and-fallacies-of-organic-agriculture/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2021|title=Sri Lanka Going Organic: Rethink the strategy; Agriculturists Write to President {{!}} The Sri Lankan Scientist|url=https://scientist.lk/2021/06/08/sri-lanka-going-organic-rethink-the-strategy-agriculturists-write-to-president/|access-date=5 September 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=19 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119105054/https://scientist.lk/2021/06/08/sri-lanka-going-organic-rethink-the-strategy-agriculturists-write-to-president/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=30 June 2021|title=Organic Farming In Sri Lanka – Ideology Of Hitler & Sri Lankan Agri "Cults"|url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/organic-farming-in-sri-lanka-ideology-of-hitler-sri-lankan-agri-cults/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Colombo Telegraph|language=en-US|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015022319/https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/organic-farming-in-sri-lanka-ideology-of-hitler-sri-lankan-agri-cults/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=25 June 2021|title=Sri Lanka's organic push threatens to backpedal ag progress|url=https://www.agdaily.com/insights/perspective-sri-lankas-organic-push-threatens-to-backpedal-ag/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=AGDAILY|language=en-US|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003002356/https://www.agdaily.com/insights/perspective-sri-lankas-organic-push-threatens-to-backpedal-ag/|url-status=live}}</ref> including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry.<ref name=":7" /> The situation in the tea industry was described as critical, with farming under the organic program being described as ten times more expensive and producing half of the yield by the farmers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Organic food revolution in Sri Lanka threatens its tea industry|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/1/organic-food-revolution-sri-lanka-tea-industry|access-date=5 September 2021|website=aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=4 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904184316/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/1/organic-food-revolution-sri-lanka-tea-industry|url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2021 the government declared an economic emergency, as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as a result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.<ref name="BBC News 2021 crisis"/>

In November 2021, Sri Lanka abandoned its plan to become the world's first organic farming nation following rising food prices and weeks of protests against the plan.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Watt|first=Louise|date=21 November 2021|title=Sri Lanka abandons drive to become world's first organic country amid spiralling food prices|language=en-GB|work=]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/11/21/sri-lanka-abandons-drive-become-worlds-first-organic-country/|url-status=live|access-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118001307/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/11/21/sri-lanka-abandons-drive-become-worlds-first-organic-country/|archive-date=18 January 2022|issn=0307-1235}}</ref> As of December 2021, the damage to agricultural production was already done, with prices having risen substantially for vegetables in Sri Lanka, and time needed to recover from the crisis. The ban on fertiliser has been lifted for certain crops, but the price of urea has risen internationally due to the price for oil and gas.<ref name="The New York Times 2021sri">{{cite web|last1=Wipulasena|first1=Aanya|last2=Mashal|first2=Mujib|date=7 December 2021|title=Sri Lanka's Plunge Into Organic Farming Brings Disaster|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/07/world/asia/sri-lanka-organic-farming-fertilizer.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107014029/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/07/world/asia/sri-lanka-organic-farming-fertilizer.html|archive-date=7 January 2022|access-date=19 January 2022|website=]}}</ref> Jeevika Weerahewa, a senior lecturer at the ], predicted that the ban would reduce the paddy harvest in 2022 by an unprecedented 50%.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Wallen|first1=Joe|last2=Hewage|first2=Nishantha|date=31 January 2022|title=Sri Lankan families go hungry as cost of food skyrockets|language=en-GB|work=The Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/sri-lankan-families-go-hungry-cost-food-skyrockets/|url-status=live|access-date=1 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201045654/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/sri-lankan-families-go-hungry-cost-food-skyrockets/|archive-date=1 February 2022|issn=0307-1235}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Demographics of Sri Lanka}}
]
{{See also|Category:Ethnic groups in Sri Lanka|Languages of Sri Lanka|l1=Ethnic groups in Sri Lanka|Religion in Sri Lanka}}


Sri Lanka has roughly 22,156,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 0.5%. The ] is 13.8 births per 1,000&nbsp;people, and the ] is 6.0 deaths per 1,000&nbsp;people.<ref name="Annual Report 2020" /> Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. ] constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.<ref name="CPH2011_1">{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/cph2011Pub/pop42.pdf |title=Sri Lanka Census of Population and Housing, 2011 – Population by Ethnicity |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka |date=20 April 2012 |access-date=10 October 2012 |archive-date=13 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113161924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/cph2011Pub/pop42.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ] are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. ] comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as the ] (of mixed European descent) and ] from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of ] who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |title=Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence |work=lankalibrary.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105134736/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Clear}}
Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.73%.<ref name='pogrw'>{{cite web

| url = http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW
===Largest cities===
| title = Population growth (annual %)
{{Largest cities
| work = ]
| country = Sri Lanka
| accessdate = 2006-08-12
| stat_ref = (2012 Department of Census and Statistics enumeration)<ref>{{cite web|title=Population of Municipal Councils and Urban Councils by sex Census 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/abstract2021/CHAP2/2.4|website=statistics.gov.lk|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics|access-date=6 July 2017|date=2012|archive-date=7 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807014745/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/abstract2021/CHAP2/2.4|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}</ref> Sri Lanka has a ] of 17.6 births per 1,000&nbsp;people and a ] of 6.2 deaths per 1,000&nbsp;people.<ref name="treasry"/> Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. ] constitue the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74% of the total population.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ] are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 12.6. ] comprise 7.4%. ] were brought into the country as indentured labourers by British colonists to work on estate plantations. Nearly 50% of them were ] following independence in 1948,<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Hoole | div_name = Province
| city_1 = Colombo | div_1 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_1 = 561,314 | img_1 = Sunset from Kingsbury Hotel, Colombo.jpg
| first = Rajan
| city_2 = Kaduwela, Western Province{{!}}Kaduwela | div_2 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_2 = 252,041 | img_2 = Battaramulla City.jpg
| title = Sri Lanka: The Arrogance of Power
| city_3 = Maharagama | div_3 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_3 = 196,423
| year = 2001
| city_4 = Kesbewa | div_4 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_4 = 185,122
| publisher = ] (Jaffna)
| city_5 = Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia | div_5 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_5 = 184,468
| isbn = 978-9559447047
| city_6 = Moratuwa | div_6 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_6 = 168,280
| pages = 15
| city_7 = Negombo | div_7 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_7 = 142,449
}}</ref> They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. There are also small ethnic groups such as the ] (of mixed European descent) and ] from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of ] whom are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.<ref name='lbrnh'>{{cite web
| city_8 = Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte | div_8 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_8 = 107,925
| url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html
| city_9 = Kalmunai | div_9 = Eastern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Eastern | pop_9 = 99,893
| title = Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence
| city_10 = Kandy | div_10 = Central Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Central | pop_10 = 98,828
| work = lankalibrary.com
| city_11 = Galle | div_11 = Southern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Southern | pop_11 = 86,333
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
| city_12 = Batticaloa | div_12 = Eastern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Eastern | pop_12 = 86,227
}}</ref>
| city_13 = Jaffna | div_13 = Northern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Northern | pop_13 = 80,829
| city_14 = Matara, Sri Lanka{{!}}Matara | div_14 = Southern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Southern | pop_14 = 74,193
| city_15 = Gampaha | div_15 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_15 = 62,335
| city_16 = Katunayake | div_16 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_16 = 60,915
| city_17 = Boralesgamuwa | div_17 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_17 = 60,110
| city_18 = Kolonnawa | div_18 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_18 = 60,044
| city_19 = Anuradhapura | div_19 = North Central Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}North Central | pop_19 = 50,595
| city_20 = Trincomalee | div_20 = Eastern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Eastern | pop_20 = 48,351
}}


=== Languages ===
] is the focal point of ], 16th century AD.]]
{{Main|Languages of Sri Lanka}}
] and ] are the two ]s of Sri Lanka.<ref name='langsd'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm
| title = Official Languages Commission
| accessdate = 2 September 2011
}}</ref> Constitution defines ] as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the ] community speak variant forms of ] and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of ] ] that is unique to the island. <ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/conference/10-slm2010/pdf/How_unique_is_Sri_Lanka_Malay.pdf
| title = How unique is Sri Lanka Malay?
| work = Peter Bakker
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 7 September 2011
}}</ref>


] and ] are the two ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm |title=Official Languages Commission |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214143656/http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm |archive-date=14 February 2012}}</ref> The constitution defines ] as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the ] community speak variant forms of ] and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of ] ] that is unique to the island.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/conference/10-slm2010/pdf/How_unique_is_Sri_Lanka_Malay.pdf |title=How unique is Sri Lanka Malay? |work=Peter Bakker |publisher=]}}</ref>
Sri Lanka is also a multi-religious country. ] constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90234.htm
| title = Sri Lanka
| work = International Religious Freedom Report 2007
| publisher = ]
| date = 2007-09-14
| accessdate = 2008-03-30
}}</ref> most of whom follow the ] school of Buddhism.<ref name='bisl-sn'/> Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable ].<ref name='bisl-sn'/> A sapling of the ] under which ] attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The ] (''Thripitakaya''), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.<ref name='ph-tbas'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/english/2005/03/200503280400.shtml
| title = Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/Laos Regions Boxun News
| publisher = Peacehall.com
| date = 2005-03-28
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation,<ref name='bisl-sn'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm
| title = Theravada: Buddhism in Sri Lankan
| publisher = Buddhanet.net
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> with the ] having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with ] and ].<ref name='ph-tbas'/>


=== Religion ===
], ] is one of the most sacred places for ], 10th century AD.]]
{{Main|Religion in Sri Lanka}}
] is the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka which also arrived from India. Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka. It was primarily established in Sri Lanka by migrants and often invaders from southern India,<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.discoversrilanka.com/religion/Hindu.php
| title = Hinduism In Sri Lanka
| publisher = Discoversrilanka.com
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref> ] is the third most dominant religion in the country, having been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, most are ] who follow the ] school.<ref name='im-4/3/06-mlwi'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html
| title = Lankan Muslims' historical links with India
| publisher = Indianmuslims.info
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


{{bar box {{Pie chart
| thumb = left
|title=Sri Lanka religiosity
| caption = Religion in Sri Lanka (2012 census)<ref>{{cite web |title=A3 : Population by religion according to districts, 2012 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |work=Census of Population & Housing, 2011 |publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka |access-date=20 July 2020 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065148/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="2011census">{{cite web |title=Census of Population and Housing 2011 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=SriLanka&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistic |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-date=6 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106095548/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=SriLanka&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
| label1 = ]
|left1=religion
| value1 = 70.2
|right1=percent
| color1 = Gold
|float=left
| label2 = ]
|bars=
| value2 = 12.6
{{bar percent|Buddhism|#FFDF00|69}}
| color2 = DarkOrange
{{bar percent|Hinduism|#FF4500|15}}
| label3 = ]
{{bar percent|Islam|#009000|8}}
| value3 = 9.7
{{bar percent|Christianity|#9955BB|8}}
| color3 = Green
|caption=Source: David, 1993<ref name="David 1993">{{Cite book
| label4 = ]
| title = The Cambridge Factfinder
| value4 = 7.4
| editor = Crystal, David
| color4 = Blue
| publisher = ]
| year = 1993 | label5 = Others
| value5 = 0.05
| edition = 4th South Asian 2001
| page = 331 | color5 = Gray
| chapter = Sri Lanka
| isbn = 0521794358
| editor-link = David Crystal
}}</ref>
}} }}
Christianity was also brought into the country by Western colonists in the early 16th century.<ref name='fry-cobs'>Young, R. F., & Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. (1998), ''The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from 18th century Sri Lanka'', Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons.</ref> There also was a small population of ] immigrants from India (]) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.<ref name='parsisn'>{{cite web
| url = http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/parsiintro.htm
| title = The Parsi Community of Sri Lanka
| publisher = ]
| accessdate = 7 September 2011
}}</ref> Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The ] majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the ]. The ] and ] also observe their own holidays. Sri Lanka was ranked the 3rd most religious country in the world by a 2008 ], with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion is an important part of their daily life.<ref name="gallu">{{cite web
| url = http://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/Alabamians-Iranians-Common.aspx
| title = What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common
| publisher = ]
| date = 2009-02-09
| accessdate = 2011-07-17
}}</ref>


] is the largest and is considered as an "]" of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".<ref name="lawnet.gov.lk">{{cite web |url=https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/018-SLLR-SLLR-2007-V-1-ASHIK-v.-BANDULA-AND-OTHERSNoise-Pollution-Case.pdf |title=Ashik v Bandula And Others (Noise Pollution Case) |website=lawnet.gov.lk |access-date=6 January 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301194734/https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/018-SLLR-SLLR-2007-V-1-ASHIK-v.-BANDULA-AND-OTHERSNoise-Pollution-Case.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90234.htm |title=Sri Lanka |work=International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=] | date=14 September 2007}}</ref>
==Culture==
Buddhism is practised by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan population with most being predominantly from ] school of thought.<ref name="bisl-sn" /> Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by ].<ref name="bisl-sn" /> A sapling of the ] under which ] attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The ] (''Thripitakaya''), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.<ref name="ph-tbas">{{cite web |url=http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/english/2005/03/200503280400.shtml |title=Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/Laos Regions Boxun News |publisher=Peacehall.com |date=28 March 2005}}</ref> Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.<ref name="bisl-sn">{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |title=Theravada: Buddhism in Sri Lankan |publisher=Buddhanet.net |access-date=15 July 2014}}</ref> During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.<ref name="ph-tbas" />
{{Main|Culture of Sri Lanka}}
]
Culture of the island dates back over 2500 years. It is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times, a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the ]s, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mould.


Although ] form a religious minority, Hinduism has been present in Sri Lanka at least since the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Claveyrolas |first1=Mathieu |last2=Goreau-Ponceaud |first2=Anthony |last3=Madavan |first3=Delon |last4=Meyer |first4=Eric |last5=Trouillet |first5=Pierre-yves |title=Hindus and Others: A Sri Lankan Perspective (Introduction) |journal=The South Asianist Journal |date=2018 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=4 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01900123/document |access-date=4 July 2022 |publisher=University of Edinburg}}</ref> Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King ];<ref>Asian Religions in British Columbia, UBC Press 2011, p. 125.</ref> the Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across the ] that truly set the scene for ]'s survival in Sri Lanka. ] (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional ] and ] of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of ]. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of several Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012234629/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka |date=12 October 2012 }} Sunday Times – 29 September 2010</ref>
===Food and festivals===
{{Main|Cuisine of Sri Lanka|List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts|Festivals in Sri Lanka}}
]
The customary diet in Sri Lanka are ] and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould), ] (cooked in thick ] for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of ], jaggery, ], eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and ]), ], ] ("appa"), etc.


] is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the mid or late 7th century CE. Most followers on the island today are ] who follow the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html |title=Lankan Muslims' historical links with India |publisher=Indianmuslims.info |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060024/http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> and are believed to be descendants of Arab traders and the local women whom they married.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/the-origins-and-affinities-of-the-sri-lankan-moors.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729002356/http://sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/the-origins-and-affinities-of-the-sri-lankan-moors.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 July 2014 |title=Origins and Affinities of the Sri Lankan Moors}}</ref>
Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional ] dishes. While Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch ]) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).


] reached the country at least as early as the fifth century (and possibly in the first),<ref>{{cite web |author=Pinto, Leonard |date=20 September 2013 |title=A Brief History Of Christianity In Sri Lanka |url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612094839/https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/ |archive-date=2023-06-12 |access-date=26 February 2015 |publisher=Colombo Telegraph}}</ref> gaining a wider foothold through Western colonists who began to arrive early in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from the 18th century Sri Lanka |year=1998 |isbn=978-955-9098-42-3 |author1=Young, R. F. |author2=Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axkLAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% are ] who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage to ] as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the ] and other ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mongabay.com/history/sri_lanka/sri_lanka-christianity.html |title=Sri Lanka – Christianity |publisher=]}}</ref>
Every year in mid April, Sinhalese and Tamils celebrate ] and ] new year festival. In addition, ], a Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly decorated elephant, is also celebrated in grand scale. Taken place in July or August in ], it has become a unique symbol of Sri Lanka. There are fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances. The elephants are usually adorned with lavish garments. The festival ends with the traditional 'diya-kepeema'. The elephant is paraded around the city bearing the tooth of ].


There is also a small population of ] immigrants from India (]) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/parsiintro.htm |title=The Parsi Community of Sri Lanka |publisher=]}}</ref> This community has steadily dwindled in recent years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/000910/plus5.html |title=Sri Lankan Parsis facing extinction? |work=The Sunday Times}}</ref>
===Cinema, music, dance, theatre and literature===
{{Main|Cinema of Sri Lanka|Dances of Sri Lanka|Music of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan literature}}
]]]
Sri Lankan cinema in past years has featured subjects such as family relationships, love stories and the years of conflict between the military and ] rebels. Many films are in the ] and the Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to ], ] of Indian cinema. The first film to be produced and shown in Sri Lanka was ] (The Broken Promise) which was released in 1947. The first colour film of Sri Lanka was ]. Afterwards there were many Sinhalese movies produced in Sri Lanka and some of them, such as ], received several international film awards. The most influential filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is ] who has directed many movies of excellent quality which led to global acclaim.


Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The ] majority observe ] Days each month according to the ], and ] and ] also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 ], Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.<ref name="gallu">{{cite web |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/Alabamians-Iranians-Common.aspx |title=What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common |publisher=] | date=9 February 2009}}</ref>
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from the theatre at a time when the traditional open-air drama (referred to in ] as '']'', '']'' and '']''). In 1903 the first music album, ''Nurthi'', was released through ]. In the early 1960s, Sri Lankan music was greatly influenced by ] music. By 1963, Radio Ceylon had more Indian listeners than Sri Lankan ones. The notable songwriters like ] and ] made a revolution in Sri Lankan music. This revolution was fuelled by musicians such as ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Another type of music named ] is popular in the country.


===Media=== === Health ===
]
{{Main|Media in Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|List of newspapers in Sri Lanka|Television in Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Health in Sri Lanka}}
The national radio station radio, ] is the oldest-running radio station in Asia.<ref>http://asia.apachecon.com/information/location/</ref><ref></ref> It was established in 1923 by ] just three years after broadcasting was launched in Europe.<ref></ref> It remains one of the most popular stations in Asia, with its programming reaching neighbouring Asian nations. The station is managed by the ] and broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and ]. Since the 1980s, a large number of private radio stations have also being introduced, and they have gained commercial popularity and success. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the ] was launched. Initially all Television stations were state controlled, but private television networks began broadcasts in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pressreference.com/Sa-Sw/Sri-Lanka.html |title=SRI LANKA Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers |publisher=Pressreference.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-17}}</ref> Global television networks from India, Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States are also widely popular, and cable and ] is gaining in popularity with Sri Lanka's ]. Popular publications include the English language ''Daily Mirror'' and ''The Sunday Observer'' and ''The Sunday Times'', ''Divayina'', ''Lankadeepa'' and ''Lakbima'' in Sinhalese and the Tamil publications ''Dinakaran'' and ''Uthayan''.


Sri Lankans have a ] of 75.5 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.<ref name="Annual Report 2020" /><ref name="treasry" /> The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/2008/05/31/features1.html |title=Our Pro-poor health care policy rewarded |work=The Island |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074209/http://www.island.lk/2008/05/31/features1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html |title=Universal Health Care |publisher=quickoverview.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412190920/http://quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html |archive-date=12 April 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf |title=Social Conditions of Sri Lanka |pages=15–17 |publisher=statistics.gov.lk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117025044/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2017 |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref>
===Education===
On 8 July 2020, the ] declared that Sri Lanka had successfully eliminated ] and ] ahead of their 2023 target.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/southeastasia/news/detail/08-07-2020-maldives-sri-lanka-eliminate-measles-and-rubella-ahead-of-2023-target|title=Maldives, Sri Lanka eliminate measles and rubella, ahead of 2023 target|website=www.who.int}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Education in Sri Lanka}}
] is a research institute specialising in the field of ].]]
{{See also|List of schools in Sri Lanka|Universities in Sri Lanka}}

] of ],named in memory of ], Sri Lanka's premium playwright.]]
With a ] of 92.9%,<ref name="Annual Report 2020" /> Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Problems of Illiteracy in a Literate Developing Society: Sri Lanka |author=Gunawardena, Chandra |year=1997 |volume=43 |issue=5/6 |pages=595–609 |journal=International Review of Education |jstor=3445068 |doi=10.1023/A:1003010726149 |bibcode=1997IREdu..43..595G |s2cid=142788627}}</ref> Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%,<ref>{{cite web |title=Literacy rate, youth total (% of people ages 15-24) – Sri Lanka |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.ZS?locations=LK |publisher=World Bank | access-date=24 February 2021 |date=September 2020}}</ref> computer literacy rate at 35%,<ref name="daynwsl">{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2011/07/29/cdnstory.asp?sid=20110705_01 |title=Govt targets 75% computer literacy rate by 2016 |work=The Daily News}}</ref> and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_statistics.html |title=Sri Lanka – Statistics |publisher=] |access-date=13 November 2010 |archive-date=30 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830142313/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_statistics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> An education system which dictates nine years of ] for every child is in place.
With a ] of 92.5%,<ref name='unicef-lk-stats'>{{cite web

| url = http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_statistics.html
The ] system established in 1945<ref>{{Cite book |author=De Silva, K.M. |title=A Short History of Sri Lanka |publisher=] | year=1981 |place=Los Angeles |page=472 |isbn=978-0-520-04320-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dByI_qil26YC}}</ref> is a result of the initiative of ] and A. Ratnayake.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/06/08/fea26.asp |title=Honouring the Father of Free Education |work=The Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://transcurrents.com/tc/2009/10/who_was_father_of_free_educati.html |title=Who was "Father" of free education in Sri Lanka?: C.W.W. Kannangara or A. Ratnayake? |publisher=Trans Currents |access-date=21 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065821/http://transcurrents.com/tc/2009/10/who_was_father_of_free_educati.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/46.htm |title=Education: Traditional and Colonial Systems |publisher=]}}</ref> Kannangara led the establishment of the ]s (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.<ref name="daynwsl" /> In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite ] are controlled directly by the ] and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 10,155 government schools, 120 private schools and 802 ]s.<ref name="Annual Report 2020"/>
| title = Sri Lanka - Statistics

| publisher = ]
Sri Lanka has 17 public universities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2021 |title=Universities and Higher Educational Institutions established under the purview of the University Grants Commission |url=https://www.ugc.ac.lk/index.php?option=com_university&view=list&Itemid=25&lang=en |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=UGC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ugc.ac.lk/downloads/statistics/stat_2010/Chapter1.pdf |page=3 |title=Sri Lanka University Statistics 2010 |publisher=]}}</ref> A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/geography/fr/files/10905/12353682765Sri_Lanka.pdf/Sri%2BLanka.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623172848/http://portal.unesco.org/geography/fr/files/10905/12353682765Sri_Lanka.pdf/Sri%2BLanka.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2013 |pages=3–4 |title=Facing Global and Local Challenges: The New Dynamics for Higher Education – Sri Lanka Country Report |publisher=]}}</ref> A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ugc.ac.lk/en/statistics/educational-indicators.html |title=Educational Indicators 1980–2009 |publisher=] | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222203802/http://www.ugc.ac.lk/en/statistics/educational-indicators.html |archive-date=22 February 2011}}</ref> Sri Lanka was ranked 89th in the ] in 2024.<ref>{{Cite book |author=] |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.wipo.int |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2}}</ref>
| accessdate = 2011-07-17

}}</ref> Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst ].<ref></ref> An education system which dictates 9 years of ] for every child is in place, with 99% of the children entering the first grade.<ref name='unicef-lk-stats'/> A ] established in 1945,<ref>{{Cite book| last = De Silva | first = K.M. | title = A Short History of Sri Lanka | publisher=] | year = 1981 | location = Los Angeles | page = 472 | isbn = 0-520-04320-0 }}</ref> is a result of the initiative of ], a former minister of education.
== Human rights and media ==
{{Main|Human rights in Sri Lanka|Media in Sri Lanka}}

The ] (formerly ]) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,<ref name="slbcv">{{cite web |title=Radio Ceylon/Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation: The history of broadcasting in Sri Lanka |publisher=] | url=http://www.slbceng.org/pdf/Radio%20Ceylon-Sri%20Lanka%20Broadcasting%20Corporation.pdf |page=1 |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320060209/http://www.slbceng.org/pdf/Radio%20Ceylon-Sri%20Lanka%20Broadcasting%20Corporation.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> established in 1923 by ] just three years after broadcasting began in Europe.<ref name="slbcv" /> The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when the ] was launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sri-lanka |title=Sri Lanka Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers |publisher=Pressreference.com}}</ref>

{{As of|2020}}, 192 newspapers (122 Sinhala, 24 Tamil, 43 English, 3 multilingual) are published and 25 TV stations and 58 radio stations are in operation.<ref name="Annual Report 2020" /> In recent years, ] in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-press-lockdown-srilanka-2008.pdf |pages=5–6 |title=Media under fire: Press freedom lockdown in Sri Lanka |publisher=International Press Freedom and Freedom of Expression Mission to Sri Lanka}}</ref> Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister<ref name="You are pigs who eat shit">{{cite news |last=Jansz |first=Frederica |title=Gota goes berserk |url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2012/07/08/gota-goes-berserk/ |access-date=24 November 2012 |newspaper=Sunday Leader |date=8 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020203648/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2012/07/08/gota-goes-berserk/ |archive-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor, ],<ref name="Death foretold">{{cite news |title=Chronicle of a death foretold |url=http://www.economist.com/node/12932312 |access-date=24 November 2012 |newspaper=The Economist |date=15 January 2009}}</ref> who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.<ref name="pre-written posthumous editorial">{{cite news |last=Wickramasinghe |first=Lasantha |title=And then they came for me |url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20090111/editorial-.htm |access-date=25 November 2012 |newspaper=Sunday Leader |date=11 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016035116/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20090111/editorial-.htm |archive-date=16 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, several groups, such as ], ], ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/sri-lanka |title=Amnesty International{{snd}}Sri Lanka Human Rights Reports |publisher=] |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=17 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217135852/http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/sri-lanka |url-status=dead }}</ref> as well as the ]<ref>{{cite web | last=Keerthisinghe | first=Lakshman I. | url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/172-opinion/28002-the-british-duplicity-in-protecting-human-rights-in-sri-lanka.html | title=The British duplicity in protecting human rights in Sri Lanka | publisher=Daily Mirror | year=2013 | access-date=21 October 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021114438/http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/172-opinion/28002-the-british-duplicity-in-protecting-human-rights-in-sri-lanka.html | archive-date=21 October 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> and the ] have criticised human rights violations in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010607063826/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 June 2001 |title=Sri Lanka: Country Report on Human Rights Practices |publisher=] | date=23 February 2001}}</ref> The ] and the LTTE have both been accused of violating human rights. A ] accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of ] during final stages of the civil war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/Sri_Lanka/POE_Report_Full.pdf |title=Report of the Secretary – General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka |page=71 |date=31 March 2011 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2009/05/28/sri-lanka-l-onu-a-cache-l-ampleur-des-massacres_1199091_3216.html |title=L'ONU a caché l'ampleur des massacres au Sri Lanka |newspaper=Le Monde |access-date=26 February 2013 |date=28 May 2009}}</ref> Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption.<ref>{{cite web |title=Business Corruption in Sri Lanka |url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/south-asia/sri-lanka/business-corruption-in-sri-lanka.aspx |publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal |access-date=8 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215752/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/south-asia/sri-lanka/business-corruption-in-sri-lanka.aspx |archive-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> The 135-year-old ] criminalises ], with a penalty of up to ten years in prison.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/03/06/LKA103948.E.pdf|title=Department for Justice}}</ref>

The ] has documented ] who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second-highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.<ref name="UNHRC involuntary disappearances report">{{cite web |last=United Nations |first=Human Rights Council Nineteenth session |title=Report of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session19/A-HRC-19-58-Rev1_en.pdf |publisher=UN |access-date=24 November 2012 |pages=3,113 |quote='The original mandate derives from Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI) of 29 February 1980','Since its establishment, the Working Group has transmitted 12,460 cases to the Government; of those, 40 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the source, 6,535 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the Government, 214 cases were found to be duplications and were therefore deleted, and 5,671 remain outstanding.'}}</ref> The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.<ref name="People are disappearing">{{cite news |last=Disappearances in Sri Lanka |title=Murky business: People are disappearing{{snd}}and the government has been accused|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21542827|access-date=24 November 2012|newspaper=The Economist|date=14 January 2012}}</ref>

] ] visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended , but in the meantime, democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military ]. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/130831/un-human-rights-commissioner-democracy-has-been-undermined |title=UN Human Rights Commissioner: 'democracy has been undermined' in Sri Lanka |work=GlobalPost |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-23899082 |title=UN's Navi Pillay attacks Sri Lanka human rights record |work=BBC News |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013}}</ref>

In 2012, the UK charity ] reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group published ''Out of the Silence'', which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.<ref>. freedomfromtorture.org</ref> On 29 July 2020, ] said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/29/sri-lanka-human-rights-under-attack |title=Sri Lanka: Human Rights Under Attack |date=29 July 2020 |access-date=29 July 2020 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>

== Culture ==
]'' at a temple in ]]]
The ] is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.<ref name="precol">{{cite web |url=http://www.panix.com/~kendra/tea/precolonial_history.html |title=Pre-Colonial Sri Lankan History |publisher=panix.com}}</ref> Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinguishable.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=97}}</ref> Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in ] and ]. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards, and high literacy rate.<ref name="nub94">{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=94}}</ref>

=== Food and festivals ===
{{Main|Sri Lankan cuisine|Festivals in Sri Lanka}}
]

Dishes include rice and curry, ], ], wholemeal ], ], wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made with ], jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), ], and ].<ref name="simplysl">{{Cite book |author=Jayakody, Padmini |title=Simply Sri Lankan |publisher=Lulu.com |page=3 |place=Australia | isbn=978-1-4092-1942-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jxq1FlxUi9YC |year=2008}}</ref> ] may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a ]. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as ] (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), ] (Dutch holiday biscuit), and ] (Portuguese-style layer cake).{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the ] and ] new year festivals.<ref name="dersl">{{Cite book |author=Wickremeratne, Swarna |year=2006 |title=Buddha in Sri Lanka: remembered yesterdays |publisher=SUNY Press |page=31 |isbn=978-0-7914-6881-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QskAmQEACAAJ}}</ref> ] is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.<ref name="esalasl">{{Cite book |author=Dassanayake, M. B. |year=1970 |title=The Kandy Esala perahera: Asia's most spectacular pageant |publisher=Lake House Bookshop |page=7 |place=Colombo}}</ref> Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate ] on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and ] to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate ] and ], and Muslims celebrate ] and ].

=== Visual, literary and performing arts ===
{{Main|Cinema of Sri Lanka|Music of Sri Lanka|Dances of Sri Lanka|Theatre of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan literature}}
]]]
] was constructed as a major venue for the performing arts.]]

The movie '']'' (''The Broken Promise''), produced by ] of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. '']'' (''Island of Treasures'') marked the transition of cinema from ] to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.<ref name="easiancinem">{{Cite book |author=Dissanayake, Wimal |year=2006 |title=Contemporary Asian cinema: popular culture in a global frame, Chapter 8 |publisher=Berg |pages=108–119 |isbn=978-1-84520-237-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_PmysZli1cC}}</ref> The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to ] movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high but has been in a steady decline since then.<ref name="denandind">{{Cite book |author=Lakshman, W. D. |year=2000 |title=Sri Lanka's development since independence |publisher=] | page=253 |place=] | isbn=978-1-56072-784-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC}}</ref>

An influential filmmaker is ], who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including '']'' (''Line of Destiny'', 1956), '']'' (''The Changing Village'', 1964), '']'' (''The Treasure'', 1970) and '']'' (''Cold Heart'', 1968).<ref name="lstjms">{{cite news |title=Dr. Lester James Peiris, Father of Sri Lankan Cinema, celebrates 90th Birthday |newspaper=] | url=http://asiantribune.com/?q=node/16540 |access-date=21 January 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309042437/http://asiantribune.com/?q=node%2F16540 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sri Lankan-Canadian poet ], is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian ] is well known for his English-language novels and three films.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}


The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as ''Kolam'', ''Sokari'' and ''Nadagam''.<ref name="cambrmu">{{Cite book |author=Brandon, James R. |year=1997 |title=The Cambridge guide to Asian theatre |publisher=] | pages=226–229 |place=] | isbn=978-0-521-58822-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC}}</ref> Traditional music instruments such as ''Béra'', ''Thammátama'', ''Daŭla'' and ''Răbān'' were performed at these dramas. The first music album, ''Nurthi'', recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters like ] and ] and musicians such as ], ], ] and ] have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.<ref name="wmrhg">{{Cite book |author=McConnachie, James |year=2000 |title=World music: the rough guide, Volume 2 |publisher=Rough Guides |page=230 |isbn=978-1-85828-636-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC}}</ref> ] originated among ] or the Afro-Sinhalese community.<ref name="lnlypnlu">{{Cite book |author=Atkinson, Brett |year=2009 |title=Lonely Planet Sri Lanka |publisher=] | page=50 |isbn=978-1-74104-835-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QAgHA69_rwC}}</ref>
Kannangara led the establishment of the ] (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural population. In 1942 a ] committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality ] for the people. However in the 1980s changers to this system saw the separation the of administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite ]s are controlled directly by the ] and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka also has 15 ].


]
However the lack of space in these institutions and the unwillingness to establish ] has led to a large number of students been denied entry into formal universities as well as high undergraduate unemployment. As a result, a number of public and private institutions have emerged, which provide specialised education in a variety of fields, such as ], ] and law. These include the government owned ] and the Institute of Technological Studies. The free education system ensures that primary to tertiary education is provided free of charge to its citizens.
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the ]s, low country dances and ] dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance<ref name="dncen2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kandyan dance |encyclopedia=] | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Kandyan-dance}}</ref> that consists of five sub-categories: ''Ves dance'', ''Naiyandi dance'', ''Udekki dance'', ''Pantheru dance'' and ''18 Vannam''.<ref name="sldance">{{Cite book |author=Cummings, Joe |year=2006 |title=Sri Lanka |publisher=] | pages=50–52 |isbn=978-1-74059-975-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pq9XaJuzwkQC}}</ref> An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum called ''Geta Béraya'' is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web |title=Dance of Sri Lanka |publisher=lakpura.com |url=https://us.lakpura.com/pages/dance |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714003824/http://www.lanka.com/sri-lanka/dance-and-drama-of-sri-lanka-104.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 |date=28 July 2014}}</ref>


The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.<ref name="lklibrform">{{cite web |title=History of painting and sculpture in Sri Lanka |publisher=lankalibrary.com |url=http://lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=3128 |access-date=20 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084513/http://lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=3128 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using ] in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residences.
===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Sri Lanka}}
Human rights as ratified by the United Nations are guaranteed by the constitution of Sri Lanka. The human rights situation in Sri Lanka has come under criticism by human rights groups such as ] and ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/sri-lanka |title=Amnesty International&nbsp;— Sri Lanka Human Rights Reports |publisher=Amnesty.org |date= |accessdate=2010-06-02}}</ref> as well as the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 |title=Sri Lanka |publisher=State.gov |date=2001-02-23 |accessdate=2011-07-17}}</ref> and the European Union,<ref>{{dead link|date=December 2010}}.</ref> have expressed concern about the state of ]. Both the separatist ] (LTTE) and the ] are accused of violating ].


Theatre came to the country when a ] company from ] introduced ''Nurti'', a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.<ref name="sldance" /> The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of ''Maname'', a play written by ] in 1956.<ref name="theatresl">{{cite web |title=The Sinhala Theatre of Sri Lanka: A Form of Political Discourse |publisher=artsrilanka.org |url=http://www.artsrilanka.org/essays/theatre/index.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114210156/http://www.artsrilanka.org/essays/theatre/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was followed by a series of popular dramas like ''Sinhabāhu'', ''Pabāvatī'', ''Mahāsāra'', ''Muudu Puththu'' and ''Subha saha Yasa''.
In its 2007 report, however, Amnesty International stated that "escalating political killings, child recruitment, abductions and armed clashes created a climate of fear in the east, spreading to the north by the end of the year", whilst also outlining concerns with violence against women, the death penalty and "numerous reports of torture in police custody". However, the report also stated that the ceasefire between government and LTTE remained in place despite numerous violations.<ref>{{dead link|date=December 2010}}.</ref>


Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the ] literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the ].<ref name="lklinbr" /> The ], the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the ], at the Alulena cave temple, ], as early as 29 BCE.<ref name="alulena">{{cite web |title=Challenge to Buddha Jayanthi Stamp Selection Board |work=The Island |url=http://www.island.lk/2006/05/31/opinion6.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115010/http://www.island.lk/2006/05/31/opinion6.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chronicles such as the '']'', written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher ], the chronicles are based on Sinhala ] (commentary).<ref name="lklinbr" /> The oldest surviving prose work is the ''Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya'', compiled in the 9th century CE.<ref name="lklinbr" /> The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include ''Sandesha Kāvya'' (poetic messages) such as ''Girā Sandeshaya'' (parrot message), ''Hansa Sandeshaya'' (swan message) and ''Salalihini Sandeshaya'' (myna message). Poetry including ''Kavsilumina'', ''Kavya-Sekharaya'' (''Diadem of Poetry'') and proses such as ''Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya'', ''Amāvatura'' (''Flood of Nectar'') and ''Pujāvaliya'' are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.<ref name="lklinbr">{{cite web |title=A survey of Sinhalese poetry from ancient times to the modern period |publisher=lankalibrary.com |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/books/sinhala8.htm |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114355/http://www.lankalibrary.com/books/sinhala8.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first modern-day novel, ''Meena'' by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905<ref name="sldance" /> and was followed by several revolutionary literary works. ], the author of '']'' is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.<ref name="martinw">{{cite web |title=Martin Wickramasinghe: An icon of world intellectual heritage |work=The Daily News |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/07/23/fea01.asp}}</ref>
However, the Sri Lankan minister for ] said "We regret one or two statements made here, that fly in the face of all concrete evidence, that the situation in Sri Lanka is deteriorating, when we have dealt more firmly with terrorism, with far-less damage to civilians, than in any comparative situation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/Current_Affairs/ca200803/20080304minister_sets_record_straight_hr_situation.htm |title=NewsLine: Minister sets the record straight on Sri Lanka's human rights situation |publisher=Priu.gov.lk |date=2008-03-04 |accessdate=2010-06-02}}</ref> Foreign Minister ] said, the report presents a distorted view of the actual situation in Sri Lanka during the year 2007 and is a litany of unsubstantiated allegations, innuendo and vituperative exaggerations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/Current_Affairs/ca200803/20080314us_report_distorted_view_to_denigrate_sl.htm |title=NewsLine: US Report: Distorted view to denigrate Sri Lanka |publisher=Priu.gov.lk |date=2008-03-15 |accessdate=2011-07-17}}</ref>


===Sports=== === Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Sri Lanka}} {{Main|Sport in Sri Lanka}}
] between Sri Lanka and England at the SCC Ground, Colombo, March 2001.]] ] in ]]]
While the ] is ], by far the most popular sport in the country is ].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2008/10/02/spo12.asp |title=Can Sri Lanka form an invincible cricket team? |author=Gurusinghe, Nimal |work=The Daily News |date=2 October 2008}}</ref> ] also enjoys extensive popularity,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/25/rugby-sri-lanka-asias-little-known-rugby-haven.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408233643/http://dawn.com/2011/05/25/rugby-sri-lanka-asias-little-known-rugby-haven/ |archive-date=8 April 2012 |title=Rugby: Sri Lanka, Asia's little-known rugby haven |work=] | date=25 May 2011}}</ref> as do ], ] and ]. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kitesurfingsrilanka.com/ |title=Kitesurf Sri Lanka |publisher=kitesurfingsrilanka.com |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-date=6 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206111947/http://www.kitesurfingsrilanka.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ] attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sinhalaya.com/srilankatravelguide/ac_martial_arts_lanka.php |title=Sri Lankan martial arts |publisher=sinhalaya.com |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125023655/http://www.sinhalaya.com/srilankatravelguide/ac_martial_arts_lanka.php |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
] holds the record for the highest number of ] in ].<ref name="Muralitharan">{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/srilanka/content/player/49636.html|title=Player Profile: Muttiah Muralitharan|website=]|access-date=30 December 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213191453/http://www.espncricinfo.com/srilanka/content/player/49636.html|archive-date=13 February 2012}}</ref>|alt=Muttiah Muralitharan]]


The ] achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from ] status to winning the ], defeating ] in the final on 17 March 1996.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://sport.guardian.co.uk/cricketworldcup2007/story/0,,2016636,00.html |title=Sri Lanka light up the world |author=Selvey, Mike |work=] | date=18 March 1996 |place=London}}</ref> They also won the ] played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the ] in ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/247507.html |title=Final: Australia v Sri Lanka at Bridgetown, Apr&nbsp;28, 2007 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |author-link=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/9444277.stm |title=India power past Sri Lanka to Cricket World Cup triumph |author=Sheringham, Sam |publisher=BBC |date=2 April 2011}}</ref> and of the ] in ] and ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wt202009/content/story/410042.html |title=Afridi fifty seals title for Pakistan |author=McGlashan, Andrew |date=21 June 2009 |publisher=]}}</ref> Former Sri Lankan ] ] has been rated as the greatest ] ] ever by '']'',<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/2572069.stm |title=Murali 'best bowler ever' |work=] Sport |date=13 December 2002 |place=London}}</ref> and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (]), 4th (]), 5th (]) and 11th (]) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. As of June 2022, Muttiah Muralitharan has the highest aggregate wickets in Test Cricket with a record 800 wickets, a feat he achieved in a Test Match against India in July 2010 that Sri Lanka had won by 10 Wickets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/india-tour-of-sri-lanka-2010-455238/sri-lanka-vs-india-1st-test-456669/match-report|title=Murali gets 800, Sri Lanka win by ten wickets|website=]|first=Sriram|last=Veera|date=22 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofsports.com/cricket/highest-test-wicket-takers/|title=Top 50 Highest Test Wicket Takers in Cricket History|website=]|date=13 March 2023 }}</ref> Sri Lanka has won the ] in 1986,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/47/47039.html |title=John Player Gold Leaf Trophy (Asia Cup) 1985/86 (Final) |date=6 April 1986 |publisher=cricketarchive.co.uk}}</ref> 1997,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/151650.html |title=Pepsi Asia Cup, 1997–98 |author=Thawfeeq, Sa'adi |publisher=]}}</ref> 2004,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/134815.html |title=Sri Lanka win the Asia Cup |author=Vasu, Anand |date=1 August 2004 |publisher=]}}</ref> 2008,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/asiacup/content/current/series/298014.html |title=Asia Cup 2008 |date=6 July 2008 |publisher=] |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307220216/http://www.espncricinfo.com/asiacup/content/current/series/298014.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/asia-cup-2014/content/current/series/671665.html |title=Asia Cup 2014 |date=8 March 2014 |publisher=] |access-date=4 August 2014 |archive-date=21 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921144658/http://www.espncricinfo.com/asia-cup-2014/content/current/series/671665.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/2788151 |title=Brilliant Sri Lanka clinch Asia Cup 2022 title|access-date=12 September 2022 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref> Sri Lanka once held the highest team score in all three formats of cricket.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.exzoon.com/sri_lanka_national_cricket_team.html |title=Sri Lanka National Cricket Team |publisher=exzoon.com |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101040927/http://www.exzoon.com/sri_lanka_national_cricket_team.html |archive-date=1 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in ] and ] and hosted the ].
While the ] in Sri Lanka is ],<ref name='sldg-s'></ref> by far the most popular sport in the country is ].<ref name='sldg-s'/> ] also enjoys extensive popularity, as do ], ], ] and ]. Sri Lanka's schools and colleges regularly organise sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels.


Sri Lankans have won two medals at ]: one silver, by ] at the ] for men's ];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2008/06/12/spo09.asp |title=Duncan White – the greatest Sri Lankan athlete |date=12 June 2008 |work=The Daily News}}</ref> and one silver by ] at the ] for women's ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/susanthika-jayasinghe |title=Athlete Susanthika Jayasinghe |publisher=International Olympic Committee |date=20 June 2016}}</ref> In 1973, ] won the ], the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://print.dailymirror.lk/editorial/106-editorial/12395.html |title=LKY's prejudice |date=7 June 2010 |work=Daily Mirror |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218191441/http://print.dailymirror.lk/editorial/106-editorial/12395.html |archive-date=18 December 2013 }}</ref> Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepapare.com/sri-lanka-mens-champions-carrom-world-championship-2016/ |title=Sri Lanka emerged as world champions |date=10 November 2016 |work=Prepare}}</ref> and 2018, the men's team becoming champions and the women's team winning second place. The ] was annually held between 1953 and 2011.
The ] achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from ] status to winning the ].<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://sport.guardian.co.uk/cricketworldcup2007/story/0,,2016636,00.html
|title=Sri Lanka light up the world
|author=Selvey, Mike
|work=The Guardian |date=1996-03-18
|accessdate=2009-08-30
| location=London
|authorlink=Mike Selvey
}}</ref> Sri Lankan cricket team reached the ] of the ], where they lost to ] at the ], in ], ].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/247507.html
|title=Final: Australia v Sri Lanka at Bridgetown, Apr&nbsp;28, 2007
|author=Cricinfo
|accessdate=2009-08-30
|authorlink=Cricinfo
}}</ref> After qualifying to play in the ] of the ], Sri Lanka was beaten by ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/9444277.stm|title=India power past Sri Lanka to Cricket World Cup triumph|author=Sam Sheringham|publisher=BBC|accessdate=3 April 2011|date=2 April 2011}}</ref> The legendary Sri Lankan off-spinner ] also ended his incredible career at the ] in ] which hosted the 2011 World Cup finals. The national cricket team of Sri Lanka has won the ] in ], ], ] and ].


] also won the prestigious ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://saffederation.org/saff-gold-cup-1995/ |title=SAFF Website |access-date=21 July 2023 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918095651/https://saffederation.org/saff-gold-cup-1995/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalsportsarchive.com/competition/soccer/saff-gold-cup-1995-sri-lanka/semi-finals/17371/|title=1995 SAFF Championship;globalsport archive.com|access-date=24 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.11v11.com/competitions/south-asian-football-federation-(saff)-championship/1995/|title=1995 SAFF Championship|access-date=24 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/saffgold95.html|title=1995 SAFF Championship;RSSSF.com|access-date=24 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/04/04/spo03.asp|title=Lanka hopes to regain supremacy|access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref>
Sri Lanka has a large number of sports stadiums, including the ], the ], the ] and the ] in Dambulla as well as the ]. The country co-hosted the ] with India and ], ] with India and ] and has hosted the ] tournament on numerous occasions. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming and ] on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, ''Cheena di'' and ''Angampora''.


==See also== == See also ==
{{satop|Geography|Euraisa|Asia|South Asia|SAARC|Sri Lanka}} {{Portal|Sri Lanka}}
* ] * ]
* ]
{{clear}}
{{Clear}}


==References== == Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}} {{notelist}}


==Further reading== == References ==
=== Citations ===
;Bibliography
{{Reflist
{{Refbegin|colwidth=20em}}
| refs =
* {{Citation | last = Brow | first = James | authorlink = | year = 1978 | title = Vedda villages of Anuradhapura: The historical anthropology of a community in Sri Lanka | publisher = ] | location = ] | isbn = 978-0295-955-85-8| postscript = <!--None-->}}
<ref name="corankel">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTOJiGQ2mLIC |author1=Corea, Gamani |author2=Kelegama, Saman |name-list-style=amp |title=Economic policy in Sri Lanka: Issues and debates |publisher=SAGE |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7619-3278-9 |pages=405–406}}</ref>
* {{Citation | last = Codrington | first = H. W. | authorlink = | year = 1994 | title = A Short History of Ceylon | publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | location = ] | isbn = 978-0836-955-96-5 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
}}
* {{Citation | last = Chandra Richard | first = De Silva | authorlink= | year = 1987 | title = Sri Lanka&nbsp;— A History | publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | location = ] | isbn = 978-0706-998-99-3 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = De Silva | first = K. M. | authorlink = | year = 2005 | title = A History of Sri Lanka, xvii, p.&nbsp;782 | publisher = ] | location = ] | isbn = 978-0905-838-50-2 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Devendra | first = Tissa | authorlink = | year = 1996 | title = Sri Lanka: The Emerald Island | publisher = Roli Books | location = ] | isbn = 978-8174-370-66-2 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Cite book | last = Gunaratna | first = Rohan | authorlink = Rohan Gunaratna | title= Sri Lanka's Ethnic Crisis and National Security | publisher = South Asian Network on Conflict Research | edition=1 | year = 1998 | isbn=955-8093-00-9 }}
* {{Citation | last = Domroes | first = Manfred | authorlink = | year = 2006 | title = After the Tsunami: Relief and rehabilitation in Sri Lanka | publisher = Mosaic Books | location = ] | isbn = 978-8185-399-20-1 | postscript=<!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Gunaratne | first = Shelton A. | authorlink = | year = May 1975| title = The Taming of the Press in Sri Lanka | publisher = Journalism Monographs No. 39, Association for Education in Journalism | location = Sri Lanka | isbn= | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Johnson | first = B. L. C. | authorlink = | year = 1981 | title = Sri Lanka Land, People and Economy | publisher = Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. | location = ] | isbn = 978-0435-354-89-3 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Knox | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = ] | publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | location = ] | isbn = | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Mendis | first = G.C. | authorlink = | year = 1963 | title = Ceylon Today and Yesterday: main currents of Ceylon history | publisher = Associated Newspapers of Ceylon | location = ] | isbn = | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Sedere | first = Upali M. | authorlink = | year = 2005 | title = Context of Educational Reforms Then and Now: 121st C. W. W. Kannangara Memorial Address | publisher = Ministry of Education, Isurupaya, Battaramulla | location = ] | isbn= | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Smith | first = Vincent A. | authorlink = Vincent Arthur Smith | year = 1958 | title = The Oxford History of India | publisher = ] | location = ] | isbn = 978-0195-612-97-4 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Williams | first = Harry |authorlink = Harry Williams | year = 1950 | title = Ceylon Pearl of the East | publisher = Robert Hale Limited | location = ] | isbn= | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Williams | first = Harry | authorlink = Harry Williams | year = 2002 | title = Ceylon Pearl of the East | publisher = Surjeet | location = ] | isbn= | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Gilbert | first = Philippe | authorlink = | year = 2005 | title = Les Larmes de Ceylan | publisher = Ed. des Equateurs | location = ] | isbn = 978-2849-900-23-9 | postscript = <!--None-->}}
* {{Citation | last = Perera | first = Nihal | authorlink = | year = 1999 | title = Decolonizing Ceylon: Colonialism, Nationalism and the Politics of Space in Sri Lanka | publisher = ] | location = ] | isbn = 978-0195-646-43-6 | postscript = <!--None-->}}


===Sources and further reading===
{{Refend}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Codrington|first=H.W.|title=A Short History of Ceylon|publisher=Macmillan & Co.|year=1926|location=London|isbn=978-0-8369-5596-5|oclc=2154168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hyiaAXhNd8C}}
* {{cite book|last1=Buswell|first1=R.E.|last2=Lopez|first2=D.S.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-691-15786-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-fWKngEACAAJ|access-date=29 May 2021}}
* Ganguly, Sumit. "Ending the Sri Lankan civil war." ''Dædalus'' 147.1 (2018): 78–89.
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iudi2JJLaUAC|last=Nubin|first=Walter|title=Sri Lanka: Current issues and historical background|publisher=]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-59033-573-4}}
* Peebles, Patrick. ''The History of Sri Lanka'' (Greenwood, 2005).
* {{cite web|url=http://www.usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/The%20Theri%20Arahant%20Sanghamitta.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Theri Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree|last=Paw|first=Maung|website=usamyanmar.net|access-date=15 September 2011|archive-date=24 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724120135/http://www.usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/The%20Theri%20Arahant%20Sanghamitta.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=De Silva|first=K. M.|title=A history of Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dByI_qil26YC|publisher=]|year=1981|isbn=978-0-520-04320-6}}
{{refend}}


==External links== == External links ==
{{Sister project links|Sri Lanka}} {{Sister project links|voy=Sri Lanka|d=Q854|Sri Lanka}}
{{EB1911 poster|Ceylon}}
*{{Official website|http://www.gov.lk}}
*{{CIA World Factbook link|ce|Sri Lanka}}
*{{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/Sri_Lanka}}
*{{Wikiatlas|Sri Lanka}}
*{{Wikitravel}}


===Government===
{{Coord|7|N|81|E|region:LK_type:country_source:dewiki|display=title}}
* , a gateway to government sites.
* of the ].
*
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725214707/http://www.president.gov.lk/ |date=25 July 2011 }} of the ].
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113000513/http://www.pmoffice.gov.lk/ |date=13 November 2018 }} of the ] / ].
* of the Office of the ].
* of the ].

===Overviews and data===
* . '']''. ].
* of the Department of Census and Statistics.
* from the Ministry of Finance and Planning.
* from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''.
* from the ].
* in the ].
* Overview of the country from ].
* from ].

===History===
* an ancient Sri Lankan chronicle written in the 6th century.
* by Sir ], 1861.

===Maps===
* {{Wikiatlas|Sri Lanka}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|536807}}
* in ].
* , Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, ]

===Trade===
*

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Revision as of 18:06, 26 December 2024

Island country in South Asia "Ceylon" redirects here. For other uses, see Ceylon (disambiguation).

Democratic Socialist Republic of
Sri Lanka
  • ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය (Sinhala)
  • இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு (Tamil)
  • Sinhala:Śrī Laṅkā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya
    Tamil:Ilaṅkai Caṉanāyaka Cōcalicak Kuṭiyaracu
Flag of Sri Lanka Flag Emblem of Sri Lanka Emblem
Anthem: "Sri Lanka Matha"
ශ්‍රී ලංකා මාතා (Sinhala)
ஸ்ரீ லங்கா தாயே (Tamil)
(English: "Mother Sri Lanka")
Location of Sri Lanka
Capital
Largest cityColombo
Official languages
Recognised languageEnglish
Ethnic groups (2012)
Religion (2012)
Demonym(s)Sri Lankan
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic
• President Anura Kumara Dissanayake
• Prime Minister Harini Amarasuriya
• Speaker of the Parliament Jagath Wickramaratne
• Chief Justice Murdu Fernando
LegislatureParliament
Formation
• Kingdom established 543 BCE
• Anuradhapura period 377 BCE – 1017 CE
• Polonnaruwa period 1017–1232
• Transitional period 1232–1592
• Kandyan period 1592–1815
• British Ceylon period 1815–1948
• Independence 4 February 1948
• Republic 22 May 1972
• Current constitution 7 September 1978
Area
• Total65,610.2 km (25,332.2 sq mi) (120th)
• Water (%)4.4
Population
• 2022 estimateNeutral increase 22,037,000 (60th)
• 2012 census20,277,600
• Density337.7/km (874.6/sq mi) (43rd)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• TotalDecrease $318.6 billion (60th)
• Per capitaDecrease $14,234 (101th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• TotalIncrease $84.3 billion (79th)
• Per capitaIncrease $3,293 (132nd)
Gini (2016)Positive decrease 39.8
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.780
high (78th)
CurrencySri Lankan rupee (Rs), (රු) (LKR)
Time zoneUTC+5:30 (SLST)
Date formatyyyy-mm-dd
Drives onLeft
Calling code+94
ISO 3166 codeLK
Internet TLD
Website
gov.lk
You may need rendering support to display the Indic text in this article correctly.

Sri Lanka, historically known as Ceylon, and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian peninsula by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. It shares a maritime border with the Maldives in the southwest and India in the northwest. Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka and the largest city, Colombo is the administrative and judicial capital which is the nation's political, financial and cultural centre. Kandy is the second-largest urban area and also the capital of the last native kingdom of Sri Lanka. The most spoken language Sinhala, is spoken by the majority of the population (approximately 17 million). Tamil is also spoken by approximately five million people, making it the second most-spoken language in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka has a population of approximately 22 million and is home to several cultures, languages and ethnicities. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population, followed by the Sri Lankan Tamils, who are the largest minority group and are concentrated in northern Sri Lanka; both groups have played an influential role in the island's history. Other long-established groups include the Moors, Indian Tamils, Burghers, Malays, Chinese, and Vedda.

Sri Lanka's documented history goes back 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric human settlements dating back 125,000 years. The earliest known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, known collectively as the Pali Canon, date to the fourth Buddhist council, which took place in 29 BCE. Also called the Pearl of the Indian Ocean, or the Granary of the East, Sri Lanka's geographic location and deep harbours have made it of great strategic importance, from the earliest days of the ancient Silk Road trade route to today's so-called maritime Silk Road. Because its location made it a major trading hub, it was already known to both East Asians and Europeans as long ago as the Anuradhapura period. During a period of great political crisis in the Kingdom of Kotte, the Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka and sought to control its maritime trade, with a part of Sri Lanka subsequently becoming a Portuguese possession. After the Sinhalese–Portuguese War, the Dutch colonial empire and the Kingdom of Kandy took control of those areas. Dutch Ceylon was taken by the British Empire, which extended control over the whole island, colonising it as British Ceylon from 1815 to 1948. A national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and 1948, Ceylon became a dominion. It was succeeded by the republic of Sri Lanka in 1972. Sri Lanka's more recent history was marred by the 26-year Sri Lankan Civil War, which began in 1983 and ended in 2009, when the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.

Sri Lanka is a developing country, ranking 78th on the Human Development Index. It is the highest-ranked South Asian nation in terms of development and has the second-highest per capita income in South Asia. The country has had a long history of engagement with modern international groups; it is a founding member of the SAARC, the G77 and the Non-Aligned Movement, as well as a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations.

Toponymy

Main article: Names of Sri Lanka

In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the Mahāvaṃsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the island Tambapaṇṇĩ ("copper-red hands" or "copper-red earth"), because his followers' hands were reddened by the red soil of the area where he landed. In Hindu mythology, the term Lankā ("Island") appears but it is unknown whether it refers to the modern-day state. The Tamil term Eelam (Tamil: ஈழம், romanized: īḻam) was used to designate the whole island in Sangam literature. The island was known under Chola rule as Mummudi Cholamandalam ("realm of the three crowned Cholas").

Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā (Ancient Greek: Ταπροβανᾶ) or Taprobanē (Ταπροβανῆ) from the word Tambapanni. The Persians and Arabs referred to it as Sarandīb (the origin of the word "serendipity") from Sanskrit Siṃhaladvīpaḥ. Ceilão, the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505, was transliterated into English as Ceylon. As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.

The country is now known in Sinhala as Śrī Laṅkā (Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා) and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai (Tamil: இலங்கை, IPA: [iˈlaŋɡaɪ]). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.

History

Main article: History of Sri Lanka

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory of Sri Lanka

The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years. The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (37,000 BP), named after the Chinese traveller monk Faxian; Batadombalena (28,500 BP); and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other evidence suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.

The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.

During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India, and shared the same megalithic burials, pottery, iron technology, farming techniques and megalithic graffiti. This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir, prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.

One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that was created by the divine sculptor Vishvakarma for Kubera, the God of Wealth. It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his rakshasa stepbrother, Ravana.

Ancient history

Main articles: Pre-Anuradhapura period and Anuradhapura period
Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first century CE, in a 1535 publication

According to the Mahāvaṃsa, a Pāḷi chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the Yakshas and Nagas. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from Vanga kingdom (present-day Bengal). He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern-day Mannar. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately 189 monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as the Dīpavaṃsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya.

Once Prakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island, the Mahāvaṃsa further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil Pandya kingdom to the Anuradhapura kingdom in the early historic period.

The Avukana Buddha statue, a 12-metre-tall (39 ft) standing Buddha statue from the reign of Dhatusena of Anuradhapura, 5th century

The Anuradhapura period (377 BCE – 1017 CE) began with the establishment of the Anuradhapura kingdom in 380 BCE during the reign of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years. Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures such as tanks, dagobas and palaces. Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE, Mahinda, a bhikkhu and the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale carrying the message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.

Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda, which was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the Tripiṭaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda. In 245 BCE, bhikkhunī Sanghamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi Tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened. It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivaṃsa)

Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India. The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by a Chola named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugamunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Sinhala kingdom was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, and Pallava. There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well.

The Sigiriya ("Lion Rock"), a rock fortress and city, built by King Kashyapa (477–495 CE) as a new more defensible capital. It was also used as a Buddhist monastery after the capital was moved back to Anuradhapura.

The Fourth Theravāda Council was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the Pali Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the surviving monks recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost. After the council, palm-leaf manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE). Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of Kashyapa I, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.

In 993 CE, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sinhalese ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura causing the fall of Anuradhapura kingdom. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.

Post-classical period

Main articles: Polonnaruwa period and Transitional period of Sri Lanka

Following a 17-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century. Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely, Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.

The seated image of Gal Vihara in Polonnaruwa, 12th century, which depicts the dhyana mudra, shows signs of Mahayana influence.

Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186). This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs. His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.

After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. He sailed from Kalinga 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he looted, ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.

Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom. The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.

The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte, Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy. In 1247, the Malay kingdom of Tambralinga which was a vassal of Sri Vijaya led by their king Chandrabhanu briefly invaded Sri Lanka from Insular Southeast Asia. They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty. However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of various Austronesian merchant ethnic groups, from Sumatrans (Indonesia) to Lucoes (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE. Chinese admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into battle with the local king Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him. Zheng He erected the Galle Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet at Galle written in three languages (Chinese, Tamil, and Persian), to commemorate his visit. The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.

Early modern period

Main article: Kandyan period See also: Portuguese Ceylon, Dutch Ceylon, and British Ceylon
A 17th-century engraving of Dutch explorer Joris van Spilbergen meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602
A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius
A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505. In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location he thought more secure from attack. In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to an end.

During the reign of the Rajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas. The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The Burgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.

The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka. In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese—to Kandy and built the Temple of the Tooth. In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira Narendra Sinha 's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India (Madurai) and was childless by her.

Eventually, with the support of bhikkhu Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine. The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.

Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy, the last ruling native Sri Lankan monarch

During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, the British Empire occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony of British Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796. Two years later, in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned. The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.

By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the Second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India. The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke–Cameron reforms of 1833. They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government. An executive council and a legislative council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.

Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent. These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848. A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years. The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.

British appointed Kandyan chief headmen in 1905.

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives. New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalists reacted against Christian missionary activities. The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost.

The 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon actually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.

In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam, pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.

The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council. In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45.

Contemporary history

Main article: History of Sri Lanka (1948–present) See also: Sri Lankan independence movement and Sri Lankan Civil War
The formal ceremony marking the start of self-rule, with the opening of the first parliament at Independence Square
J. R. Jayewardene was the most influential political figure of Sri Lanka in the 1970s and 1980s.

The Soulbury constitution ushered in dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948. D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon. Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet. The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.

S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture". He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.

The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict. The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.

Leaders in 1960Elizabeth II
Queen of CeylonSirimavo Bandaranaike
Prime Minister1960 saw the election of Sirimavo Bandaranaike as Ceylon's Prime Minister and the first time in world history that the heads of both state and government in a country were female.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s. The policy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education, resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy. The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.

The government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the United Front government. Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy. Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the start of a civil war, and in response anti-Tamil race riots took place, allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard-line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.

Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training. In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE. The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka, necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990. In October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka. In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.

The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri Lanka. From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the 26 year long civil war on 19 May 2009, and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the course of the 26 year long conflict.

2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings carried out by the terrorist group National Thowheeth Jama'ath on 21 April 2019 resulted in the brutal death of 261 innocent people. On 26 April 2019 an anti terrorist operation was carried out against the National Thowheeth Jama'ath by the Sri Lanka Army with the operation being successful and National Thowheeth Jama'ath's insurgency ending.

Sri Lankans broke into the Presidential Secretariat on 9 July 2022

Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when a severe economic crisis occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilizers, and a multitude of other factors. The Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worst economic crisis in the country in 73 years. In August 2021, a food emergency was declared. In June 2022, Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe declared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament. The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder. Due to the crisis, massive street protests erupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the President Gotabaya Rajapaksa. The protests culminated with the storming and siege of the President's House on July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term. On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters besieged and stormed the private residence of the prime minister and burnt it down.

After Parliament elected the new president as Ranil Wickremesinghe on 20 July 2022, Wickremesinghe took oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka. He implemented various economic reforms in efforts to stabilize Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since. On 23 September 2024, Anura Kumara Dissanayake was sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president after winning the presidential election as a left-wing candidate. On 14 November 2024, President Anura Kumara Dissanayake's National People's Power (NPP), a left-leaning alliance, received a two-thirds majority in parliament in Sri Lankan parliamentary election.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Sri Lanka
A roughly oval island with a mountainous centre
Topographic map of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka, an island in South Asia shaped as a teardrop or a pear/mango, lies on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate. It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5° and 10° N, and longitudes 79° and 82° E. Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, until cyclones deepened the channel. Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation. The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level.

A view of Sripada from Maskeliya

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi). These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres (33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft). Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long. Sri Lanka claims an exclusive economic zone extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.

Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons. Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium. Existence of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.

Climate

Main article: Geography_of_Sri_Lanka § Climate
Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate classification

The climate is tropical and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the Central Highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (25 °F) to 18 °C (32 °F).

The rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of rain annually.

The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at 800 to 1,200 mm (31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.

Flora and fauna

Main articles: Environment of Sri Lanka and Wildlife of Sri Lanka See also: List of mammals of Sri Lanka and List of birds of Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan elephant is one of three recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. The 2011 elephant census estimated a population of 5,879.

Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34. Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds. A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are endemic. Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country. 33 species are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics. Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; The Department of Forest Conservation and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.

Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan thorn scrub forests. Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.

The Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is an endangered subspecies of leopard native to Sri Lanka.

Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja. Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).

Maha rath mala (Rhododendron arboreum ssp. zeylanicum) is a rare sub-species of Rhododendron arboreum found in Central Highlands of Sri Lanka.

During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km (730 sq mi) as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Sri Lanka and Constitution of Sri Lanka
This section needs expansion with: is missing explication of the constitutional socialist nature of the republic that is reflected in the formal name of the country: "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". You can help by making an edit requestadding to it . (July 2022)
The old Sri Lankan Parliament building, near the Galle Face Green in Colombo. It now serves as the Presidential Secretariat's headquarters.

Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system. Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia. Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment of certain fundamental features, including clauses on national symbols, religion, term limits, the reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state, and the entrenchment mechanism itself, requires both a two-thirds majority in Parliament and approval in a nationwide referendum. The Constitution of Sri Lanka officially declares it to be a socialist state.

In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo
  • Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and final superior court of record, a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences. Criminal law is based almost entirely on British law. Basic civil law derives from Roman-Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal. Because of ancient customary practices and religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special cases. The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the chief justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.

Politics

Main articles: Politics of Sri Lanka and Elections in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka National symbols of Sri Lanka
FlagLion Flag
EmblemGold Lion Passant
Anthem"Sri Lanka Matha"
ButterflySri Lankan birdwing
AnimalGrizzled giant squirrel
BirdSri Lanka junglefowl
FlowerBlue water lily
TreeCeylon ironwood (nā)
SportVolleyball
Source:

The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-left and progressive United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP). After 2018, two major political parties have split from these two parties: The Samagi Jana Balawegaya split from the UNP, and the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna split from the UPFA. The third wing party Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna has gained popularity after 2022.

Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67. Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.

The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party. It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence. SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike in July 1951. SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in the 1956 Parliamentary election. Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of government.

G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades. The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese. With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance. Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist–Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context. It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party. Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.

President Mahinda Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, Maithripala Sirisena, decided not to seek re-election in 2019. The Rajapaksa family regained power in November 2019 presidential elections when Mahinda's younger brother and former wartime defence chief Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka. Their firm grip of power was consolidated in the parliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political party, Sri Lanka People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.

In 2022, a political crisis started due to the power struggle between President Gotabaya Rajapaksa and the Parliament of Sri Lanka. The crisis was fuelled by anti-government protests and demonstrations by the public and also due to the worsening economy of Sri Lanka since 2019. The anti-government sentiment across various parts of Sri Lanka has triggered unprecedented political instability, creating shockwaves in the political arena.

On July 20, 2022, Ranil Wickremesinghe was elected as the ninth President via a parliamentarian election. President Ranil Wickremesinghe was defeated by left-leaning Anura Kumara Dissanayake in 2024 presidential elections.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka

For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces and twenty-five districts.

Provinces

Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the government. Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities, but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils. Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province. Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:

Bay of Bengal Palk Strait Northern Province Gulf of
Mannar North Central Province North Western
Province Eastern
Province Central
Province Uva Province Western
Province Sabaragamuwa
Province Southern Province Indian Ocean
Province Capital Area
(km)		 Population (2012) Density
(Persons per km)		 Provincial GDP share (%) (2022) Sri Lanka Prosperity Index (2021)
Central Kandy 5,674 2,571,557 453 10.0 0.559
Eastern Trincomalee 9,996 1,555,510 155 5.2 0.519
North Central Anuradhapura 10,714 1,266,663 118 5.0 0.521
North Western Kurunegala 7,812 2,380,861 305 11.2 0.541
Northern Jaffna 8,884 1,061,315 119 4.1 0.564
Sabaragamuwa Ratnapura 4,902 1,928,655 393 7.1 0.499
Southern Galle 5,559 2,477,285 446 9.1 0.582
Uva Badulla 8,488 1,266,463 149 4.9 0.468
Western Colombo 3,709 5,851,130 1,578 43.4 0.802
Sri Lanka Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte and Colombo 65,610 20,359,439 310 100 0.796

Districts and local authorities

Each district is administered under a district secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions. The districts are known in Sinhala as disa and in Tamil as māwaddam. Originally, a disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva.

There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256). Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer. Later, the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Sri LankaSee also: Sri Lanka and the Non-Aligned Movement
President J. R. Jayewardene gifting Jayathu, a baby elephant to US President Ronald Reagan in 1984

Sri Lanka is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated relations with India. Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan.

The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East. Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950. At the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy. Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rubber-Rice Pact in 1952. Sri Lanka played a vital role at the Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.

The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka. The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964 and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of 1974 were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long-standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka. By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the fifth NAM summit was held in Colombo in 1976. The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of J. R. Jayawardene. As a result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987. In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China, Russia, and Pakistan.

Military

The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence. The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves. Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription. Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard.

Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 26-year-long conflict with the LTTE. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years. The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.

Sri Lanka is the 100th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Sri Lanka See also: Agriculture in Sri Lanka, Tea production in Sri Lanka, Tourism in Sri Lanka, and Transport in Sri Lanka
Development of real GDP per capita, 1820 to 2018

According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber, and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and a welfare state established. In 1977, the free market economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.

The World Trade Center in Colombo. Presidential Secretariat, Bank of Ceylon and Galadari Hotel are also visible in the image.

While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.

As of 2020, the service sector makes up 59.7% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.2%, and the agriculture sector 8.4%. The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy. China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners. Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively. With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.

Sri Lanka's most widely known export, Ceylon tea, which ISO considers the cleanest tea in the world in terms of pesticide residues. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.

The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011. During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, market capitalisation of the Colombo Stock Exchange quadrupled, and the budget deficit doubled. 99% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 93.2% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 53.1% have access to pipe-borne water. Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a Gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.

The 2011 Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness. Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society. In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit. S&P Dow Jones Indices classifies Sri Lanka as a frontier market as of 2018. Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with an index of 0.750.

By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%. In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program, the Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which was noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.

In September 2021, Sri Lanka declared a major economic crisis. The Chief of its Central Bank has stepped down amid the crisis. The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".

Tourism, which provided the economy with an input of foreign currency, has significantly declined as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of paved roads, it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km or 0.93 mi of paved roads per every 1 km or 0.39 sq mi of land). The road network consists of 35 A-Grade highways and four controlled-access highways. A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority. C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.

The railway network, operated by the state-run National Railway operator Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi). Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota.

Transition to biological agriculture

In June 2021, Sri Lanka imposed a nationwide ban on inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. The program was welcomed by its advisor Vandana Shiva, but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming, including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry. The situation in the tea industry was described as critical, with farming under the organic program being described as ten times more expensive and producing half of the yield by the farmers. In September 2021 the government declared an economic emergency, as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as a result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.

In November 2021, Sri Lanka abandoned its plan to become the world's first organic farming nation following rising food prices and weeks of protests against the plan. As of December 2021, the damage to agricultural production was already done, with prices having risen substantially for vegetables in Sri Lanka, and time needed to recover from the crisis. The ban on fertiliser has been lifted for certain crops, but the price of urea has risen internationally due to the price for oil and gas. Jeevika Weerahewa, a senior lecturer at the University of Peradeniya, predicted that the ban would reduce the paddy harvest in 2022 by an unprecedented 50%.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka's population, (1871–2001)

Sri Lanka has roughly 22,156,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 0.5%. The birth rate is 13.8 births per 1,000 people, and the death rate is 6.0 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population. Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. Moors comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.

Largest cities

   Largest cities or towns in Sri Lanka
(2012 Department of Census and Statistics enumeration)
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
Colombo
Colombo
Kaduwela
Kaduwela 		1 Colombo Western 561,314 11 Galle Southern 86,333
2 Kaduwela Western 252,041 12 Batticaloa Eastern 86,227
3 Maharagama Western 196,423 13 Jaffna Northern 80,829
4 Kesbewa Western 185,122 14 Matara Southern 74,193
5 Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia Western 184,468 15 Gampaha Western 62,335
6 Moratuwa Western 168,280 16 Katunayake Western 60,915
7 Negombo Western 142,449 17 Boralesgamuwa Western 60,110
8 Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte Western 107,925 18 Kolonnawa Western 60,044
9 Kalmunai Eastern 99,893 19 Anuradhapura North Central 50,595
10 Kandy Central 98,828 20 Trincomalee Eastern 48,351

Languages

Main article: Languages of Sri Lanka

Sinhala and Tamil are the two official languages. The constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Sri Lanka

Religion in Sri Lanka (2012 census)

  Buddhism (70.2%)  Hinduism (12.6%)  Islam (9.7%)  Christianity (7.4%)  Others (0.05%)

Buddhism is the largest and is considered as an "Official religion" of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana". Buddhism is practised by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan population with most being predominantly from Theravada school of thought. Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Mahinda Maurya. A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pāli Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.

Although Hindus in Sri Lanka form a religious minority, Hinduism has been present in Sri Lanka at least since the 2nd century BCE. Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa; the Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across the Palk Strait that truly set the scene for Hinduism's survival in Sri Lanka. Shaivism (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional Hindu temple architecture and philosophy of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of Hinduism. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of several Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.

Islam is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the mid or late 7th century CE. Most followers on the island today are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school and are believed to be descendants of Arab traders and the local women whom they married.

Christianity reached the country at least as early as the fifth century (and possibly in the first), gaining a wider foothold through Western colonists who began to arrive early in the 16th century. Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% are Roman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage to St. Francis Xavier as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant denominations.

There is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule. This community has steadily dwindled in recent years.

Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days each month according to the Lunar calendar, and Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 Gallup poll, Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.

Health

Development of life expectancy
Main article: Health in Sri Lanka

Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 75.5 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average. The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from developed countries. The universal "pro-poor" health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures. Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates. On 8 July 2020, the World Health Organization declared that Sri Lanka had successfully eliminated rubella and measles ahead of their 2023 target.

Education

Main article: Education in Sri Lanka
The Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology is a research institute specialising in the field of nanotechnology.

With a literacy rate of 92.9%, Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations. Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%, computer literacy rate at 35%, and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%. An education system which dictates nine years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place.

The free education system established in 1945 is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake. It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage. Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Vidyalayas (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children. In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite national schools are controlled directly by the ministry of education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 10,155 government schools, 120 private schools and 802 pirivenas.

Sri Lanka has 17 public universities. A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector. A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%. Sri Lanka was ranked 89th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Human rights and media

Main articles: Human rights in Sri Lanka and Media in Sri Lanka

The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia, established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting began in Europe. The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.

As of 2020, 192 newspapers (122 Sinhala, 24 Tamil, 43 English, 3 multilingual) are published and 25 TV stations and 58 radio stations are in operation. In recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the poorest in democratic countries. Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor, Lasantha Wickrematunge, who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.

Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, several groups, such as Amnesty International, Freedom from Torture, Human Rights Watch, as well as the British government and the United States Department of State have criticised human rights violations in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Government and the LTTE have both been accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of war crimes during final stages of the civil war. Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption. The 135-year-old Article 365 of the Sri Lankan Penal Code criminalises homosexual acts, with a penalty of up to ten years in prison.

The UN Human Rights Council has documented over 12,000 named individuals who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second-highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980. The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.

UN Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended , but in the meantime, democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military land grabbing. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.

In 2012, the UK charity Freedom from Torture reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group published Out of the Silence, which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009. On 29 July 2020, Human Rights Watch said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.

Culture

Hindu devotees engaging in Kavadi at a temple in Vavuniya

The culture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism. Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinguishable. Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards, and high literacy rate.

Food and festivals

Main articles: Sri Lankan cuisine and Festivals in Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan rice and curry

Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath, wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made with coconut milk, jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and appam. Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), and Bolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).

In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festivals. Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August. Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.

Visual, literary and performing arts

Main articles: Cinema of Sri Lanka, Music of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Theatre of Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan literature
Female dancers in traditional Kandyan dress
The Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre was constructed as a major venue for the performing arts.

The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of Treasures) marked the transition of cinema from black-and-white to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE. The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high but has been in a steady decline since then.

An influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of Destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The Changing Village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The Treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968). Sri Lankan-Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian Michael Ondaatje is well known for his English-language novels and three films.

The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam. Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music. Baila music originated among Kaffirs or the Afro-Sinhalese community.

A Low Country drummer playing the traditional Yak Béra

There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam. An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.

The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE. The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residences.

Theatre came to the country when a Parsi theatre company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century. The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956. It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.

Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda. The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BCE. Chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary). The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century CE. The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (Diadem of Poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of Nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature. The first modern-day novel, Meena by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905 and was followed by several revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.

Sport

Main article: Sport in Sri Lanka
R. Premadasa Stadium in Colombo

While the national sport is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is Cricket. Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity, as do association football, netball and tennis. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing and scuba diving attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: Cheena di and Angampora.

Muttiah Muralitharan
Muttiah Muralitharan holds the record for the highest number of wickets in Test cricket.

The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup, defeating Australia in the final on 17 March 1996. They also won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007 and 2011, and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012. Former Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara), 4th (Jayasuriya), 5th (Jayawardene) and 11th (Dilshan) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. As of June 2022, Muttiah Muralitharan has the highest aggregate wickets in Test Cricket with a record 800 wickets, a feat he achieved in a Test Match against India in July 2010 that Sri Lanka had won by 10 Wickets. Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986, 1997, 2004, 2008, 2014. and 2022. Sri Lanka once held the highest team score in all three formats of cricket. The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011 and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.

Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games: one silver, by Duncan White at the 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles; and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at the 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres. In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport. Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, 2016 and 2018, the men's team becoming champions and the women's team winning second place. The Sri Lankan National Badminton Championships was annually held between 1953 and 2011.

Sri Lanka national football team also won the prestigious 1995 South Asian Gold Cup.

See also

Notes

  1. See Economy of Sri Lanka.
  2. See Date and time notation in Asia.
  3. UK: /sri ˈlæŋkə, ʃriː -/, US: /- ˈlɑːŋkə/ ; Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා, romanized: Śrī Laṅkā (IPA: [ʃriː laŋkaː]); Tamil: இலங்கை, romanized: Ilaṅkai (IPA: [ilaŋɡaj]).
  4. Many names have been used to refer to the island, with Ceylon being used post-independence and still in use in some cases. For other names, see Names of Sri Lanka.

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