Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 01:41, 27 December 2024

The genocide of indigenous peoples, colonial genocide, or settler genocide is the elimination of indigenous peoples as a part of the process of colonialism.

According to certain genocide experts, including Raphael Lemkin – the individual who coined the term genocide – colonization is intrinsically genocidal. Lemkin saw genocide via colonialism as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the indigenous group's way of life, followed by (2) the settlers' imposition of their way of life on the indigenous group. Other scholars view genocide as associated with but distinct from settler colonialism. The expansion of various Western European colonial powers such as the British and Spanish empires and the subsequent establishment of colonies on indigenous territories frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against indigenous groups in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

The designation of specific events as genocidal is frequently controversial. Raphael Lemkin, who invented the concept of genocide, originally intended a broad definition that encompassed colonial violence, but in order to pass the 1948 Genocide Convention, he narrowed his definition to physical and biological destruction (as opposed to cultural genocide) and added the requirement of genocidal intent. Although some scholars use the Genocide Convention definition, others have "criticized as a highly flawed law for its overemphasis on intent, the imprecision of a key phrase 'destruction in whole or in part,' and the narrow exclusivity of the groups protected"—factors which reduce its applicability to anti-indigenous violence.

Genocide debate

The determination of whether a historical event should be considered a genocide is a matter of scholarly debate. Issues of contention include what construes genocidal intent and whether or not cultural destruction (sometimes called cultural genocide or "ethnic cleansing") constitutes genocide.

Some scholars narrowly define genocide so that it requires the intent to eliminate an entire group of people. Without this genocidal intent, a group or individual may commit "crimes against humanity" or "ethnic cleansing," but not genocide. Steven Katz defines genocide in the context of the Holocaust, arguing it requires the complete physical eradication of a group. He believes this distinguishes the Holocaust from other instances of violence against groups, including the genocide of Indigenous peoples.

Broader conceptions of genocide

Certain scholars and genocide experts draw on broader definitions of genocide such as Lemkin's, which considers colonialist violence against indigenous peoples inherently genocidal. Some modern scholars advocate for defining forcible assimilation, such as the Canadian residential schools, as genocide. For Lemkin, genocide included all attempts to destroy a specific ethnic group, whether they are strictly physical, through mass killings, or whether they are strictly cultural or psychological, through oppression and through the destruction of indigenous ways of life.

A people group may continue to exist, but if it is prevented from perpetuating its group identity by prohibitions of its cultural and religious practices, practices which are the basis of its group identity, this may also be considered a form of genocide. Examples of this include the treatment of Tibetans and Uyghurs by the Government of China, the treatment of Native Americans by the United States Government, and the treatment of First Nations peoples by the Canadian government.

The concept of genocide was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin:

New conceptions require new terms. By "genocide" we mean the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group. This new word, coined by the author to denote an old practice in its modern development, is made from the ancient Greek word genos (race, tribe) and the Latin cide (killing), thus corresponding in its formation to such words as tyrannicide, homicide, infanticide, etc. Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups. Genocide is directed against the national group as an entity, and the actions involved are directed against individuals, not in their individual capacity, but as members of the national group.

Lemkin wrote: "Genocide has two phases: one, destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group: the other, the imposition of the national pattern of the oppressor. This imposition, in turn, may be made upon the oppressed population which is allowed to remain, or upon the territory alone, after removal of the population and the colonization of the area by the oppressor's own nationals." Some genocide scholars separate the population declines of indigenous peoples which are due to disease from the genocidal aggression of one group towards another. Some scholars argue that an intent to commit a genocide is not needed, because a genocide may be the cumulative result of minor conflicts in which settlers, colonial agents or state agents perpetrate violent acts against minority groups. Others argue that the dire consequences of European diseases among many New World populations were exacerbated by different forms of genocidal violence, and they also argue that intentional deaths and unintentional deaths cannot easily be separated from each other. Some scholars regard the colonization of the Americas as genocide, since they argue it was largely achieved through systematically exploiting, removing and destroying specific ethnic groups, which would create environments and conditions for such disease to proliferate.

According to a 2020 study by Tai S. Edwards and Paul Kelton, recent scholarship shows "that colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas... germs can no longer serve as the basis for denying American genocides."

Other scholars have said that the population decline cannot be explained by disease only. The vectors of death raised by displacement, warfare, slavery, and famine played an important role.

Ethnocide is a term also created by Lemkin in 1944, to describe the destruction of a people's culture. Lemkin did not see a clear distinction between ethnocide and genocide, both relating to the persecution of groups.

United Nations' definition of Genocide

The UN's 1948 definition, which is used in international law, is narrower than Lemkin's definition. Lemkin supported including cultural genocide in the Genocide Convention to protect groups tied to their culture. Howerver, the term was excluded from the Genocide Convention due to objections from colonial states such as Australia, Canada, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A draft by the UN Secretariat included a definition of cultural genocide, which encompassed acts intended to destroy a group's language, religion, or culture. The final version of Article 2 of the Genocide Convention did not mention cultural genocide. Instead, it included "forcible transfer of children from one group to another" as a punishable act.

According to the UN, for an act to be classified as genocide, it is essential to demonstrate that the perpetrators had a specific intent to physically destroy the group, in whole or in part, based on its real or perceived nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion. Intention to destroy the group's culture or intending to scatter the group does suffice. The following five acts comprise the physical element of the crime:

(a) "Killing members of the group;"

(b) "Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;"

(c) "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;"

(d) "Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;"

(e) "Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."

The United Nations' definition of genocide does not offer a broad enough explanation of all that goes into a genocide, especially in the case of indigenous peoples. The destruction of nonhuman animals, land, water, and other nonhuman beings constitute forms of genocide according to indigenous metaphysics.

Indigenous peoples of Europe (pre-1947)

British colonization of Ireland

Ben Kiernan details how genocidal massacres were employed as a strategy in the colonisation of Ireland during the 16th century.

The numerous massacres and widespread starvation that accompanied the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649–1653) has led to it being called a genocide by some nationalist historians; during the conquest over 200,000 civilians died due to the destruction of crops, forced displacement, and the mass killing of civilians, and about 50,000 Irish were sold into indentured servitude. In the aftermath of the conquest, thousands of native Irish were forcibly deported to Connacht in accordance with the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652. The Plantations of Ireland were attempts to expel the native Irish from the best land of the island, and settle it with loyal British Protestants; they too have been described as genocidal. The Great Famine (1845–1850) has also been blamed on British policy and called genocidal. Katie Kane has compared the Sand Creek massacre with the Drogheda massacre. R. Barry O'Brien compared the Irish Rebellion of 1641 with the American Indian Wars, writing "The slaughter of Irishmen was looked upon as literally the slaughter of wild beasts. Not only the men, but even the women and children who fell into the hands of the English were deliberately and systematically butchered. Year after year, over a great part of all Ireland, all means of human subsistence was destroyed, no quarter was given to prisoners who surrendered, and the whole population was skillfully and steadily starved to death."

Circassian

Throughout the 19th century, the Russian Empire conducted a genocidal campaign against the Circassians and other Muslim populations in the North Caucasus. During the genocide, many Circassians were subjected to massacres and mass rapes as well as scientific experimentation, while others were deported from their homeland and resettled in the Ottoman Empire.

Scandinavia

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Norwegian and Swedish governments imposed assimilation policies on indigenous and minority peoples including as the Sámi, Kven and Finns.

Nazi Germany

During World War II the indigenous Slavs and other ethnic groups such as Jews were mass murdered and ethnically cleansed under the Nazi regime to pave the way for Germanic settlers to colonize the region in accordance with Adolf Hitler's ideologies of Lebensraum. The overall program led to the deaths of 11 million Slavs.

Hitler's version of Lebensraum that spearheaded Germany's colonization of Eastern Europe was modeled from Imperial German colonialism during the Scramble for Africa as well as the U.S. colonial ideology of manifest destiny. Hitler compared Nazi expansion to American expansion westward, stating, "there's only one duty: to Germanize this country by the immigration of Germans and to look upon the natives as Redskins."

Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Karaites

From 18 to 20 May 1944, most of the Crimean Tatars were forcibly transported from Crimea to the Uzbek SSR in freight wagons by NKVD, the Soviet secret police. The Soviet authorities tried to drown the Crimean Tatars from the Arabat Spit in the sea on a barge, and those Crimean Tatars who tried to swim ashore were shot.

Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)

It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas, up to eight million indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases, wars, and atrocities. The population of Indigenous Americans is estimated to have decreased from approximately 145 million to around 7-15 million between the late 15th and late 17th centuries, representing a decline of around 90-95%.

Mistreatment and killing of Native Americans continued for centuries, in every area of the Americas, including the areas that would become Canada, the United States, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile. In the United States, some scholars (examples listed below) state that the American Indian Wars and the doctrine of manifest destiny contributed to the genocide, with one major event cited being the Trail of Tears.

In contrast, a 2019 book by Jeffrey Ostler at the University of Oregon has argued that genocide is not a majority viewpoint in the scholarship on the subject and he writes that,

Since 1992, the argument for a total, relentless, and pervasive genocide in the Americas has become accepted in some areas of Indigenous studies and genocide studies. For the most part, however, this argument has had little impact on mainstream scholarship in U.S. history or American Indian history. Scholars are more inclined than they once were to gesture to particular actions, events, impulses, and effects as genocidal, but genocide has not become a key concept in scholarship in these fields.

According to The Cambridge World History, The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, and The Cambridge World History of Genocide, colonial policies in some cases included the deliberate genocide of indigenous peoples in North America. According to the Cambridge World History of Genocide, Spanish colonization of the Americas also included genocidal massacres.

According to Adam Jones, genocidal methods included the following:

• Genocidal massacres
• Biological warfare, using pathogens (especially smallpox and plague) to which the indigenous peoples had no resistance
• Spreading of disease via the 'reduction' of Indians to densely crowded and unhygienic settlements
• Slavery and forced/indentured labor, especially, though not exclusively, in Latin America, in conditions often rivaling those of Nazi concentration camps
• Mass population removals to barren 'reservations,' sometimes involving death marches en route, and generally leading to widespread mortality and population collapse upon arrival
• Deliberate starvation and famine, exacerbated by destruction and occupation of the native land base and food resources
• Forced education of indigenous children in White-run schools ...

Causes of indigenous deaths

According to scholars Tai S. Edwards and Paul Kelton, colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas. It is false to blame indigenous deaths on the spread of germs and diseases when intentional and genocidal forces were at play. Kelton and Edwards explain that Native peoples "did not die from accidentally introduced 'virgin' soil epidemics. They died because U.S. colonization, removal policies, reservation confinement, and assimilation programs severely and continuously undermined physical and spiritual health. Disease was the secondary killer."

Some scholars view the term ethnic cleansing as a more appropriate designation. As detailed in Ethnic Cleansing: The Crime That Should Haunt America, historian Gary Anderson insists that genocide does not apply to any of American history since "policies of mass murder on a scale similar to events in central Europe, Cambodia, or Rwanda were never implemented" but argues that ethnic cleansing occurred.

Anthropologist David Maybury-Lewis insists that a categorization of a genocide is accurate due to the deliberate attempts to massacre entire societies and fatal circumstances imposed by the colonizers.

Categorization as a genocide

Historians and scholars whose work has examined this history in the context of genocide have included historian Jeffrey Ostler, historian David Stannard, anthropological demographer Russell Thornton (Cherokee Nation), historian Vine Deloria, Jr. (Standing Rock Dakota), as well as activists such as Russell Means (Oglala Lakota) and Ward Churchill. In his book, American Holocaust, Stannard compares the events of colonization in the Americas to the definition of genocide which is written in the 1948 UN convention, and he writes that,

In light of the U.N. language—even putting aside some of its looser constructions—it is impossible to know what transpired in the Americas during the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries and not conclude that it was genocide.

Thornton describes the direct consequences of warfare, violence, and massacres as genocides, many of which had the effect of wiping out entire ethnic groups. Political scientist Guenter Lewy states that "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizeable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence." The non-Indigenous ethnic studies professor Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states,

Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking immunity to disease.

By 1900, the indigenous population in the Americas declined by more than 80%, and by as much as 98% in some areas. The effects of diseases such as smallpox, measles and cholera during the first century of colonialism contributed greatly to the death toll, while violence, displacement, and warfare against the Indians by colonizers contributed to the death toll in subsequent centuries. As detailed in American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present (2015),

It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one which is framed by the dual tragedies of genocide and slavery, both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years. Indigenous people both north and south were displaced, died of disease, and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape, and war. In 1491, about 145 million people lived in the western hemisphere. By 1691, the population of Indigenous Americans had declined by 90–95 percent, or by around 130 million people.

However, pre-Columbian population figures are difficult to estimate due to the fragmentary nature of the evidence. Estimates range from 8 to 112 million. Russel Thornton has pointed out that there were disastrous epidemics and population losses during the first half of the sixteenth century "resulting from incidental contact, or even without direct contact, as disease spread from one American Indian tribe to another." Thornton has also challenged higher indigenous population estimates, which are based on the Malthusian assumption that "populations tend to increase to, and beyond, the limits of the food available to them at any particular level of technology."

According to geographers from University College London, the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so many people, approximately 55 million people, or 90% of local populations, it resulted in climate change and global cooling. UCL Geography Professor Mark Maslin, one of the co-authors of the study, states that the large death toll also boosted the economies of Europe: "the depopulation of the Americas may have inadvertently allowed the Europeans to dominate the world. It also allowed for the Industrial Revolution and for Europeans to continue that domination."

The claim that the drastic population decline is an example of genocide is controversial, because scholars have argued about whether the process as a whole or whether specific periods and local processes qualify as genocide under the legal definition of it. Raphael Lemkin, the originator of the term "genocide", considered the colonial replacement of Native Americans by English and later British colonists to be one of the historical examples of genocide.

Spanish colonization of the Americas

It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas up to eight million indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases, in a series of events that have been described as the first large-scale act of genocide of the modern era.

Acts of brutality and systematic annihilation against the Taíno people of the Caribbean prompted Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas to write Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias ('A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies') in 1542—an account that had a wide impact throughout the western world as well as contributing to the abolition of indigenous slavery in all Spanish territories the same year it was written.

Las Casas wrote that the native population on the Spanish colony of Hispaniola had been reduced from 400,000 to 200 in a few decades. His writings were among those that gave rise to Spanish Black Legend, which Charles Gibson describes as "the accumulated tradition of propaganda and Hispanophobia according to which the Spanish Empire is regarded as cruel, bigoted, degenerate, exploitative and self-righteous in excess of reality".

Historian Andrés Reséndez at the University of California, Davis asserts that even though disease was a factor, the indigenous population of Hispaniola would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to. He says that "among these human factors, slavery was the major killer" of Hispaniola's population, and that "between 1492 and 1550, a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more natives in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza or malaria."

Noble David Cook said about the Black Legend conquest of the Americas: "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact." Instead, he estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like smallpox, which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations. However, historian Jeffrey Ostler has argued that Spanish colonization created conditions for disease to spread, for example, "careful studies have revealed that it is highly unlikely that members" of Hernando de Soto's 1539 expedition in the American South "had smallpox or measles. Instead, the disruptions caused by the expedition increased the vulnerability of Native people to diseases including syphilis and dysentery, already present in the Americas, and malaria, a disease recently introduced from the eastern hemisphere."

With the initial conquest of the Americas completed, the Spanish implemented the encomienda system in 1503. In theory, the encomienda placed groups of indigenous peoples under Spanish oversight to foster cultural assimilation and conversion to Catholicism, but in practice it led to the legally sanctioned forced labor and resource extraction under brutal conditions with a high death rate. Though the Spaniards did not set out to exterminate the indigenous peoples, believing their numbers to be inexhaustible, their actions led to the annihilation of entire tribes such as the Arawak. Many Arawaks died from lethal forced labor in the mines, where a third of workers died every six months. According to historian David Stannard, the encomienda was a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."

The Spanish and Portuguese genocides of Indigenous Peoples of the Americas wiped out approximately 90% of the indigenous population, and most agriculture and infrastructure. According to ecologist Simon Lewis and geologist Mark Maslin, the scope of these genocides was so extensive that it prompted the global temperature decrease between 1550 and 1700 as forest regeneration resulted in additional carbon sequestration.

According to Clifford Trafzer, UC Riverside professor, in the 1760s, an expedition dispatched to fortify California, led by Gaspar de Portolà and Junípero Serra, was marked by slavery, forced conversions, and genocide through the introduction of disease.

According to sociologist Anibal Quijano, Bolivia and Mexico have undergone limited decolonialization through a revolutionary process. Quijano has described the colonial attacks on indigenous peoples, African slaves and people with mixed ethnicity:

A limited but real process of colonial (racial) homogenization, as in the Southern Cone (Chile, Uruguay, Argentina), by means of a massive genocide of the aboriginal population.
An always frustrated attempt at cultural homogenization through the cultural genocide of American Indians, blacks, and mestizos, as in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Central America, and Bolivia.

Quijano adds that in Colombia, nearly-exterminated indigenous peoples were replaced by African slaves, while black people are discriminated in Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia in a "racial democracy".

British colonization of the Americas

Beaver Wars

During the Beaver Wars of the seventeenth century, the Iroquois effectively destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the Mohicans, Huron (Wyandot), Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock (Conestoga), and northern Algonquins, with the extreme brutality and exterminatory nature of the mode of warfare practiced by the Iroquois causing some historians to label these wars as acts of genocide committed by the Iroquois Confederacy.

Kalinago genocide

The Kalinago genocide was the massacre of some 2,000 Island Caribs in St. Kitts by English and French settlers in 1626.

The Carib chief Tegremond became uneasy with the increasing number of English and French settlers occupying St. Kitts. This led to confrontations, which led him to plot the settlers' elimination with the aid of other Island Caribs. However, his scheme was betrayed by an Indian woman called Barbe, to Thomas Warner and Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc. Taking action, the English and French settlers invited the Caribs to a party where they became intoxicated. When the Caribs returned to their village, 120 were killed in their sleep, including Chief Tegremond. The following day, the remaining 2,000–4,000 Caribs were forced into the area of Bloody Point and Bloody River, where over 2,000 were massacred, though 100 settlers were also killed. One Frenchman went mad after being struck by a manchineel-poisoned arrow. The remaining Caribs fled. Later, by 1640, those not already enslaved were removed to Dominica.

Attempted extermination of the Pequot

The Pequot War was an armed conflict that took place between 1636 and 1638 in New England between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of the colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook colonies and their allies from the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes.

The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequots. The colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts offered bounties for the heads of killed hostile Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the Pequot War in the 1630s; Connecticut specifically reimbursed Mohegans for slaying the Pequot in 1637. At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity.

The English colonists imposed a harshly punitive treaty on the estimated 2,500 Pequots who survived the war; the Treaty of Hartford of 1638 sought to eradicate the Pequot cultural identity—with terms prohibiting the Pequots from returning to their lands, speaking their tribal language, or even referring to themselves as Pequots—and effectively dissolved the Pequot Nation, with many survivors executed or enslaved and sold away. Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to colonists in Bermuda or the West Indies; other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. The result was the elimination of the Pequot tribe as a viable polity in Southern New England, the colonial authorities classifying them as extinct. However, members of the Pequot tribe still live today as a federally recognized tribe.

Scholars such as Michael Freeman and Benjamin Madley have concluded that the war was genocidal in nature, with Madley arguing that it set a precedent for colonial relations with Native Americans going forward.

Massacre of the Narragansett people

The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during King Philip's War by colonial militia of New England on the Narragansett tribe in December 1675. On 15 December of that year, Narraganset warriors attacked the Jireh Bull Blockhouse and killed at least 15 people. Four days later, the militias from the English colonies of Plymouth, Connecticut, and Massachusetts Bay were led to the main Narragansett town in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. The settlement was burned, its inhabitants (including women and children) killed or evicted, and most of the tribe's winter stores destroyed. It is believed that at least 97 Narragansett warriors and 300 to 1,000 non-combatants were killed, though exact figures are unknown. The massacre was a critical blow to the Narragansett tribe during the period directly following the massacre. However, much like the Pequot, the Narragansett people continue to live today as a federally recognized tribe.

French and Indian War and Pontiac's War

On 12 June 1755, during the French and Indian War, Massachusetts governor William Shirley issued a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of Indian females or of children under 12 years old. In 1756, Pennsylvania lieutenant-governor Robert Hunter Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 Pieces of Eight, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years", and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed." During Pontiac's War, Colonel Henry Bouquet conspired with his superior, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, to infect hostile Native Americans through biological warfare with smallpox blankets.

Canada

Throughout the history of Canada, the Canadian government (its colonial predecessors and settlers) have been accused of many atrocities variously described as ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, ethnocide and genocide, against the Indigenous peoples in Canada. The term cultural genocide began to be utilized in the 1990s when researchers and Indigenous leaders started to declare the actions of churches and the government regarding residential schools were genocidal. There is debate among scholars about the designation used and if the term genocide legally applies to Canada's experience.

Canada is a settler-colonial nation whose initial economy relied on farming and exporting natural resources like fur, fish, and lumber. This resulted in the dispossession of lands and forced migration of Indigenous peoples using various justifications. The Canadian government implemented policies such as the Indian Act, health-care segregation, residential schools and displacement that attempted forced assimilation of Indigenous peoples into Euro-Canadian culture while asserting control over the land and its resources. Despite current views that might define these actions as racist or genocidal, they were seen as progressive at the time. In response, Indigenous communities mobilized to resist colonial policies and assert their rights to self-determination and sovereignty.

Mexico

Apaches

In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of Sonora put a bounty on the Apache which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old. In 1837, the Mexican state of Chihuahua also offered a bounty on Apache scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.

Mayas

The Caste War of Yucatán was caused by encroachment of colonizers on communal land of Mayas in Southeast Mexico. According to political scientist Adam Jones: "This ferocious race war featured genocidal atrocities on both sides, with up to 200,000 killed."

Yaquis

The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the Yaqui tribe have been likened to genocide particularly under Porfirio Diaz. Due to massacre, the population of the Yaqui tribe in Mexico was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000 under Diaz's rule. One source estimates at least 20,000 out of these Yaquis were victims of state murders in Sonora.

Argentina

Argentina launched campaigns of territorial expansion in the second half of the 19th century, at the expense of indigenous peoples and neighbor state Chile. Mapuche people were forced from their ancestral lands by Argentinian military forces, resulting in deaths and displacements. During the 1870s, President Julio Argentino Roca implemented the Conquest of the Desert (Spanish: Conquista del desierto) military operation, which resulted in the subjugation, enslavement, and genocide of Mapuche individuals residing in the Pampas area.

In southern Patagonia, both Argentina and Chile occupied indigenous lands and waters, and facilitated the genocide implemented by sheep farmers and businessmen in Tierra del Fuego. Starting in the late 19th century, during the Tierra del Fuego gold rush, European settlers, in concert with the Argentine and Chilean governments, systematically exterminated the Selk'nam people, Yaghan, and Haush peoples. Their decimation is known today as the Selk'nam genocide.

Argentina also expanded northward, dispossessing several Chaco peoples for example in the Napalpí massacre through a policy that may be considered as genocidal.

Paraguay

The War of the Triple Alliance (1865–1870) was launched by the Empire of Brazil, in alliance with the Argentinian government of Bartolomé Mitre and the Uruguayan government of Venancio Flores, against Paraguay. The governments of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay signed a secret treaty in which the "high contracting parties" solemnly bind themselves to overthrow the government of Paraguay. In the five years of war, the Paraguayan population was reduced, including civilians, women, children, and the elderly. Julio José Chiavenato, in his book American Genocide, affirms that it was "a war of total extermination that only ended when there were no more Paraguayans to kill" and concludes that 99.5% of the adult male population of Paraguay died during the war. Out of a population of approximately 420,000 before the war, only 14,000 men and 180,000 women remained.

Author Steven Pinker wrote:

Among its many wars (19th century) is the War of the Triple Alliance, which may have killed 400,000 people, including more than 60 percent of the population of Paraguay, making it proportionally the most destructive war in modern times.

Chile

The so-called Pacification of the Araucania by the Chilean army dispossessed the up-to-then independent Mapuche people between the 1860s and the 1880s. First during the Arauco War and then during the Occupation of Araucanía, there was a long-running conflict with the Mapuche people, mostly fought in the Araucanía. Chilean settlers also participated in the Selk'nam genocide during the Tierra del Fuego gold rush.

Putumayo genocide

From 1879 to 1912, the world experienced a rubber boom. Rubber prices skyrocketed, and it became increasingly profitable to extract rubber from rainforest zones in South America and Central Africa. Rubber extraction was labor-intensive, and the need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the indigenous population across Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia and the Congo. The owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little, as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. Rubber barons rounded up all the natives and forced them to tap rubber out of the trees. Slavery and gross human rights abuses were widespread, and in some areas, 90% of the indigenous population was wiped out. One plantation started with 50,000 indigenous peoples and when the killings were discovered, only 8,000 were still alive. These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective.

Roger Casement, an Irishman travelling the Putumayo region of Peru as a British consul during 1910–1911, documented the abuse, slavery, murder, and use of stocks for torture against the native Indians: "The crimes charged against many men now in the employ of the Peruvian Amazon Company are of the most atrocious kind, including murder, violation, and constant flogging."

United States colonization of indigenous territories

Stacie Martin states that the United States has not been legally admonished by the international community for genocidal acts against its indigenous population, but many historians and academics describe events such as the Mystic massacre, the Trail of Tears, the Sand Creek massacre and the Mendocino War as genocidal in nature.

Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states that U.S. history, as well as inherited indigenous historical trauma, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories via Indian removal policies, forced removal of Native American children to military-like boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination.

The letters exchanged between Bouquet and Amherst during the Pontiac War show Amherst writing to Bouquet the indigenous people needed to be exterminated:

"You will do well to try to inoculate the Indians by means of blankets, as well as to try every other method that can serve to extirpate this execreble race."

Historians regard this as evidence of a genocidal intent by Amherst, as well as part of a broader genocidal attitude frequently displayed against Native Americans during the colonization of the Americas. When smallpox swept the northern plains of the U.S. in 1837, the U.S. Secretary of War Lewis Cass ordered that no Mandan (along with the Arikara, the Cree, and the Blackfeet) be given smallpox vaccinations, which were provided to other tribes in other areas.

The United States has to date not undertaken any truth commission nor built a memorial for the genocide of indigenous people. It does not acknowledge nor compensate for the historical violence against Native Americans that occurred during territorial expansion to the West Coast. American museums such as the Smithsonian Institution do not dedicate a section to the genocide. In 2013, the National Congress of American Indians passed a resolution to create a space for the National American Indian Holocaust Museum inside the Smithsonian, but it was ignored by the latter.

Sterilization of native women

The Family Planning Services and Population Research Act was passed in 1970, which subsidized sterilizations for patients receiving healthcare through the Indian Health Service. In the 1970-1976 period, 25% to 50% of Native American women have been sterilized by the Indian Health Service. Some of the procedures were performed under coercion, or without understanding by those sterilized. In 1977, Marie Sanchez, chief tribal judge of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation told the United Nations Convention on Indigenous Rights in Geneva, that Native American women suffered involuntary sterilization which she equated with modern genocide.

Native American boarding schools

The Native American boarding school system was a 150-year program and federal policy that separated indigenous children from their families and sought to assimilate them into white society. It began in the early 19th century, coinciding with the start of Indian Removal policies. A Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report was published on 11 May 2022, which officially acknowledged the federal government's role in creating and perpetuating this system. According to the report, the U.S. federal government operated or funded more than 408 boarding institutions in 37 states between 1819 and 1969. 431 boarding schools were identified in total, many of which were run by religious institutions. The report described the system as part of a federal policy aimed at eradicating the identity of indigenous communities and confiscating their lands. Abuse was widespread at the schools, as was overcrowding, malnutrition, disease and lack of adequate healthcare. The report documented over 500 child deaths at 19 schools, although it is estimated the total number could rise to thousands, and possibly even tens of thousands. Marked or unmarked burial sites were discovered at 53 schools. The school system has been described as a cultural genocide and a racist dehumanization.

Indian Removal

Following the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the American government began forcibly relocating East Coast tribes across the Mississippi. The removal included many members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, among others in the United States, from their homelands to the Indian Territory in the eastern sections of the present-day state of Oklahoma. About 2,500–6,000 died along the Trail of Tears.

Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes. The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.

Historians such as David Stannard and Barbara Mann have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of a known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.

American Indian Wars

During the American Indian Wars, the American Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of indigenous peoples that are sometimes considered genocide. The 1864 Sand Creek Massacre, which caused outrage in its own time, has been regarded as a genocide. Colonel John Chivington led a 700-man force of Colorado Territory militia in a massacre of 70–163 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho, about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took scalps and other body parts as trophies, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia. In defense of his actions, Chivington stated,

Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.

— - Col. John Milton Chivington, U.S. Army

United States acquisition of California

The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1845, with the Mexican–American War. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, it gave the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory. In addition to the Gold Rush slaughter, there was also a large number of state-subsidized massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be wiped out.

In one such series of conflicts, the so-called Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War, the entirety of the Yuki people was brought to the brink of extinction. From a previous population of some 3,500 people, fewer than 100 members of the Yuki tribe were left. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California may have been as high as 300,000.

By 1849, due to a number of epidemics, the number had decreased to 150,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings. At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more perished due to disease and starvation. 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves. In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."

One California law made it legal to declare any jobless Indian a vagrant, then auction his services off for up to four months. It also permitted whites to force Indian children to work for them until they were eighteen, provided that they first obtain permission from what the law referred to as a 'friend'. Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of another California statute that stated that 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote, "The miners are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race". The towns of Marysville and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City offered $5 for every Indian head brought to local authorities.

Politics of modern Brazil

Over 80 Brazilian tribes disappeared between 1900 and 1957. During this period, out of a population of over one million, 80% had been killed through deculturalization, disease, or murder. It has also been argued that genocide has occurred during the modern era with the ongoing destruction of the Jivaro, Yanomami, and other tribes.

Indigenous peoples of Africa (pre-1948)

French colonization of Africa

Algeria

Over the course of the French conquest of Algeria and immediately after it, a series of demographic catastrophes ensued in Algeria between 1830 and 1871. Because the demographic crisis was so severe, Dr. René Ricoux, head of demographic and medical statistics at the statistical office of the General Government of Algeria, foresaw the simple disappearance of Algerian "natives as a whole". The demographic change in Algeria can be divided into three phases: an almost constant decline during the conquest period, up until its heaviest drop from an estimated 2.7 million in 1861 to 2.1 million in 1871, and finally moving into a gradual increase to a level of three million inhabitants by 1890. The causes range from a series of famines, diseases, and emigration to the violent methods used by the French army during their Pacification of Algeria, which historians argue constitute acts of genocide.

Congo Free State

Under Leopold II of Belgium, the population loss in the Congo Free State is estimated at sixty percent, up to 15 million people having been killed. The Congo Free State was hit especially hard by sleeping sickness and smallpox epidemics. The characterisation of the loss of life as "genocidal" is, however, a matter of debate among historians.

Spanish colonization of the Canary Islands

The conquest of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castille took place between 1402 and 1496. Initially carried out by members of the Castilian nobility in exchange for a covenant of allegiance to the crown, the process was later carried out by the Spanish crown itself during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs. Various scholars have used the term "genocide" to describe the conquest of the Canary Islands. Mohamed Adhikhari argues that the Canary Islands were the scene of "Europe's first overseas settler colonial genocide", and that the mass killing and enslavement of natives, along with forced deportation, sexual violence and confiscation of land and children constituted an attempt to "destroy in whole" the Guanche people. The tactics used in the Canary Islands in the 15th century served as a model for the Iberian colonization of the Americas.

Genocide in German South West Africa

Atrocities against the Indigenous African population by the German colonial empire can be dated to the earliest German settlements on the continent. The German colonial authorities carried out a genocide in German South-West Africa (GSWA) and incarcerated the survivors in concentration camps. It was also reported that, between 1885 and 1918, the indigenous population of Togo, German East Africa (GEA). and the Cameroons suffered from various human rights abuses, including starvation from scorched earth tactics and forced relocation for use as labor.

The German Empire's action in GSWA against the Herero tribe is considered by Howard Ball to be the first genocide of the 20th century. After the Herero, Namaqua and Damara began an uprising against the colonial government, General Lothar von Trotha, appointed as head of the German forces in GSWA by Emperor Wilhelm II in 1904, gave German forces the order to push them into the desert where they would die. Germany apologized for the genocide in 2004.

While many argue that the military campaign in Tanzania to suppress the Maji Maji Rebellion in GEA between 1905 and 1907 was not an act of genocide, as the military did not have as an intentional goal the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Africans, according to Dominik J. Schaller, the statement released at the time by Governor Gustav Adolf von Götzen did not exculpate him from the charge of genocide, but was proof that the German administration knew that their scorched earth methods would result in famine. 200,000 Africans are estimated to have died from famine, with some areas having been left completely and permanently devoid of human life.

Italian occupied Libya

The Pacification of Libya, also known as the Libyan Genocide or Second Italo-Senussi War, was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932, when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed. The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000 people died during the conflict. Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, episodes of refusing to take prisoners of war and instead executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians. Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers. Italy apologized in 2008 for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."

Indigenous peoples of Asia (pre-1947)

Armenian genocide

The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches to the Syrian Desert and the forced Islamization of others, primarily women and children. .

Before World War I, Armenians occupied a somewhat protected, but subordinate, place in Ottoman society. Large-scale massacres of Armenians had occurred in the 1890s and 1909. The Ottoman Empire suffered a series of military defeats and territorial losses—especially during the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars—leading to fear among CUP leaders that the Armenians would seek independence. During their invasion of Russian and Persian territory in 1914, Ottoman paramilitaries massacred local Armenians. Ottoman leaders took isolated instances of Armenian resistance as evidence of a widespread rebellion, though no such rebellion existed. Mass deportation was intended to permanently forestall the possibility of Armenian autonomy or independence. .

On 24 April 1915, the Ottoman authorities arrested and deported hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and leaders from Constantinople. At the orders of Talaat Pasha, an estimated 800,000 to 1.2 million Armenians were sent on death marches to the Syrian Desert in 1915 and 1916. Driven forward by paramilitary escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to robbery, rape, and massacres. In the Syrian Desert, the survivors were dispersed into concentration camps. In 1916, another wave of massacres was ordered, leaving about 200,000 deportees alive by the end of the year. Around 100,000 to 200,000 Armenian women and children were forcibly converted to Islam and integrated into Muslim households. Massacres and ethnic cleansing of Armenian survivors continued through the Turkish War of Independence after World War I, carried out by Turkish nationalists..

This genocide put an end to more than two thousand years of Armenian civilization in eastern Anatolia. It enabled the creation of an ethnonationalist Turkish state, the Republic of Turkey. The Turkish government maintains that the deportation of Armenians was a legitimate action that cannot be described as genocide. As of 2023, 34 countries have recognized the events as genocide, concurring with the academic consensus..

The Armenian Genocide laid the groundwork for the Ottoman Empire to become more homogeneous. By the end of World War I, over 90 percent of the Armenians in the region were gone with most traces of their existence erased. The women and children survivors were frequently forced to give up their Armenian identities.

Russian tsarist conquest of Siberia

The Russian conquest of Siberia was accompanied by massacres due to indigenous resistance to colonization by the Russian Cossacks, who savagely crushed the natives. At the hands of people like Vasilii Poyarkov in 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650, some peoples like the Daur were slaughtered by the Russians to the extent that it is considered genocide. In Kamchatka, out of a previous population of 20,000, only 8,000 remained after being subjected to half a century of Cossack slaughter.

In the 1640s the Yakuts were subjected to massacres during the Russian advance into their land near the Lena River, and on Kamchatka in the 1690s the Koryak, Kamchadals, and Chukchi were also subjected to massacres by the Russians. When the Russians did not obtain the demanded amount of fur tribute from the natives, Yakutsk Governor Peter Golovin, who was a Cossack, used meat hooks to hang the native men. In the Lena basin, 70% of the Yakut population died within 40 years, native women and children having been raped and enslaved in order to force the tribe to pay the tribute.

In Kamchatka, the Russians savagely crushed the Itelmens uprisings against their rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741. The first time the Itelmen were armed with stone weapons and were unprepared. However, the second time, they used gunpowder weapons. The Russians faced tougher resistance when from 1745 to 1756 they tried to exterminate the gun and bow-equipped Koraks until their victory. The Russian Cossacks also faced fierce resistance and were forced to give up when trying unsuccessfully to wipe out the Chukchi through genocide in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.

After the Chukchi defeated the Russians in 1729, Russian commander Major Pavlutskiy waged war against them. Chukchi women and children were mass-slaughtered and enslaved in 1730–1731. Empress Elizabeth ordered the Chukchis and the Koraks be genocided in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. Her command was that the natives be "totally extirpated", with Pavlutskiy leading the war from 1744 to 1747. The Chukchi ended the campaign and forced the Russian army to give up by killing Pavlitskiy and decapitating him.

The Russians also waged war and slaughtered the Koraks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force them to convert to Christianity, the different native peoples (the Koraks, Chukchis, Itelmens, and Yukagirs) all united to drive them out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.

Nowadays, Kamchatka is European in demographics and culture. Indigenous Kamchatkans only make up 2.5% of the population, which accounts for around 10,000 people out of a previous number of 150,000. The genocide committed by the Cossacks, as well as the fur trade which devastated local wildlife, exterminated much of the Native population. In addition, the Cossacks also devastated the local wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur. Between the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, 90% of the Kamchadals and half of the Vogules were killed. The rapid genocide of the indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which could be named by Nikolai Iadrintsev as of 1882.

In the Aleutian islands, the Aleut natives were subjected to genocide and slavery by the Russians for the first 20 years of Russian rule, Aleut women and children being captured by the Russians and Aleut men slaughtered.

The Russian colonization of Siberia and the treatment of the indigenous peoples has been compared to the European colonization of the Americas, with similar negative impacts on the Indigenous Siberians as upon indigenous peoples of the Americas. One of these commonalities is the appropriation of indigenous peoples' land.

Japanese Empire

Colonization of Hokkaido

The Ainu are an indigenous people in Japan, specifically Hokkaidō. In a 2009 news story, Japan Today reported, "Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their community. In 1869, the new Meiji government renamed Ezo as Hokkaido and unilaterally incorporated it into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu land away, and prohibited salmon fishing and deer hunting."

Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, as the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."

The Ainu have emphasized that they were the natives of the Kuril islands and the southern half of Sakhalin, which both Japan and Russia invaded. In 2004, the small Ainu community living in Kamchatka Krai, Russia wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to reconsider any move to award the Southern Kuril islands to Japan. In the letter, they blamed the Japanese, the Tsarist Russians and the Soviets for crimes against the Ainu such as killings and assimilation, and also urged him to recognize the Japanese genocide against the Ainu people, which Putin turned down.

Colonization of Ryukyu

Ryukyuans are an indigenous people to the islands to the west of Japan, originally known as the Ryukyu Islands. With skeletons dating back 32,000 years, the Okinawan or Ryukyu people have a long history on the islands that includes a kingdom of its own known as the Ryukyu Kingdom. The kingdom established trade relationships with China and Japan that began in the late 1500s and lasted until the 1860s.

In the 1590s, Japan made its first attempt at subjecting the Ryukyu Kingdom by sending a group of 3,000 samurai armed with muskets to conquer the Ryukyu Kingdom. Indefinite take over was not achieved; however, the Ryukyu Kingdom became an acting colony of Japan. As a result, it paid homage to the Japanese while feigning their own independence to China to maintain trade.

In 1879, after a small rebellion by the Ryukyu people was squelched, the Japanese government (the Ryukyu people had requested help from China to break all bonds from Japan) punished Ryukyu by officially naming it a state of Japan and re branding the kingdom as Okinawa. Much like the Ainu, Ryukyuans were punished for speaking their own language, forced to identify with Japanese myths and legends (forgoing their own legends), adopt Japanese names, and reorient their religion around the Japanese Emperor. Their homeland was also renamed Okinawa. Japan had officially expanded their colonization to the Okinawan islands, where natives didn't play a significant role in Japan's history until the end of World War II.

When America brought the war to Japan, the first area that was effected were the Okinawan Islands. Okinawan citizens forced into becoming soldiers were told that Americans would take no prisoners. In addition to the warnings, Okinawans were given a grenade per household, its use reserved in case Americans gained control of the island, with the standing orders to have a member of the household gather everyone and pull the pin for mass suicide. Okinawans were told this was to avoid the "inevitable" torture that would follow any occupation. In addition, the Japanese army kicked any natives out of their homes that weren't currently serving in the army (women and children included) and forced them into open, unprotected, spaces such as beaches and caves. These happened to be the first places the Americans arrived on the island. As a result, more than 120,000 Okinawans (between a quarter and a third of the population) died, soldiers and civilians alike. Americans took over the island and the war was soon over. America launched its main base in Asia from Okinawa and the Emperor of Japan approved, giving Okinawa to America for an agreed 25–50 years to move the majority of Americans out of mainland Japan. In the end, Americans stayed in Okinawa for 74 years, without showing any signs of leaving. During the occupation, Okinawan natives were forced to give up their best cultivating land to Americans which they keep to this day. 

Issues in Okinawa have yet to be resolved regarding the expired stay of American soldiers. Although Okinawa was given back to Japan, the American base still stays. The Japanese government has yet to take action, despite Okinawans raising the Issue. However, this is not the only problem that the Japanese government has refused to take action on. Okinawans were ruled an indigenous people in 2008 by the committee of the United Nations (UN), in addition to their original languages being recognized as endangered or severely endangered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The UN has encouraged that Okinawan history and language be mandatorily taught in schools in Okinawa, but nothing has been done so far. Okinawans are still in a cultural struggle that matches that of the Ainu people. They are not allowed to be Japanese-Okinawan, with Japanese being the only nationally or legally accepted term.

Cultural genocide in Korea

Shortly after Japan annexed the Korean Empire in 1910, Korean citizens were subject to a policy of forced assimilation to abandon their culture and adopt Japanese names. In 1942, Japanese colonial police forces arrested and tortured members of the Korean Language Society in response to their advocacy for Korean independence and banned the Korean language.

Vietnamese conquest of Champa

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Genocide of indigenous peoples" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The Cham and Vietnamese had a long history of conflict, with many wars ending due to economic exhaustion. It was common that the antagonists of the wars would rebuild their economies simply to go to war again. In 1471, Champa was particularly weakened prior to the Vietnamese invasion by a series of civil wars. The Vietnamese conquered Champa and settled its territory with Vietnamese migrants during the march to the south after fighting repeated wars with Champa, shattering Champa in the invasion of Champa in 1471 and finally completing the conquest in 1832 under Emperor Minh Mang. 100,000 Cham soldiers besieged a Vietnamese garrison which led to anger from Vietnam and orders to attack Champa. 30,000 Chams were captured and over 40,000 were killed.

Qing dynasty

Dzungar genocide

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar (Western Mongol) population (600,000 or more) was destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease in the Dzungar genocide perpetrated during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate (1755–1757). There, Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth-century genocide par excellence".

Anti-Zunghar Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Zunghar rule. Uyghur leaders like Emin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Zunghar campaign. The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Oirats (Zunghars) and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Oirats (Dzungars) themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Zunghar rule at the hands of Tsewang Araptan.

Bandanese massacre

Under the command of Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Dutch soldiers and Japanese mercenaries massacred and enslaved thousands of Bandanese islanders and destroyed several villages in order to force the natives to surrender.

March across Samar

During the Philippine–American War, on 28 September 1901, Filipino forces defeated and nearly wiped out a US company in the Battle of Balangiga. In response, US forces carried out widespread atrocities during the March across Samar, which lasted from December, 1901 to February, 1902. US forces killed between 2,000 and 2,500 Filipino civilians, according to most sources, and carried out an extensive scorched-earth policy, which included burning down villages. Some Filipino historians have called these killings genocidal. U.S. Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith instructed his soldiers to "kill everyone over ten years old", including children who were capable of bearing arms, and to take no prisoners. However, Major Littleton Waller, commanding officer of a battalion of 315 US Marines, refused to follow his orders. Some Filipino historians estimate higher at 5,000 killed during the campaign, while other estimates are as high as 50,000, albeit the higher estimates have since been discredited, and are now known to be a result of typographical errors and the misreading of documents.

Famines in British India

Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns, particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries, Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism, and the relation with famine in particular. Davis argues that "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed, many were murdered... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith, Bentham and Mill."

Davis characterizes the Indian famines under the British Raj as "colonial genocide". Some scholars, including Niall Ferguson, have disputed this judgment, while others, including Adam Jones, have affirmed it.

Indigenous peoples of Oceania (pre-1945)

Australia

In a similar manner to the United States and Canada, the British colonization of Australia was conducted under the pretense of indigenous lands being deemed "empty" in order to justify their acquisition of Aboriginal lands and deny them sovereignty or property rights. Colonization also caused a large decrease in the indigenous population from war, newly introduced diseases, massacre by colonists, and attempts at forced assimilation. The European settlers grew rapidly in number and created entirely new societies. The Aboriginal population became an oppressed minority in their own country. The overall gradual violent expansion of colonies into indigenous land during the Australian frontier wars lasted for centuries. Australia enacted the genocidal policy of "breeding out the colour" in the 1930s.

The virtual extinction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians is regarded as a classic case of near genocide by Lemkin, most comparative scholars of genocide, and many general historians, including Robert Hughes, Ward Churchill, Leo Kuper and Jared Diamond, who base their analysis on previously published histories. Between 1824 and 1908 White settlers and Native Mounted Police in Queensland, according to Raymond Evans, killed more than 10,000 Aboriginal people, who were regarded as vermin and sometimes even hunted for sport.

Prior to the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, which marked the beginning of Britain's colonization of Australia, the Aboriginal population had been estimated by historians to be around roughly 500,000 people; by 1900, that number had plummeted to fewer than 50,000. While most died due to the introduction of infectious diseases that accompanied colonization, up to 20,000 were killed during the Australian frontier wars by British settlers and colonial authorities through massacres, mass poisonings and other actions. Ben Kiernan, an Australian historian of genocide, treats the Australian evidence over the first century of colonization as an example of genocide in his 2007 history of the concept and practice, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Historian Niall Ferguson has referred to the case in Tasmania as follows: "In one of the most shocking of all the chapters in the history of the British Empire, the Aborigines in Van Diemen's Land were hunted down, confined, and ultimately exterminated: an event which truly merits the now overused term 'genocide'.", and mentions Ireland and North America as areas that suffered ethnic cleansing at the hands of the British. According to Patrick Wolfe in the Journal of Genocide Research, the "frontier massacring of indigenous peoples" by the British constitutes a genocide. Widespread population decline occurred following conquest principally from introduction of infectious disease. The number of Australian Aboriginal Australians declined by 84% after British colonization.

The Australian practice of removing the children of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent from their families throughout most of the 20th century, has been described as genocidal. The 1997 report Bringing Them Home, which examined the fate of the "stolen generations" concluded that the forced separation of Aboriginal children from their family constituted an act of genocide. In the 1990s a number of Australian state institutions, including the state of Queensland, apologized for its policies regarding forcible separation of Aboriginal children. Another allegation against the Australian state is the use of medical services to Aboriginal people to administer contraceptive therapy to Aboriginal women without their knowledge or consent, including the use of Depo Provera, as well as tubal ligations. Both forced adoption and forced contraception would fall under the provisions of the UN genocide convention. Aboriginal Australians were only granted the right to vote in some states in 1962. Some Australian scholars, including historians Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle and political scientist Ken Minogue, reject the view that Australian Aboriginal policy was genocidal.

New Zealand

During the intertribal Musket Wars, members of two Māori tribes arrived in the Chatham Islands, where they massacred and enslaved the indigenous Moriori people. In the aftermath of the genocide, the Native Land Court awarded the Maori invaders ownership of the Chatham islands in 1870 and denied the Moriori any sovereignty over the islands.

Blackbirding in the Pacific Islands

Throughout the 19th century, several Pacific Islander nations such as Fiji, New Caledonia and Easter Island fell victim to foreign diseases such as smallpox and measles as a result of blackbirding by European and American colonists. The Peruvian slave raids in particular led to the near extinction of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island and the depopulation of ʻAta in Tonga.

Contemporary examples

The genocide of indigenous tribes is still an ongoing feature in the modern world, with the ongoing depopulation of the Jivaro, Yanomami, and other tribes in Brazil having been described as genocide. Multiple incidents of rioting against the minority communities in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and India have been documented. Paraguay has also been accused of carrying out a genocide against the Aché whose case was brought before the Inter-American Human Rights Commission. The commission gave a provisional ruling that genocide had not been committed by the state but expressed concern over "possible abuses by private persons in remote areas of the territory of Paraguay". Yazadi genocide in Iraq remains a case of major concern.

Hitchcock and Twedt say that even though genocidal actions against indigenous peoples continue, most states and even the United Nations avoid criticizing other nations for this.

Afghanistan

For many years in Afghanistan, the indigenous Hazaras have been subjected to genocide. One of the most tragic events in the history of the genocide of the Hazaras was the 1998 Mazar-i-Sharif massacre in which 2,000 to 20,000 Hazaras were killed.

Bangladesh

According to Amnesty International and Reference Services Review, the indigenous Chakma people of the Chittagong hill tracts were allegedly subjected to genocidal violence between the 1970s and the 1990s. Their population had been dwindling since the military rule launched by dictator Major General Ziaur Rahman, who took control of the country after a military coup in 1975 and reigned from 1975 to 1981. Later, his successor Lieutenant General HM Ershad who reigned from 1982 to 1990. In response, the Chakma rebels led by M.N. Larma (killed in 1983) started an insurgency in the region in 1977. The Bangladeshi government had settled hundreds of thousands of Bengali people in the region who now constitute the majority of the population there. On 11 September 1996, the indigenous rebels reportedly abducted and killed 28 to 30 Bengali woodcutters. After democracy was reestablished in the country, fresh rounds of talks began in 1996 with the newly elected prime minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed of the Awami League, the daughter of the late Father of the Nation Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the representatives of the indigenous rebels. A peace treaty was signed between the government and the indigenous people on 2 December 1997, ending the 20-year-long insurgency and all hostilities in the region.

Brazil

From the late 1950s until 1968, the state of Brazil submitted their indigenous peoples to violent attempts to integrate, pacify and acculturate their communities. In 1967, public prosecutor Jader de Figueiredo Correia submitted the Figueiredo Report to the then-ruling dictatorship. The report, which comprised seven thousand pages, was not released until 2013. It documents genocidal crimes against the indigenous peoples of Brazil, including mass murder, torture, bacteriological and chemical warfare, reported slavery, and sexual abuse. The rediscovered documents are being examined by the National Truth Commission which has been tasked with the investigations of human rights violations that occurred between 1947 and 1988. The report reveals that the Indian Protection Service (IPS) had enslaved indigenous people, tortured children, and stolen land. The Truth Commission considers that entire tribes in Maranhão were eradicated and that in Mato Grosso an attack on 30 Cinturão Largo left only two survivors. The report also states that landowners and members of the IPS had entered isolated villages and deliberately introduced smallpox. Of the 134 people accused in the report, the state has until date not tried a single one, since the Amnesty Law passed in the end of the dictatorship does not allow trials for abuses that happened in that period. The report also details instances of mass killings, rapes, and torture, Figueiredo stated that the actions of the IPS had left indigenous peoples near extinction. The state abolished the IPS following the release of the report. The Red Cross launched an investigation after further allegations of ethnic cleansing were made after the IPS had been replaced.

Canada

From 2016 to 2019, the Canadian government conducted the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. The final report of the inquiry concluded that the high level of violence directed at First Nations, Inuit, and Metis women and girls is "caused by state actions and inactions rooted in colonialism and colonial ideologies." The National Inquiry commissioners said in the report and publicly that the MMIWG crisis is "a Canadian genocide." It also concluded that the crisis constituted an ongoing "race, identity and gender-based genocide."

External videos
"B.C.‘s infamous Highway of Tears" (2006) - CBC Archives, (2:32, min)

The MMIWG inquiry used a broader definition of genocide from the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act which encompasses "not only acts of commission, but 'omission' as well." The inquiry described the traditional legal definition of genocide as "narrow" and based on the Holocaust. According to the inquiry, "colonial genocide does not conform with popular notions of genocide as a determinate, quantifiable event" and concluded that "these policies fluctuated in time and space, and in different incarnations, are still ongoing."

China

Tibet

On 5 June 1959, Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate of the Indian Supreme Court presented a report on Tibet to the International Commission of Jurists (an NGO):

From the facts stated above the following conclusions may be drawn: ... (e) To examine all such evidence obtained by this Committee and from other sources and to take appropriate action thereon and in particular to determine whether the crime of Genocide – for which already there is strong presumption – is established and, in that case, to initiate such action as envisaged by the Genocide Convention of 1948 and by the Charter of the United Nations for suppression of these acts and appropriate redress;

According to the Tibet Society of the UK, "In all, over one million Tibetans, a fifth of the population, had died as a result of the Chinese occupation right up until the end of the Cultural Revolution."

Xinjiang

The Chinese government is accused of having committed a series of human rights abuses against the native Uyghur people and other ethnic and religious minorities, both inside and around the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) of the People's Republic of China, that have frequently been characterized as a genocide. Since 2014, the Chinese government, under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the administration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, has pursued policies which have led to the imprisonment of more than one million Muslims (most of them Uyghurs) in secretive internment camps without any legal process in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since World War II and The Holocaust. Critics of the policy have described it as forced assimilation and they have also called it an ethnocide or a cultural genocide, and some governments, activists, independent NGOs, human rights experts, academics, government officials, independent researchers, and the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile have called it a genocide. In particular, critics have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored internment camps, the suppression of Uyghur religious practices, political indoctrination, severe ill-treatment, and extensive evidence of human rights abuses including forced sterilization, contraception, and abortion. Chinese authorities confirmed reports which state that birth rates in Xinjiang dropped by almost a third in 2018, but they denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide.

Inner Mongolia

In 1966 Mao Zedong accused the Inner Mongolian People's Party (IMPP) led by the Mongol Ulanhu as a "political movement aiming to divide the motherland, China". That accusation was used to eliminate the Mongol elite and to begin the genocide of the Mongols. The number of Mongol casualties during the Cultural Revolution is estimated between 16,222 (Chinese government) and 50,000 (independent study). The Office of the Inner Mongolia Communist Party Committee published statistics in 1989 which stated the total number of incarcerated Mongols were 480,000. Independent surveys overseas estimate around half a million arrested and 100,000 deaths. When including delayed deaths (returning home after imprisonment) is an estimated 300,000 casualties. The cultural revolution became ingrained among the peasantry who caused torturing, humiliation and genocide of the Mongols. Chinese propaganda teams of the CCP came from outside to Inner Mongolia and perpetrated major atrocities in the 1970s. The CCP also imposed abortions on the Mongolians.

Colombia

In the protracted conflict in Colombia,I groups such as the Awá, Wayuu, Pijao, and Paez people have become subjected to intense violence by right-wing paramilitaries, leftist guerrillas, and the Colombian army. Drug cartels, international resource extraction companies and the military have also used violence to force the indigenous groups out of their territories. The National Indigenous Organization of Colombia argues that the violence is genocidal in nature, but others question whether there is a "genocidal intent" as required in international law.

Congo (DRC)

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, genocidal violence against the indigenous Mbuti, Lese, and Ituri peoples has reportedly been endemic for decades. During the Congo Civil War (1998–2003), Pygmies were hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conflict, who regarded them as subhuman. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, asked the UN Security Council to recognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide. According to a report by Minority Rights Group International, there is evidence of mass killings, cannibalism, and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked much of the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the Bambuti. In the Ituri district, rebel forces ran an operation code-named "Effacer le Tableau" (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of pygmies.

Darfur

The Darfur genocide is the systematic killing of ethnic Darfuri people by the Al-Bashir regime of the Sudanese government, which has occurred during the War in Darfur and the ongoing War in Sudan (2023–present) in Darfur.

East Timor

Indonesia invaded East Timor or Timor-Leste, which had previously been a Portuguese colony, in 1975. Following the invasion, the Indonesian government implemented repressive military policies in an attempt to quell ethnic protests and armed resistance in the area. People from other parts of Indonesia were encouraged to settle in the region. The violence which occurred between 1975 and 1993 claimed between 120,000 and 200,000 lives. The repression entered the international spotlight in 1991 when a protest in Dili was disrupted by Indonesian forces which killed over 250 people and disappeared hundreds of others. The Santa Cruz massacre, as the event became known, drew a significant amount of international attention to the issue (it was highlighted when the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Catholic Bishop Carlos Belo and resistance leader José Ramos-Horta).

Following the international outcry, the Indonesian government began to organize a host of paramilitary groups which continued to harass and kill pro-independence activists in East Timor. At the same time, the Indonesian government significantly increased its population resettlement efforts in the area and intensified the destruction of the infrastructure and the environment used by East Timorese communities. In response to this policy, an international intervention force was eventually deployed to East Timor in order to monitor a vote for the independence of East Timor by its population in 1999. The vote was significantly in favor of independence and the Indonesian forces withdrew, but paramilitaries continued to carry out reprisal attacks for a few years. A UN Report on the Indonesian occupation identified starvation, defoliant and napalm use, torture, rape, sexual slavery, disappearances, public executions, and extrajudicial killings as sanctioned by the Indonesian government and the entire colflict. As a result, East Timorese population declined to a third of its original size of 1975.

Guatemala

During the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–1996), state forces carried out violent atrocities against Mayans. The government considered them to be aligned with the communist insurgents. Guatemalan armed forces carried out three campaigns that have been described as genocidal.

The first was a scorched earth policy which was also accompanied by mass killing, including the forced conscription of Mayan boys into the military where they were sometimes forced to participate in massacres against their own home villages. The second was to hunt down and exterminate those who had survived and evaded the army; and the third was the forced relocation of survivors to "reeducation centers" and the continuous pursuit of those who had fled into the mountains.

The armed forces used genocidal rape of women and children as a deliberate tactic. Children were bludgeoned to death by beating them against walls or being thrown alive into mass graves where they would be crushed by the weight of an adult corpse thrown atop them. An estimated 200,000 people, most of them Mayans, disappeared during the Guatemalan Civil War.

After the 1996 peace accords, a legal process to determine the legal responsibility of the atrocities and to locate and identify the disappeared ones began. In 2013, former president Efraín Ríos Montt was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity. He was sentenced to 80 years of imprisonment but the Constitutional Court of Guatemala overturned his conviction only ten days later.

Indonesia

From the time of its independence until the late 1960s, the Indonesian government sought control of the western half of the island of New Guinea, which had remained under the control of the Netherlands. When it finally achieved internationally recognized control of the area, several clashes occurred between the Indonesian government and the Free Papua Movement. The government of Indonesia began a series of measures aimed to suppress the organization in the 1970s, which reached high levels in the mid-1980s.

The resulting human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture, disappearances, rape, and harassment of indigenous people throughout the province. A 2004 report by the Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School identified both the mass violence and the transmigration policies which encouraged mostly Balinese and Javanese families to relocate to the area as strong evidence "that the Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such, in violation of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."

Genocide against indigenous people in the region was key to claims made in the U.S. case of Beanal v. Freeport, one of the first lawsuits where indigenous people outside the U.S. petitioned to get a ruling against a multinational corporation for environmental destruction outside of the U.S. While the petitioner, an indigenous leader, claimed that the mining company Freeport-McMoRan had committed genocide through environmental destruction which "resulted in the purposeful, deliberate, contrived and planned demise of a culture of indigenous people", the court found that genocide pertains only to the destruction of an indigenous people and did not apply to the destruction of the culture of indigenous people; however, the court did leave open the opportunity for the petitioners to amend their filings with an additional claim.

Myanmar/Burma

In Myanmar (Burma), the long-running civil war between the Military Junta and the insurgents has resulted in widespread atrocities against the indigenous Karen people, some of whom are allied with the insurgents. These atrocities have been described as genocidal. Burmese General Maung Hla stated that one day the Karen will only exist "in a museum" The government has deployed 50 battalions in the Northern sector systematically attacking Karen villages with mortar and machine gun fire, and landmines. At least 446,000 Karen have been displaced from their homes by the military. The Karen are also reported to have been subjected to forced labor, genocidal rape, child labor, and the conscription of child soldiers. The Rohingya people have also been subjected to persecution mass killings, genocidal mass rapes and forced displacement. The Myanmar army burned their villages and forced them to flee the country. Mass graves which contain the remains of many victims of genocide were discovered. By 2017 over 700,000 Rohingya people fled to Bangladesh, whose government was praised for giving shelter to them.

Palestine

Throughout the extended Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the State of Israel has been accused by some scholars of committing a genocide against Palestinians. Events such as the 1948 Nakba, the 1982 Sabra and Shatila massacre, the blockade of the Gaza Strip (2007–present), and the 2014 Gaza War have been used as examples of evidence for a genocide committed by Israel. Some scholars, such as Raz Segal and Martin Shaw, consider there to be an ongoing genocide in Gaza taking place during the Israel-Hamas war, and the government of South Africa has instituted proceedings against Israel at the International Court of Justice (South Africa v. Israel), alleging a violation of the Genocide Convention.

Paraguay

In 2002, the numbers of the 17 indigenous tribes, who primarily live in the Chaco region of Paraguay, were estimated to be 86,000. Between 1954 and 1989, when the military dictatorship of General Alfredo Stroessner ruled Paraguay, the indigenous population of the country suffered from more loss of territory and human rights abuses than at any other time in the nation's history. In early 1970, international groups claimed that the state was complicit in the genocide of the Aché, the charges being kidnappings, sale of children, withholding medicines and food, slavery, and torture.

During the 1960s and 1970s, 85% of the Aché people were killed, often hacked to death with machetes, in order to make room for the timber industry, mining, farming, and ranchers. According to Jérémie Gilbert, the situation in Paraguay has proven that it is difficult to provide the proof required to show "specific intent", in support of a claim that genocide had occurred. The Aché, whose cultural group is now seen as extinct, fell victim to development by the state which had promoted the exploration of their territories by transnational companies for natural resources. Gilbert concludes that although a planned and voluntary destruction had occurred, it is argued by the state that there was no intent to destroy the Aché, as what had happened was due to development and was not a deliberate action.

Peru

Between 1996 and 2000, while under the leadership of President Alberto Fujimori, the Peruvian government carried out coercive sterilizations on approximately 300,000 Peruvian women. The state specifically targeted rural, impoverished, and indigenous populations through the use of bribes, threats, and deceitful tactics in order to perform tubal ligations and vasectomies without the individuals' informed consent.

Sri Lanka

The crackdown on the Sri Lankan Tamils during the 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom and the Sri Lankan Civil War have been described as genocidal in nature by the United Nations. Sri Lankan mobs brutally butchered thousands of Tamil people in 1958, starting a series of genocides over the years that eventually led to a civil war in 1983. Since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights by bombing civilian targets, using of heavy weaponry, abducting and killing of Sri Lankan Tamils and using sexual violence.

Human Rights Watch was the first to accuse the Sri Lankan government of genocide under international law in December 2009. Leading American expert in international law Professor Francis A. Boyle held an emergency meeting with U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to urge to stop the Tamil genocide by providing evidence of crimes against humanity, genocide against Tamils and the international community's failure to stop the slaughter of Tamil civilians in Sri Lanka. In February 2020, the US State Department and US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced that General Shavendra Silva, current commander of the Sri Lankan Army, was banned from entering the United States due to war crimes committed by the 53rd division of the Sri Lankan army, in which he has involved through command responsibility

Tigray

During the Tigray War, Ethiopia and Eritrea have been accused of committing genocide against the ethnic Tigrayans, native to the northern Tigray Region of Ethiopia.

Yazidi genocide in Iraq

Yazidis are an indigenous minority group in the Middle East that practices its own monotheistic religion. They have frequently been stigmatized and targeted for violence by Islamist extremists in Iraq (most recently by ISIL, but other Islamist groups also perpetrated acts of violence against Yazidis in the past), with multiple studies leading researchers to conclude that acts of genocide have been perpetrated against the Yazidi community in Iraq, including mass killings and rape.

While acts of violence against Yazidis have been documented for centuries, recent acts of violence against them include deadly terrorist attacks such as the 2007 Yazidi communities bombings and the August 2014 Sinjar massacre. Yazidi women and girls have frequently been kept as sex slaves and have been subjected to slave trading by ISIL terrorists during the recent events of the genocide of Yazidis by ISIL. This resulted in the forcible displacement of over 500,000 Yazidis from Iraq. In 2014 alone, 5000 Yazidis were killed, but long before that year, the genocide was already being committed against the Yazidis. It is still going on nowadays. In February 2021, the remains of 104 Yazidis killed by ISIL were found and laid to rest.

Denialism

Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples consists of a claim that has denied any of the multiple genocides and atrocity crimes, which have been committed against Indigenous peoples. The denialism claim contradicts the academic consensus, which acknowledges that genocide was committed. The claim is a form of denialism, genocide denial, historical negationism and historical revisionism. The atrocity crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing.

See also

• Apologies to Indigenous peoples
• Colonialism and genocide
• Indigenous response to colonialism
• List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
• List of genocides

Notes

1. Other names proposed for the type of genocide often faced by indigenous peoples include "structural genocide" and "systemic genocide".
2. Indigenous peoples are understood to be people whose historical and current territory has become occupied as a result of colonial expansion, or it has become occupied as a result of the formation of a state by a dominant group such as a colonial power.
3. "As in all wars against uncivilized nations the systematic damage to hostile people's goods and chattels was indispensable in this case. The destruction of economic values like the burning of villages and food supplies might seem barbaric. If one considers, however, on the one hand, in what short time African Negro huts are erected anew and the luxuriant growth of tropic nature gives rise to new field crops, and on the other hand the subjection of the enemy was only possible through a procedure like this, then one will consequently take a more favourable view of this dira necessitas."

References

Citations

1. Benvenuto, Jeff; Woolford, Andrew; Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). "Introduction". Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. doi:10.1515/9780822376149-002. ISBN 978-0-8223-7614-9. S2CID 243002850. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
2. Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies. Routledge. p. Acknowledgements. ISBN 978-1-000-41177-5. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
3. Anderson, E. N.; Anderson, Barbara (2020). Complying with Genocide: The Wolf You Feed. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-7936-3460-3. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
4. ^ Wolfe, Patrick (1 December 2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research. 8 (4): 387–409. doi:10.1080/14623520601056240. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 143873621.
5. ^ Browning, Christopher R. (2022). "Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism". The Journal of Holocaust Research. 36 (1): 30–38. doi:10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985. ISSN 2578-5648. S2CID 246652960. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
6. ^ Maybury-Lewis 2002, p. 45.
7. Irvin-Erickson, Douglas (2020). "Raphaël Lemkin: Genocide, cultural violence, and community destruction". In Greenland, Fiona; Göçek, Fatma Müge (eds.). Cultural Violence and the Destruction of Human Communities. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351267083-3. ISBN 978-1-351-26708-3. S2CID 234701072. In a footnote, he added that genocide could equally be termed 'ethnocide', with the Greek ethno meaning 'nation'.
8. Short, Damien (2016). Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-84813-546-8. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
9. Moses 2008a, pp. 8–9: "Extra-European colonial cases also featured prominently in this projected global history of genocide. In 'Part III: Modern Times,' he wrote the following numbered chapters: (1) Genocide by the Germans against the Native Africans; (3) Belgian Congo; (11) Hereros; (13) Hottentots; (16) Genocide against the American Indians; (25) Latin America; (26) Genocide against the Aztecs; (27) Yucatan; (28) Genocide against the Incas; (29) Genocide against the Maoris of New Zealand; (38) Tasmanians; (40) S.W. Africa; and finally, (41) Natives of Australia ... While Lemkin's linking of genocide and colonialism may surprise those who think that his neologism was modeled after the Holocaust of European Jewry, an investigation of his intellectual development reveals that the concept is the culmination of a long tradition of European legal and political critique of colonization and empire."
10. Forge 2012, p. 77.
11. Moses 2004, p. 27.
12. Maybury-Lewis 2002, p. 48.
13. Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). "'No Savage Shall Inherit the Land': Civilian-driven Violence in the Making of Settler Genocides". In Adhikari, Mohamed (ed.). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-01555-0.
14. Hitchcock & Koperski 2008, pp. 577–82.
15. ^ Novic, Elisa (20 October 2016). "The Concept of Cultural Genocide: A Historical–Legal Perspective". The Concept of Cultural Genocide: An International Law Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 8. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198787167.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-878716-7. Retrieved 17 January 2024. Doctrinal opinions can be split into two categories: those who advocate for a broader understanding of the crime, as Larry May does, and those who consider, on the basis of the 1948 Genocide Convention, that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms while cultural genocide should rather be addressed as a human rights issue, per William A. Schabas.
16. Watch, Genocide (10 September 2023). ""Ethnic Cleansing" is a Euphemism Used for Genocide Denial". Genocide Watch. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
17. Blum, Rony; Stanton, Gregory H.; Sagi, Shira; Richter, Elihu D. (April 2008). "'Ethnic cleansing' bleaches the atrocities of genocide". European Journal of Public Health. 18 (2): 204–209. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckm011. PMID 17513346. Archived from the original on 2 June 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
18. Blakemore, Erin (20 April 2022). "How genocide is defined—and why it's so difficult to prove". History. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
19. Shaw, M. (2007). What is Genocide?. Wiley. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7456-3183-7. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
20. ^ Mcdonnell, Michael A.; Moses, A. Dirk (2005). "Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas". Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 501–529. doi:10.1080/14623520500349951. S2CID 72663247.
21. MacDonald & Hudson 2012.
22. Lemkin 2008, p. 79 "By 'genocide' we mean the destruction of an ethnic group ... Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when it is accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. Instead, it is intended to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, the destruction of a culture, the extinction of a language, the suppression of national feelings, the suppression of a religion, and the end of the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, the liberty, the health, the dignity, and even the lives of the individuals who belong to such groups."
23. Mehta 2008, p. 19.
24. Attar 2010, p. 20.
25. Sautman 2003, pp. 174–240.
26. presidency.ucsb.edu. "President Carter on the AIRFA". Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2006.
27. Lemkin 2008, p. 79.
28. Grenke 2005, p. 199"For the most part, however, the diseases that decimated the Natives were caused by natural contact. These Native peoples were greatly weakened, and as a result, they were less able to resist the Europeans. However, diseases themselves were rarely the sources of the genocides nor were they the sources of the deaths which were caused by genocidal means. The genocides were caused by the aggressive actions of one group towards another."
29. ^ Henderson, Donald A.; Inglesby, T. V.; Bartlett, J. G.; Ascher, M. S.; Eitzen, E.; Jahrling, P. B.; Hauer, J.; Layton, M.; McDade, J.; Osterholm, M. T.; O'Toole, T.; Parker, G.; Perl, T.; Russell, P. K.; Tonat, K. (1999). "Smallpox as a Biological Weapon. Medical and Public Health Management". JAMA. 281 (22): 2127–2137. doi:10.1001/jama.281.22.2127. PMID 10367824.
30. Edwards & Kelton 2020, p. 66.
31. Cave 2008, p. 273-74.
32. Barkan 2003.
33. Stannard 1993, p. xii.
34. Ostler, Jeffrey (2019). Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas. Yale University Press. pp. 13–17, 381. ISBN 9780300245264. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
35. Resendez, Andres (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 216–217.
36. Edwards & Kelton 2020, pp. 54–55.
37. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (12 May 2016). "Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide". historynewsnetwork.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023. If disease could have done the job, it is not clear why the United States found it necessary to carry out unrelenting wars against Indigenous communities in order to gain every inch of land they took from them—along with the prior period of British colonization, nearly three hundred years of eliminationist warfare.
38. Reséndez, Andrés (12 April 2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. HarperCollins. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-544-60267-0. ...between 1492 and 1550, a nexus of slavery, overwork, and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza, and malaria. And among these human factors, slavery has emerged as a major killer.
39. Heiskanen, Jaakko (1 October 2021). "In the Shadow of Genocide: Ethnocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and International Order" (PDF). Global Studies Quarterly. 1 (4). doi:10.1093/isagsq/ksab030. ISSN 2634-3797. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
40. ^ Bilsky, Leora; Klagsbrun, Rachel (2018). "The Return of Cultural Genocide?" (PDF). European Journal of International Law. 29 (2). Oxford University Press (OUP): 373–396. doi:10.1093/ejil/chy025. ISSN 0938-5428. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
41. Mako, Shamiran (18 June 2012). "Cultural Genocide and Key International Instruments: Framing the Indigenous Experience". Search eLibrary. SSRN 2087175. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
42. Bachman, J.S. (2019). Cultural Genocide: Law, Politics, and Global Manifestations. Routledge Studies in Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Taylor & Francis. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-351-21409-4. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
43. Schabas, William A. (9 December 1948). "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Office of Legal Affairs. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
44. "United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect". United Nations. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
45. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2
46. Eichler, Lauren J. (2020). "Ecocide is genocide: decolonizing the definition of genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (2): 104–121. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.2.1720.
47. Kiernan 2007, pp. 196–197.
48. Siochrú 2023, pp. 165–166.
49. • O'Leary, Brendam; McGarry, John (24 November 1995). "Regulating nations and ethnic communities". In Breton, Albert (ed.). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-521-48098-7. Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'
    • Coogan, Tim Pat (5 January 2002). The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-312-29418-2. The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide.
    • Berresford Ellis, Peter (2007). Eyewitness to Irish History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-05312-6. It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement.
    • Levene 2005b, pp. 56―57 ", and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state."
    • Canny 2023, p. 141
50. • "The Eleven Years War 1641–52 – A Brief Overview". theirishstory.com. 10 January 2014. Archived from the original on 9 October 2024. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
    • Mcveigh 2008, p. 548
    • Levene 2005b, pp. 53–58
    • Canny 2023, p. 139
    • Siochrú 2023, p. 163
51. Sauer, Elizabeth (23 June 2014). Milton, Toleration, and Nationhood. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107041943 – via Google Books.
52. Lenihan, Padraig (2001). Confederate Catholics at War. Cork. p. 141. ISBN 1-85918-244-5. Rather the region was chosen out of exaggerated respect for the impermeability of the Shannon line.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
53. Mcveigh 2008, p. 548.
54. Daly, Susan. "Irish Famine 'Tribunal' to probe if it was crime against humanity". TheJournal.ie. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
55. Gosling, Tony (17 January 2019). "What the 'Irish famine' genocide teaches us about Palestine". Mondoweiss. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
56. Kane, Katie (1999). "Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination". Cultural Critique (42): 81–103. doi:10.2307/1354592. JSTOR 1354592.
57. "10 Stunning Similarities Between Irish and Native Historic Experiences". ICT News. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
58. Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. back cover. ISBN 978-0-8135-6069-4. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
59. Dönmez, Yılmaz (31 May 2018). "General Zass'ın Kızının Adigeler Tarafından Kaçırılışı" [Kidnapping of General Zass's Daughter by the Adygs]. ÇERKES-FED (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
60. Capobianco, Michael (2012). Blood on the Shore: The Circassian Genocide
61. Gazetesi, Jıneps (2 September 2013). "Velyaminov, Zass ve insan kafası biriktirme hobisi" [Velyaminov, Zass and his hobby of collecting human heads]. Jıneps Gazetesi (in Turkish). Retrieved 26 September 2020.
62. Minde, Henry. "Fornorskinga av Samene: hvorfor, hvordan og hvilke følger?" [The Norwegianisation of the Sami: why, how and what are the consequences?] (PDF) (in Norwegian).
63. Gignac, Julien (14 September 2016). "Sami Blood addresses the assimilation of indigenous children in Scandinavia". The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
64. Nergård, Jens Ivar. Det skjulte Nord-Norge [It hid Northern Norway] (in Norwegian). ad Notam Gyldendal.
65. Smith, Andrea (2009). Indigenous Peoples and Boarding Schools: A comparative study (PDF) (Report). United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
66. "The Forgotten Holocaust: The systematic genocide on the Slavic people by the Nazis during the Second World War | Student Repository". Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
67. "Lebensraum". US Holocaust Memorial Museum.
68. "U Lʹvovi vshanuvaly pam'yatʹ zhertv deportatsiyi krymsʹkykh tatar" У Львові вшанували пам'ять жертв депортації кримських татар [The victims of the Crimean Tatar deportation were commemorated in Lviv]. Ukrinform (in Ukrainian). 18 May 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
69. Gilio-Whitaker, Dina (2019). As Long As Grass Grows: The Indigenous Fight for Environmental Justice, From Colonization to Standing Rock. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press.
70. "La catastrophe démographique". L'Histoire. July 2007.
71. Wilson, James. The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America. Grove Press. p. 49.
72. McKenna, Erin; Pratt, Scott L. (2015). American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK: Bloomsbury. p. 375. ISBN 978-1-44118-375-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
73. Ostler, Jeffrey (28 May 2019). Surviving Genocide. Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvgc629z. ISBN 978-0-300-24526-4. S2CID 166826195.
74. McNeill & Pomeranz 2015, p. 430: "That said, and ever since the initial Eastern seaboard settler wars against the Tsenacommacahs and Pequots in the 1620s and early 1630s, systematic genocidal massacre was a core component of native destruction throughout three centuries of largely 'Anglo' expansion across continental North America. The culmination of this process from the mid-1860s to mid-1880s ... native Araucanian resistance by the Argentinian and Chilean military in the Southern Cone pampas, primarily in the agribusiness interest. In Australia, too, 'Anglo' attrition or outright liquidation of Aborigines from the time of 'first contact' in 1788 reached its zenith in Queensland in these same decades, as a dedicated Native Mounted Police strove to cleanse the territory of indigenous tribes in favour of further millions of cattle stock. Undoubtedly, in all these instances, Western racism and contempt for natives as 'savages' played a critical role in psychocultural justifications for genocide"
75. Bloxham & Moses 2010, p. 339: "The genocidal intent of California settlers and government officials was acted out in numerous battles and massacres (and aided by technological advances in weaponry, especially after the Civil War), in the abduction and sexual abuse of Indian women, and in the economic exploitation of Indian child labourers."
76. Blackhawk 2023, pp. 27, 38: "More than any other work, Wolfe's seminal 2006 essay, 'Settler colonialism and the elimination of the Native' established the 'centrality of dispossession' to our understandings of Indigenous genocide in the context of settler colonialism. His definition of 'settler colonialism' spoke directly to Genocide Studies scholars"; "With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states"
77. Braun 2023, p. 622: "These mass killings represent turning points in the history of the Spanish Atlantic conquest and share important characteristics. Each targeted Amerindian communities. Each was entirely or partially planned and executed by European actors, namely Spanish military entrepreneurs under the leadership of friar Nicolás de Ovando, Hernán Cortés and Pedro de Alvarado respectively. Each event can be described as a 'genocidal massacre' targeting a specific community because of its membership of a larger group"
78. Jones 2023, p. 138.
79. Edwards & Kelton 2020.
80. Sousa, Ashley (2016). "Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson". Journal of Southern History. 82 (1): 135–136. doi:10.1353/soh.2016.0023. ISSN 2325-6893. S2CID 159731284.
81. Maybury-Lewis 2002, pp. 43–53.
82. ^ Ostler, Jeffrey (2009). Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas. Yale University Press. p. 13.
83. Stannard 1993.
84. Thornton 1987.
85. Thornton 1987, pp. 104–13.
86. Lewy, Guenter (2007). "Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?". History News Network. Archived from the original on 2 March 2009. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
87. An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; Beacon Press; 2014; Pgs. 41–42
88. ^ Aufderheide, Rodríguez-Martín & Langsjoen (1998), p. 205; Aufderheide, Arthur C.; Rodriguez-Martin, Conrado; Langsjoen, Odin (13 May 1998). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521552035. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2016.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
89. McKenna, Erin, and Scott L. Pratt. 2015. American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present. Bloomsbury. p. 375.
90. Denevan, William M., ed. (1992). The Native population of the Americas in 1492 (2nd ed.). Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-13434-1.
91. Thomas Michael Swensen (2015). "Of Subjection and Sovereignty: Alaska Native Corporations and Tribal Governments in the Twenty-First Century". Wíčazo Ša Review. 30 (1): 100. doi:10.5749/wicazosareview.30.1.0100. ISSN 0749-6427. S2CID 159338399.
92. Thornton, Russell; Stannard, David E. (1994). "American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World". The Journal of American History. 80 (4): 1428. doi:10.2307/2080617. JSTOR 2080617.
93. Hadden, John (6 February 2019). "'Little Ice Age' caused by death of 55-million Indigenous people after colonization: study - National". Global News. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
94. Koch, Alexander; Brierley, Chris; Maslin, Mark M.; Lewis, Simon L. (2019). "Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492". Quaternary Science Reviews. 207: 13–36. Bibcode:2019QSRv..207...13K. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004.
95. Kent, Lauren (1 February 2019). "European colonizers killed so many Native Americans that it changed the global climate, researchers say". CNN. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
96. Las Casas, Bartolomé (1992). A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. London, England: Penguin Classics. p. 9.
97. "La catastrophe démographique" [The Demographic Catastrophe]. L'Histoire (in French) (322): 17. July–August 2007.
98. Forsythe 2009, p. 297.
99. Juang, Baker & Shannon 2008, p. 510.
100. Gibson, Charles. "The Colonial Period in Latin American History". Hathi Trust. Service Center for Teachers of History. Archived from the original on 7 September 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2019.
101. Maybury-Lewis 2002, p. 44.
102. Trever, David (13 May 2016). "The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 20 June 2019.
103. Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 17. ISBN 978-0547640983. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
104. Cook, Noble David (13 February 1998). Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–14. ISBN 978-0-521-62730-6. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2016.
105. Minster, Christopher (10 September 2018). "Spain's American Colonies and the Encomienda System". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 17 February 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
106. Grenke 2005, p. 200.
107. Hickel, Jason (2018). The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions. Windmill Books. p. 70. ISBN 978-1786090034.
108. Stannard 1993, p. 139.
109. ^ Driscoll, Mark W. (2020). The Whites are Enemies of Heaven: Climate Caucasianism and Asian Ecological Protection. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-1-4780-1121-7.
110. Trafzer 1999, pp. 1–35..
111. Quijano, Anibal (2000). "Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America" (PDF). Nepantla: Views from the South. 1 (3): 533–580. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2012. A limited but real process of colonial (racial) homogenization, as in the Southern Cone (Chile, Uruguay, Argentina), by means of a massive genocide of the aboriginal population. An always frustrated attempt at cultural homogenization through the cultural genocide of American Indians, blacks, and mestizos, as in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Central America, and Bolivia.
112. Blick, Jeremy P. (3 August 2010). "The Iroquois practice of genocidal warfare (1534-1787)". Journal of Genocide Research. 3 (3): 405–429. doi:10.1080/14623520120097215. S2CID 71358963. Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
113. Histoire Generale des Antilles... [General History of the Antilles...] (in French). Vol. I. Paris: Jolly. 1667. pp. 5–6.
114. Hubbard, Vincent (2002). A History of St. Kitts. Macmillan Caribbean. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9780333747605.
115. ^ Piecuch, Jim. "Hartford, Treaty of." The Encyclopedia of North American Colonial Conflicts to 1775: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by Spencer C. Tucker, et al., vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2008, p. 375. Gale eBooks. Accessed 17 Aug. 2023.
116. Madley 2023, pp. 215, 221–228.
117. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-8070-0040-3.
118. Tucker, Spencer C. (2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890. ABC-CLIO. p. 708. ISBN 978-1851096978.
119. Winthrop, John (1996). Dunn, Richard S.; Savage, James; Yeandle, Laetitia (eds.). Journal of John Winthrop. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 228.
120. Madley 2023, pp. 226–227.
121. Gardiner 1897, p. 138; Boissevain 1981, pp. 103–114; Kupperman 1993, p. 172; Madley 2023, pp. 232–233
122. Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation. "Tribal History". The Mashantucket (Western) Pequot Tribal Nation. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
123. Freeman, Michael (June 1995). "Puritans and Pequots: The Question of Genocide". New England Quarterly. 68 (2): 278–293. doi:10.2307/366259. JSTOR 366259.
124. Madley 2023, p. 215.
125. Gott, Richard (2004). Cuba: A new history. Yale University Press. p. 32.
126. Leach, Douglas Edward (1958). Flintlock and Tomahawk—New England in King Philip's War. New York: MacMillan. pp. 130–132.
127. Tribe, Narragansett. "Narragansett History". Narragansett Indian Nation Website. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
128. ^ "Scalping, Torture, and Mutilation by Indians". Blue Corn Comics. Archived from the original on 31 August 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
129. Sonneborn, Liz (14 May 2014). Chronology of American Indian History. Infobase. p. 88. ISBN 9781438109848. Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
130. "Declaration of War". Simpson College. 7 February 2014. Archived from the original on 7 February 2014.
131. Calloway, Collin G. (2007). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (Pivotal Moments in American History). Oxford University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0195331271.
132. "The History of Violence Against Indigenous Peoples Fully Warrants the Use of the Word "Genocide"". Canadian Historical Association. Retrieved 14 November 2024. The Canadian Historical Association, which represents 650 professional historians from across the country, including the main experts on the long history of violence and dispossession Indigenous peoples experienced in what is today Canada, recognizes that this history fully warrants our use of the word genocide.
133. Woolford 2009, p. 81; Green 2023; MacDonald & Hudson 2012, pp. 430–431; Dhamoon 2016, p. 10
134. "Genocide and Indigenous Peoples in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. 2 November 2020. Archived from the original on 2 August 2024.
135. MacDonald 2015, pp. 419–420.
136. Smith, Donald B.; Miller, J. R. (11 September 2019). "No Genocide". Literary Review of Canada. Archived from the original on 22 April 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
137. Dhamoon 2016, pp. 14–15.
138. Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). "Genocide and Historical Debate: William D. Rubinstein Ascribes the Bitterness of Historians' Arguments to the Lack of an Agreed Definition and to Political Agendas". History Today. 54. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
139. MacDonald 2015, pp. 411–413, 422–425.
140. Canada, Citizenship (1 September 2009). "Canada's History". Canada.ca. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
141. "Genocide and Indigenous Peoples in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. 6 June 1944. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
142. ^ Richardson, Benjamin (2020). Richardson, Benjamin J. (ed.). From student strikes to the extinction rebellion: new protest movements shaping our future. Cheltenham, UK Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-80088-109-9. Canada is a settler colonial state, whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and exploitation of their land base' (2015:44). Many of the most egregious genocidal...
143. Williams, Kimberly (2021). Stampede: Misogyny, White Supremacy and Settler Colonialism. Fernwood Publishing. ISBN 9781773632179. Canada is a settler colonial state, it is also what hooks (Jhally 1997) calls a white supremacist capitalist heteropatriarchy...
144. Lightfoot et al. 2021, pp. 134–135.
145. "Indigenous Peoples and Government Policy in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. 6 June 1944. Retrieved 20 November 2024.
146. Gentles, Ian James (4 October 2023). "Not a Genocide : Part 1: Disease and Nutrition". IRSRG. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
147. Do, Minh (31 October 2023). "Salient Indigenous Acts of Resistance in Canada, 2010–2020: Current Trends". Canadian Journal of Political Science. 56 (4). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 936–949. doi:10.1017/s0008423923000513. ISSN 0008-4239.
148. ^ "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. 2015. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2015.
149. "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. 31 May 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
150. "Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples". Ministère de la Justice. 14 July 2017. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023.
151. ^ Haley, James L. (1981). Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 51. ISBN 0806129786. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
152. "24". History Of The North Mexican States And Texas. Vol. II: 1801–1889. San Francisco: The History Company. 1889.
153. Terry Rugeley, Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War (San Antonio, 1996)
154. Robins, Nicholas A. (2009). Jones, Adam (ed.). Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice. Indiana University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-253-35309-2.
155. Yaquis: The Story of a People's War and a Genocide in Mexico Paco Ignacio II
156. http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/pacoignaciotaiboiinarragenocidiodeyaquisenmexico-185265
157. "Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documenta el brutal genocidio yaqui en nuestro país | Tukari" [Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documents the brutal Yaqui genocide in our country | Tukari] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
158. Pérez, Pilar (2016). Archivos del silencio. Estado, indígenas y violencia en Patagonia central, 1878–1941 [Archives of Silence: State, Indigenous people and Violence in Central Patagonia, 1878–1941] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Prometeo.
159. Carroll, Rory (13 January 2011). "Argentinian founding father recast as genocidal murderer". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
160. Delrio, Walter; Lenton, Diana; Musante, Marcelo; Nagy, Marino (1 August 2010). "Discussing Indigenous Genocide in Argentina: Past, Present, and Consequences of Argentinean State Policies toward Native Peoples". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 5 (2): 138–159. doi:10.3138/gsp.5.2.138. hdl:11336/58381. ISSN 1911-0359. S2CID 145474271.
161. Harambour, Alberto (2016). Un viaje a las colonias. Memorias de un ovejero escocés en Malvinas, Patagonia y Tierra del Fuego (1878–1898) [A trip to the colonies: Memoirs of a Scottish Shepherd in Malvinas, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego (1878–1898)] (in Spanish). Santiago: DIBAM-Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barros Arana.
162. Youkee, Mat (3 May 2022). "'We were told our brothers were dead': Chile's lost tribe reclaims identity". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
163. Martínez Sarasola, Carlos (2013). Nuestros paisanos los indios, Vida, historia y destino de las comunidades indígenas en la Argentina [Our countrymen the Indians: Life, history and destiny of the Indigenous communities in Argentina] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Del Nuevo Extremo.
164. Chiavenatto,Julio José. Genocídio Americano: A Guerra do Paraguai, Editora Brasiliense, SP. Brasil, 1979, page 170
165. Pinker, Steven (2011). Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. London: Penguin Books. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-14-312201-2.
166. Nahuelpán Moreno, Héctor Javier; Antimil Caniupán, Jaime Anedo (2019). "Colonialismo republicano, violencia y subordinación racial mapuche en Chile durante el siglo XX" [Republican Colonialism, Violence and Mapuche Racial Subordination in Chile during the Twentieth Century]. Revista de historia regional y local (in Spanish). 11 (21): 211–248. doi:10.15446/historelo.v11n21.71500. S2CID 150099942 – via Dialnet.
167. Harambour, Alberto (2016). "Sheep Sovereignties: The Colonization of the Falkland Islands/Malvinas, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego, 1830s–1910s". In Beezley, William (ed.). Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.351. ISBN 978-0-19-936643-9.
168. Harambour, Alberto (2019). "'There Cannot be Civilisation and Barbarism on the Island': Civilian-driven Violence and the Genocide of the Selk'nam People of Tierra del Fuego". In Adhikari, Mohamed (ed.). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies. Routledge. pp. 165–187. doi:10.4324/9781003015550-7. ISBN 9781003015550. Archived from the original on 21 November 2023.
169. "Cien años después, la Amazonía recuerda uno de sus episodios más trágicos" [One hundred years later, the Amazon remembers one of its most tragic episodes]. BBC News (in Spanish). 12 October 2012. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
170. Department of State (1913). Slavery in Peru: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the Secretary of State, with Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Alleged Existence of Slavery in Peru. United States. Department of State. pp. 15, 60, 113, 228. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
171. "Why do they hide?". Survival International. Archived from the original on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
172. "Horrific treatment of Amazon Indians exposed 100 years ago today". Survival International. Archived from the original on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
173. Casement, Roger (2003). Mitchell, Angus (ed.). Sir Roger Casement's Heart of Darkness: The 1911 Documents. Irish Manuscripts Commission. p. 687. ISBN 9781874280989.
174. Martin 2004, pp. 740–46.
175. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (12 May 2016). "Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide". History News Network. Archived from the original on 3 November 2017.
176. • King, J. C. H. (2016). Blood and Land: The Story of Native North America. Penguin UK. p. 73. ISBN 9781846148088.
     • Jones, David S. (2004). Rationalizing Epidemics. Harvard University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0674013056.
     • McConnel, Michael N. (1997). A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774. University of Nebraska Press. p. 195.
     • Fenn, Elizabeth A. (2000). "Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst". The Journal of American History. 86 (4): 1552–1580. doi:10.2307/2567577. JSTOR 2567577. PMID 18271127. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015.
     • d'Errico, Peter. "Amherst and Smallpox". University of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on 16 September 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
177. Kotar, S.L.; Gessler, J.E. (2013). Smallpox: A History. McFarland. p. 111. ISBN 9780786493272.
178. Washburn, Kevin K. (February 2006). "American Indians, Crime, and the Law". Michigan Law Review. 104: 709, 735.
179. Valencia-Weber, Gloria (January 2003). "The Supreme Court's Indian Law Decisions: Deviations from Constitutional Principles and the Crafting of Judicial Smallpox Blankets". University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law. 5: 405, 408–09.
180. ^ d'Errico, Peter (10 January 2017). "Native American Genocide or Holocaust?". Indian Country Today. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022.
181. ^ Theobald, Brianna (28 November 2019). "A 1970 Law Led to the Mass Sterilization of Native American Women. That History Still Matters". Time. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022.
182. Lawrence, Jane (2000). "The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women" (PDF). The American Indian Quarterly. 24 (3): 400–419. doi:10.1353/aiq.2000.0008. PMID 17089462. Various studies revealed that the Indian Health Service sterilized between 25 and 50 percent of Native American women between 1970 and 1976
183. ^ "U.S. report identifies burial sites linked to boarding schools for Native Americans". NPR. 11 May 2022. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
184. ^ "U.S. confronts 'cultural genocide' in Native American boarding school probe". Reuters. 18 May 2022. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022.
185. ^ "US boarding school investigative report released". Indian Country Today. 11 May 2022. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
186. Baird 1973.
187. Grenke 2005, p. 161.
188. Carter (III), Samuel (1976). Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile. New York: Doubleday. p. 232.
189. • Prucha, Francis Paul (1 January 1995). The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. University of Nebraska Press. p. 241 note 58. ISBN 978-0-8032-8734-1. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
     • Ehle, John (1988). Trials of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. Doubleday. pp. 390–92. ISBN 978-0-385-23954-7. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
     • Thornton, Russel (1 June 1992). "Demography of the Trail of Tears". In Anderson, William L. (ed.). Cherokee Removal: Before and After. University of Georgia Press. pp. 75–93. ISBN 978-0-8203-1482-2. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
190. ^ Stannard 1993, p. 124.
191. Mann 2009.
192. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (12 May 2016). "Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide". History News Network. Archived from the original on 2 April 2024.
193. United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)
194. Brown, Dee (2001) . "War Comes to the Cheyenne". Bury my heart at Wounded Knee. Macmillan. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-8050-6634-0.
195. Madley, Benjamin (Autumn 2008). "California's Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History". Western Historical Quarterly. 39 (3): 317–318. doi:10.1093/whq/39.3.303. JSTOR 25443732.
196. Lindsay, Brendan C. (2012). Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846–1873. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-0-8032-2480-3.
197. "The First Peoples of California | Early California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849–1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
198. Thornton 1987, pp. 107–109.
199. "Minorities During the Gold Rush". California Secretary of State. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014.
200. Pritzker, Barry (2000). A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford University Press. p. 114.
201. Cowan, Jill (19 June 2019). "'It's Called Genocide': Newsom Apologizes to the State's Native Americans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
202. "William Swain Letter - Written from "The Diggings" in California". New Perspectives on the West. PBS. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018.
203. Magliari, Michael F. (1 May 2023). "The California Indian Scalp Bounty Myth". California History. 100 (2): 4–30. doi:10.1525/ch.2023.100.2.4. ISSN 0162-2897.
204. "Professor: There's no proof California paid bounties for Native American scalps". The Mercury News. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
205. Hinton 2002, p. 57.
206. ^ Churchill 2000, p. 433.
207. ^ Scherrer 2003, p. 294.
208. The figurative demography of Algeria, Paris, Masson, 1880.
209. Kateb, Kamel (2001). Europeans, "Indigenes" and Jews in Algeria (1830–1962). Paris: Ined / Puf.
210. Taithe, Bertrand (15 December 2010). "La famine de 1866–1868: anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement" [The famine of 1866–1868: anatomy of a catastrophe and media construction of an event]. Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle (in French) (41): 113–127. doi:10.4000/rh19.4051. ISSN 1265-1354. Archived from the original on 31 December 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
211. Kiernan 2007, p. 374.
212. Hinton 2002, p. 47.
213. Fage, John D. (1982). The Cambridge history of Africa: From the earliest times to c. 500 BC. Cambridge University Press. p. 748. ISBN 0-521-22803-4. Archived from the original on 2 November 2020.
214. ^ Conversi, Daniele (2010). "Cultural Homogenization, Ethnic Cleansing, and Genocide". International Studies. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.139. ISBN 978-0-19-084662-6. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
215. Blench, Roger (2021). "The peopling of the Canaries by the Berbers: new data and new hypotheses". Études et Documents Berbères. 45–46: 149–173.
216. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (7 September 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. S2CID 165086773. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
217. Adhikari, Mohamed (7 September 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. S2CID 165086773. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
218. Adhikari, Mohamed (2 January 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. ISSN 1753-2523. S2CID 165086773.
219. Ball 2011, p. 17.
220. Sarkin-Hughes 2011, p. 3.
221. Weiser 2008, p. 24.
222. Meldrum 2004.
223. Schaller 2010, pp. 309–310.
224. Fage, J. D.; Oliver, R., eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of Africa.
225. Hull 2003, p. 161.
226. Sarkin-Hughes 2011, p. 104.
227. ^ Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. p. 109.
228. ^ Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN 9780521538541 – via Google Books.
229. Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (23 March 2011). Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Second ed.). SUNY Press. p. 146. ISBN 9781438428932 – via Google Books.
230. Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. p. 259. ISBN 9780313346422.
231. ^ Duggan, Christopher (2007). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 497.
232. Cooper, Tom; Grandolini, Albert (19 January 2015). Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985. Helion and Company. p. 5. ISBN 9781910777510 – via Google Books.
233. Epton, Nina Consuelo (1953). Oasis Kingdom: The Libyan Story. New York: Roy Publishers. p. 126.
234. Stewart, C.C. (1986). "Islam" (PDF). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 196.
235. "La partecipazione della Milizia alla riconquista della Libia" [The Militia's participation in the reconquest of Libya] (in Italian). Regioesercito. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024.
236. Bloxham & Moses 2010, p. 358
237. The Report: Libya 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. p. 17.
238. "Armenian Genocide | History, Causes, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 17 May 2024. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
239. Bisher 2006 Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 6. Archived 4 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
240. Levene 2005b, p. 294.
241. "The Amur's siren song". The Economist (From the print edition: Christmas Specials ed.). 17 December 2009. Archived from the original on 11 August 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2014.
242. Black 2008 Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine,
243. Forsyth (1994), pp. 145–146.
244. Forsyth (1994), p. 146.
245. Forsyth (1994), p. 147.
246. "Condé Nast's Traveler". Condé Nast Traveler. Vol. 36. 2001. p. 280. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
247. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs Yearbook 1992. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. 1992. p. 46. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016.
248. Mote, Victor L. (1998). Siberia: Worlds Apart. Avalon Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 9780813312989. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016.
249. Etkind, Alexander (2013). Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience. Wiley. p. 78. ISBN 9780745673547. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016.
250. Jack, Zachary Michael (2008). Inside the Ropes: Sportswriters Get Their Game On. University of Nebraska Press. p. 388. ISBN 978-0803219076. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016.
251. Forsyth (1994), p. 151.
252. Batalden & Batalden (1997), p. 36.
253. ^ Fogarty, Philippa (6 June 2008). "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
254. "Tokyo's thriving Ainu community keeps traditional culture alive". Japan Today. 1 March 2009. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013.
255. Thomas, Roy (1989). Japan: The Blighted Blossom. I. B. Tauris. p. 227. ISBN 9781850431251. Archived from the original on 13 June 2019.
256. McCarthy, Terry (22 September 1992). "Ainu people lay ancient claim to Kurile Islands: The hunters and fishers who lost their land to the Russians and Japanese are gaining the confidence to demand their rights". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
257. "Tragediya Aynov – Tragediya rossiyskogo dal'nego Vostoka" Трагедия Айнов – Трагедия российского дальнего Востока [The Tragedy of the Ainu - The Tragedy of the Russian Far East]. Kamtime.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
258. ^ Rabson, Steve (2014). Resistant Islands: Okinawa confronts Japan and the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4422-1562-7.
259. Pearson, Richard (2013). Ancient Ryukyu: An Archaeological Study of Island Communities. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8248-3712-9.
260. ^ Akamine, Mamoru (2017). The Ryukyu Kingdom: Corner Stone of East Asia. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 145. ISBN 9780824855178.
261. ^ Allen, Matthew (2002). Identity and Resistance in Okinawa. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-1714-4.
262. Hein, Laura Elizabeth (2003). Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power. Asia/Pacific/Perspectives. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1–23.
263. "geullobeol segye daebaeggwasajeon/hangugsa/minjog-ui doglib-undong/sinmunhwaundong-gwa 3·1undong/sinmunhwaundong - wikimunheon, uli moduui doseogwan" 글로벌 세계 대백과사전/한국사/민족의 독립운동/신문화운동과 3·1운동/신문화운동 - 위키문헌, 우리 모두의 도서관 [Global World Encyclopedia/Korean History/National Independence Movement/New Cultural Movement and 1 March Movement/New Cultural Movement]. ko.wikisource.org (in Korean). Retrieved 15 June 2023.
264. Moseley, Alexander (2002). A philosophy of war. New York: Algora Pub. ISBN 0-87586-183-0. OCLC 50296813.
265. Maspero, Georges (2002). The Champa Kingdom: the history of an extinct Vietnamese culture. Walter E. J. Tips. Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Press. ISBN 974-7534-99-1. OCLC 49621097.
266. Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the "New Great Game" for Central Asia, 1759 - 2004 (PDF) (PhD thesis). Brisbane: Griffith University. p. 37. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011.
267. "Dr. Mark Levene". Southampton University. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2009.
268. Moses, A. Dirk (2008). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. p. 188. ISBN 978-1845454524. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019.
269. Kim, Kwangmin (2008). Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696–1814 (Thesis). University of California. pp. 49, 134, 308. ISBN 9781109101263.
270. Kim, Kwangmin (2008). Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696–1814 (Thesis). University of California. p. 139. ISBN 9781109101263.
271. Couttie, Bob (2004). Hang the Dogs: The True Tragic History of the Balangiga Massacre. New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-1124-6. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
272. Bruno, Thomas A. (2011). "The Violent End of Insurgency on Samar 1901–1902". Army History. 79 (Spring 2011): 30–46. JSTOR 26296824.
273. Bartrop, P.R.; Jacobs, S.L. (2014). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. p. 1983. ISBN 978-1-61069-364-6. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
274. "The World History Association Book Prize Past Winners". Archived from the original on 11 December 2009.
275. Jones, Adam (16 December 2016). "Chapter 2: State and Empire". Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 9781317533856. Archived from the original on 2 October 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
276. Powell, Christopher (15 June 2011). Barbaric Civilization: A Critical Sociology of Genocide. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 238–245. ISBN 9780773585560. Archived from the original on 3 October 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
277. "Settler Colonialism – Anthropology – Oxford Bibliographies – obo". www.oxfordbibliographies.com. Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
278. Blackhawk 2023, p. 47: "Within twenty years of settlement, the Aboriginal population of Victoria had declined by 80 per cent. Most of Australia's 750 Aboriginal languages lost their last speakers. In the 1930s, after a century of child stealing and family disruption, the official policy of 'breeding out the colour' was implemented. It was genocide, exactly as Lemkin was then trying to make it understood. It was not only about killings, but also about words and actions that signified an intention to destroy a human group."
279. Reynolds, Henry (2012). "Genocide in Tasmania?". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Vol. 6. Berghahn Books. pp. 127–149 . doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.10. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.10.
280. Tatz 2006, p. 125.
281. Kiernan, Ben (2002). "Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines". Critical Asian Studies. 34 (2): 163–192. doi:10.1080/14672710220146197. S2CID 146339164.
282. Kiernan 2007, pp. 249–309.
283. Ferguson, Niall (2003). Empire: how Britain made the modern world. Vol. 2003, Part 2. Allen Lane. p. 111.
284. "What did the British Empire ever do for Ireland: ThePost.ie". www.tcd.ie. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
285. "Aboriginal population in Australia". Archived from the original on 4 January 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
286. Tatz 2006.
287. Moses 2004.
288. Tatz 2006, p. 128.
289. Tatz 2006, pp. 130–31.
290. Tatz 2006, p. 127.
291. "AEC redirection page". Australian Electoral Commission. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2019. In March 1962 the Commonwealth Electoral Act was amended to provide that Indigenous people could enrol to vote in federal elections if they wished. Unlike other Australians it was not compulsory for them to enrol. It was also an offence for anyone to use undue influence or pressure to induce them to enrol. Once they enrolled, however, voting was compulsory. In 1962 the right to vote in state/territory elections was also extended to Indigenous people in the Northern Territory and Western Australia.
292. Tatz 2006, pp. 130–134.
293. Solomon, Maui (15 December 2019). "Moriori: Still setting the record straight". E-Tangata. Archived from the original on 17 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
294. Mills, Karl (3 August 2018). "The Moriori myth and why it's still with us". The Spinoff. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
295. "Moriori Treaty settlement passes first reading". Radio NZ. 24 February 2021. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
296. Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui. "Moriori – The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
297. Maude, H.E. (1981). Slavers in Paradise. ANU Press. Archived from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
298. Robert K., Hitchcock; Thomas E., Koperski (13 February 2008). "Genocides of Indigenous Peoples". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 586. ISBN 978-1-4039-9219-2. See Table 22.2 Twentieth- and twenty-first-century cases of genocide of indigenous peoples
299. Kumar, Ruchi (1 January 2017). "The decline of Afghanistan's Hindu and Sikh communities". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
300. Chowdury, G. R. (March 1992). "Unnatural Disasters: Pogroms have killed thousands of Bangladeshi minorities; millions more are refugees in India". Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine. Cultural Survival. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
301. "Decoding why minorities in Bangladesh and Pakistan continue to face persecution". Firstpost. 16 October 2021. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
302. Roche, Elizabeth (19 January 2016). "Slow genocide of minorities in Pakistan: Farahnaz Ispahani". Mint. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
303. Mirza, Jaffer A. (16 March 2020). "Religious Minorities in 'Naya Pakistan'". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
304. The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka: The Global Failure to Protect Tamil Rights Under International Law. Clarity Press. 20 April 2010. Archived from the original on 31 July 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
305. "Myanmar's military accused of genocide in damning UN report". The Guardian. 27 August 2018. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
306. Desai, Akshayakumar Ramanlal; D'Costa, Wilfred (1994). State and Repressive Culture: A Case Study of Gujarat. Popular Prakashan. p. 99. ISBN 978-81-7154-702-9.
307. • Purushotham, Sunil. "Internal Violence: The "Police Action" in Hyderabad - CSSH". Archived from the original on 11 November 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
     • "Report on Godhra riots". www.sabrang.com. Concerned Citizens Tribunal Report. Archived from the original on 15 January 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
     • Jaffrelot, Christophe (July 2003). "Communal Riots in Gujarat: The State at Risk?" (PDF). Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics: 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
     • Pillalamarri, Akhilesh. "India's Anti-Sikh Riots, 30 Years On". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
308. Kazi, Seema. Gender and Militarization in Kashmir. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2022 – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Sordid and gruesome as the militant record of violence against Kashmiri women and civilians is, it does not compare with the scale and depth of abuse by Indian State forces for which justice has yet to be done.
309. Quigley 2006, p. 125.
310. Arraf, Jane (7 August 2014). "Islamic State persecution of Yazidi minority amounts to genocide, UN says". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
311. Hitchcock, Robert K.; Twedt, Tara M. (1997). "Chapter 13 Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of genocide : critical essays and eyewitness accounts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 362–3. ISBN 978-0-415-94429-8 – via Internet Archive. Most states, along with the United Nations, have been reluctant to criticize individual nations for their actions on the pretense that this would constitute a violation of sovereignty. They have also tended to accept government denials of genocides at face value. As a result, genocidal actions continue.
312. "Hazaras in Afghanistan". Minority Rights. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024.
313. Gizabi, Akram. "Opinion: US–Taliban peace talks betray the trust of the Afghan people". Military Times. Archived from the original on 31 October 2019.
314. Ibrahimi, Niamatullah (January 2009). "Divide and Rule: State Penetration in Hazarajat (Afghanistan) From the Monarchy to the Taliban" (PDF). Crisis States Research Center. Working Paper 42 - Development as State Making -: 14.
315. "Hidden Bangladesh: Violence and Brutality in the Chittagong Hill Tracts". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
316. Gray, Richard A. (1 January 1994). "Genocide in the Chittagong Hill tracts of Bangladesh". Reference Services Review. 22 (4): 59–79. doi:10.1108/eb049231. ISSN 0090-7324.
317. Sattar, Maher (24 June 2015). "Bangladesh indigenous ban 'worse than apartheid'". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
318. "Attacks Continue on Indigenous People in the Chittagong Hill Tracts". Cultural Survival. December 1987. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
319. "Refworld | Human Rights Situation". Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
320. Majumder, Shantanu (2012). "Parbatya Chattagram Jana-Samhati Samiti". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
321. "By Executing CHT Peace Accord Bangladesh Entered A Glorious Chapter Of Peace Implementation - 2009". Legalcounselbd.com. 2 December 2020. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
322. Watts 2013.
323. Garfield 2001, p. 143.
324. Warren 2001, p. 84.
325. Dalton, Jane (1 June 2019). "Murdered and missing women and girls in Canada tragedy is genocide rooted in colonialism, official inquiry finds". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2019. State 'actions and inactions and ideology' blamed for allowing attackers to get away with violence over nearly 50 years
326. Barrera, Jorge (31 May 2019). "National inquiry calls murders and disappearances of Indigenous women a 'Canadian genocide'". CBC News. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
327. ^ Abedi, Maham (4 June 2019). "Why 'genocide' was used in the MMIWG report". Global News. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
328. Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (PDF) (Report). Vol. 1a. p. 728. ISBN 978-0-660-29274-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019. CP32-163/2-1-2019E-PDF
329. Ivison, John (4 June 2019). "At MMIW report's heart, a contradiction that's impossible to ignore". National Post. Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2019.
330. A Legal Analysis of Genocide: Supplementary Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (PDF). www.mmiwg-ffada.ca (Report). 29 May 2019. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
331. Trikamdas, Shri Purshottam. Tibet – Summary of a Report on Tibet (Report). International Commission of Jurists. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012.
332. White, David (2002). Himalayan Tragedy: The Story of Tibet's Panchen Lamas. Tibet Society of the UK. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-9542179-0-7. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
333. "Uyghur American Association holds rally in US to raise awareness about Muslim genocide in China". Hindustan Times. 3 October 2020. Archived from the original on 28 March 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
334. Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany (10 February 2021). "Norway's youth parties call for end to China free trade talks". Axios. Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021. ...pposition to China's Uyghur genocide is gaining momentum in Norway, where some politicians are fearful of jeopardizing ties with Beijing.
335. ^ "Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide". BBC News. 8 February 2021. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
336. Davidson, Helen (18 September 2020). "Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021.
337. "One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel". Al Jazeera. 10 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021.
338. Welch, Dylan; Hui, Echo; Hutcheon, Stephen (24 November 2019). "The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing's repressive control over Xinjiang". ABC News. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019.
339. Mourenza, Andrés (31 January 2021). "Los exiliados uigures en Turquía temen la larga mano china" [Uyghur exiles in Turkey fear the long Chinese hand]. El País (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 23 March 2021.
340. Child, David (27 January 2021). "Holocaust Memorial Day: Jewish figures condemn Uighur persecution". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021.
341. "Trump signs bill pressuring China over Uighur Muslim crackdown". The Daily Star. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021.
342. Stroup, David R. (19 November 2019). "Why Xi Jinping's Xinjiang policy is a major change in China's ethnic politics". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
343. "UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses". Human Rights Watch. 10 July 2019. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
344. McNeill, Sophie (14 July 2019). "The Missing: The families torn apart by China's campaign of cultural genocide". ABC News. Archived from the original on 27 April 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2021. It appears to be the largest imprisonment of people on the basis of religion since the Holocaust.
345. Rajagopalan, Megha; Killing, Alison (3 December 2020). "Inside A Xinjiang Detention Camp". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. This massive detention center, the size of 13 football fields, is a cog in the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities in the world since World War II, in which 1 million or more Muslims, including Uighurs, Kazakhs, and others, have been rounded up and detained in China's western region of Xinjiang
346. "'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'". The Independent. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
347. "'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs". The Times. 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
348. "China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'". Der Spiegel. 28 November 2019. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
349. "Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture". Financial Times. 12 September 2019. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
350. Finnegan, Ciara (2020). "The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction". Laws. 9: 1. doi:10.3390/laws9010001.
351. Fallon, Joseph E. (Summer 2019). "China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide". Fourth World Journal. 18 (1): 76–88. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
353. "Menendez, Cornyn Introduce Bipartisan Resolution to Designate Uyghur Human Rights Abuses by China as Genocide". United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. 27 October 2020. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
354. "Blackburn Responds to Offensive Comments by Chinese State Media". U.S. Senator Marsha Blackburn of Tennessee. 3 December 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
355. Alecci, Scilla (14 October 2020). "British lawmakers call for sanctions over Uighur human rights abuses". International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
356. "Committee News Release - October 21, 2020 - SDIR (43-2)". House of Commons of Canada. 21 October 2020. Archived from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
358. Shesgreen, Dierdre (2 April 2021). "The US says China is committing genocide against the Uyghurs. Here's some of the most chilling evidence". USA Today. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
359. Danilova, Maria (27 November 2018). "Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
360. Stewart, Phil (4 May 2019). "China putting minority Muslims in 'concentration camps,' U.S. says". Reuters. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
361. Congressional Research Service (18 June 2019). "Uyghurs in China" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
362. Blackwell, Tom (25 September 2019). "Canadian went to China to debunk reports of anti-Muslim repression, but was 'shocked' by treatment of Uyghurs". National Post. Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
364. "Muslim minority in China's Xinjiang face 'political indoctrination': Human Rights Watch". Reuters. 9 September 2018. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
365. "Responsibility of States under International Law to Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang, China" (PDF). Bar Human Rights Committee. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
366. Falconer, Rebecca (9 March 2021). "Report: "Clear evidence" China is committing genocide against Uyghurs". Axios. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
367. Vanderklippe, Nathan (9 March 2011). "Lawsuit against Xinjiang researcher marks new effort to silence critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 11 March 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
368. Samuel, Sigal (10 March 2021). "China's genocide against the Uyghurs, in 4 disturbing charts". Vox. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
369. "China Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population". Voice of America. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021.
370. "China: Uighur women reportedly sterilized in attempt to suppress population". Deutsche Welle. 1 July 2020. Archived from the original on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
371. "China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs". BBC News. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
373. Ivan Watson, Rebecca Wright and Ben Westcott (21 September 2020). "Xinjiang government confirms huge birth rate drop but denies forced sterilization of women". CNN. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
374. ^ Haiying, Yang (21 July 2008). "Mongolian Genocide by Communist China during the Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia". Southern Mongolia Human Rights Information Center (SMHRIC). Archived from the original on 13 February 2023.
375. ^ Yang Haiying (2017). Genocide on the Mongolian Steppe: First-hand Accounts of Genocide in Southern Mongolia during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, Vol. I (PDF). Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, 2009. IN: Xlibris, 2017. ISBN 9781543429848. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2021.
376. ^ Yang Haiying (1 March 2017). "The Truth about the Mongolian Genocide during the Chinese Cultural Revolution". Shizuoka University Repository. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023.
377. Jackson 2009.
378. Jackson 2002.
379. "Update 2011 – Colombia". Iwgia.org. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
380. Pedro García Hierro. 2008. Colombia: The Case of the Naya. IWGIA Report 2 Archived 12 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
381. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (18 October 2012). "UNHCR report on Indigenous peoples in Colombia". Unhcr.org. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
382. "Situation of Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Colombia". Hrbrief.org. 16 March 2013. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
383. Brandon Barrett (27 April 2012). "Indigenous leader accuses Colombian govt of genocide Colombia News | Colombia Reports – Colombia News | Colombia Reports". Colombiareports.co. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
384. Altshuler 2011, p. 636.
385. BBC News 2003.
386. "DR Congo Pygmies 'exterminated'". BBC News. 6 July 2004. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
387. "Pygmies today in Africa". Irinnews.org. 23 February 2007. Archived from the original on 17 November 2008. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
388. Peta, Basildon. "Rebels 'eating Pygmies' as mass slaughter continues in Congo despite peace agreement". The Independent. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
389. ^ Hitchcock & Koperski 2008, p. 589.
390. Williams 2012, p. 192.
391. Dunn, James (2009). "Genocide in East Timor". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. New York: Routledge.
392. Cotton, James (2000). "The Emergence of an Independent East Timor: National and Regional Challenges". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 22 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1355/CS22-1A (inactive 13 November 2024). Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
393. Powell, Sian (19 January 2006). "UN verdict on East Timor". The Australian. Archived from the original on 12 May 2006.
394. Sanford 2008, p. 545.
395. Franco 2013, p. 80.
396. Will Grant (11 May 2013). "BBC News – Guatemala's Rios Montt found guilty of genocide". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 August 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
397. "Guatemala's top court annuls Rios Montt genocide conviction". Reuters. 20 May 2013. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013.
398. "Ríos Montt genocide case collapses". The Guardian. 20 May 2013. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
399. Vickers 2013, p. 142.
400. Premdas 1985, pp. 1056–1058.
401. Anderson, Kjell (1 October 2015). "Colonialism and Cold Genocide: The Case of West Papua". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 9 (2): 9–25. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.9.2.1270. ISSN 1911-0359.
402. Lowenstein Clinic report 2004, p. 71.
403. Lowenstein Clinic report 2004, p. 75.
404. Khokhryakova 1998, p. 475.
405. ^ Milbrandt 2012.
406. "KNU President Saw Tamla Baw says peace needs a 1,000 more steps « Karen News". Karennews.org. 2 February 2012. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
407. Rogers 2004.
408. "Burma". World Without Genocide. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 9 August 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
409. "Bangladesh to build one of world's largest refugee camps for 800,000 Rohingya". The Guardian. Agence France Presse. 5 October 2017. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 4 October 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
410. "Myanmar villages burn as Rakhine unrest rages". www.thesundaily.my. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
411. • Sasa, Ghada (2023). "Oppressive pines: Uprooting Israeli green colonialism and implanting Palestinian A'wna". Politics. 43 (2): 219–235. doi:10.1177/02633957221122366.
     • Tabar, Linda; Desai, Chandni (2017). "Decolonization is a global project: From Palestine to the Americas". Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society. 6 (1): i–xix.
     • Pappé, Ilan (2007). The ethnic cleansing of Palestine. Simon & Schuster.
     • Abdullah, Daud (2019). "A century of cultural genocide in Palestine". In Bachman, Jeffrey (ed.). Cultural Genocide. Routledge. pp. 227–245.
     • Nijim 2023
412. • "U.N. General Assembly, Resolution 37/123, adopted between 16 and 20 December 1982" (PDF). United Nations. 26 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
     • Schabas, William (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521782627.
     • Center for Constitutional Rights (October 2016). The Genocide of the Palestinian People: An International Law and Human Rights Perspective (PDF) (Report). Center for Constitutional Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
     • Eghbariah, Rabea (22 November 2023). "The "Harvard Law Review" Refused to Run This Piece About Genocide in Gaza". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Archived from the original on 6 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
     • Shaw, Martin (2013). "Palestine and Genocide: An International Historical Perspective Revisited". Holy Land Studies. 12 (1). Edinburgh University Press: 1–7. doi:10.3366/hls.2013.0056.
     • Nijim 2023
413. Moses, A. Dirk (14 November 2023). "More than Genocide". Boston Review. Some in the field of genocide studies, including Israeli historian Raz Segal and British sociologist Martin Shaw, have argued that Israel's retaliatory assault on Gaza constitutes genocide.
414. Shaw, Martin (3 January 2024). "Inescapably Genocidal". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–5. doi:10.1080/14623528.2023.2300555.
415. "Rights expert finds 'reasonable grounds' genocide is being committed in Gaza". UN News. United Nations. 26 March 2024. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
416. Application Instituting Proceedings (PDF), Application of Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Crime of Genocide (S. Afr. v. Isr.), No. 192 (ICJ 29 December 2023), archived from the original on 5 January 2024.
417. MRGI 2007, p. MRGI.
418. Gilbert 2006, p. 118.
419. Hitchcock & Koperski 2008, pp. 592–3.
420. "Analysis | Peru's government forcibly sterilized Indigenous women from 1996 to 2001, the women say. Why?". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
421. "Justice for Genocide: Sri Lanka's Genocide Against Tamils" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
422. "Genocide against the Tamil People" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
423. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Backgrounder Archived 26 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine Council on Foreign Relations - 21 July 2008
424. Gargan, Edward (2 May 1993). "Suicide Bomber Kills President of Sri Lanka". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
425. "A Decade Without Justice for Sri Lanka's Tamils". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
426. "The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka". 31 October 2018. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
427. Boyle, Francis Anthony (2009). The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka: The Global Failure to Protect Tamil Rights Under International Law. Tamils against genocide. ISBN 978-0932863706. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
428. "Public Designation, Due to Gross Violations of Human Rights, of Shavendra Silva of Sri Lanka Under Section 7031(c) of the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act". Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
429. "Strong evidence that Ethiopia committed genocide in Tigray war: Report". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 9 August 2024.
430. "'Leave no Tigrayan': In Ethiopia, an ethnicity is erased". AP News. 7 April 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2024.
431. "Iraq/Yazidi | Genocide Studies Program". gsp.yale.edu. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
432. "Six years after genocide, international community must prioritize justice for Yazidi community". UN News. 3 August 2020. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
433. "ISIS Terror: One Yazidi's Battle to Chronicle the Death of a People". MSNBC. 23 November 2015. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
434. Tagay, Sefik; Ayhan, Dogan; Catani, Claudia; Schnyder, Ulrich; Teufel, Martin (2017). "The 2014 Yazidi genocide and its effect on Yazidi diaspora". The Lancet. 390 (10106): 1946. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32701-0. PMID 29115224.
435. "Remains of 104 Yazidis killed by ISIL laid to rest in Iraq | ISIL/ISIS News". Al Jazeera. 7 February 2021. Archived from the original on 6 November 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
436. Hitchcock, Robert K. (2023). "Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States". In Der Matossian, Bedross (ed.). Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-4962-3554-1. Genocide scholars Susan Chavez Cameron and Loan T. Phan see American Indians as having gone through the ten stages of genocide identified by Stanton. Failure to acknowledge genocide has harmful social and psychological impacts on the victims of genocide, and it leaves the perpetrators in positions of power vis-a-vis others in their societies. As Agnieszka Bienczyk-Missala points out, denial or negation relating to mass crimes consists of denying scientifically proven historical facts by deliberately concealing them and spreading false and misleading information. She goes on to say that the consequences of negationism are of ethical, legal, social, and political character.
437. Fontaine, Theodore (2014). Woolford, Andrew; Benvenuto, Jeff; Hinton, Alexander Laban (eds.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770. ISBN 978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTOR j.ctv11sn770. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023. "From Lemarchand's volume, it is clear that what is remembered and what is not remembered is a political choice, producing a dominant narrative that reflects the victor's version of history while silencing dissenting voices. Building on a critical genocide studies approach, this volume seeks to contribute to this conversation by critically examining cases of genocide that have been "hidden" politically, socially, culturally, or historically in accordance with broader systems of political and social power". (p2) ...the U.S. government, for most of its existence, stated openly and frequently that its policy was to destroy Native American ways of life through forced integration, forced removal, and death. An 1881 report of the U.S. commissioner of Indian Affairs on the "Indian question" is indicative of the decades- long policy: "There is no one who has been a close observer of Indian history and the effect of contact of Indians with civilization who is not well satisfied that one of two things must eventually take place, to wit, either civilization or extermination of the Indian. Savage and civilized life cannot live and prosper on the same ground. One of the two must die." (p3) "As such it is important for the peoples of the United States and Canada to recognize their shared legacies of genocide, which have too often been hidden, ignored, forgotten, or outright denied." (p3) "After all, much of North America was swindled from Indigenous peoples through the mythical but still powerful Doctrine of Discovery, the perceived right of conquest, and deceitful treaties. Restitution for colonial genocide would thus entail returning stolen territories". (p9) "Thankfully a new generation of genocide scholarship is moving beyond these timeworn and irreconcilable divisions." (p11)"Variations of the Modoc ordeal occurred elsewhere during the conquest and colonization of Africa, Asia, Australia, and North and South America. Indigenous civilizations repeatedly resisted invaders seeking to physically annihilate them in whole or in part. Many of these catastrophes are known as wars. Yet by carefully examining the intentions and actions of colonizers and their advocates it is possible to reinterpret some of these cataclysms as both genocides and wars of resistance. The Modoc case is one of them" (p120). "Memory, remembering, forgetting, and denial are inseparable and critical junctures in the study and examination of genocide. Absence or suppression of memories is not merely a lack of acknowledgment of individual or collective experiences but can also be considered denial of a genocidal crime (p150). Erasure of historical memory and modification of historical narrative influence the perception of genocide. If it is possible to avoid conceptually blocking colonial genocides for a moment, we can consider denial in a colonial context. Perpetrators initiate and perpetuate denial" (p160).
438. Evans, Gareth (2008). The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and For All. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-0-8157-2504-6. JSTOR 10.7864/j.ctt4cg7fp.
439. Aranda, Dario (2010). Aboriginal Argentina: Genocide, Loot and Resistance (Argentina Originaria: Genocidios, Saqueos y Resistencias) (in Spanish) (1st ed.). IWGIA – International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. ISBN 978-987-21900-6-4. Archived from the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
440. Rosenbaum, Ron (March 2013). "The Shocking Savagery of America's Early History". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023. It's a grand drama in which the glimmers of enlightenment barely survive the savagery, what Yeats called "the blood-dimmed tide", the brutal establishment of slavery, the race wars with the original inhabitants that Bailyn is not afraid to call "genocidal", the full, horrifying details of which have virtually been erased.
441. Allard-Tremblay, Yann; Coburn, Elaine (May 2023). "The Flying Heads of Settler Colonialism; or the Ideological Erasures of Indigenous Peoples in Political Theorizing". Political Studies. 71 (2): 359–378. doi:10.1177/00323217211018127. ISSN 0032-3217. S2CID 236234578. Since the publication of Wolfe's (2006: 388) Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native, the idea that settler colonialism is 'a structure not an event' has taken root and is now foundational to scholarship in settler-colonial studies.
442. Gigoux, Carlos (2 January 2022). ""Condemned to Disappear": Indigenous Genocide in Tierra del Fuego". Journal of Genocide Research. 24 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1853359. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 230565181. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023. Nation state building, competing sovereign claims, the capitalist drive for land and resources fuelled by international market forces and prevalent racial ideologies can be identified as major structural factors that leads to the dispossession of indigenous lands and in many cases to the physical destruction of indigenous peoples. In this context settler colonial studies continues to work towards a theory of settler colonialism.