Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 04:27, 27 December 2024

White is a racial classification of people generally used for those of mostly European ancestry. It is also a skin color specifier, although the definition can vary depending on context, nationality, ethnicity and point of view.

Description of populations as "White" in reference to their skin color is occasionally found in Greco-Roman ethnography and other ancient or medieval sources, but these societies did not have any notion of a White race or pan-European identity. The term "White race" or "White people", defined by their light skin among other physical characteristics, entered the major European languages in the later seventeenth century, when the concept of a "unified White" achieved greater acceptance in Europe, in the context of racialized slavery and social status in the European colonies. Scholarship on race distinguishes the modern concept from pre-modern descriptions, which focused on physical complexion rather than the idea of race. Prior to the modern era, no European peoples regarded themselves as "White", but rather defined their identity in terms of their religion, ancestry, ethnicity, or nationality.

Contemporary anthropologists and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "White race" as a social construct with no scientific basis.

Physical descriptions in antiquity

According to anthropologist Nina Jablonski:

In ancient Egypt as a whole, people were not designated by color terms ... Egyptian inscriptions and literature only rarely, for instance, mention the dark skin color of the Kushites of Upper Nubia. We know the Egyptians were not oblivious to skin color, however, because artists paid attention to it in their works of art, to the extent that the pigments at the time permitted.

The Ancient Egyptian (New Kingdom) funerary text known as the Book of Gates distinguishes "four groups" in a procession. These are the Egyptians, the Levantine and Canaanite peoples or "Asiatics", the "Nubians" and the "fair-skinned Libyans". The Egyptians are depicted as considerably darker-skinned than the Levantines (persons from what is now Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan) and Libyans, but considerably lighter than the Nubians (modern Sudan).

The assignment of positive and negative connotations of White and Black to certain persons date to the very old age in a number of Indo-European languages, but these differences were not necessarily used in respect to skin colors. Religious conversion was sometimes described figuratively as a change in skin color. Similarly, the Rigveda uses krsna tvac "black skin" as a metaphor for irreligiosity. Ancient Egyptians, Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans generally depicted women as having pale or white skin while men were depicted as dark brown or tanned. As a result, men with pale or light skin, leukochrōs (λευκόχρως, "white-skinned") could be considered weak and effeminate by Ancient Greek writers such as Plato and Aristotle. According to Aristotle "Those whose skin is too dark are cowardly: witness Egyptians and the Ethiopians. Those whose skin is too light are equally cowardly: witness women. The skin color typical of the courageous should be halfway between the two." Similarly, Xenophon of Athens describes Persian prisoners of war as "white-skinned because they were never without their clothing, and soft and unused to toil because they always rode in carriages" and states that Greek soldiers as a result believed "that the war would be in no way different from having to fight with women."

Classicist James H. Dee states "the Greeks do not describe themselves as 'White people' – or as anything else because they had no regular word in their color vocabulary for themselves." People's skin color did not carry useful meaning; what mattered is where they lived. Herodotus described the Scythian Budini as having deep blue eyes and bright red hair and the Egyptians – quite like the Colchians – as melánchroes (μελάγχροες, "dark-skinned") and curly-haired. He also gives the possibly first reference to the common Greek name of the tribes living south of Egypt, otherwise known as Nubians, which was Aithíopes (Αἰθίοπες, "burned-faced"). Later Xenophanes of Colophon described the Aethiopians as black and the Thracians as having red hair and blue eyes. In his description of the Scythians, Hippocrates states that the cold weather "burns their white skin and turns it ruddy."

Modern racial hierarchies

The term "White race" or "White people" entered the major European languages in the later seventeenth century, originating with the racialization of slavery at the time, in the context of the Atlantic slave trade and the enslavement of indigenous peoples in the Spanish Empire. It has repeatedly been ascribed to strains of blood, ancestry, and physical traits, and was eventually made into a subject of pseudoscientific research, which culminated in scientific racism, which was later widely repudiated by the scientific community. According to historian Irene Silverblatt, "Race thinking… made social categories into racial truths." Bruce David Baum, citing the work of Ruth Frankenberg, states, "the history of modern racist domination has been bound up with the history of how European peoples defined themselves (and sometimes some other peoples) as members of a superior 'white race'." Alastair Bonnett argues that "white identity", as it is presently conceived, is an American project, reflecting American interpretations of race and history.

According to Gregory Jay, a professor of English at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee:

Before the age of exploration, group differences were largely based on language, religion, and geography. ... the European had always reacted a bit hysterically to the differences of skin color and facial structure between themselves and the populations encountered in Africa, Asia, and the Americas (see, for example, Shakespeare's dramatization of racial conflict in Othello and The Tempest). Beginning in the 1500s, Europeans began to develop what became known as "scientific racism," the attempt to construct a biological rather than cultural definition of race ... Whiteness, then, emerged as what we now call a "pan-ethnic" category, as a way of merging a variety of European ethnic populations into a single "race" ... .

— Gregory Jay, "Who Invented White People? A Talk on the Occasion of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, 1998"

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, "East Asian peoples were almost uniformly described as White, never as yellow." Michael Keevak's history Becoming Yellow, finds that East Asians were redesignated as being yellow-skinned because "yellow had become a racial designation," and that the replacement of White with yellow as a description came through pseudoscientific discourse.

A social category formed by colonialism

A three-part racial scheme in color terms was used in seventeenth-century Latin America under Spanish rule. Irene Silverblatt traces "race thinking" in South America to the social categories of colonialism and state formation: "White, black, and brown are abridged, abstracted versions of colonizer, slave, and colonized." By the mid-seventeenth century, the novel term español ("Spaniard") was being equated in written documents with blanco, or "White". In Spain's American colonies, African, Native American (indios), Jewish, or morisco ancestry formally excluded individuals from the "purity of blood" (limpieza de sangre) requirements for holding any public office under the Royal Pragmatic of 1501. Similar restrictions applied in the military, some religious orders, colleges, and universities, leading to a nearly all-White priesthood and professional stratum. Blacks and indios were subject to tribute obligations and forbidden to bear arms, and black and indio women were forbidden to wear jewels, silk, or precious metals in early colonial Mexico and Peru. Those pardos (people with dark skin) and mulattos (people of mixed African and European ancestry) with resources largely sought to evade these restrictions by passing as White. A brief royal offer to buy the privileges of Whiteness for a substantial sum of money attracted fifteen applicants before pressure from White elites ended the practice.

In the British colonies in North America and the Caribbean, the designation English or Christian was initially used in contrast to Native Americans or Africans. Early appearances of White race or White people in the Oxford English Dictionary begin in the seventeenth century. Historian Winthrop Jordan reports that, "throughout the colonies the terms Christian, free, English, and white were ... employed indiscriminately" in the seventeenth century as proxies for one another. In 1680, Morgan Godwyn "found it necessary to explain" to English readers that "in Barbados, 'white' was 'the general name for Europeans.'" Several historians report a shift towards greater use of White as a legal category alongside a hardening of restrictions on free or Christian blacks. White remained a more familiar term in the American colonies than in Britain well into the 1700s, according to historian Theodore W. Allen.

Scientific racism

Western studies of race and ethnicity in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries developed into what would later be termed scientific racism. Prominent European pseudoscientists writing about human and natural difference included a White or West Eurasian race among a small set of human races and imputed physical, mental, or aesthetic superiority to this White category. These ideas were discredited by twentieth-century scientists.

Eighteenth century beginnings

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus proposed what he considered to be natural taxonomic categories of the human species. He distinguished between Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens europaeus, and he later added four geographical subdivisions of humans: white Europeans, red Americans, yellow Asians and black Africans. Although Linnaeus intended them as objective classifications, his descriptions of these groups included cultural patterns and derogatory stereotypes.

In 1775, the naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach asserted that "The white color holds the first place, such as is that of most European peoples. The redness of the cheeks in this variety is almost peculiar to it: at all events it is but seldom to be seen in the rest".

In the various editions of his On the Natural Variety of Mankind, he categorized humans into four or five races, largely built on Linnaeus' classifications. But while, in 1775, he had grouped into his "first and most important" race "Europe, Asia this side of the Ganges, and all the country situated to the north of the Amoor, together with that part of North America, which is nearest both in position and character of the inhabitants", he somewhat narrows his "Caucasian variety" in the third edition of his text, of 1795: "To this first variety belong the inhabitants of Europe (except the Lapps and the remaining descendants of the Finns) and those of Eastern Asia, as far as the river Obi, the Caspian Sea and the Ganges; and lastly, those of Northern Africa." Blumenbach quotes various other systems by his contemporaries, ranging from two to seven races, authored by the authorities of that time, including, besides Linnæus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Christoph Meiners and Immanuel Kant.

In the question of color, he conducts a rather thorough inquiry, considering also factors of diet and health, but ultimately believes that "climate, and the influence of the soil and the temperature, together with the mode of life, have the greatest influence". Blumenbach's conclusion was, however, to proclaim all races' attribution to one single human species. Blumenbach argued that physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc., depended on environmental factors, such as solarization and diet. Like other monogenists, Blumenbach held to the "degenerative hypothesis" of racial origins. He claimed that Adam and Eve were Caucasian inhabitants of Asia, and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors such as the sun and poor diet. He consistently believed that the degeneration could be reversed in a proper environmental control and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race.

Nineteenth and twentieth century: the "Caucasian race"

Between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries, race scientists, including most physical anthropologists classified the world's populations into three, four, or five races, which, depending on the authority consulted, were further divided into various sub-races. During this period the Caucasian race, named after people of the Caucasus Mountains but extending to all Europeans, figured as one of these races and was incorporated as a formal category of both pseudoscientific research and, in countries including the United States, social classification.

There was never any scholarly consensus on the delineation between the Caucasian race, including the populations of Europe, and the Mongoloid one, including the populations of East Asia. Thus, Carleton S. Coon (1939) included the populations native to all of Central and Northern Asia under the Caucasian label, while Thomas Henry Huxley (1870) classified the same populations as Mongoloid, and Lothrop Stoddard (1920) classified as "brown" most of the populations of the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia, and counted as "White" only the European peoples and their descendants, as well as some populations in parts of Anatolia and the northern areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Some authorities, following Huxley (1870), distinguished the Xanthochroi or "light Whites" of Northern Europe with the Melanochroi or "dark Whites" of the Mediterranean.

Although modern neo-Nazis often invoke Nazi iconography on behalf of White nationalism, Nazi Germany repudiated the idea of a unified White race, instead promoting Nordicism. In Nazi propaganda, Eastern European Slavs were often referred to as Untermensch (subhuman in English), and the relatively under-developed economic status of Eastern European countries such as Poland and the USSR was attributed to the racial inferiority of their inhabitants. Fascist Italy took the same view, and both of these nations justified their colonial ambitions in Eastern Europe on racist, anti-Slavic grounds. These nations were not alone in their view; during the long nineteenth century and interwar period, there were numerous cases – regardless of the position in the political spectrum of the person – where European ethnic groups and nations labeled or treated other Europeans as members of another, somehow "inferior race". Between the Enlightenment era and interwar period, the racist worldviews fit well into the liberal worldview, and they were almost general among the liberal thinkers and politicians.

Census and social definitions in different regions

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "White people" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Definitions of White have changed over the years, including the official definitions used in many countries, such as the United States and Brazil. Through the mid to late twentieth century, numerous countries had formal legal standards or procedures defining racial categories (see cleanliness of blood, casta, apartheid in South Africa, hypodescent). Below are some census definitions of White, which may differ from the social definition of White within the same country. Some countries do not ask questions about race or colour at all in their census. The social definition has also been added where possible.

Africa

South Africa

White Dutch people first arrived in South Africa around 1652. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, some 2,000 Europeans and their descendants were established in the region. Although these early Afrikaners represented various nationalities, including German peasants and French Huguenots, the community retained a thoroughly Dutch character.

The Kingdom of Great Britain captured Cape Town in 1795 during the Napoleonic Wars and permanently acquired South Africa from Amsterdam in 1814. The first British immigrants numbered about 4,000 and were introduced in 1820. They represented groups from England, Ireland, Scotland, or Wales and were typically more literate than the Dutch. The discovery of diamonds and gold led to a greater influx of English speakers who were able to develop the mining industry with capital unavailable to Afrikaners. They have been joined in more subsequent decades by former colonials from elsewhere, such as Zambia and Kenya, and poorer British nationals looking to escape famine at home.

Both Afrikaners and English have been politically dominant in South Africa during the past; due to the controversial racial order under apartheid, the nation's predominantly Afrikaner government became a target of condemnation by other African states and the site of considerable dissension between 1948 and 1991.

There were 4.6 million Whites in South Africa in 2011, down from an all-time high of 5.2 million in 1995 following a wave of emigration commencing in the late twentieth century. However, many returned over time.

Asia

Hong Kong

In the recent 2021 census of Hong Kong, 61,582 people identified as white representing 0.8% of the total population.

Philippines

In the Far East at Southeast Asia, in the Philippines, a genetic study by the National Geographic, shows that 5% of the population are Southern Europeans that had arrived due to the Spanish colonization of the archipelago, most of which are Spanish Filipinos

Australia and Oceania

Australia

The recent 2021 Australian census does not use the term “white” on their census form, therefore results showed 54.7% of the population identifying with a European ancestry. From 1788, when the first British colony in Australia was founded, until the early nineteenth century, most immigrants to Australia were English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish convicts. These were augmented by small numbers of free settlers from the British Isles and other European countries. However, until the mid-nineteenth century, there were few restrictions on immigration, although members of ethnic minorities tended to be assimilated into the Anglo-Celtic populations.

People of many nationalities, including many non-White people, emigrated to Australia during the goldrushes of the 1850s. However, the vast majority was still White and the goldrushes inspired the first racist activism and policy, directed mainly at Chinese immigrants.

From the late nineteenth century, the Colonial/State and later federal governments of Australia restricted all permanent immigration to the country by non-Europeans. These policies became known as the "White Australia policy", which was consolidated and enabled by the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, but was never universally applied. Immigration inspectors were empowered to ask immigrants to take dictation from any European language as a test for admittance, a test used in practice to exclude people from Asia, Africa, and some European and South American countries, depending on the political climate.

Although they were not the prime targets of the policy, it was not until after World War II that large numbers of southern European and eastern European immigrants were admitted for the first time. Following this, the White Australia Policy was relaxed in stages: non-European nationals who could demonstrate European descent were admitted (e.g., descendants of European colonizers and settlers from Latin America or Africa), as were autochthonous inhabitants (such as Maronites, Assyrians and Mandeans) of various nations from the Middle East, most significantly from Lebanon and to a lesser degree Iraq, Syria and Iran. In 1973, all immigration restrictions based on race and geographic origin were officially terminated.

Australia enumerated its population by race between 1911 and 1966, by racial origin in 1971 and 1976, and by self-declared ancestry alone since 1981, meaning no attempt is now made to classify people according to skin color. As at the 2016 census, it was estimated by the Australian Human Rights Commission that around 58% of the Australian population were Anglo-Celtic Australians with 18% being of other European origins, a total of 76% for European ancestries as a whole.

New Zealand

According to the 2023 New Zealand census 67.8% or 3,383,742 people identified with a European ethnic origin, down from 70.2% in 2018, and 90.6% in 1966. In 1926, 95.0% of the population was of European descent.

The establishment of British colonies in Australia from 1788 and the boom in whaling and sealing in the Southern Ocean brought many Europeans to the vicinity of New Zealand. Whalers and sealers were often itinerant, and the first real settlers were missionaries and traders in the Bay of Islands area from 1809. Early visitors to New Zealand included whalers, sealers, missionaries, mariners, and merchants, attracted to natural resources in abundance. They came from the Australian colonies, Great Britain and Ireland, Germany (forming the next biggest immigrant group after the British and Irish), France, Portugal, the Netherlands, Denmark, the United States, and Canada.

In the 1860s, the discovery of gold started a gold rush in Otago. By 1860 more than 100,000 British and Irish settlers lived throughout New Zealand. The Otago Association actively recruited settlers from Scotland, creating a definite Scottish influence in that region, while the Canterbury Association recruited settlers from the south of England, creating a definite English influence over that region.

In the 1870s, MP Julius Vogel borrowed millions of pounds from Britain to help fund capital development such as a nationwide rail system, lighthouses, ports, and bridges, and encouraged mass migration from Britain. By 1870 the non-Māori population reached over 250,000. Other smaller groups of settlers came from Germany, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe as well as from China and India, but British and Irish settlers made up the vast majority and did so for the next 150 years.

Other Oceania

Europe

France

White people in France are a broad racial-based, or skin color-based, social category in French society.

In statistical terms, the French government banned the collection of racial or ethnic information in 1978, and the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE), therefore, does not provide census data on White residents or citizens in France. French courts have, however, made cases, and issued rulings, which have identified White people as a demographic group within the country.

White people in France are defined, or discussed, as a racial or social grouping, from a diverse and often conflicting range of political and cultural perspectives; in anti-racism activism in France, from right-wing political dialogue or propaganda, and other sources.

Background

Whites in France have been studied with regard the group's historical involvement in French colonialism; how "whites in France have played a major international role in colonizing areas of the globe such as the African continent."

They have been described as a privileged social class within the country, comparatively sheltered from racism and poverty. Der Spiegel has reported how "most white people in France only know the banlieues as a kind of caricature". Banlieues, outer-city regions across the country that are increasingly identified with minority groups, often have residents who are disproportionately affected by unemployment and poverty.

The lack of census data collected by the INED and INSEE for Whites in France has been analyzed, from some academic perspectives, as masking racial issues within the country, or a form of false racial color blindness. Writing for Al Jazeera, French journalist Rokhaya Diallo suggests that "a large portion of White people in France are not used to having frank conversations about race and racism." According to political sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, "whites in France lie to themselves and the world by proclaiming that they do not have institutional racism in their nation." Sociologist Crystal Marie Fleming has written; "While many whites in France refuse to acknowledge institutionalized racism and white supremacy, there is widespread belief in the specter of 'anti-white racism'".

Use in right-wing politics

Accusations of anti-White racism, suggestions of the displacement of, or lack of representation for, the group, and rhetoric surrounding Whites in France experiencing poverty have been, at times, utilised by various right-wing political elements in the country. University of Lyon's political scientist Angéline Escafré-Dublet has written that "the equivalent to a White backlash in France can be traced through the debate over the purported neglect of the 'poor Whites' in France".

In 2006, French politician Jean-Marie Le Pen suggested there were too many "players of colour" in the France national football team after he suggested that 7 of the 23-player squad were White. In 2020, French politician Nadine Morano stated that French actress Aïssa Maïga, who was born in Senegal, should "go back to Africa" if she "was not happy with seeing so many white people in France".

Republic of Ireland

According to the 2022 Irish census, 4,444,145 or 87.4% of the total population declared their race as “White Irish” and Other White, this was a decline from 92.4% in 2016 and 94.24% in 2011.

People who identified as “White Irish” in 2022 were 3,893,056 or 76.5% of the total population, a decline from 87.4% in 2006.

Malta

As of the 2021 census, 89.1% self-identified as Caucasian racial origin. Maltese-born natives make up the majority of the island with 386,280 people out of a total population of 519,562. However, there are minorities, the largest of which by European birthplace were: 15,082 from the United Kingdom, Italy (13,361) and Serbia (5,935). Among racial origins for the non-Maltese, 58.1% of all identified as Caucasian.

United Kingdom

Historical White identities

Before the Industrial Revolutions in Europe whiteness may have been associated with social status. Aristocrats may have had less exposure to the sun and therefore a pale complexion may have been associated with status and wealth. This may be the origin of "blue blood" as a description of royalty, the skin being so lightly pigmented that the blueness of the veins could be clearly seen. The change in the meaning of White that occurred in the colonies (see above) to distinguish Europeans from non-Europeans did not apply to the 'home land' countries (England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales). Whiteness therefore retained a meaning associated with social status for the time being, and, during the nineteenth century, when the British Empire was at its peak, many of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy developed extremely negative attitudes to those of lower social rank.

Edward Lhuyd discovered that Welsh, Gaelic, Cornish and Breton are all part of the same language family, which he termed the "Celtic family", and was distinct from the Germanic English; this can be seen in context of the emerging romantic nationalism, which was also prevalent among those of Celtic descent.

Just as race reified whiteness in America, Africa, and Asia, capitalism without social welfare reified whiteness with regard to social class in nineteenth-century Britain and Ireland; this social distinction of whiteness became, over time, associated with racial differences. For example, George Sims in his 1883 book How the poor live wrote of "a dark continent that is within easy reach of the General Post Office ... the wild races who inhabit it will, I trust, gain public sympathy as easily as savage tribes".

Modern and official use

From the early 1700s, Britain received a small-scale immigration of black people due to the transatlantic slave trade. The oldest Chinese community in Britain (as well as in Europe) dates from the nineteenth century. Since the end of World War II, a substantial immigration from the African, Caribbean and South Asian (namely the British Raj) colonies changed the picture more radically, while the adhesion to the European Union brought with it a heightened immigration from Central and Eastern Europe.

Today the Office for National Statistics uses the term White as an ethnic category. The terms White British, White Irish, White Scottish and White Other are used. These classifications rely on individuals' self-identification, since it is recognised that ethnic identity is not an objective category. Socially, in the UK White usually refers only to people of native British, Irish and European origin. As a result of the 2011 census the White population stood at 85.5% in England (White British: 79.8%), at 96% in Scotland (White British: 91.8%), at 95.6% in Wales (White British: 93.2%), while in Northern Ireland 98.28% identified themselves as White, amounting to a total of 87.2% White population (or c. 82% White British and Irish).

North America

Bermuda (U.K.)

At the 2016 census the number of Bermudians who identify as white was 19,466 or 31 percent of the total population. The White population of Bermuda made up the entirety of the Bermuda's population, other than a black and an Indian slave brought in for a very short-lived pearl fishery in 1616, from settlement (which began accidentally in 1609 with the wreck of the Sea Venture) until the middle of the 17th century, and the majority until some point in the 18th century.

In 2010, census data found that White Bermudians accounted for 31% including 10% native Bermudians and 21% foreign-born.

Canada

Of the over 36 million Canadians enumerated in 2021 approximately 25 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.

In the 1995 Employment Equity Act, "'members of visible minorities' means persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour". In the 2001 Census, persons who selected Chinese, South Asian, African, Filipino, Latin American, Southeast Asian, Arab, West Asian, Middle Eastern, Japanese, or Korean were included in the visible minority population. A separate census question on "cultural or ethnic origin" (question 17) does not refer to skin color.

Costa Rica

The 2022 census counted a total population of 5,044,197 people. In 2022, the census also recorded ethnic or racial identity for all groups separately for the first time in more than ninety-five years since the 1927 census. Options included indigenous, Black or Afro-descendant, Mulatto, Chinese, Mestizo, white and other on section IV: question 7. White people (including mestizo) make up 94%, 3% are black people, 1% are Amerindians, and 1% are Chinese. White Costa Ricans are mostly of Spanish ancestry, but there are also significant numbers of Costa Ricans descended from British, Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese and Polish families, as well a sizable Jewish (namely Ashkenazi and Sephardic) community.

Cuba

White people in Cuba make up 64.1% of the total population according to the 2012 census with the majority being of diverse Spanish descent. However, after the mass exodus resulting from the Cuban Revolution in 1959, the number of white Cubans actually residing in Cuba diminished. Today various records claiming the percentage of Whites in Cuba are conflicting and uncertain; some reports (usually coming from Cuba) still report a less, but similar, pre-1959 number of 65% and others (usually from outside observers) report a 40–45%. Despite most White Cubans being of Spanish descent, many others are of French, Portuguese, German, Italian and Russian descent.

During the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early part of the twentieth century, large waves of Canarians, Catalans, Andalusians, Castilians, and Galicians emigrated to Cuba. Many European Jews have also immigrated there, with some of them being Sephardic. Between 1901 and 1958, more than a million Spaniards arrived to Cuba from Spain; many of these and their descendants left after Castro's communist regime took power. Historically, Chinese descendants in Cuba were classified as White.

In 1953, it was estimated that 72.8% of Cubans were of European ancestry, mainly of Spanish origin, 12.4% of African ancestry, 14.5% of both African and European ancestry (mulattos), and 0.3% of the population was of Chinese and or East Asian descent (officially called "amarilla" or "yellow" in the census). However, after the Cuban revolution, due to a combination of factors, mainly mass exodus to Miami, United States, a drastic decrease in immigration, and interracial reproduction, Cuba's demography changed. As a result, those of complete European ancestry and those of pure African ancestry have decreased, the mixed population has increased, and the Chinese (or East Asian) population has, for all intents and purposes, disappeared.

The Institute for Cuban and Cuban American Studies at the University of Miami says the present Cuban population is 38% White and 62% Black/Mulatto. The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 33.9 per cent to 62 per cent".

Dominican Republic

They are 17.8% of the Dominican Republic's population, according to a 2021 survey by the United Nations Population Fund. The majority of white Dominicans have ancestry from the first European settlers to arrive in Hispaniola in 1492 and are descendants of the Spanish and Portuguese who settled in the island during colonial times, as well as the French who settled in the 17th and 18th centuries. About 9.2% of the Dominican population claims a European immigrant background, according to the 2021 Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas survey.

El Salvador

In 2013, White Salvadorans were a minority ethnic group in El Salvador, accounting for 12.7% of the country's population. An additional 86.3% of the population were mestizo, having mixed Amerindian and European ancestry.

Guatemala

In 2010, 18.5% of Guatemalans belonged to the White ethnic group, with 41.7% of the population being Mestizo, and 39.8% of the population belonging to the 23 Indigenous groups. It is difficult to make an accurate census of Whites in Guatemala, because the country categorizes all non-indigenous people are mestizo or ladino and a large majority of White Guatemalans consider themselves as mestizos or ladinos. By the nineteenth century the majority of immigrants were Germans, many who were bestowed fincas and coffee plantations in Cobán, while others went to Quetzaltenango and Guatemala City. Many young Germans married mestiza and indigenous Q'eqchi' women, which caused a gradual whitening. There was also immigration of Belgians to Santo Tomas and this contributed to the mixture of black and mestiza women in that region.

Honduras

As of 2013, Hondurans of solely White ancestry are a small minority in Honduras, accounting for 1% of the country's population. An additional 90% of the population is mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry.

Mexico

White Mexicans are Mexican citizens of complete or predominant European descent. While the Mexican government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the option of identifying as "White", the results obtained from these censuses are not published. Instead, Mexico's government publishes the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" residing in the country; that percentage was 47% in 2010 and 49% in 2017. Due to its less direct racial undertone, the label "Light-skinned Mexican" has been favored by the government and media outlets over "White Mexican" as the go-to choice to refer to the segment of Mexico's population possessing European physical traits when discussing different ethno-racial dynamics in Mexico's society. Sometimes, nonetheless, "White Mexican" is used.

Europeans began arriving in Mexico during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire; and while during the colonial period, most European immigration was Spanish (mostly from northern provinces such as Cantabria, Navarra, Galicia and the Basque Country,), in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries European and European-derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the country. According to twentieth- and twenty-first-century academics, large-scale intermixing between the European immigrants and the native Indigenous peoples produced a Mestizo group which would become the overwhelming majority of Mexico's population by the time of the Mexican Revolution. However, according to church and censal registers from the colonial times, the majority (73%) of Spanish men married Spanish women. Said registers also put in question other narratives held by contemporary academics, such as European immigrants who arrived to Mexico being almost exclusively men or that "pure Spanish" people were all part of a small powerful elite, as Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in the colonial cities and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of complete Spanish origin.

Another ethnic group in Mexico, the Mestizos, is composed of people with varying degrees of European and indigenous ancestry, with some showing a European genetic ancestry higher than 90%. However, the criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study, as in Mexico a large number of White people have been historically classified as Mestizos, because after the Mexican Revolution the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial ones in an effort to unite all Mexicans under the same racial identity.

Estimates of Mexico's White population differ greatly in both, methodology and percentages given, extra-official sources such as the World Factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica, which use the 1921 census results as the base of their estimations, calculate Mexico's White population as only 9% or between one-tenth to one-fifth (the results of the 1921 census, however, have been contested by various historians and deemed inaccurate). Surveys that account for phenotypical traits and have performed actual field research suggest rather higher percentages: using the presence of blond hair as reference to classify a Mexican as White, the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico calculated the percentage of said ethnic group at 23%. With a similar methodology, the American Sociological Association obtained a percentage of 18.8%. Another study made by the University College London in collaboration with Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History found that the frequencies of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans are of 18% and 28% respectively, nationwide surveys in the general population that use as reference skin color such as those made by Mexico's National Council to Prevent Discrimination and Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography report percentages of 47% and 49% respectively.

A study performed in hospitals in Mexico City reported that an average of 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the congenital skin birthmark known as the Mongolian spot whilst it was absent in 48.2% of the analyzed babies. The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85–100%) in Asian, Native American, and African children, a medium frequency (50–70%) in Hispanic children, and a very low frequency (1–10%) in Caucasian children. The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American and Mexican children of Mestizo background. According to the Mexican Social Security Institute (shortened as IMSS) nationwide, around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot.

Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of White population, where, according to the American historian and anthropologist Howard F. Cline the majority of the people have no native admixture or is of predominantly European ancestry, resembling in aspect that of northern Spaniards. In the north and west of Mexico, the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller than those found in central and southern Mexico, and also much less organized; thus, they remained isolated from the rest of the population or even in some cases were hostile towards Mexican colonists. The northeast region, in which the indigenous population was eliminated by early European settlers, became the region with the highest proportion of Whites during the Spanish colonial period. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its demographic trends.

A number of settlements on which European immigrants have maintained their original culture and language survive to this day and are spread all over Mexican territory; among the most notable groups are the Mennonites who have colonies in states as variated as Chihuahua or Campeche and the town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla, inhabited nearly in its totality by descendants of Italian immigrants that still speak their Venetian-derived dialect.

Nicaragua

As of 2013, the White ethnic group in Nicaragua accounts for 17% of the country's population. An additional 69% of the population is Mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry. In the nineteenth century, Nicaragua was the subject of central European immigration, mostly from Germany, England and the United States, who often married native Nicaraguan women. Some Germans were given land to grow coffee in Matagalpa, Jinotega and Esteli, although most Europeans settled in San Juan del Norte. In the late seventeenth century, pirates from England, France and Holland mixed with the indigenous population and started a settlement at Bluefields (Mosquito Coast).

Puerto Rico (U.S.)

Puerto Rico had a small stream of predominantly European immigration. Puerto Ricans of Spanish, Italian and French descent comprise the majority. According to the most recent 2020 census, the number of people who identified as "White alone" was 536,044 with an additional non-Hispanic 24,548, for a total of 560,592 or 17.1% of the population.

Previously in 1899, one year after the United States acquired the island, 61.8% or 589,426 people self-identified as White. One hundred years later (2000), the total increased to 80.5% or 3,064,862; due to a change of race perceptions, mainly because of Puerto Rican elites to portray Puerto Rico's image as the "White island of the Antilles", partly as a response to scientific racism.

Hundreds are from Corsica, France, Italy, Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, and Germany, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain. This was the result of granted land from Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815), which allowed European Catholics to settle on the island with a certain amount of free land.

Between 1960 and 1990, the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or color. Racial categories therefore disappeared from the dominant discourse on the Puerto Rican nation. However, the 2000 census included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico and, for the first time since 1950, allowed respondents to choose more than one racial category to indicate mixed ancestry. (Only 4.2% chose two or more races.) With few variations, the census of Puerto Rico used the same questionnaire as in the U.S. mainland. According to census reports, most islanders responded to the new federally mandated categories on race and ethnicity by declaring themselves "White"; few declared themselves to be Black or some other race. However, it was estimated that 20% of White Puerto Ricans may have Black ancestry.

Trinidad and Tobago

United States

The cultural boundaries separating White Americans from other racial or ethnic categories are contested and always changing. Professor David R. Roediger of the University of Illinois, suggests that the construction of the White race in the United States was an effort to mentally distance slave owners from slaves. By the eighteenth century, White had become well established as a racial term. Author John Tehranian has noted the changing classifications of immigrant ethnic groups in American history. At various times each of the following groups has been allegedly excluded from being considered White, despite generally having been considered legally White under the US census and US naturalization law: Germans, Greeks, White Hispanics, Arabs, Iranians, Afghans, Irish, Italians, Jews of European and Mizrahi descent, Slavs, and Spaniards. On several occasions Finns were "racially" discriminated against in their early years of immigration and not considered European but "Asian". Some believed that they were of Mongolian ancestry rather than "native" European origin due to the Finnish language belonging to the Uralic and not the Indo-European language family.

During American history, the process of officially being defined as White by law often came about in court disputes over the pursuit of citizenship. The Immigration Act of 1790 offered naturalization only to "any alien, being a free white person". In at least 52 cases, people denied the status of White by immigration officials sued in court for status as White people. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence" was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian says that this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage, and a community's role in the United States.

In 1923, the Supreme Court decided in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind that people of Indian descent were not White men, and thus not eligible for citizenship. While Thind was a high caste Hindu born in the northern Punjab region and classified by certain scientific authorities as of the Aryan race, the court conceded that he was not White or Caucasian since the word Aryan "has to do with linguistic and not at all with physical characteristics" and "the average man knows perfectly well that there are unmistakable and profound differences" between Indians and White people. In United States v. Cartozian (1925), an Armenian immigrant successfully argued (and the Supreme Court agreed) that his nationality was White in contradistinction to other people of the Near East – Kurds, Turks, and Arabs in particular – on the basis of their Christian religious traditions. In conflicting rulings In re Hassan (1942) and Ex parte Mohriez, United States District Courts found that Arabs did not, and did qualify as White, respectively, under immigration law.

In the early twenty-first century, the relationship between some ethnic groups and whiteness remains complex. In particular, some Jewish and Arab individuals both self-identify and are considered as part of the White American racial category, but others with the same ancestry feel they are not White and may not always be perceived as White by American society. The United States Census Bureau proposed but withdrew plans to add a new category for Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020. Specialists disputed whether this classification should be considered a White ethnicity or a race. According to Frank Sweet, "various sources agree that, on average, people with 12 percent or less admixture appear White to the average American and those with up to 25 percent look ambiguous (with a Mediterranean skin tone)".

The current U.S. Census definition includes as White "a person having origins in any of Europe, the Middle East or North Africa." The U.S. Department of Justice's Federal Bureau of Investigation describes White people as "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa through racial categories used in the Uniform Crime Reports Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce." The "White" category in the UCR includes non-black Hispanics.

White Americans made up nearly 90% of the population in 1950. A report from the Pew Research Center in 2008 projects that by 2050, non-Hispanic White Americans will make up 47% of the population, down from 67% projected in 2005. According to a study on the genetic ancestry of Americans, White Americans (stated "European Americans") on average are 98.6% European, 0.2% African and 0.2% Native American. Whites born in those Southern states with higher proportions of African-American populations, tend to have higher percentages of African ancestry. For instance, according to the 23andMe database, up to 13% of self-identified White American Southerners have greater than 1% African ancestry. White persons born in Southern states with the highest African-American populations tended to have the highest percentages of hidden African ancestry. Robert P. Stuckert, member of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Ohio State University, has said that today the majority of the descendants of African slaves are White.

Black author Rich Benjamin, in his book, Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America, reveals how racial divides and White decline, both real and perceived, shape democratic and economic urgencies in America. The book examines how White flight, and the fear of White decline, affects the country's political debates and policy-making, including housing, lifestyle, social psychology, gun control, and community. Benjamin says that such issues as fiscal policy or immigration or "Best Place to Live" lists, which might be considered race-neutral, are also defined by racial anxiety over perceived White decline.

One-drop rule

The "one-drop rule" – that a person with any amount of known black African ancestry (however small or invisible) is considered black – is a classification that was used in parts of the United States. It is a colloquial term for a set of laws passed by 18 U.S. states between 1910 and 1931. Such laws were declared unconstitutional in 1967 when the Supreme Court ruled on anti-miscegenation laws while hearing Loving v. Virginia; it also found that Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924, based on enforcing the one-drop rule in classifying vital records, was unconstitutional. The one-drop rule attempted to create a binary system, classifying all persons as either Black or White regardless of a person's physical appearance. Previously persons had sometimes been classified as mulatto or mixed-race, including on censuses up to 1930. They were also recorded as Indian. Some people with a high proportion of European ancestry could pass as "White", as noted above. This binary approach contrasts with the more flexible social structures present in Latin America (derived from the Spanish colonial era casta system), where there were less clear-cut divisions between various ethnicities. People are often classified not only by their appearance but by their class.

As a result of centuries of having children with White people, the majority of African Americans have some European admixture, and many people long accepted as White also have some African ancestry. Among the most notable examples of the latter is President Barack Obama, who is believed to have been descended from an early African enslaved in America, recorded as "John Punch", through his mother's apparently White line.

In the twenty-first century, writer and editor Debra Dickerson renewed questions about the one-drop rule, saying that "easily one-third of black people have White DNA". She says that, in ignoring their European ancestry, African Americans are denying their full multi-racial identities. Singer Mariah Carey, who is multi-racial, was publicly described as "another White girl trying to sing black". But in an interview with Larry King, she said that, despite her physical appearance and having been raised primarily by her White mother, she did not "feel White".

Since the late twentieth century, genetic testing has provided many Americans, both those who identify as White and those who identify as black, with more nuanced and complex information about their genetic backgrounds.

Other Caribbean

South America

Argentina

Argentina, along with other areas of new settlement like Canada, Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, the United States or Uruguay, is considered a country of immigrants where the vast majority originated from Europe. White people can be found in all areas of the country, but especially in the central-eastern region (Pampas), the central-western region (Cuyo), the southern region (Patagonia) and the north-eastern region (Litoral).

White Argentines are mainly descendants of immigrants who came from Europe and the Middle East in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After the regimented Spanish colonists, waves of European settlers came to Argentina from the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. Major contributors included Italy (initially from Piedmont, Veneto and Lombardy, later from Campania, Calabria, and Sicily), and Spain (most are Galicians and Basques, but there are Asturians, Cantabrians, Catalans, and Andalusians). Smaller but significant numbers of immigrants include Germans, primarily Volga Germans from Russia, but also Germans from Germany, Switzerland, and Austria; French which mainly came from the Occitania region of France; Portuguese, which already conformed an important community since colonial times; Slavic groups, most of which were Croats, Bosniaks, Poles, but also Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians, Bulgarians, Serbs and Montenegrins; Britons, mainly from England and Wales; Irish who migrated due to the Great Irish Famine or prior famines and Scandinavians from Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Norway. Smaller waves of settlers from Australia and South Africa, and the United States can be traced in Argentine immigration records.

By the 1910s, after immigration rates peaked, over 30 percent of the country's population was from outside Argentina, and over half of Buenos Aires' population was foreign-born. However, the 1914 National Census revealed that around 80% of the national population were either European immigrants, their children or grandchildren. Among the remaining 20 percent (those descended from the population residing locally before this immigrant wave took shape in the 1870s), around a third were White. European immigration continued to account for over half the nation's population growth during the 1920s and was again significant (albeit in a smaller wave) following World War II. It is estimated that Argentina received over 6 million European immigrants during the period 1857–1940.

Since the 1960s, increasing immigration from bordering countries to the north (especially from Bolivia and Paraguay, which have Amerindian and Mestizo majorities) has lessened that majority somewhat.

Criticism of the national census states that data has historically been collected using the category of national origin rather than race in Argentina, leading to undercounting Afro-Argentines and Mestizos. África Viva (Living Africa) is a black rights group in Buenos Aires with the support of the Organization of American States, financial aid from the World Bank and Argentina's census bureau is working to add an "Afro-descendants" category to the 2010 census. The 1887 national census was the final year where blacks were included as a separate category before it was eliminated by the government.

Bolivia

There is no present day data as the Bolivian census does not count racial identity for white people. However, past census data showed that in 1900, people who self-identified as "Blanco" (white) composed 12.7% or 231,088 of the total population. This was the last time data on race was collected. There were 529 Italians, 420 Spaniards, 295 Germans, 279 French, 177 Austrians, 141 English and 23 Belgians living in Bolivia.

Brazil

Recent censuses in Brazil are conducted on the basis of self-identification. According to the 2022 Census, they totaled 88,252,121 people and made up 43.5% of the Brazilian population.

As a term, "White" in Brazil is generally applied to people of European descent. The term may also encompass other people, such as Brazilians of West Asian descent, and in some contexts, East Asians. Though Brazilians of East Asian descent are, in other contexts, classified as "Yellow" (amarela). The census shows a trend of fewer Brazilians of a different descent (most likely mixed) identifying as White people as their social status increases. Nevertheless, light-skinned Mulattoes and Mestizos with European features were also historically deemed as more closely related to "whiteness" then unmixed Blacks.

Chile

Scholarly estimates of the White population in Chile vary dramatically, ranging from 20% to 52%. According to a study by the University of Chile about 30% of the Chilean population is Caucasian, while the 2011 Latinobarómetro survey shows that some 60% of Chileans consider themselves White.

During colonial times in the eighteenth century, an important flux of emigrants from Spain populated Chile, mostly Basques, who vitalized the Chilean economy and rose rapidly in the social hierarchy and became the political elite that still dominates the country. An estimated 1.6 million (10%) to 3.2 million (20%) Chileans have a surname (one or both) of Basque origin. The Basques liked Chile because of its great similarity to their native land: similar geography, cool climate, and the presence of fruits, seafood, and wine.

Chile was not an attractive place for European migrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries simply because it was far from Europe and difficult to reach. Chile experienced a tiny but steady arrival of Spanish, Italians, Irish, French, Greeks, Germans, English, Scots, Croats and Ashkenazi Jews, in addition to immigration from other Latin American countries.

The original arrival of Spaniards was the most radical change in demographics due to the arrival of Europeans in Chile, since there was never a period of massive immigration, in contrast to neighboring nations such as Argentina and Uruguay. Facts about the amount of immigration do not coincide with certain national chauvinistic discourse, which claims that Chile, like Argentina or Uruguay, would be considered one of the "White" Latin American countries, in contrast to the racial mixture that prevails in the rest of the continent. However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a major role in Chilean society. Between 1851 and 1924 Chile only received 0.5% of the European immigration flow to Latin America, compared to the 46% received by Argentina, 33% by Brazil, 14% by Cuba, and 4% by Uruguay. This was because most of the migration occurred across the Atlantic before the construction of the Panama Canal. Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long trip through the Straits of Magellan or across the Andes. In 1907, European-born immigrants composed 2.4% of the Chilean population, which fell to 1.8% in 1920, and 1.5% in 1930.

After the failed liberal revolution of 1848 in the German states, a significant German immigration took place, laying the foundation for the German-Chilean community. Sponsored by the Chilean government to "civilize" and colonize the southern region, these Germans (including German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians and Austrians) settled mainly in Valdivia, Llanquihue and Los Ángeles. The Chilean Embassy in Germany estimated 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans are of German origin.

Another historically significant immigrant group were Croatian immigrants. The Croatian Chileans, their descendants today, number at an estimated 380,000 persons, the equivalent of 2.4% of the population. Other authors claim on the other hand, that close to 4.6% of the Chilean population have some Croatian ancestry. Over 700,000 Chileans may have British (English, Scottish or Welsh) origin, 4.5% of Chile's population. Chileans of Greek descent are estimated 90,000 to 120,000. Most of them live either in the Santiago area or in the Antofagasta area, and Chile is one of the 5 countries with the most descendants of Greeks in the world. The descendants of the Swiss reach 90,000 and it is estimated that about 5% of the Chilean population has some French ancestry. 184,000–800,000 (estimates) are descendants of Italians. Other groups of European descendants are found in smaller numbers.

Colombia

The Colombian government does not carry out official racial censuses, nor does it carry out self-identification racial censuses as is the case in Argentina, so the figures shown are usually based on data from populations considered "non-ethnic", which are those (Whites and Mestizos). According to the 2018 census, approximately 87.6% of the Colombian population are White or Mestizo.

Many Spanish began their explorations searching for gold, while other Spanish established themselves as leaders of the native social organizations teaching natives the Christian faith and the ways of their civilization. Catholic priests would provide education for Native Americans that otherwise was unavailable. 100 years after the first Spanish settlement, 90 percent of all Native Americans in Colombia had died. The majority of the deaths of Native Americans were the cause of diseases such as measles and smallpox, which were spread by European settlers. Many Native Americans were also killed by armed conflicts with European settlers.

Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9 percent of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. It has been suggested that the present-day incidence of business entrepreneurship in the region of Antioquia is attributable to the Basque immigration and Basque character traits. Few Colombians of distant Basque descent are aware of their Basque ethnic heritage. In Bogota, there is a small colony of thirty to forty families who emigrated as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War or because of different opportunities. Basque priests were the ones who introduced handball into Colombia. Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration. In the first years of the Andean multinational company, Basque sailors navigated as captains and pilots on the majority of the ships until the country was able to train its own crews.

In December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 4,000 Germans living in Colombia. There were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt. Colombia invited Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave. SCADTA, a Colombian-German air transport corporation that was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the Western Hemisphere.

The Italians arrived on the Colombian coast, and quickly moved towards the expanding agricultural areas. There, some of them achieved success in the commercialization of livestock, agricultural products, and imported goods, which later led to the transfer of their lucrative activities to Barranquilla. Some important buildings were created by Italians in the nineteenth century, like the famous Colón Theater of the capital. It is one of the most representative theatres of Colombia, with neoclassic architecture: was built by the Italian architect Pietro Cantini and founded in 1892; has more than 2,400 square metres (26,000 sq ft) for 900 people. This famous Italian architect also contributed to the construction of the Capitolio Nacional of the capital. Oreste Sindici was an Italian-born Colombian musician and composer, who composed the music for the Colombian national anthem in 1887. Oreste Sindici died in Bogotá on 12 January 1904, due to severe arteriosclerosis. In 1937 the Colombian government honored his memory. After the Second World War, Italian emigration to Colombia was directed primarily toward Bogota, Cali and Medellin. They have Italian schools in Bogota (Institutes "Leonardo da Vinci" and "Alessandro Volta"), Medellín ("Leonardo da Vinci") & Barranquilla ("Galileo Galilei"). The Italian migration government estimates that there are at least 2 million Colombians of Italian descent, making them the second largest and most numerous European group in the country after the Spanish.

The first and largest wave of immigration from the Middle East began around 1880 and remained during the first two decades of the twentieth century. They were mainly Maronite Christians from Greater Syria (Syria and Lebanon) and Palestine, fleeing the then colonized Ottoman territories. Syrians, Palestinians, and Lebanese continued since then to settle in Colombia. Due to poor existing information it is impossible to know the exact number of Lebanese and Syrians that immigrated to Colombia. A figure of 5,000–10,000 from 1880 to 1930 may be reliable. Whatever the figure, Syrians and Lebanese are perhaps the biggest immigrant group next to the Spanish since independence. Those who left their homeland in the Middle East to settle in Colombia left for different reasons such as religious, economic, and political reasons. Some left to experience the adventure of migration. After Barranquilla and Cartagena, Bogota stuck next to Cali, among cities with the largest number of Arabic-speaking representatives in Colombia in 1945. The Arabs that went to Maicao were mostly Sunni Muslim with some Druze and Shiites, as well as Orthodox and Maronite Christians. The mosque of Maicao is the second largest mosque in Latin America. Middle Easterns are generally called Turcos (Turkish).

Ecuador

According to the most-recent 2022 national census, 2.2% of Ecuadorians self-identified as European Ecuadorian, a decrease from 6.1% in 2010.

Guyana

In 2016, 0.3% of Guyana were of European descent, predominantly Portuguese Guyanese.

Paraguay

Peru

According to the 2017 census 5.9% or 1.3 million (1,336,931) people 12 years of age and above self-identified as White. There were 619,402 (5.5%) males and 747,528 (6.3%) females. This was the first time a question for ethnic origins had been asked. The regions with the highest proportion of self-identified Whites were in La Libertad (10.5%), Tumbes and Lambayeque (9.0% each), Piura (8.1%), Callao (7.7%), Cajamarca (7.5%), Lima Province (7.2%) and Lima Region (6.0%).

Suriname

In 2012, there were 1,667 or 0.3% of the population identified as white. Many Dutch settlers left Suriname after independence in 1975 and this diminished Suriname's Dutch population. Currently there are around 1,000 boeroes left in Suriname, and 3,000 outside Suriname.

Uruguay

Different estimates state that Uruguay's population of 3.4 million is composed of 88% to 93% White Uruguayans. Though Uruguay has welcomed immigrants from around the world, its population largely consists of people of European origin, mainly Spaniards and Italians. Other European immigrants include Jews from Eastern and Central Europe. According to the 2006 National Survey of Homes by the Uruguayan National Institute of Statistics: 94.6% self-identified as having a White background, 9.1% chose black ancestry, and 4.5% chose an Amerindian ancestry (people surveyed were allowed to choose more than one option).

Venezuela

According to the official Venezuelan census, the term "White" involves external issues such as light skin, shape, and color of hair and eyes, among other factors. Though the meaning and usage of the term "White" has varied in different ways depending on the time period and area, leaving its precise definition as somewhat confusing. The 2011 Venezuelan Census states that "White" in Venezuela is used to describe Venezuelans of European origin. The 2011 National Population and Housing Census states that 43.6% of the Venezuelan population (approx. 13.1 million people) identify as White. Genetic research by the University of Brasília shows an average admixture of 60.6% European, 23.0% Amerindian and 16.3% African ancestry in Venezuelan populations. The majority of White Venezuelans are of Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and German descent. Nearly half a million European immigrants, mostly from Spain (as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War), Italy, and Portugal, entered the country during and after World War II, attracted by a prosperous, rapidly developing country where educated and skilled immigrants were welcomed.

Spaniards were introduced into Venezuela during the colonial period. Most of them were from Andalusia, Galicia, Basque Country and from the Canary Islands. Until the last years of World War II, a large part of the European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands, and its cultural impact was significant, influencing the development of Castilian in the country, its gastronomy, and customs. With the beginning of oil operations during the first decades of the twentieth century, citizens and companies from the United States, United Kingdom, and Netherlands established themselves in Venezuela. Later, in the middle of the century, there was a new wave of originating immigrants from Spain (mainly from Galicia, Andalucia and the Basque Country), Italy (mainly from southern Italy and Venice) and Portugal (from Madeira) and new immigrants from Germany, France, England, Croatia, Netherlands, and other European countries, among others, animated simultaneously by the program of immigration and colonization implanted by the government.

See also

• Caucasoid
• Criollo people
• Demographics of Europe
• Ethnic groups in Europe
• Ethnic groups in West Asia
• European diaspora
• Westerners
• White demographic decline
• White flight
• White identity

References

1. Nirenberg, David (2009). "Was there race before modernity? The example of 'Jewish' blood in late medieval Spain" (PDF). In Eliav-Feldon, Miriam; Isaac, Benjamin H.; Ziegler, Joseph (eds.). The Origins of Racism in the West. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 232–264. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 16 September 2014. On both sides of the chronological divide between the modern and the pre-modern (wherever it may lie), there is today a remarkable consensus that the earlier vocabularies of difference are innocent of race.
2. Jablonski, Nina G. (2012). Living Color: The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-520-95377-2.
3. "chapter VI. The gate of Teka-hra". Book of Gates. Translated by E. A. Wallis Budge. 1905. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. The first are RETH, the second are AAMU, the third are NEHESU, and the fourth are THEMEHU. The RETH are Egyptians, the AAMU are dwellers in the deserts to the east and north-east of Egypt, the NEHESU are the Cushites, and the THEMEHU are the fair-skinned Libyans.
4. ^ James H. Dee, "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White'?" The Classical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2. (December 2003 – January 2004), pp. 162 ff.
5. Michael Witzel, "Rgvedic History" in: The Indo-Aryans of South Asia (1995): "while it would be easy to assume reference to skin color, this would go against the spirit of the hymns: for Vedic poets, black always signifies evil, and any other meaning would be secondary in these contexts."
6. Mary Ann Eaverly (2013). Tan Men/Pale Women: Color and Gender in Archaic Greece and Egypt, a Comparative Approach. University of Michigan Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-472-11911-0. OCLC 1055877879.
7. Kamtekar, Rachana (2008). "Chapter 1 Distinction Without a Difference? Race and Genos in Plato". In Julie K. Ward; Tommy L. Lott (eds.). Philosophers on Race: Critical Essays. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-470-75204-3. OCLC 1039168694.
8. Maria Michela Sassi (2001). The Science of Man in Ancient Greece. University of Chicago Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-226-73530-6. OCLC 1000991167.
9. Peter Hunt (9 May 2002). Slaves, Warfare, and Ideology in the Greek Historians. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-521-89390-9. OCLC 248925851.
10. Godfrey Hutchinson (2014). Sparta: Unfit for Empire. Frontline Books. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-84832-222-6. OCLC 1026663126.
11. Painter, Nell (2016). The History of White People. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-393-04934-3.
12. Herodotus: Histories, 4.108.
13. Herodotus: Histories, 2.104.2.
14. Herodotus: Histories, 2.17.
15. Xenophanes of Colophon: Fragments, J. H. Lesher, University of Toronto Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8020-8508-3, p. 90.
16. Hippocrates; Héraclite d'Éphèse (1923). William Henry Samuel Jones; Paul Potter; Wesley D. Smith (eds.). Hippocrates, Volume 1. Harvard University Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-0-674-99162-0. OCLC 1004814805.
17. Painter 2016, p. 10.
18. Dee, James H. (2004). "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White'?". The Classical Journal. 99 (2): 157–167. JSTOR 3298065.
19. ^ Silverblatt, Irene (2004). Modern Inquisitions: Peru and the colonial origins of the civilized world. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-8223-8623-0.
20. Baum, Bruce David (2006). The rise and fall of the Caucasian race: A political history of racial identity. NYU Press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-8147-9892-8.
21. Bonnett 2000
22. Gregory Jay. "Who Invented White People? A Talk on the Occasion of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, 1998". Archived from the original on 2 May 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
23. Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton University Press. pp. 26–27.
24. Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton University Press. p. 2.
25. Silverblatt, Irene (2004). Modern Inquisitions: Peru and the colonial origins of the civilized world. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 113–116. ISBN 978-0-8223-8623-0.
26. ^ Silverblatt, Irene (2004). Modern Inquisitions: Peru and the colonial origins of the civilized world. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-8223-8623-0.
27. ^ Twinam, Ann (2005). "Racial Passing: Informal and Official 'Whiteness' in Colonial Spanish America". In Smolenski, John; Humphrey, Thomas J. (eds.). New World Orders: Violence, Sanction, and Authority in the Colonial Americas. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 249–272. ISBN 978-0-8122-3895-2.
28. ^ Duenas, Alcira (2010). Indians and mestizos in the 'lettered city' reshaping justice, social hierarchy, and political culture in colonial Peru. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-019-7.
29. Jordan, Winthrop (1974). White Over Black: American Attitudes Towards the Negro. p. 97.
30. ^ Allen, Theodore (1994). The Invention of the White Race. Vol. 2. New York: Verso. p. 351.
31. Baum (2006), p. 48. Winthrop Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Towards the Negro 1974, p. 52, puts the shift to white from earlier Christian, free, and English to around 1680. Allen, Theodore (1994). The Invention of the White Race: Racial Oppression and Social Control. Verso. ISBN 978-0-86091-660-4. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2006.
32. Hirschman, Charles (2004). "The Origins and Demise of the Concept of Race". Population and Development Review. 30 (3): 385–415. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00021.x. ISSN 1728-4457.
33. ^ Sarah A. Tishkoff and Kenneth K. Kidd (2004): "Implications of biography of human populations for 'race' and medicine" (Archived 14 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine), Nature Genetics.
34. Painter, Nell Irvin (2003). "Why White People are Called Caucasian?" (PDF). Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Gilder Lehrman Center International Conference at Yale University. Collective Degradation: Slavery and the Construction of Race – November 7–8, 2003 – Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. p. 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2006.
35. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: The Anthropological Treatises. Longman Green, London 1865, pp. 99, 265 ff.
36. Painter, Nell (2010). The History of White People. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 79–90. ISBN 978-0-393-04934-3.
37. Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (2000). "On the Natural Variety of Mankind". In Robert Bernasconi (ed.). The Idea of Race. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. pp. 27–37. ISBN 978-0-87220-458-4.
38. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: The Anthropological Treatises. Longman Green, London 1865, p. 107.
39. Brian Regal: Human Evolution. A guide to the debates. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara/CA 2004, p. 72. Also see Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: The Institutions of physiology, translated by John Elliotson. Bensley, London 1817.
40. Marvin Harris (2001). The rise of anthropological theory. A history of theories of culture. Rowman Altamira. pp. 84 ff. ISBN 978-0-7591-0133-3. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
41. Baum (2006), p. 120, gives the range 1840 to 1935.
42. McAuliffe, Garrett (2018). Culturally Alert Counseling: A Comprehensive Introduction. Sage. ISBN 978-1-4129-1006-4 – via Google Books.
43. Zecker, Robert M. (2011). Race and America's Immigrant Press: How the Slovaks were Taught to Think Like White People. Bloomsbury Publishing US. ISBN 978-1-4411-6199-4 – via Google Books.
44. "The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information". University Press. 30 May 2018 – via Google Books.
45. Bendersky, Joseph W. 2007 A concise history of Nazi Germany Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. pp.161–162.
46. Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. pp. 105–106.
47. Lionel Steiman (1997). Paths to Genocide. Springer. p. 180. ISBN 9780230371330.
48. Adams, J. Q.; Strother-Adams, Pearlie (2001). Dealing with Diversity. Chicago: Kendall/Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7872-8145-8.
49. People of South Africa. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
50. "2022 Population and Housing Census" (PDF). p. 15. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
51. "CIA – The World Factbook – Angola". CIA. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
52. "CIA – The World Factbook – Botswana". CIA. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
53. "2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics". Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
54. "Malawians criticize TNM over white CEO: Do we not have black people? Malawi 24". Malawi 24. 22 March 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
55. "RGPH 2014". 9 May 2020. Archived from the original on 9 May 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
56. "Namibia vows to change 'status-quo' of white-farm ownership". News24. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
57. Adogame, Afe (2013). The African Christian Diaspora: New Currents and Emerging Trends in World Christianity. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-3667-1.
58. ^ Thomas McGhee, Charles C., ed. (1989). The plot against South Africa (2nd ed.). Pretoria: Varama. ISBN 978-0-620-14537-4.
59. Fryxell, Cole. To Be Born a Nation. pp. 9, 327.
60. ^ Kaplan, Irving. Area Handbook for the Republic of South Africa. pp. 120–166.
61. South Africa: Time running out: The report of the Study Commission on U.S. Policy Toward Southern Africa. University of California Press. 1981. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-520-04547-7.
62. Mafika (11 August 2017). "South Africa's population". Brand South Africa. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
63. Million whites leave SA – study, fin24.com, 24 September 2006
64. "Why white South Africans are coming home". BBC News. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
65. "Hong Kong population 2021 census table:3.9" (PDF). www.censtatd.gov.hk. p. 47. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
66. "Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation". Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2017. National Geographic Genetic Study
67. Go MC, Jones AR, Algee-Hewitt B, Dudzik B, Hughes C (2019). "Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Human Biology. 2 (4). University of Florida Press: 1–11. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. ISSN 2573-5020. S2CID 159266278. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2020. ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
68. "Australian Bureau of Statistics : Census of Population and Housing: Cultural diversity data summary, 2021" (XLSX). Abs.gov.au. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
69. Immigration Restriction Act 1901 Archived 1 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Foundingdocs.gov.au.
70. Stephen Castles, "The Australian Model of Immigration and Multiculturalism: Is It Applicable to Europe?," International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 2, Special Issue: The New Europe and International Migration. (Summer, 1992), pp. 549–567.
71. "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and the Census After the 1967 Referendum". Abs.gov.au. 5 July 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
72. "Leading for change" (PDF). humanrights.gov.au. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
73. ^ "2023 Census population counts (by ethnic group, age, and Māori descent) and dwelling counts | Stats NZ". Stats.govt.nz. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
74. "2018 Census population and dwelling counts | Stats NZ". www.stats.govt.nz. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
75. 1974 World Population Year: The Population of New Zealand (PDF). Committee for International Co-ordination of National Research in Demography (CICRED). 1974. p. 53. Retrieved 7 September 2024: Table 3.11: Total Population by Ethnic Origin, 1916–1971{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
76. "Historical and statistical survey". p. 18. Retrieved 7 September 2024.
77. Germans: First Arrivals Archived 21 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine (from the Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand)
78. Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "4. History of immigration – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz.
79. Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "5. History of immigration – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz.
80. "Population Structure of Communities". isee.nc. Archived from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
81. "2020 Island Areas Censuses Data on Demographic, Social, Economic and Housing Characteristics Now Available for Guam". United States Census. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
82. The Northern Mariana Islands Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine 2010 Census
83. 2020 Census of Population and Housing of the Republic of Palau (PDF) (Report). Vol. I Basic Tables. Koror, Palau: Office of Planning and Statistics. August 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
84. "Samoa". CIA – The World Factbook. 26 October 2021. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
85. Renata Birkenbuel (10 January 2020). "French Court May Fine Little-Known Rapper For Alleged Racist Song, 'Hang White People,' And Accompanying Music Video". Newsweek. incitement to violence does not stop just because the intended victim is white
86. "Hang White People: Rapper Nick Conrad fined over YouTube song". BBC. 19 March 2019.
87. ^ Emma Pettit (5 August 2019). "As White Supremacists Try to Remake History, Scholars Seek to Preserve the Record". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Camus argues that white people in France, and in Europe in general, are being replaced by Muslim immigrants, in what he calls "genocide by substitution."
88. James McAuley (27 September 2018). "A black French rapper sang about hanging 'the whites.' He may now be prosecuted". The Washington Post. "White people in France are not in danger," Diallo said, referencing the issue of police brutality. In 2016, for instance, a 24-year-old black man named Adama Traore was trampled and killed by police in the town of Beaumont-sur-Oise
89. George Ritzer (2003). "Social Problems; France: Colonialism And Contemporary Racism". Handbook of Social Problems: A Comparative International Perspective. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-2610-8. France has a long tradition of overseas colonialism. While whites in the United States have historically exploited many people of color mostly within the country, whites in France have played a major international role in colonizing areas of the globe such as the African continent.
90. Britta Sandberg (19 August 2020). "An Escape from the Squalor of the Paris Banlieues". Der Spiegel. Most white people in France only know the banlieues as a kind of caricature, such as that presented by the right-wing populist Marine Le Pen during her political campaigns.
91. Rokhaya Diallo (10 October 2019). "French whiteness is in crisis". Al Jazeera.
92. Jean Beaman (2017). "From the Inside Flap". Citizen Outsider: Children of North African Immigrants in France. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-29426-4.
93. ^ Crystal Marie Fleming (2020). "How to Be Less Stupid About Race in France" (PDF). Vol. 12. H-France Salon. p. 3. Finally, as I also argue in How to Be Less Stupid About Race, those of us engaged in the work of anti-racism in and outside of the academy, must continually disrupt efforts to establish a false equivalence between whites and racialized minorities. While many whites in France refuse to acknowledge institutionalized racism and white supremacy, there is widespread belief in the specter of "anti-white racism,"
94. Crystal Marie Fleming (2018). How to Be Less Stupid about Race: On Racism, White Supremacy, and the Racial Divide. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5077-4.
95. ^ Dominic Fifield (30 June 2006). "We are Frenchmen says Thuram, as Le Pen bemoans number of black players". The Guardian.
96. Angéline Escafré-Dublet (2019). "The whiteness of cultural boundaries in France". Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power. Vol. 26. Taylor & Francis.
97. Julia Webster Ayuso (2 July 2020). "The thin, white lie: challenging the 'French women' stereotype". The Guardian.
98. ^ "Migration and Diversity – CSO – Central Statistics Office". CSO. 30 May 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
99. ^ Diego Andrés Rosselli Cock (15 December 2005). "La comunidad musulmana de Maicao (Colombia)". Webislam (in Spanish). Retrieved 17 January 2018.
100. "Ethnicity – CSO – Central Statistics Office". CSO. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
101. "Chapter 6: Ethnicity and Irish Travellers" (PDF). 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2017.
102. "Volume 05 – Ethnic or Cultural Background" (PDF).
103. ^ "Census of Population and Housing 2021: Final Report: Population, migration and other social characteristics (Volume 1)". nso.gov.mt. 16 February 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
104. "Main statistics for Northern Ireland – Statistical bulletin – Ethnic group" (PDF). Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 22 September 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
105. ^ "Ethnic group, England and Wales: Census 2021. How ethnic composition varied across England and Wales". 29 November 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
106. "Scotland's Census 2022 – Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion". 21 May 2024. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
107. Kruszelnicki, Karl (March 2001), News in Science: Skin Colour 1
108. Bonnett 2000, p. 32
109. Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class & Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0561-5.
110. Thomas Jones. "Lhuyd, Edward (1660–1709), botanist, geologist, antiquary and philologist". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
111. Campbell, Lyle; Poser, William J. (2007). Language Classification. History and Method. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-521-88005-3.
112. Davies, John (1994). A History of Wales. London: Penguin. p. 54. ISBN 0-14-014581-8.
113. "Who were the Celts? ... Rhagor". Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales website. Amgueddfa Cymru– National Museum Wales. 4 May 2007. Archived from the original on 17 September 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2009.
114. ^ Bonnett 2000, p. 31
115. ^ "Short History of Immigration". BBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
116. "Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community". Chambré Hardman Trust. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
117. Vargas-Silva, Carlos (10 April 2014). "Migration Flows of A8 and other EU Migrants to and from the UK". Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
118. "Ethnic group statistics: A guide for the collection and classification of ethnicity data" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. 2003. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
119. Kissoon, Priya.Asylum Seekers: National Problem or National Solution. 2005. 7 November 2006.
120. ^ 2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in England and Wales, accessed 13 June 2014.
121. Table 2 – Ethnic groups, Scotland, 2001 and 2011 Scotlands Census published 30 September 2013 Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 13 June 2014.
122. "2011 Census – Key Statistics for Northern Ireland". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 11 January 2017.
123. "Table DC2206NI: National identity (classification 1) by ethnic group". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
124. "2011 Census: Key Results on Population, Ethnicity, Identity, Language, Religion, Health, Housing and Accommodation in Scotland – Release 2A" (PDF). National Records for Scotland. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
125. "NISRA 2011 Census: Ethnic Group: Accessed 3 June 2013".
126. ^ "Bermuda 2016 Census" (PDF). Bermuda Department of Statistics. December 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
127. The St. George's Foundation newsletter 4 October, 2017
128. "2010 Official census (P.18)" (PDF). Retrieved 7 August 2024.
129. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (26 October 2022). "Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
130. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (26 October 2022). "The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 10 January 2022. In 2021, just over 25 million people reported being White in the census, representing close to 70% of the total Canadian population. The vast majority reported being White only, while 2.4% also reported one or more other racialized groups.
131. Human Resources and Social Development Canada, 2001 Employment Equity Data Report
132. Census 2001: 2B (Long Form)
133. "National Institute of Statistics and Census of Costa Rica". Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos de Costa Rica, or INEC. 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
134. "INEC Cuestionario Censo 2022" (PDF). INEC. 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
135. "Costa Rica". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft. 2007. Archived from the original on 29 May 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
136. "El Color de la Piel Según el Censo de Población y Viviendas de 2012" (PDF). February 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
137. "2012 Cuban Census". One.cu. 28 April 2006. Archived from the original on 26 February 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
138. "Censo en Cuba concluye que la población decrece, envejece y se vuelve cada vez más mestiza". latercera.com. Grupo Copesa. 8 November 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
139. "Etat des propriétés rurales appartenant à des Français dans l'île de Cuba". (from Cuban Genealogy Center)
140. "In Cuba, Finding a Tiny Corner of Jewish Life". The New York Times. 4 February 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
141. "Report on the Census of Cuba, 1899". Digital.tcl.sc.edu. p. 81. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
142. "El Color de la Piel según el Censo de Población y Viviendas" (PDF). Cuba Statistics and Information. pp. 8, 17–18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
143. "A barrier for Cuba's blacks – New attitudes on once-taboo race questions emerge with a fledgling black movement". Miami Herald. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013.
144. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Cuba: Afro-Cubans". Refworld. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
145. "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Cuba: Overview". Archived from the original on 10 May 2011.
146. "Boleta Censal" (PDF). Nacional de Población y Vivienda. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
147. ^ "Breve Encuesta Nacional de Autopercepción Racial y Étnica en la República Dominicana" (PDF). Santo Domingo: Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas (United Nations Population Fund). September 2021. p. 22. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
148. "El Salvador: Censos de Población 2007" [El Salvador: Population Census 2007] (PDF) (in Spanish). digestyc.gob.sv. 2008. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
149. "El Salvador". The World Factbook. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
150. "Caracterización estadística República de Guatemala 2012" (PDF). INE. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
151. Metz, Brent (2006). Ch'orti'–Maya Survival in Eastern Guatemala: Indigeneity in Transition. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-3881-5 – via Google Books.
152. "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
153. "Retrato de la familia Fagoaga-Arozqueta". electronic magazine Imágenes of the Institute of Aesthetic Research of the National Autonomous University of Mexico.
154. ^ "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional" [Results of the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module] (PDF). INEGI (in Spanish). 16 June 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
155. ^ Navarrete, Federico. "El mestizaje y las culturas" [Mixed race and cultures]. México Multicultural (in Spanish). Mexico: UNAM. Archived from the original on 23 August 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
156. ^ "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" p. 7 Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, CONAPRED, Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
157. ^ "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell", INEGI, 3 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
158. "Documento Informativo Sobre Discriminación Racial en México" [Informative Document on Racial Discrimination in Mexico] (PDF). CONAPRED (in Spanish). Mexico. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
159. "Por estas razones el color de piel determina las oportunidades de los mexicanos" Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Huffington post, 26 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
160. "Ser Blanco", El Universal, 6 July 2017, Retrieved on 19 June 2018.
161. Solís, Arturo (7 August 2018). "Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres blanco" [Proven with data: in Mexico you are better off if you are white]. Forbes México (in Mexican Spanish). Retrieved 4 November 2018.
162. Branding, David A.; Borah, Woodrow (1975). Mineros y comerciantes en el México borbónico (1763–1810). Fondo de Cultura Económica. p. 150. ISBN 9789681613402. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
163. ^ San Miguel, G (November 2000). "Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII: Acatzingo, 1792" [To be 'mestizo' in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo, 1792]. Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy (in Spanish) (13): 325–342.
164. ^ Federico Navarrete (2016). Mexico Racista. Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 86. ISBN 9786073143646. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
165. Sherburne Friend Cook; Woodrow Borah (1998). Ensayos sobre historia de la población. México y el Caribe 2. Siglo XXI. p. 223. ISBN 9789682301063. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
166. "Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara, Mexico: 1811–1842, p. 62", fsu org, 8 December 2016. Retrieved on 9 December 2018.
167. Wang, Sijia; Ray, Nicolas; Rojas, Winston; Parra, Maria V.; Bedoya, Gabriel; Gallo, Carla; et al. (21 March 2008). "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos". PLOS Genetics. 4 (3): e1000037. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037. PMC 2265669. PMID 18369456. Large differences in the variation of individual admixture estimates were seen across populations, with the variance in Native American ancestry between individuals ranging from 0.005 in Quetalmahue to 0.07 in Mexico City (Figure 4, Figure S1, and Table S2), an observation consistent with previous studies...
168. ^ Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" [Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the XXI Century]. Convergencia (in Spanish). 12 (38): 185–232.
169. "Mexico | History, Geography, Facts, & Points of Interest". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
170. Ortiz-Hernández, Luis; Compeán-Dardón, Sandra; Verde-Flota, Elizabeth; Flores-Martínez, Maricela Nanet (April 2011). "Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City". Salud Pública de México. 53 (2): 125–133. doi:10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005. PMID 21537803.
171. Villarreal, Andrés (2010). "Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico". American Sociological Review. 75 (5): 652–678. doi:10.1177/0003122410378232. JSTOR 20799484. S2CID 145295212.
172. Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Adhikari, Kaustubh; Acuña-Alonzo, Victor; Quinto-Sanchez, Mirsha; Jaramillo, Claudia; Arias, William; Fuentes, Macarena; Pizarro, María; Everardo, Paola; de Avila, Francisco; Gómez-Valdés, Jorge; León-Mimila, Paola; Hunemeier, Tábita; Ramallo, Virginia; Silva de Cerqueira, Caio C.; Burley, Mari-Wyn; Konca, Esra; de Oliveira, Marcelo Zagonel; Veronez, Mauricio Roberto; Rubio-Codina, Marta; Attanasio, Orazio; Gibbon, Sahra; Ray, Nicolas; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Rosique, Javier; Schuler-Faccini, Lavinia; Salzano, Francisco M.; Bortolini, Maria-Cátira; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Rothhammer, Francisco; Bedoya, Gabriel; Balding, David; Gonzalez-José, Rolando (25 September 2014). "Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals". PLOS Genetics. 10 (9): e1004572. Bibcode:2014PLOSG..10.4572R. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572. PMC 4177621. PMID 25254375.
173. Magaña, Mario; Valerio, Julia; Mateo, Adriana; Magaña–Lozano, Mario (April 2005). "Alteraciones cutáneas del neonato en dos grupos de población de México" [Skin lesions two cohorts of newborns in Mexico City]. Boletín médico del Hospital Infantil de México (in Spanish). 62 (2).
174. Miller (1999). Nursing Care of Older Adults: Theory and Practice (3rd, illustrated ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-7817-2076-2. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
175. ^ "About Mongolian Spot". tokyo-med.ac.jp. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
176. "Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". EMedicine.medscape.com. 7 January 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
177. Lawrence C. Parish; Larry E. Millikan, eds. (2012). Global Dermatology: Diagnosis and Management According to Geography, Climate, and Culture. M. Amer, R.A.C. Graham-Brown, S.N. Klaus, J.L. Pace. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4612-2614-7. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
178. "Tienen manchas mongólicas 50% de bebés", El Universal, January 2012. Retrieved on 3 July 2017.
179. Howard F. Cline (1963). The United States and Mexico. Harvard University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-674-49706-1. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
180. Cuéllar Moreno, Raúl (12 December 2004). "Coahuila y sus Hombres / Los indios bárbaros del norte". Elsiglodetorreon.com (in Spanish).
181. Avila, Oscar (22 November 2008). "Mexico's insular Mennonites under siege, overlooked: The Tribune's Oscar Avila reports on Mexico's insular and targeted sect". McClatche-Tribune Business News. Washington. p. 8.
182. "Menonitas que huyeron de Chihuahua ahora alimentan Asia desde Campeche", El Financiero, 1 March 2018. Retrieved on 8 December 2018.
183. Montagner Anguiano, Eduardo. "El dialecto véneto de Chipilo" [The Venician dialect of Chipilo]. Orbis Latinus (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
184. "Nicaragua". The World Factbook. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
185. Eddy Kuhl Inmigración centro-europea a Matagalpa, Nicaragua Archived 4 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Consultado, 5 December 2014.
186. Revista Vinculado Nicaragua: historia de inmigrantes. De dónde eran y por qué emigraron Retrieved, 5 December 2014.
187. ^ "Report on the Census of Porto Rico, 1899" (PDF). Census.gov. 20 July 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2015. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
188. "Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census". Census.gov. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
189. "Racial composition data for Puerto Rico: 2000 Census" (PDF). Topuertorico.org. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
190. How Puerto Rico Became White – University of Wisconsin-Madison Archived 7 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF).
191. "Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% From 2010 to 2020". census.gov. 25 August 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
192. "Home". Center for Demography and Ecology.
193. Representation of racial identity among Island Puerto Ricans. Mona.uwi.edu.
194. "What You Need to Know About Puerto Rico's Black History | PushBlack Now". Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
195. Trinidad and Tobago 2011 Census Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Ethnic Composition: "Caucasian 0.6%, Portuguese 0.1%", Total: 0.7% (p. 15)
196. ^ Table 1. United States – Race and Hispanic Origin: 1790 to 1990 (pdf). Archived 18 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine
197. Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data Geographic Area: United States Archived 12 February 2020 at archive.today. Factfinder.census.gov.
198. The White Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief C2010BR-05., U.S. Census Bureau, September 2011.
199. ^ The White Population: 2010, Census 2010 Brief C2KBR/01-4, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2001.
200. ^ Census 2020, retrieved 22 January 2023.
201. Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, 186; Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (New York, 1998).
202. "The 'Becoming White Thesis' Revisited". The Journal of Public and Professional Sociology. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
203. "Sorry, but the Irish were always 'white' (and so were Italians, Jews and so on)". The Washington Post. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
204. ^ Tehranian, John (2000). "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America". The Yale Law Journal. 109 (4): 817–848. doi:10.2307/797505. JSTOR 797505. ProQuest 198550989.
205. Holmio, Armas K. E. (2001). History of the Finns in Michigan. Wayne State University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-8143-4000-4. She had barely reached the front porch when the friend's mother realized that her daughter's playmate was a Finn. Helmi was turned away immediately, and the daughter of the house was forbidden to associate with 'that Mongolian'. John Wargelin, a pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and a former president of Suomi College, also tells how, when he was a child in Crystal Falls some years earlier, he and his friends were ridiculed and stoned on their way to school. 'Because of our strange language,' he says, 'we were considered an alien race who had no right to settle in this country.'
206. Eric Dregni, Vikings in the Attic: In search of Nordic America, p. 176.
207. ^ United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, Certificate From The Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, No. 202. Argued 11, 12 January 1923. —Decided 19 February 1923, United States Reports, v. 261, The Supreme Court, October Term, 1922, 204–215.
208. Wang, Hansi Lo (29 January 2018). "No Middle Eastern Or North African Category On 2020 Census, Bureau Says". NPR. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
209. Frank W Sweet, Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule, Backintyme (3 July 2013), p. 50.
210. Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook, U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation, p. 97 (2004) Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine
211. Anthony Walsh (2004). "Race and crime: a biosocial analysis". Nova Publishers. p. 23. ISBN 1-59033-970-3
212. Jeffrey S. Passel and D'Vera Cohn: U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050. Archived 3 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine Pew Research Center, 11 February 2008.
213. ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, J. Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (18 September 2014). "The genetic ancestry of African, Latino, and European Americans across the United States". bioRxiv 10.1101/009340.. "Supplemental Tables and Figures". p. 42. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
214. Scott Hadly, "Hidden African Ancestry Redux", DNA USA* Archived 22 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, 23andMe, 4 March 2014.
215. Stuckert, Robert P. (May 1958). "African Ancestry of the White American Population". The Ohio Journal of Science. 58 (3): 155–160. hdl:1811/4532.
216. NPR. "What Is A 'Whitopia' – And What Might It Mean To Live There?". NPR. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
217. Benjamin, Rich (14 April 2018). ""Gun Control and The Politics of White Paranoia"". The New Yorker. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
218. One drop of blood. People.vcu.edu (24 July 1994).
219. Bryc, Katarzyna; Auton, Adam; Nelson, Matthew R.; Oksenberg, Jorge R.; Hauser, Stephen L.; Williams, Scott; Froment, Alain; Bodo, Jean-Marie; Wambebe, Charles; Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; et al. (2009). "Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (2): 786–791. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107..786B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909559107. PMC 2818934. PMID 20080753.
220. Shriver, Mark D.; et al. (2003). "Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping" (PDF). Human Genetics. 112 (4): 387–399. doi:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y. PMID 12579416. S2CID 7877572. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 April 2012.
221. Frank W Sweet (2004). "Afro-European Genetic Admixture in the United States: Essays on the Color Line and the One-Drop Rule". Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
222. Goldstein, Bonnie (30 July 2012). "Obama descended from slave ancestor". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
223. Debra J. Dickerson: The End of Blackness. Returning the Souls of Black Folk to Their Rightful Owners. Anchor Books, New York and Toronto, 2005.
224. Mariah Carey: 'Not another White girl trying to sing Black.'. Findarticles.com.
225. Larry King interview with Mariah Carey. Transcripts.cnn.com (19 December 2002).
226. Cf. Jim Wooten, "Race Reversal Man Lives as 'Black' for 50 Years – Then Finds Out He's Probably Not", ABC News (2004).
227. "Fall 2022 Labour Force Survey" (PDF).
228. "2020 U.S. Virgin Islands Summary File". data.census.gov. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
229. Turks and Caicos 2001 Census Archived 5 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine (p. 22)
230. "Virgin Islands 2010 Population and Housing Census Report" (PDF). unstats.un.org. p. 57. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
231. Bahamas 2010 census Total Population by Sex, Age Group and Racial Group "In 1722 when the first official census of The Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was white and 26% black. Three centuries later, and according to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 91% of the population identified themselves as being black, five percent (5%) white and two percent (2%) of a mixed race (black and white) and (1%) other races and (1%) not stated." (pp. 10, 82)
232. Anguilla Population and Housing Census (AP&HC) 2011 Archived 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Who are we? – Ethnic Composition and Religious Affiliation.
233. Barbados – 2010 Population and Housing Census Archived 18 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine Table 02.03: Population by Sex, Age Group and Ethnic Origin (pp. 51–54)
234. Population, Demographic Characteristics Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Population by Ethnic Groups (pp. 16–17) 1.4% white (608 "Portuguese" and 870 other "white").
235. "CIA - The World Factbook -- Dominica". CIA. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
236. "1_pdfsam_General Report Census 2011 by diG Jamaica – Issuu". issuu.com. 18 October 2012.
237. Schweimler, Daniel (12 February 2007). "Argentina's last Jewish cowboys". BBC News. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
238. "CIA – The World Factbook – Argentina". Archived from the original on 13 May 2009.
239. Enrique Oteiza and Susana Novick hold that «la Argentina desde el siglo XIX, al igual que Australia, Canadá o Estados Unidos, se convierte en un país de inmigración, entendiendo por esto una sociedad que ha sido conformada por un fenómeno inmigratorio masivo, a partir de una población local muy pequeña.» Iigg.fsoc.uba.ar Archived 31 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
240. El antropólogo brasileño Darcy Ribeiro incluye a la Argentina dentro de los «pueblos trasplantados» de América, junto con Uruguay, Canadá y Estados Unidos (Ribeiro, Darcy. Las Américas y la Civilización (1985). Buenos Aires: EUDEBA, pp. 449 ss.)
241. El historiador argentino José Luis Romero define a la Argentina como un «país aluvial» (Romero, José Luis. «Indicación sobre la situación de las masas en Argentina (1951)», en La experiencia Argentina y otros ensayos, Buenos Aires: Universidad de Belgrano, 1980, p. 64)
242. Federaciones Regionales Archived 2 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine feditalia.org.ar
243. Dinámica migratoria: coyuntura y estructura en la Argentina de fines del XX Archived 1 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Alhim.revues.org (3 November 2004).
244. "Buenosaires.gov.ar". Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
245. ^ Rock, David. Argentina: 1516–1982. University of California Press, 1987.
246. Levene, Ricardo. History of Argentina. University of North Carolina Press, 1937.
247. Yale immigration study Archived 16 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Yale.edu.
248. Racial Discrimination in Argentina Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Academic.udayton.edu.
249. Ackerman, Ruthie (27 November 2005). "Blacks in Argentina – officially a few, but maybe a million". The San Francisco Chronicle.
250. "Ethnic Groups Of Bolivia". WorldAtlas. 25 April 2017.
251. "The World Factbook: Bolivia". CIA. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
252. "Censo National De La Poblacion de la Republica 1900 'Segunda parte'" (PDF). 1900. pp. 25–32. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
253. "Panorama do Censo 2022". Panorama do Censo 2022.
254. "Tabela 9605: População residente, por cor ou raça, nos Censos Demográficos". sidra.ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
255. Edward Eric Telles (2004), "Racial Classification", Race in Another America: the significance of skin color in Brazil, Princeton University Press, pp. 273, ISBN 0-691-11866-3, The Japanese were sometimes considered white. Lesser (1999) cites Federal Deputy Acylino de Ledo in a speech before the House who stated, "The Japanese colonists are even whiter than the Portuguese."
256. ^ Gregory Rodriguez, "Brazil Separates Into Black and White ," LA Times, 3 September 2006. Note that the figures belie the title.
257. Rodriguez, Gregory. (3 September 2006) Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White | The New America Foundation Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Newamerica.net.
258. "Chile". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2012. Chile's ethnic makeup is largely a product of Spanish colonization. About three fourths of Chileans are mestizo, a mixture of European and Amerindian ancestries. One fifth of Chileans are of white European (mainly Spanish) descent.
259. "5.2.6. Estructura racial". University of Chile (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 February 2013.
260. "Online Data Analysis". Latinobarómetro. Corporación Latinobarómetro. 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
261. "Chile". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2012. ...Basque families who migrated to Chile in the 18th century vitalized the economy and joined the old Castilian aristocracy to become the political elite that still dominates the country.
262. Madariaga, Ainara (19 November 2008). "Presentación del libro Santiago de Chile". Departmento de Salud. Eusko Jaurlaritza – Gobierno Vasco. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
263. ^ Elorza, Waldo Ayarza (1995). ...de los Vascos, Oñati y Los Elorza. pp. 59, 65–66, 68.
264. ^ Salazar Vergara, Gabriel; Pinto, Julio (1999). "La Presencia Inmigrante". Historia Contemporánea de Chile. Santiago de Chile: LOM Ediciones. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-956-282-174-2. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
265. "Memoria Presidentada al Supremo Gobierno por la Comsion Central del Censo" [Report Presented to the Supreme Government by the Central Census Commission] (PDF). Default (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
266. "Censo de Población de la República de Chile" [Population Census of the Republic of Chile] (PDF). Default (in Spanish). 15 December 1920. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
267. "Resultados del X Censo de la Poblacion efectuado el 27 de Noviembre de 1930 y Estadisticas Comparativas con Censos Anteriores" [Results of the X Population Census carried out on November 27, 1930 and Comparative Statistics with Previous Censuses] (PDF). Default (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
268. Durán, Hipólito (1997). "El crecimiento de la población latinoamericana y en especial de Chile • Academia Chilena de Medicina". Superpoblación. Madrid: Real Academia Nacional de Medicina. p. 217. ISBN 978-84-923901-0-6. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
269. Pérez Rosales, Vicente (1860). Recuerdos del Pasado. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
270. "Embajada de Chile en Alemania". echile.de. Archived from the original on 5 August 2009.
271. "Kuwi.europa-uni.de" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2012.
272. "Hrvatskiimigracije.es.tl – Diaspora Croata". hrvatskimigracije.es.tl. Archived from the original on 9 May 2016.
273. Ilić, Merien (25 March 2009). "Splitski osnovnoškolci rođeni u Čileu" (in Croatian). Hrvatska matica iseljenika. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012.
274. "Hrvatski". Hrvatski.cl. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
275. "Historia de Chile, Británicos y Anglosajones en Chile durante el siglo XIX". Retrieved 26 April 2009.
276. ^ "ar.vg – Desde Argentina para el mundo". Archived from the original on 16 October 2015.
277. "Domain im Kundenauftrag registriert". schweizergruppe.sv.tc. Archived from the original on 25 September 2009.
278. "5% de los chilenos tiene origen frances". Archived from the original on 12 April 2008.
279. "Italiani nel Mondo: diaspora italiana in cifre" (PDF) (in Italian). Migranti Torino. 30 April 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
280. ^ "Colombia – History Background". education.stateuniversity.com. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
281. "Colombia: Background". Minority Rights Group. 2 November 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
282. ^ Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World by William A. Douglass, Jon Bilbao, p. 167
283. ^ Possible paradises: Basque emigration to Latin America by José Manuel Azcona Pastor, p. 203
284. ^ Latin America during World War II by Thomas M. Leonard, John F. Bratzel, p. 117
285. "SCADTA Joins the Fight". stampnotes.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
286. "Pietro Cantini". epdlp.com. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
287. "::Presidencia de la República de Colombia::". 9 March 2012. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
288. Jiménez, Camilo Torres (7 October 2021). "Educación a la Italiana en Bogotá". itBogotá (in Spanish). Retrieved 17 May 2022.
289. "Convenzioni Inps estere, Fedi sollecita Nuova Zelanda ma anche Cile e Filippine". 9 February 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
290. ^ "Continuación – En la tierra de las oportunidades: Los sirio-libaneses en Colombia" [Continuation – In the land of opportunities: The Syrian-Lebanese in Colombia]. Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico [Cultural and Bibliographic Bulletin] (in Spanish). XXIX (29). 1992. Archived from the original on 25 October 2006.
291. "Ecuador: Censo de Población y Vivienda 2022" (PDF). censoecuador.gob.ec. 21 September 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
292. "Censo de Población y Vivienda 2022". 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
293. Compedium 2: Population Composition. Bureau of Statistics, Guyana. July 2016. Archived from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2024.
294. Compedium 2: Population Composition. Bureau of Statistics, Guyana. July 2016. Archived from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
295. Francisco Lizcano Fernández (2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" [Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the 21st Century]. Convergencia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (in Spanish). 12 (38): 185–232.
296. Pastore, Carlos (1972). La lucha por la tierra en el Paraguay: Proceso histórico y legislativo. Antequera. p. 526.
297. ^ "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 214. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
298. ^ "Suriname Census 2012" (PDF). UNSD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2014.
299. F.E.M. Mitrasing (1979). Suriname, Land of Seven Peoples: Social Mobility in a Plural Society, an Ethno-historical Study. p. 35.
300. ^ "Extended National Household Survey, 2006: Ancestry" (PDF) (in Spanish). National Institute of Statistics.
301. Uruguay (07/08). State.gov (2 April 2012).
302. CIA – The World Factbook – Uruguay. Cia.gov.
303. Uruguay – Population. Countrystudies.us.
304. Financial Times World Desk Reference 2005. Penguin. 2005. ISBN 978-0-7566-7309-3 – via Google Books.
305. Lesser, Jeff; Rein, Raanan (2018). Rethinking Jewish-Latin Americans. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-4401-4 – via Google Books.
306. ^ "Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (Mayo 2014)" (PDF). Ine.gov.ve. pp. 14, 65. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
307. Ine.gob.ve Venezuelan population by 30 June 2014 is 30,206,2307 according to the National Institute of Statistics
308. Godinho, Neide Maria de Oliveira (2008). O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas [The impact of migration on the genetic makeup of Latin American populations] (Thesis) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.

Bibliography

• Allen, Theodore, The Invention of the White Race, 2 vols. Verso, London 1994.
• Baum, Bruce David, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity. NYU Press, New York and London 2006, ISBN 978-0-8147-9892-8.
• Bonnett, Alastair (2000), White Identities: Historical and International Perspectives, Harlow: Pearson, ISBN 9780582356276
• Brodkin, Karen, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America, Rutgers, 1999, ISBN 0-8135-2590-X.
• Coon, Carleton Stevens (1939). The Races of Europe. New York: The Macmillan Company.
• Foley, Neil, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)
• Gossett, Thomas F., Race: The History of an Idea in America, New ed. (New York: Oxford University, 1997)
• Guglielmo, Thomas A., White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890–1945, 2003, ISBN 0-19-515543-2
• Hannaford, Ivan, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1996)
• Ignatiev, Noel, How the Irish Became White, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-91825-1.
• Jackson, F. L. C. (2004). Book chapter: Human genetic variation and health: new assessment approaches based on ethnogenetic layering at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 February 2008) British Medical Bulletin 2004; 69: 215–35 doi:10.1093/bmb/ldh012. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
• Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race, Harvard, 1999, ISBN 0-674-95191-3.
• Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story. Constable and Robinson, London. ISBN 978-1-84529-158-7.
• Painter, Nell Irvin (2010). The History of White People. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04934-3. OCLC 317919383.
• Rosenberg, NA; Mahajan, S; Ramachandran, S; Zhao, C; Pritchard, JK; et al. (2005). "Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure". PLOS Genet. 1 (6): e70. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070. PMC 1310579. PMID 16355252.
• Rosenberg, NA; Pritchard, JK; Weber, JL; Cann, HM; Kidd, KK; et al. (2002). "Genetic structure of human populations". Science. 298 (5602): 2381–2385. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.2381R. doi:10.1126/science.1078311. PMID 12493913. S2CID 8127224.
• Segal, Daniel A (2002). "Review of Racial Situations: Class Predicaments of Whiteness in Detroit". American Ethnologist. 29 (2): 470–73. doi:10.1525/ae.2002.29.2.470.
• Smedley, Audrey, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Westview, 1999).
• Tang, Hua., Tom Quertermous, Beatriz Rodriguez, Sharon L. R. Kardia, Xiaofeng Zhu, Andrew Brown, James S. Pankow, Michael A. Province, Steven C. Hunt, Eric Boerwinkle, Nicholas J. Schork, and Neil J. Risch (2005) Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76: 268–275.
• Wang, Sijia; Ray, Nicolas; Rojas, Winston; Parra, Maria V.; Bedoya, Gabriel; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Mazzotti, Guido; Hill, Kim (21 March 2008). "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos". PLOS Genetics. 4 (3): e1000037. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 2265669. PMID 18369456.

Further reading

• Battalora, Jacqueline M. (2021). Birth of a White Nation: The Invention of White People and Its Relevance Today (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-38281-5. OCLC 1227818161.

External links

• Quotations related to White people at Wikiquote
• The dictionary definition of Wikisaurus:White person at Wiktionary
• Media related to White (human racial classification) at Wikimedia Commons