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| {{EngvarB|date=March 2015}} | {{EngvarB|date=March 2015}} | ||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}} | ||
| {{Hinduism}} | |||
| {{hinduphilosophy}} | {{hinduphilosophy}} | ||
| '''''Para Brahman''''' or '''''Param Brahman''''' ({{ |
'''''Para Brahman''''' or '''''Param Brahman''''' ({{langx|sa|परब्रह्म|translit=parabrahma|translit-std=IAST}}) in ] is the "Supreme ]" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as beyond the form or the formlessness (in the sense that it is devoid of ]) that eternally pervades everything, everywhere in the universe and whatever is beyond.<ref name="PalHuyler2016p55">{{cite book|author1=Pratapaditya Pal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|title=Puja and Piety: Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist Art from the Indian Subcontinent|author2=Stephen P. Huyler|author3=John E. Cort|publisher=University of California Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-520-28847-8|pages=55–56|display-authors=etal}}</ref> | ||
| Para Brahman is conceptualised in diverse ways. In the ] tradition, the Para Brahman is a synonym of '''''nirguna brahman''''', i.e., the attribute-less Absolute. Conversely, in ] and ] traditions, the Para Brahman is defined as '']'', i.e., the Absolute with attributes. In ], ], and ], ], ], and ] respectively are Para Brahman.{{sfn|White|1970|p=156}} ] is |
Para Brahman is conceptualised in diverse ways. In the ] tradition, the Para Brahman is a synonym of '''''nirguna brahman''''', i.e., the attribute-less Absolute. Conversely, in ] and ] traditions, the Para Brahman is defined as '']'', i.e., the Absolute with attributes. In ], ], and ], ], ], and ] respectively are Para Brahman.{{sfn|White|1970|p=156}} ] is held to be Para Brahman by the ] sect, ] by the ]. | ||
| ==Etymology== | ==Etymology== | ||
| Line 27: | Line 28: | ||
| * "Verily know the Supreme One to be Bliss." (] 2.9.28) | * "Verily know the Supreme One to be Bliss." (] 2.9.28) | ||
| ==Vaishnavism == | == Vaishnavism == | ||
| In Vaishnavism, ] is considered to be Para Brahman, especially in his form of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vishwananda |first=Paramahamsa Sri Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJ3JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT854 |title=Shreemad Bhagavad Gita: The Song of Love |date=2017-01-12 |publisher=Bhakti Marga Publications |isbn=978-3-940381-70-5 |pages=854 |language=en}}</ref> He is also depicted as the ], according to the ] in the '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ritajananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jml7EAAAQBAJ&dq=narayana+sukta+supreme+being&pg=PT89 |title=The Practice Of Meditation |date=2022-07-15 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref> | In Vaishnavism, ] is considered to be Para Brahman, especially in his form of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vishwananda |first=Paramahamsa Sri Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJ3JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT854 |title=Shreemad Bhagavad Gita: The Song of Love |date=2017-01-12 |publisher=Bhakti Marga Publications |isbn=978-3-940381-70-5 |pages=854 |language=en}}</ref> He is also depicted as the ], according to the ] in the '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ritajananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jml7EAAAQBAJ&dq=narayana+sukta+supreme+being&pg=PT89 |title=The Practice Of Meditation |date=2022-07-15 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| The '']'' describes Vishnu to be the Para Brahman, and is also identified with both '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganguli |first=Kisari Mohan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hPfvEAAAQBAJ&q=Narayana+Para+Brahman&pg=PA610 |title=The Mahabharata of Khrisna-Dwaipayana Vyasa; XII. The Book of Peace Part Two: Vol. XII Part. 2 |date=2024-01-24 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-385-32443-5 |pages=610 |language=en}}</ref> In the ], ] is described to be Para Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prabhupada |first=His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AoROCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT700 |title=Srimad-Bhagavatam, Second Canto: The Cosmic Manifestation |date=1972-12-31 |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |isbn=978-91-7149-635-5 |pages=700 |language=en}}</ref> | The '']'' describes Vishnu to be the Para Brahman, and is also identified with both '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganguli |first=Kisari Mohan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hPfvEAAAQBAJ&q=Narayana+Para+Brahman&pg=PA610 |title=The Mahabharata of Khrisna-Dwaipayana Vyasa; XII. The Book of Peace Part Two: Vol. XII Part. 2 |date=2024-01-24 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-385-32443-5 |pages=610 |language=en}}</ref> In the '']'', ] is described to be Para Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prabhupada |first=His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AoROCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT700 |title=Srimad-Bhagavatam, Second Canto: The Cosmic Manifestation |date=1972-12-31 |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |isbn=978-91-7149-635-5 |pages=700 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ==Shaivism== | ==Shaivism== | ||
| In ], ] is regarded to be Para Brahman, especially in his form of ], the supreme form of Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4WrG5pp8OUC&pg=PA448 |title=Merging with Siva pocketbook |publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications |isbn=978-1-934145-11-1 |pages=407 |language=en}}</ref> According to the ], Shiva is described to be the only deity to possess both ''nirguna'' and ''saguna'' attributes, causing him to be the only one worthy of the epithet ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=J.L.Shastri |url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1 |title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4 |date=1950 |pages=62–63}}</ref> | In ], ] is regarded to be Para Brahman, especially in his form of ], the supreme form of Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o4WrG5pp8OUC&pg=PA448 |title=Merging with Siva pocketbook |publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications |isbn=978-1-934145-11-1 |pages=407 |language=en}}</ref> According to the '']'', Shiva is described to be the only deity to possess both ''nirguna'' and ''saguna'' attributes, causing him to be the only one worthy of the epithet ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=J.L.Shastri |url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1 |title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4 |date=1950 |pages=62–63}}</ref> | ||
| ===Kashmir Shaivism=== | |||
| {{main|Kashmir Shaivism}} | |||
| In Kashmir Shaivism, Svachhanda Bhairava is considered as the supreme form of Shiva. Kashmir Shaivism consider Svachhanda Bhairava as Para Brahman. Kashmir Shaivism holds '']'', or the fourth state of consciousness, as the state of ]. It is neither wakefulness, dreaming, nor deep sleep. It exists in the junction between any of these three states, i.e. between waking and dreaming, between dreaming and deep sleep, and between deep sleep and waking. In Kashmir Shaivism there exists a fifth state of consciousness called Turiyatita – ''the state beyond Turiya'' which represents Parabrahman. Turiyatita, also called the void or ] is the state where one attains liberation otherwise known as ] or ].{{Cn|date=December 2022}} | |||
| ==Shaktism== | ==Shaktism== | ||
| In ], ] is considered to be the Para Brahman both with and without qualities, and also ] in its energetic state, the ultimate reality. According to the Devi Suktam and Sri Suktam in the ] she is the womb of all creation. Thus ]'s epithet is Brahmamayi, meaning "She Whose Essence is Brahman". ] is the supreme form of Adi Parashakti. Her eternal abode is called ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC|title=Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition|date=2010-03-10|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3|language=en}}</ref> | In ], ] is considered to be the Para Brahman both with and without qualities, and also ] in its energetic state, the ultimate reality. According to the Devi Suktam and Sri Suktam in the ] she is the womb of all creation. Thus ]'s epithet is Brahmamayi, meaning "She Whose Essence is Brahman". ] is the supreme form of Adi Parashakti. Her eternal abode is called ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC|title=Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition|date=2010-03-10|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3|language=en}}</ref> | ||
| The '']'' describes the ten-headed Kāli as the Unborn, the Eternal, Mahamari and ].{{sfnp|Pargiter|1904|loc=}} In the '']'', the four-armed Vishnu describes Mahā Kāli as Nirguna, creatrix and destructrix, beginningless and deathless.{{sfnp|Vijñanananda|1921|loc=}} The Kāli Sahasranama Stotra from the ''Kalika Kulasarvasva Tantra'' states that she is supreme (paramā) and indeed ], ], ], ], ], ] ] and ].{{sfnp|Kalika Kulasarvasva|loc= Kalika Sahasranama}} In the ''Mahanirvana Tantra'' she is called ] or Primordial Kali, who is the origin, protectress and devourer of all things.{{sfnp |Avalon |1913a |loc=}} In Chapters 13 and 23 of ''Nila Tantra'' she is called the cause of everything, ] |
The '']'' describes the ten-headed Kāli as the Unborn, the Eternal, Mahamari and ].{{sfnp|Pargiter|1904|loc=}} In the '']'', the four-armed Vishnu describes Mahā Kāli as Nirguna, creatrix and destructrix, beginningless and deathless.{{sfnp|Vijñanananda|1921|loc=}} The Kāli Sahasranama Stotra from the ''Kalika Kulasarvasva Tantra'' states that she is supreme (paramā) and indeed ], ], ], ], ], ] ] and ].{{sfnp|Kalika Kulasarvasva|loc= Kalika Sahasranama}} In the ''Mahanirvana Tantra'' she is called ] or Primordial Kali, who is the origin, protectress and devourer of all things.{{sfnp |Avalon |1913a |loc=}} In Chapters 13 and 23 of ''Nila Tantra'' she is called the cause of everything, ], ], Lakshmi, Mahāmāyā, ], worshipped by Shiva himself, the great absolute (māhāparā), supreme (paramā), the mother of the highest reality (parāparāmba) and ].{{sfnp|Brihan Nila Tantram|1938|loc=}} | ||
| Mahā Kāli's own form is referred to as Para Brahman (parabrahmasvarūpiṇī) in the ''Devyāgama'' and different ] ]. She is also variously referred to as Soul of the universe, ], ] and ].{{sfnp|Avalon|1913b|loc=}} | Mahā Kāli's own form is referred to as Para Brahman (parabrahmasvarūpiṇī) in the ''Devyāgama'' and different ] ]. She is also variously referred to as Soul of the universe, ], ] and ].{{sfnp|Avalon|1913b|loc=}} | ||
| ==See also== | == See also == | ||
| {{col div|colwidth=22em}} | |||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Achintya Bheda Abheda}} | ||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Adi Parashakti}} | ||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Ātman (Hinduism)}} | ||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| * {{annotated link|Bhakti}} | |||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| * {{annotated link|Brahma}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * {{annotated link|Jiva}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * {{annotated link|Jnana}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Mahaganapati}} | ||
| * ] | |||
| * {{annotated link|Mahavishnu}} | |||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| * {{annotated link|Narayana}} | |||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Nonduality (spirituality)}} | ||
| * |
* {{annotated link|Oachira Temple}} | ||
| * ] | |||
| * {{annotated link|Om}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Padanilam Parabrahma Temple}} | ||
| * ] | |||
| * {{annotated link|Paramatma}} | |||
| ⚫ | * |
||
| * {{annotated link|Parashiva}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| ⚫ | * {{annotated link|Parbrahm Ashram}} | ||
| * ] | |||
| * |
* {{annotated link|Svayam Bhagavan}} | ||
| * |
* {{annotated link|Vedanta}} | ||
| * {{annotated link|Yoga}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{colend}} | |||
| ==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
Revision as of 05:21, 27 December 2024
Metaphysical concept, Supreme Brahman in Hinduism
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Para Brahman or Param Brahman (Sanskrit: परब्रह्म, romanized: parabrahma) in Hindu philosophy is the "Supreme Brahman" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as beyond the form or the formlessness (in the sense that it is devoid of Maya) that eternally pervades everything, everywhere in the universe and whatever is beyond.
Para Brahman is conceptualised in diverse ways. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, the Para Brahman is a synonym of nirguna brahman, i.e., the attribute-less Absolute. Conversely, in Dvaita Vedanta and Vishistadvaita Vedanta traditions, the Para Brahman is defined as saguna brahman, i.e., the Absolute with attributes. In Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, Vishnu, Shiva, and Adi Shakti respectively are Para Brahman. Mahaganapati is held to be Para Brahman by the Ganapatya sect, Kartikeya by the Kaumaram.
Etymology
Para is a Sanskrit word that means "higher" in some contexts, and "highest or supreme" in others.
Brahman in Hinduism connotes the Absolute, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy it is the immaterial, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas and is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads and in Advaita Vedanta literature.
Advaita Vedanta
In Advaita Vedanta, the Para Brahman is defined as nirguna brahman, or Brahman without form or qualities. It is a state of complete knowledge of self as being identical with the transcendental Brahman, a state of mental-spiritual enlightenment (Jnana yoga). It contrasts with Saguna Brahman which is a state of loving awareness (Bhakti yoga). Advaita Vedanta non-dualistically holds that Brahman is divine, the Divine is Brahman, and this is identical to that which is Atman (one's soul, innermost self) and nirguna (attribute-less), infinite, love, truth, knowledge, "being-consciousness-bliss".
According to Eliot Deutsch, Nirguna Brahman is a "state of being" in which all dualistic distinctions between one's own soul and Brahman are obliterated and are overcome. In contrast, Saguna Brahman is where the distinctions are harmonized after duality between one's own soul and Brahman has been accepted.
Advaita describes the features of a nondualistic experience, in which a subjective experience also becomes an "object" of knowledge and a phenomenal reality. The Absolute Truth is both subject and object, so there is no qualitative difference:
- The knowers of Truth declare knowledge alone as the Reality——that knowledge which does not admit of duality (the distinction of subject & object), in other words, which is indivisible & one without a second, & which is called by different names such as Brahman (the Absolute), Paramatma (the Supreme Spirit or Oversoul) & Bhagavan (the Deity). (Bhagavata Purana 1.2.11)
- "Whoever realizes the Supreme Brahma attains to supreme felicity. That Supreme Brahma is Eternal Truth (satyam), Omniscient (jnanam), Infinite (anantam)." (Taittiriya Upanishad 2.1.1)
The Upanishads state that the Supreme Brahma is Eternal, Conscious, and Blissful sat-chit-ânanda. The realisation of this truth is the same as being this truth:
- "The One is Bliss. Whoever perceives the Blissful One, the reservoir of pleasure, becomes blissful forever." (Taittiriya Upanishad 2.7.1–2)
- "Verily know the Supreme One to be Bliss." (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.9.28)
Vaishnavism
In Vaishnavism, Vishnu is considered to be Para Brahman, especially in his form of Mahavishnu. He is also depicted as the Paramatman, according to the Narayana Sukta in the Yajurveda.
The Mahabharata describes Vishnu to be the Para Brahman, and is also identified with both purusha and prakriti. In the Bhagavata Purana, Narayana is described to be Para Brahman.
Shaivism
In Shaivism, Shiva is regarded to be Para Brahman, especially in his form of Parashiva, the supreme form of Shiva. According to the Shiva Purana, Shiva is described to be the only deity to possess both nirguna and saguna attributes, causing him to be the only one worthy of the epithet Ishvara.
Shaktism
In Shaktism, Adi Parashakti is considered to be the Para Brahman both with and without qualities, and also Brahman in its energetic state, the ultimate reality. According to the Devi Suktam and Sri Suktam in the Rigveda she is the womb of all creation. Thus Mahakali's epithet is Brahmamayi, meaning "She Whose Essence is Brahman". Tridevi is the supreme form of Adi Parashakti. Her eternal abode is called Manidvipa.
The Markandeya Purana describes the ten-headed Kāli as the Unborn, the Eternal, Mahamari and Lakshmi. In the Devi Bhagavata Purana, the four-armed Vishnu describes Mahā Kāli as Nirguna, creatrix and destructrix, beginningless and deathless. The Kāli Sahasranama Stotra from the Kalika Kulasarvasva Tantra states that she is supreme (paramā) and indeed Durga, Śruti, Smriti, Mahalakshmi, Saraswati, Ātman Vidya and Brahmavidya. In the Mahanirvana Tantra she is called Adya or Primordial Kali, who is the origin, protectress and devourer of all things. In Chapters 13 and 23 of Nila Tantra she is called the cause of everything, Gayatri, Parameshwari, Lakshmi, Mahāmāyā, omniscient, worshipped by Shiva himself, the great absolute (māhāparā), supreme (paramā), the mother of the highest reality (parāparāmba) and Ātman.
Mahā Kāli's own form is referred to as Para Brahman (parabrahmasvarūpiṇī) in the Devyāgama and different Tantra Shastras. She is also variously referred to as Soul of the universe, Paramatman, Bīja and Nirguna.
See also
- Achintya Bheda Abheda – Philosophical school of Vedanta
- Adi Parashakti – Supreme goddess in HinduismPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- Ātman (Hinduism) – Hindu concept for inner self or essence as mere consciousness
- Bhakti – Devotional love, a concept in Indian religions
- Brahma – Creator god in Hinduism
- Jiva – Metaphysical entity believed to be imbued with a life force
- Jnana – "Knowledge" in Indian philosophy and religionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- Mahaganapati – Aspect of the Hindu god Ganesha
- Mahavishnu – One of the forms of Hindu deity Vishnu
- Narayana – Form and epithets of the Hindu deity Vishnu
- Nonduality (spirituality) – Absence of fundamental dualityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- Oachira Temple – ancient temple in South Indian state of KeralaPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
- Om – Sacred sound in Indic religions
- Padanilam Parabrahma Temple – temple in IndiaPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
- Paramatma – Absolute Atman, or supreme Self, in various philosophiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
- Parashiva – Hindu deity
- Parbrahm Ashram – Hindu temple in Pakistan
- Svayam Bhagavan – Concept in Hinduism
- Vedanta – One of the six orthodox traditions of Hindu philosophy
- Yoga – Spiritual practices from ancient India
Notes
- vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvam, yaj jnanam advayam brahmeti paramatmeti, bhagavan iti sabdyate
- brahma-vid apnoti param, tad eshabhyukta, satyam jnanam anantam brahma
- raso vai sa, rasam hy evayam labdhvanandi bhavati
References
- Pratapaditya Pal; Stephen P. Huyler; John E. Cort; et al. (2016). Puja and Piety: Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist Art from the Indian Subcontinent. University of California Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0-520-28847-8.
- White 1970, p. 156.
- Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European languages, Oxford University Press, Article on Para
- James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122
- ^ PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
- For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51–58, 111–115;
For monist school of Hinduism, see: B Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35 - Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1–4
- Michael Comans (2002), The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120817227, pages 129–130, 216–231
- Sullivan 2001, p. 148.
- Fisher 2012, p. 116.
- Malkovsky 1997, p. 541.
- ^ Deutsch 1973, p. 13.
- Deutsch 1973, pp. 9–14.
- Deutsch 1973, p. 12.
- A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda (13 July 2021). "Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 1.2.11".
- Vishwananda, Paramahamsa Sri Swami (12 January 2017). Shreemad Bhagavad Gita: The Song of Love. Bhakti Marga Publications. p. 854. ISBN 978-3-940381-70-5.
- Ritajananda, Swami (15 July 2022). The Practice Of Meditation. Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 89.
- Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (24 January 2024). The Mahabharata of Khrisna-Dwaipayana Vyasa; XII. The Book of Peace Part Two: Vol. XII Part. 2. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 610. ISBN 978-3-385-32443-5.
- Prabhupada, His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (31 December 1972). Srimad-Bhagavatam, Second Canto: The Cosmic Manifestation. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. p. 700. ISBN 978-91-7149-635-5.
- Merging with Siva pocketbook. Himalayan Academy Publications. p. 407. ISBN 978-1-934145-11-1.
- J.L.Shastri (1950). Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4. pp. 62–63.
- Klostermaier, Klaus K. (10 March 2010). Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3.
- Pargiter (1904), Canto XCII. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFPargiter1904 (help)
- Vijñanananda (1921), Book 1 Chapter 9. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFVijñanananda1921 (help)
- help)
- Avalon (1913a), Chapter 4. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAvalon1913a (help)
- help)
- help)
Sources
- Deutsch, Eliot (1973), Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press
- Fisher, Mary Pat (2012), Living Religions: A Brief Introduction
- Malkovsky, B. (1997), "The Personhood of Samkara's" Para Brahma"", The Journal of Religion, 77 (4): 541, doi:10.1086/490065, JSTOR 1206747, S2CID 170842690
- Sullivan, B.M. (2001), The A to Z of Hinduism, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 8170945216
- White, C.S.J. (1970), "Krsna as Divine Child", History of Religions, 10 (2): 156, doi:10.1086/462625, JSTOR 1061907, S2CID 162216194
External links
- "VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online - Vedic Encyclopedia". www.veda.harekrsna.cz. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2008.