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{{short description|Earliest historical form of English language}} {{short description|Earliest historical form of English language}}
{{About|the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons}} {{About|the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2021}} {{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox language {{Infobox language
| name = Old English | name = Old English
| image = Beowulf.Kenning.jpg | image = Beowulf.Kenning.jpg
| imagecaption = A detail of the first page of the '']'' manuscript, showing the words "{{lang|ang|ofer hron rade}}", translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the ]. | imagecaption = A detail of the first page of the '']'' manuscript, showing the words {{lang|ang|ofer hron rade}}, translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the ].
| nativename = {{lang|ang|Englisċ}}<br>{{lang|ang|Ænglisċ}} | nativename = {{hlist|{{lang|ang|Englisċ}}|{{lang|ang|Ænglisċ}}}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA-ang|ˈeŋɡliʃ|}} | pronunciation = {{IPA-ang|ˈeŋɡliʃ|}}
| ethnicity = ] | ethnicity = ]
| region = ] (except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern ], and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern ] | region = ] (except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern ], and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern ]
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|familycolor=Indo-European |familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=] |fam2=]
|fam3=] |fam3=]
|fam4=] |fam4=]
|fam5=] |fam5=]
|fam6=] |fam6=]
|ancestor=] |ancestor=]
|ancestor2=] |ancestor2=]
| script = ], later ] (]) | script = ], later ] (])
| iso2 = ang | iso2 = ang
| iso3 = ang | iso3 = ang
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{{Old English topics}} {{Old English topics}}


'''Old English''' ({{lang|ang|Englisċ}} or {{lang|ang|Ænglisc}}, {{IPA-ang|ˈeŋɡliʃ|pron}}), or '''Anglo-Saxon''',<ref>By the 16th century the term ''Anglo-Saxon'' came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.<br/> {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-53033-4}}</ref> was the earliest recorded form of the ], spoken in ] and southern and eastern ] in the ] ]. It developed from the languages brought to ] by ] in the mid-5th century, and the first ] date from the mid-7th century. After the ] of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by ] (a ]) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as ] in England and ] in Scotland. '''Old English''' ({{lang|ang|Englisċ}} or {{lang|ang|Ænglisc}}, {{IPA-ang|ˈeŋɡliʃ|pron}}), or '''Anglo-Saxon''',<ref>By the 16th century the term ''Anglo-Saxon'' came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.<br /> {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-53033-4}}</ref> was the earliest recorded form of the ], spoken in ] and southern and eastern ] in the ]. It developed from the languages brought to ] by ] in the mid-5th century, and the first ] date from the mid-7th century. After the ] of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by ] (a ]) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as ] in England and ] in Scotland.


Old English developed from a set of ] or ] dialects originally spoken by ] traditionally known as the ], ] and ]. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language ] the languages of ]: ], a ]; and ], brought to Britain by the ]. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular ]: ], ], ], and ]. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period,<ref name=":2" /> although the dominant forms of Middle and ] would develop mainly from Mercian,{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong ] influence due to ] and settlement beginning in the 9th century. Old English developed from a set of ] or ] dialects originally spoken by ] traditionally known as the ], ] and ]. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language ] the languages of ]: ], a ]; and ], brought to Britain by the ]. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular ]: ], ], ], and ]. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period,<ref name="Baugh1951" /> although the dominant forms of Middle and ] would develop mainly from Mercian,{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong ] influence due to ] and settlement beginning in the 9th century.


Old English is one of the ], and its closest relatives are ] and ]. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? {{!}} Aeon Essays|url=https://aeon.co/essays/why-is-the-english-spelling-system-so-weird-and-inconsistent|access-date=2021-08-11|website=Aeon|language=en}}</ref> Within ] nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many ]al endings and forms, and ] is much freer.<ref name=":2" /> The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a ], but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a ]. Old English is one of the ], and its closest relatives are ] and ]. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Arika |last=Okrent |title=Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? |url=https://aeon.co/essays/why-is-the-english-spelling-system-so-weird-and-inconsistent |access-date=11 August 2021 |website=Aeon}}</ref> Within ] nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many ]al endings and forms, and ] is much freer.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a ], but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a ].


==Etymology== == Etymology ==
''Englisċ'', from which the word ''English'' is derived, means 'pertaining to the ]'.<ref>Fennell, Barbara 1998. ''A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach''. Oxford: Blackwell.</ref> The Angles were one of the ]s who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century.<ref>Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. ''Origins and development of the English language''. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich).</ref> By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as ''Englisċ''. {{lang|ang|Englisċ}}, from which the word ''English'' is derived, means 'pertaining to the ]'.<ref>Fennell, Barbara 1998. ''A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach''. Oxford: Blackwell.</ref> The Angles were one of the ]s who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century.<ref>Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. ''Origins and development of the English language''. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich).</ref> By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as {{lang|ang|Englisċ}}.


This name probably either derives from ] {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*anguz}}, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast,<ref>Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009. ''The English language. A historical introduction''. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge: University Press.</ref> or else it may derive from a related word {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*angô}} which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks.<ref>Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006. ''The Oxford History of English.'' Oxford: University Press.</ref><ref>Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006. ''A history of the English language''. Cambridge: University Press.</ref> Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a ], or else because they were fishermen (anglers).<ref>Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 ''A history of the English language''. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall).</ref> This name probably either derives from ] {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*anguz}}, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast,<ref>Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009. ''The English language. A historical introduction''. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge University Press.</ref> or else it may derive from a related word {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*angô}} which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks.<ref>Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006. ''The Oxford History of English.'' Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006. ''A history of the English language''. Cambridge University Press.</ref> Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a ], or else because they were fishermen (anglers).<ref>Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 ''A history of the English language''. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall).</ref>


==History== == History ==
{{further|History of English}} {{further|History of English}}
] ]
[[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century: [[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
{{legend|#ff0000|''']'''}} {{legend|#ff0000|]}}
{{legend|#ff9933|''']'''}} {{legend|#ff9933|]}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|''']'''}} {{legend|#ff00ff|]}}
{{legend|#ffff00|''']'''}} {{legend|#ffff00|]}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages (], ], ], ]).}} {{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages (], ], ], ]).}}
{{legend|#0000ff|''']''' (])}}]] {{legend|#0000ff|] (])}}]]


Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the ] in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the ]. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a ].<ref name=":2" /> Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of ] vocabulary.<ref name=":2" /> Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the ] in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the ]. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a ].<ref name="Baugh1951" /> Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of ] vocabulary.<ref name="Baugh1951" />


Old English is a ], and developed out of ] (also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the ] which became the ]. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern ], which for several centuries belonged to the ]. Other parts of the island continued to use ] (]and perhaps some ]in most of Scotland, ] all over ] and in adjacent parts of ], ] perhaps to the 12th century in parts of ], and ] in ] and possibly also on the English side of the ]); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where ] was spoken and ] applied. Old English is a ], and developed out of ] dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the ] which became the ]. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern ], which for several centuries belonged to the ]. Other parts of the island continued to use ] (]{{snd}}and perhaps some ]{{snd}}in most of Scotland, ] all over ] and in adjacent parts of ], ] perhaps to the 12th century in parts of ], and ] in ] and possibly also on the English side of the ]); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where ] was spoken and ] applied.


Old English literacy developed after ] in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of ] is '']'', which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century.<ref name=":2" /> There is a limited corpus of ] from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the ]) date to the early 8th century. The ] was introduced around the 8th century. Old English literacy developed after the ] in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of ] is '']'', which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> There is a limited corpus of ] from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the ]) date to the early 8th century. The ] was introduced around the 8th century.


] statue in ], ]. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.]] ] statue in ], Hampshire. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.]]
With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the ]) by ] in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the ] (Early West Saxon). Alfred ] alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as ]'s treatise '']'', appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.<ref name=":2" /> With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the ]) by ] in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the ] (Early West Saxon). Alfred ] alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as ]'s treatise '']'', appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.<ref name="Baugh1951" />


A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop ], and was followed by such writers as the prolific ] ("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "] standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English.<ref>Hogg (1992), p. 83.</ref> It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language. A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop ], and was followed by such writers as the prolific ] ("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "] standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English.<ref>Hogg (1992), p.&nbsp;83.</ref> It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.


The history of Old English can be subdivided into: The history of Old English can be subdivided into:
*Prehistoric Old English ({{Circa|450}} to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a ] as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited ]). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stumpf |first=John |title=An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature |year=1970 |publisher=Forum House Publishing Company |place=London |page=7 |quote=We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call Primitive Old English.}}</ref> * Prehistoric Old English ({{Circa|450–650}}); for this period, Old English is mostly a ] as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited ]). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stumpf |first=John |title=An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature |year=1970 |publisher=Forum House Publishing Company |place=London |page=7 |quote=We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call Primitive Old English.}}</ref>
*Early Old English ({{circa|650}} to 900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as ], ], ] and ]. *Early Old English ({{circa|650–900|lk=no}}), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as ], ], ] and ].
*Late Old English ({{circa|900}} to 1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fuster-Márquez |first1=Miguel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC |title=A Practical Introduction to the History of English |last2=Calvo García de Leonardo |first2=Juan José |publisher=Universitat de València |year=2011 |isbn=9788437083216 |location= |page=21 |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> *Late Old English ({{circa|900–1150|lk=no}}), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fuster-Márquez |first1=Miguel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC |title=A Practical Introduction to the History of English |last2=Calvo García de Leonardo |first2=Juan José |publisher=Universitat de València |year=2011 |isbn=9788437083216 |page=21 |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref>


The Old English period is followed by ] (1150 to 1500), ] (1500 to 1650) and finally ] (after 1650), and in Scotland ] (before 1450), ] ({{circa|1450}} to 1700) and ] (after 1700). The Old English period is followed by ] (1150–1500), ] (1500–1650) and finally ] (after 1650), and in Scotland ] (before 1450), ] ({{circa|1450–1700|lk=no}}) and ] (after 1700).


==Dialects== == Dialects ==
] ]
Just as ] is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a ] based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent ].<ref>A. Campbell, ''Old English Grammar'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§5–22.</ref> Just as ] is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a ] based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent ].<ref>A. Campbell, ''Old English Grammar'' (Oxford: Clarendon, 1959), §§&nbsp;5–22.</ref>


The four main dialectal forms of Old English were ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Alistair |author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic)|title=Old English Grammar |place=Oxford |publisher=] |year=1959 |isbn=0-19-811943-7 |page=4}}</ref> Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as ''Anglian''. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the ] and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains.<ref name=":2" /> The term ''West Saxon'' actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named ''Alfredian Saxon'' and ''Æthelwoldian Saxon,'' respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related. The four main dialectal forms of Old English were ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Alistair |author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic) |title=Old English Grammar |publisher=] |year=1959 |isbn=0-19-811943-7 |page=4}}</ref> Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as ''Anglian''. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the ] and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> The term ''West Saxon'' actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named ''Alfredian Saxon'' and ''Æthelwoldian Saxon'', respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.


Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the ], and most of ], were ] during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of ], were then integrated into Wessex under ]. Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the ], and most of ], were ] during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of ], were then integrated into Wessex under ].
From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period.


The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see ], above), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former ] {{IPA|/iy/}} tended to become monophthongised to {{IPA|/i/}} in EWS, but to {{IPA|/y/}} in LWS.<ref>Hogg (1992), p. 117; but for a different interpretation of this, see ].</ref> The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see {{slink||History}}), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former ] {{IPA|/iy/}} tended to become monophthongised to {{IPA|/i/}} in EWS, but to {{IPA|/y/}} in LWS.<ref>Hogg (1992), p.&nbsp;117.</ref>


Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars.<ref>Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60.</ref> Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while ] developed from the Northumbrian dialect.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the ].<ref> Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856</ref> Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars.<ref>Magennis (2011), pp.&nbsp;56–60.</ref> Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while ] developed from the Northumbrian dialect.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the ].<ref> Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856</ref>


== Influence of other languages ==
For details of the sound differences between the dialects, see {{section link|Phonological history of Old English#Dialects}}.
] in the 10th&nbsp;century ], Hampshire]]

==Influence of other languages==
] in the 10th{{nbsp}}century ], Hampshire]]
{{further|Celtic influence in English|Latin influence in English|Scandinavian influence in English}} {{further|Celtic influence in English|Latin influence in English|Scandinavian influence in English}}
The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native ] which it ]. The number of Celtic ]s introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may have had on developments in English ] in the post–Old English period, such as the regular ] construction and ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf |title=Rotary-munich.de |access-date=20 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327012738/http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009 }}</ref> as well as the eventual development of the ] auxiliary verb ]. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorized ] do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.<ref>John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in ''Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter'', De Gruyter (2018)</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Koch |first=Anthony S. |title=Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do |url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kroch/papers/function-grammar-do.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Culicover |first=Peter W. |title=The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support |url=https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/culicover.1/Publications/do.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Elsness |first=Johann |date=1997 |title=On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English |journal=ICAME Journal |volume=18 |s2cid=13441465 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806012413/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-08-06 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Alexiadou |first=Artemis |title=Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive |year=2008}}</ref><ref>Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in ''Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English'', Edinburgh University Press (2016)</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hoeksema |first=Jack |title=Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses |url=http://www.let.rug.nl/~koster/DenBesten/Hoeksema.pdf}}</ref> The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native ] which it ]. The number of Celtic ]s introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may have had on developments in English ] in the post–Old English period, such as the regular ] construction and ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf |title=Rotary-munich.de |access-date=20 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327012738/http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009}}</ref> as well as the eventual development of the ] auxiliary verb '']''. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorised ] do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.<ref>John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in ''{{lang|de|Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter}}'', De Gruyter (2018)</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Koch |first=Anthony S. |title=Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do |url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kroch/papers/function-grammar-do.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Culicover |first=Peter W. |title=The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support |url=https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/culicover.1/Publications/do.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Elsness |first=Johann |date=1997 |title=On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English |journal=ICAME Journal |volume=18 |s2cid=13441465 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806012413/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Alexiadou |first=Artemis |title=Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive |year=2008}}</ref><ref>Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in ''Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English'', Edinburgh University Press (2016)</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hoeksema |first=Jack |title=Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses |url=http://www.let.rug.nl/~koster/DenBesten/Hoeksema.pdf}}</ref>


Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from ], which was the scholarly and diplomatic '']'' of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral ] and ] left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were ] and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the ] was introduced and adapted for the ], replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly ]) words into English occurred after the ] of 1066, and thus in the ] rather than the Old English period. Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from ], which was the scholarly and diplomatic '']'' of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral ] and ] left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were ] and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the ] was introduced and adapted for the ], replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly ]) words into English occurred in the ] period.


Another source of loanwords was ], which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the ] from the late 9th{{nbsp}}century, and during the rule of ] and other Danish kings in the early 11th{{nbsp}}century. Many ] in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the ], away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in ] texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title = A History of the English Language|last = Baugh|first = Albert|publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul|year = 1951|location = London|pages = 60–83; 110–130 (Scandinavian influence)}}</ref><ref name="Shay2008">{{cite book |last=Scott |first=Shay |title=The history of English: a linguistic introduction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1vj0-f_U1SQC&pg=PA86 |access-date=29 January 2012 |date=30 January 2008 |publisher=Wardja Press |isbn=978-0-615-16817-3 |page=86}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Growth and Structure of the English Language|last = Jespersen|first = Otto|publisher = B. G. Teubner|year = 1919|location = Leipzig, Germany|pages = 58–82}}</ref> Another source of loanwords was ], which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the ] from the late 9th&nbsp;century, and during the rule of ] and other Danish kings in the early 11th&nbsp;century. Many ] in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the ], away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in Middle English texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence.<ref name="Baugh1951">{{Cite book |title=A History of the English Language |last=Baugh |first=Albert |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |year=1951 |location=London |pages=60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Scott |first=Shay |title=The history of English: a linguistic introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1vj0-f_U1SQC&pg=PA86 |access-date=29 January 2012 |date=30 January 2008 |publisher=Wardja |isbn=978-0-615-16817-3 |page=86}}</ref><ref name="Jespersen1919">{{Cite book |title=Growth and Structure of the English Language |last=Jespersen |first=Otto |publisher=B. G. Teubner |year=1919 |location=Leipzig, Germany |pages=58–82}}</ref>


The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a ] along the continuum to a more ], and ] most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-OiNxknXdY|title = BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20|date = 27 December 2014|access-date = 4 January 2016|work = BBC|last = BBC World News}}</ref> The eagerness of ] in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language|last = Crystal|first = David|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1995|location = Cambridge, UK|pages = 32}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = The Story of English|last = McCrum|first = Robert|publisher = Faber and Faber|year = 1987|location = London|pages = 70–71}}</ref> Simeon Potter notes: {{blockquote|No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Our Language|last = Potter|first = Simeon|publisher = Penguin Books Ltd.|year = 1950|location = Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England|pages = 33}}</ref>}} The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a ] along the continuum to a more ], and ] most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language.<ref name="Baugh1951" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-OiNxknXdY |title=Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20 |date=27 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2016 |work=BBC |via=YouTube}}</ref> The eagerness of ] in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings.<ref name="Jespersen1919" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |last=Crystal |first=David |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |page=32}}</ref><ref name="McCrum1987">{{Cite book |title=The Story of English |last=McCrum |first=Robert |publisher=Faber & Faber |year=1987 |location=London |pages=70–71}}</ref> Simeon Potter notes:
{{blockquote|No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Our Language |last=Potter |first=Simeon |publisher=Penguin |year=1950 |location=Harmondsworth, England |pages=33}}</ref>}}


The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language]s, ], ], ]s (like ''hence'' and ''together''), ]s and ]s – show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other;<ref name=":1" /> in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adngAZ2iuRc|title = 121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00|date = 28 October 2012|website = 121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language"|publisher = Dutch Lichliter|last = Lohmeier|first = Charlene}}</ref> It is most important to recognize that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".<ref name=":2" /> The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language{{snd}}]s, ], ], ]s (like ''hence'' and ''together''), ] and ]{{snd}}show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character.<ref name="Baugh1951" /><ref name="Jespersen1919" /> Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other;<ref name="Jespersen1919" /> in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged.<ref name="McCrum1987" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adngAZ2iuRc |first=Charlene |last=Lohmeier |title=Evolution of the English Language |time=23:40–25:00; 30:20–30:45; 45:00–46:00 |date=28 October 2012 |via=Youtube}}</ref> It is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".<ref name="Baugh1951" />


==Phonology== == Phonology ==
{{Main|Old English phonology}} {{Main|Old English phonology}}
The inventory of ] surface ] is as follows. The inventory of ] surface ] is as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Consonants |+ Consonants
! !
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
! ] ! scope="col" | ]
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|m}}
| |
Line 125: Line 124:
| |
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
| |
Line 134: Line 133:
| |
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| |
| |
Line 143: Line 142:
| |
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| {{IPA link|f}} ({{IPA link|v}}) | {{IPA link|f}} ({{IPA link|v}})
| {{IPA link|θ}} ({{IPA link|ð}}) | {{IPA link|θ}} ({{IPA link|ð}})
Line 152: Line 151:
| ({{IPA link|h}}) | ({{IPA link|h}})
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| |
| |
Line 161: Line 160:
| |
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| |
| |
Line 172: Line 171:


The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be ]s: The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be ]s:
*{{IPA|}} is an ] of {{IPA|/j/}} occurring after {{IPA|/n/}} and when ] (doubled). *{{IPA|}} is an ] of {{IPA|/j/}} occurring after {{IPA|/n/}} and when ] (doubled).
*{{IPA|}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} occurring before and . *{{IPA|}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} occurring before and .
*{{IPA|}} are voiced allophones of {{IPA|/f, θ, s/}} respectively, occurring between ]s or ]s when the preceding sound was stressed. *{{IPA|}} are voiced allophones of {{IPA|/f, θ, s/}} respectively, occurring between ]s or ]s when the preceding sound was stressed.
*{{IPA|}} are allophones of {{IPA|/x/}} occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively. *{{IPA|}} are allophones of {{IPA|/x/}} occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.
*{{IPA|}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} occurring after {{IPA|/n/}} or when doubled.<ref>Campbell (1959), p.21.</ref><ref name="Ringe & Taylor 2014, p. 4">Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4.</ref> At some point before the Middle English period, {{IPA|}} also became the pronunciation word-initially. *{{IPA|}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} occurring after {{IPA|/n/}} or when doubled.<ref>Campbell (1959), p.&nbsp;21.</ref><ref name="RingeTaylor2014">Ringe & Taylor (2014), p.&nbsp;4.</ref> At some point before the Middle English period, {{IPA|}} also became the pronunciation word-initially.
*the ] {{IPA|}} occur after <ref>Kuhn (1970), p. 42-44.</ref><ref>Hogg (1992), p. 39.</ref> in the sequences {{IPA|/xw, xl, xn, xr/}}. *the ] {{IPA|}} occur after <ref>Kuhn (1970), pp.&nbsp;42–44.</ref><ref>Hogg (1992), p.&nbsp;39.</ref> in the sequences {{IPA|/xw, xl, xn, xr/}}.


The above system is largely similar to ], except that {{IPA|}} (and {{IPA|}} for ]) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including {{IPA|/ʒ/}}) have become independent phonemes, as has {{IPA|/ŋ/}}. The above system is largely similar to ], except that {{IPA|}} (and {{IPA|}} for ]) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including {{IPA|/ʒ/}}) have become independent phonemes, as has {{IPA|/ŋ/}}.


{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Monophthongs
|+ Vowels – monophthongs
! rowspan="2"| ! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ] ! scope="colgroup" colspan="2" | ]
! colspan="2" | ] ! scope="colgroup" colspan="2" | ]
|- |-
! <small>unrounded</small> ! scope="row" | <small>unrounded</small>
! <small>]</small> ! scope="row" | <small>]</small>
! <small>unrounded</small> ! scope="row" | <small>unrounded</small>
! <small>rounded</small> ! scope="row" | <small>rounded</small>
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| {{IPA|i iː}} || {{IPA|y yː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}} | {{IPA|i iː}} || {{IPA|y yː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || || {{IPA|o oː}} | {{IPA|e eː}} || || || {{IPA|o oː}}
|- |-
! ] ! scope="row" | ]
| {{IPA|æ æː}} || || {{IPA|ɑ ɑː}} || ({{IPA|ɒ}}) | {{IPA|æ æː}} || || {{IPA|ɑ ɑː}} || ({{IPA|ɒ}})
|} |}
The ] {{IPA|}} was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelled either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩. The ] {{IPA|}} was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelt either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.


The Anglian dialects also had the ] {{IPA|/ø(ː)/}}, spelled ⟨œ⟩, which had emerged from ] of {{IPA|/o(ː)/}}. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)/}} before the first written prose. The Anglian dialects also had the ] {{IPA|/ø(ː)/}}, spelled ⟨oe⟩, which had emerged from ] of {{IPA|/o(ː)/}}. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)/}} before the first written prose.


{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Diphthongs |+ Diphthongs
! First<br>element ! scope="col" | First<br />element
! Short<br>(]) ! scope="col" | Short<br />(])
! Long<br>(bimoraic) ! scope="col" | Long<br />(bimoraic)
|- |-
! Close ! scope="row" | Close
| {{IPA|iy̯}} | {{IPA|iy̯}}
| {{IPA|iːy̯}} | {{IPA|iːy̯}}
|- |-
! Mid ! scope="row" | Mid
| {{IPA|eo̯}} | {{IPA|eo̯}}
| {{IPA|eːo̯}} | {{IPA|eːo̯}}
|- |-
! Open ! scope="row" | Open
| {{IPA|æɑ̯}} | {{IPA|æɑ̯}}
| {{IPA|æːɑ̯}} | {{IPA|æːɑ̯}}
Line 226: Line 225:
Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained {{IPA|/i(ː)o̯/}}, which had merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} in West Saxon. Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained {{IPA|/i(ː)o̯/}}, which had merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} in West Saxon.


=== Sound changes ===
For more on dialectal differences, see ].

===Sound changes===
{{Main|Phonological history of Old English}} {{Main|Phonological history of Old English}}
Some of the principal ]s occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following: Some of the principal ]s occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:
Line 236: Line 233:
*Palatalisation of velars {{IPA|, , , }} to {{IPA|, , , }} in certain front-vowel environments. *Palatalisation of velars {{IPA|, , , }} to {{IPA|, , , }} in certain front-vowel environments.
*The process known as ] (which for example led to modern ''mice'' as the plural of ''mouse''). *The process known as ] (which for example led to modern ''mice'' as the plural of ''mouse'').
*Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels. *Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.
*Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation"). *Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").
*Loss of {{IPA|/x/}} between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel. *Loss of {{IPA|/x/}} between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.
*Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel. *Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.
*"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as ''six'' (compare German ''sechs''). *"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as ''six'' (compare German {{lang|de|sechs}}).


== Grammar ==
For more details of these processes, see the main article, linked above. For sound changes before and after the Old English period, see ].

==Grammar==
{{Main|Old English grammar}} {{Main|Old English grammar}}


===Morphology=== === Morphology ===
]s ] for five ]: ], ], ], ], ]; three ]: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two ]: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the ]. Only ]s and strong adjectives retain separate ] forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the ]. The evidence comes from Northumbrian ] texts (e.g., {{script|Runr|ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ}} ''on rodi'' "on the Cross").<ref>{{cite book |title=An Introduction to English Runes|last=Boydell|date=1999|page=230}}</ref> Nouns ] for five ]: ], ], ], ], ]; three ]: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two ]: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the ]. Only ]s and strong adjectives retain separate ] forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the ]. The evidence comes from Northumbrian ] texts (e.g. {{lang|ang-Runr|ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ}} {{lang|ang|on rodi}} 'on the Cross').<ref>{{cite book |title=An Introduction to English Runes |last=Boydell |date=1999 |page=230}}</ref>


Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak. ]s and sometimes ]s agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-] ]s occasionally distinguish ] forms. The ] {{lang|ang|sē}} and its ]s serve as a ] ("the"), a ] ("that"), and ]. Other ]s are {{lang|ang|þēs}} ("this"), and {{lang|ang|ġeon}} ("that over there"). These words ] for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive ] is also present. Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak. Pronouns and sometimes ]s agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-] pronouns occasionally distinguish ] forms. The ] {{lang|ang|sē}} and its ]s serve as a ] (''the''), a ] (''that''), and ]. Other demonstratives are {{lang|ang|þēs}} ("this"), and {{lang|ang|ġeon}} ("that over there"). These words inflect for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive ] is also present.


Verbs ] for three ]: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two ]: present, and past; three ]: ], ], and ];<ref name="Continuum">{{cite web|title=''Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature''|url=http://www.credoreference.com/entry/britlit/old_english|publisher=Continuum}}</ref> and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two ] forms: bare and bound; and two ]s: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with ] in person and number. The ], ], and other ] are formed with compounds. ] are mostly before but are often after their object. If the ] of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence. Verbs ] for three ]: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two ]: present, and past; three ]: ], ], and ];<ref name="EncyclopediaofBritishLiterature">{{cite web |title=''Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature'' |url=http://www.credoreference.com/entry/britlit/old_english |publisher=Continuum}}</ref> and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two ] forms: bare and bound; and two ]s: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with ] in person and number. The ], ], and other ] are formed with compounds. ] are mostly before but are often after their object. If the ] of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.


Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the ] (such as ''I/me/mine'', ''she/her'', ]) and in the ] ending ''-'s'', which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending ''-es''. The modern ] ending ''-(e)s'' derives from the Old English ''-as'', but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had ], while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of {{lang|ang|ƿīf}}, a neuter noun referring to a female person. Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the ] (such as ''I/me/mine'', ''she/her'', '']'') and in the ] ending ''-'s'', which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending ''-es''. The modern ] ending ''-(e)s'' derives from the Old English ''-as'', but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had ], while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of {{lang|ang|ƿīf}}, a neuter noun referring to a female person.


In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Bruce |last2=Robinson |first2=Fred C |year=2002 |title=A Guide to Old English |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |pages=109–112}}</ref> Old English verbs include ], which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and ], which use a suffix such as {{lang|ang|-de}}.<ref name="Continuum"/> As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in ''work'' and ''worked''.<ref name=":2" /> In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Bruce |last2=Robinson |first2=Fred C. |year=2002 |title=A Guide to Old English |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |pages=109–112}}</ref> Old English verbs include ], which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and ], which use a suffix such as {{lang|ang|-de}}.<ref name="EncyclopediaofBritishLiterature" /> As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in ''work'' and ''worked''.<ref name="Baugh1951" />


===Syntax=== === Syntax ===
Old English ] is similar to ]. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer ]. Old English ] is similar to ]. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer ].
*Default word order is ] in ], and verb-final in ]s<ref>Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, 351–361</ref> *Default word order is ] in ], and verb-final in ]s<ref>Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, pp.&nbsp;351–361</ref>
*No ] in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by ] ] and ], and negatives by placing ''ne'' before the finite verb, regardless of which verb. *No ] in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by ] ] and ], and negatives by placing ''ne'' before the finite verb, regardless of which verb.
*Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (]). *Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (]).
*Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a ''wh-''type conjunction, but rather a ''th-''type ] such as {{lang|ang|þā}}, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. {{lang|ang|þā X, þā Y}} in place of "when X, Y"). The ''wh-''words are used only as ]s and as ]. *Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a ''wh-''type conjunction, but rather a ''th-''type ] such as {{lang|ang|þā}}, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. {{lang|ang|þā X, þā Y}} in place of "when X, Y"). The ''wh-''words are used only as ]s and as ].
*Similarly, ''wh-'' forms were not used as ]s. Instead, the indeclinable word {{lang|ang|þe}} is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative {{lang|ang|se}}. *Similarly, ''wh-'' forms were not used as ]s. Instead, the indeclinable word {{lang|ang|þe}} is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative {{lang|ang|se}}.


==Orthography== == Orthography ==
{{Anchor|alphabet}} {{Anchor|alphabet}}
{{Main|Anglo-Saxon runes|Old English Latin alphabet}} {{Main|Anglo-Saxon runes|Old English Latin alphabet}}
] used to write Old English before the introduction of the ]]] ] used to write Old English before the introduction of the ]]]


Old English was first written in ], using the ]—a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character ], extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) ] script of the ] introduced by ] missionaries.<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |year=1987 |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencycl000crys |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26438-3 |page=}}</ref> This was replaced by ], a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental ] (also known as ''Caroline'') replaced the insular. Old English was first written in ], using the ]{{snd}}a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character ], extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) ] script of the ] introduced by ] missionaries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |year=1987 |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencycl000crys |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26438-3 |page=}}</ref> This was replaced by ], a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental ] (also known as ''Caroline'') replaced the insular.


The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters {{vr|j}} and {{vr|w}}, and there was no {{vr|v}} as distinct from {{vr|u}}; moreover native Old English spellings did not use {{vr|k}}, {{vr|q}} or {{vr|z}}. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by four more: {{vr|]}} ({{lang|ang|æsc}}, modern ''ash'') and {{vr|ð}} ({{lang|ang|ðæt}}, now called ] or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and ] {{vr|þ}} and ] {{vr|ƿ}}, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as ]s, representing a single sound. Also used was the ] {{vr|⁊}} (a character similar to the digit 7) for the ] ''and''. A common ] was a ] {{vr|ꝥ}}, which was used for the pronoun {{lang|ang|þæt}} (]). ]s over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following {{vr|m}} or {{vr|n}}.<ref>C.M. Millward, Mary Hayes, ''A Biography of the English Language'', Cengage Learning 2011, p. 96.</ref><ref>Stephen Pollington, ''First Steps in Old English'', Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138.</ref> The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters {{vr|j}} and {{vr|w}}, and there was no {{vr|v}} as distinct from {{vr|u}}; moreover native Old English spellings did not use {{vr|k}}, {{vr|q}} or {{vr|z}}. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by 4 more: {{vr|]}} ({{lang|ang|æsc}}, modern ''ash'') and {{vr|ð}} ({{lang|ang|ðæt}}, now called ] or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and ] {{vr|þ}} and ] {{vr|ƿ}}, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as ], representing a single sound. Also used was the ] {{vr|⁊}} (a character similar to the digit {{vr|7}}) for the ] ''and''. A common ] was a ] {{vr|ꝥ}}, which was used for the pronoun {{lang|ang|þæt}} (''that''). ] over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following {{vr|m}} or {{vr|n}}.<ref>C. M. Millward, Mary Hayes, ''A Biography of the English Language'', Cengage 2011, p.&nbsp;96.</ref><ref>Stephen Pollington, ''First Steps in Old English'', Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p.&nbsp;138.</ref>


Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including {{vr|g}} instead of ], {{vr|s}} instead of ] and ], and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably {{vr|e}}, {{vr|f}} and {{vr|r}}. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an ] mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between ] and ] {{vr|c}} and {{vr|g}} by placing dots above the palatals: {{vr|ċ}}, {{vr|ġ}}. The letter wynn {{vr|ƿ}} is usually replaced with {{vr|w}}, but {{vr|æ}}, {{vr|ð}} and {{vr|þ}} are normally retained (except when {{vr|ð}} is replaced by {{vr|þ}}). Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including {{vr|g}} instead of ], {{vr|s}} instead of ] and ], and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably {{vr|e}}, {{vr|f}} and {{vr|r}}. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an ] mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between ] and ] {{vr|c}} and {{vr|g}} by placing dots above the palatals: {{vr|ċ}}, {{vr|ġ}}. The letter wynn {{vr|ƿ}} is usually replaced with {{vr|w}}, but {{vr|æ}}, {{vr|ð}} and {{vr|þ}} are normally retained{{snd}}except when {{vr|ð}} is replaced by {{vr|þ}}.


In contrast with ], Old English spelling was reasonably ], with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and ]s. There were not usually any ]s—in the word {{lang|ang|cniht}}, for example, both the {{vr|c}} and {{vr|h}} were pronounced ({{IPA|/knixt ~ kniçt/}}) unlike the {{vr|k}} and {{vr|gh}} in the modern ''knight'' ({{IPA|/naɪt/}}). The following table lists the Old English letters and digraphs together with the phonemes they represent, using the same notation as in the ] section above. In contrast with modern ], Old English spelling was reasonably ], with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and ]s. There were not usually any ]s{{snd}}in the word {{lang|ang|cniht}}, for example, both the {{vr|c}} and {{vr|h}} were pronounced ({{IPA|/knixt ~ kniçt/}}) unlike the {{vr|k}} and {{vr|gh}} in the modern ''knight'' ({{IPA|/naɪt/}}).


{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | OE !! scope="col" | Variants in modern editions !! scope="col" | ] transcription !! scope="col" | Notes
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | a
! OE !! Variants in modern editions !! ] transcription !! Description and notes
! scope="row" | a
|-
! rowspan=2 | a
! a
| {{IPA|/ɑ/}} | {{IPA|/ɑ/}}
| Spelling variations like {{vr|land}} ~ {{vr|lond}} ("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded ] {{IPA|}} before {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} when it occurred in stressed syllables. | Spelling variations like {{vr|land}} ~ {{vr|lond}} ("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded ] {{IPA|}} before {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} when it occurred in stressed syllables.
|- |-
! ā ! scope="row" | ā
| {{IPA|/ɑː/}} | {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ā}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/ɑː/}} from short {{IPA|/ɑ/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ā}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/ɑː/}} from short {{IPA|/ɑ/}}.
|- |-
! rowspan=3 | æ ! rowspan="3" | æ
! æ ! scope="row" | æ
| {{IPA|/æ/}} | {{IPA|/æ/}}
| rowspan=2| Formerly the ] {{vr|ae}} was used; {{vr|æ}} became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use {{vr|ǣ}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/æː/}} from short {{IPA|/æ/}}. | rowspan="2" | Formerly the ] {{vr|ae}} was used; {{vr|æ}} became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use {{vr|ǣ}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/æː/}} from short {{IPA|/æ/}}.
|- |-
! ǣ ! scope="row" | ǣ
| {{IPA|/æː/}} | {{IPA|/æː/}}
|- |-
! ę ! scope="row" | ę
| {{IPA|/æ/}}, {{IPA|/æː/}} | {{IPA|/æ/}}, {{IPA|/æː/}}
| In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of {{vr|æ}} that was missing the upper hook of the {{vr|a}} part was used; it is not clear whether this represented {{IPA|/æ/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}. The symbol {{vr|ę}} is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of {{vr|æ}}. Compare ], {{vr|]}}. | In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of {{vr|æ}} that was missing the upper hook of the {{vr|a}} part was used; it is not clear whether this represented {{IPA|/æ/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}. The symbol {{vr|ę}} is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of {{vr|æ}}. Compare ], {{vr|]}}.
|- |-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2| b ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | b
| {{IPA|/b/}} || | {{IPA|/b/}} ||
|- |-
| {{IPA|}} (an allophone of {{IPA|/f/}}) | {{IPA|}} (an allophone of {{IPA|/f/}})
| Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled {{lang|ang|scēabas}} in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as {{lang|ang|scēafas}}. | Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word ''sheaves'' is spelled {{lang|ang|scēabas}} in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as {{lang|ang|scēafas}}.
|- |-
! rowspan=2| c ! rowspan="2" | c
! scope="row" | c
! c
| {{IPA|/k/}} | {{IPA|/k/}}
| rowspan=2| The {{IPA|/tʃ/}} pronunciation is sometimes written with a ] by modern editors: most commonly {{vr|ċ}}, sometimes {{vr|č}} or {{vr|ç}}. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always {{IPA|/k/}}; word-finally after {{vr|i}} it is always {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. Otherwise, a knowledge of the ] of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly {{IPA|/tʃ/}} before ]s (other than {{IPA|}}) and {{IPA|/k/}} elsewhere. (For details, see {{section link|Phonological history of Old English|Palatalization}}.) See also the digraphs {{vr|cg}}, {{vr|sc}}. | rowspan="2"| The {{IPA|/tʃ/}} pronunciation is sometimes written with a ] by modern editors: most commonly {{vr|ċ}}, sometimes {{vr|č}} or {{vr|ç}}. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always {{IPA|/k/}}; word-finally after {{vr|i}} it is always {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly {{IPA|/tʃ/}} before ]s (other than {{IPA|}}) and {{IPA|/k/}} elsewhere.
|- |-
! ċ ! scope="row" | ċ
| {{IPA|/tʃ/}} | {{IPA|/tʃ/}}
|- |-
! rowspan="2" |cg ! rowspan="2" | cg
! cg ! scope="row" | cg
| {{IPA|}} (between vowels; rare), <br>{{IPA|}} (after {{IPA|/n/}}) | {{IPA|}} (between vowels; rare), <br />{{IPA|}} (after {{IPA|/n/}})
| rowspan=2 | Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent ], resulting in the voiced palatal geminate {{IPA|}} (which can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/jj/}}). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate {{IPA|}} (which can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/ɣɣ/}}) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as {{lang|ang|frocga}} 'frog') is unclear.<ref>Minkova (2014), p. 79.</ref> Alternative spellings of either geminate included {{vr|gg}}, {{vr|gc}}, {{vr|cgg}}, {{vr|ccg}} and {{vr|gcg}}.<ref>Wełna (1986), p. 755.</ref><ref>Shaw (2012), p. 51</ref> The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written {{vr|ċġ}} to distinguish it from velar {{vr|cg}}.<ref>Hogg (1992), p. 91.</ref> | rowspan="2" | Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent ], resulting in the voiced palatal geminate {{IPA|}} (which can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/jj/}}). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate {{IPA|}} (which can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/ɣɣ/}}) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as {{lang|ang|frocga}} 'frog') is unclear.<ref>Minkova (2014), p.&nbsp;79.</ref> Alternative spellings of either geminate included {{vr|gg}}, {{vr|gc}}, {{vr|cgg}}, {{vr|ccg}} and {{vr|gcg}}.<ref>Wełna (1986), p.&nbsp;755.</ref><ref>Shaw (2012), p.&nbsp;51</ref> The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written {{vr|ċġ}} to distinguish it from velar {{vr|cg}}.<ref>Hogg (1992), p.&nbsp; 91.</ref>


After {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/j/}} was realized as {{IPA|}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} was realized as {{IPA|}}. The spellings {{vr|ncg}}, {{vr|ngc}} and even {{vr|ncgg}} were occasionally used instead of the usual {{vr|ng}}.<ref>Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755.</ref> The addition of {{vr|c}} to {{vr|g}} in spellings such as {{vr|cynincg}} and {{vr|cyningc}} for {{vr|cyning}} may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just {{vr|nc}} such as {{vr|cyninc}} are also found.<ref>Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69</ref> To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written {{vr|nċġ}} (or {{vr|nġċ}}) by modern editors.<ref>Fulk (2014), p. 69</ref> After {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/j/}} was realized as {{IPA|}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} was realized as {{IPA|}}. The spellings {{vr|ncg}}, {{vr|ngc}} and even {{vr|ncgg}} were occasionally used instead of the usual {{vr|ng}}.<ref>Wełna (1986), pp.&nbsp;754–755.</ref> The addition of {{vr|c}} to {{vr|g}} in spellings such as {{vr|cynincg}} and {{vr|cyningc}} for {{vr|cyning}} may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just {{vr|nc}} such as {{vr|cyninc}} are also found.<ref>Fulk (2014), pp.&nbsp;68–69</ref> To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written {{vr|nċġ}} (or {{vr|nġċ}}) by modern editors.<ref>Fulk (2014), p.&nbsp;69</ref>
|- |-
! ċġ ! scope="row" | ċġ
| {{IPA|}} (between vowels), <br>{{IPA|}} (after {{IPA|/n/}}) | {{IPA|}} (between vowels), <br />{{IPA|}} (after {{IPA|/n/}})
|- |-
! colspan=2 | d ! colspan="2" | d
| {{IPA|/d/}} | {{IPA|/d/}}
| In the earliest texts it also represented {{IPA|/θ/}} (see {{vr|þ}}). | In the earliest texts it also represented {{IPA|/θ/}}. See {{vr|þ}}.
|- |-
! ð ! scope="row" | ð
! ð, þ ! scope="row" | ð, þ
| {{IPA|/θ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|/θ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}
| Called {{lang|ang|ðæt}} in Old English; now called ] or edh. Derived from the ] form of {{vr|d}} with the addition of a cross-bar. Both {{vr|þ}} and {{vr|ð}} could represent either allophone of {{IPA|/θ/}}, voiceless {{IPA|}} or voiced {{IPA|}}, but some texts show a tendency to use {{vr|þ}} at the start of words and {{vr|ð}} in the middle or at the end of a word.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Flom|first=George T.|date=1915|title=On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway|url= |journal=Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study|volume=2|issue=2|page=94|access-date=|editor-last=Flom|editor-first=George T.|jstor=40914943|jstor-access=free}}</ref> Some modern editors replace {{vr|ð}} with {{vr|þ}} as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. Also see {{vr|þ}}. | Called {{lang|ang|ðæt}} in Old English; now called '']'' or ''edh''. Derived from the ] form of {{vr|d}} with the addition of a cross-bar. Both {{vr|þ}} and {{vr|ð}} could represent either allophone of {{IPA|/θ/}}, voiceless {{IPA|}} or voiced {{IPA|}}, but some texts show a tendency to use {{vr|þ}} at the start of words and {{vr|ð}} in the middle or at the end of a word.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Flom |first=George T. |date=1915 |title=On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway |journal=Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study |volume=2 |issue=2 |page=94 |editor-last=Flom |editor-first=George T. |jstor=40914943 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> Some modern editors replace {{vr|ð}} with {{vr|þ}} as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. See {{vr|þ}}.
|- |-
! rowspan=2 |e ! rowspan="2" | e
! scope="row" | e
! e
| {{IPA|/e/}}|| | {{IPA|/e/}}||
|- |-
! ē ! scope="row" | ē
| {{IPA|/eː/}} | {{IPA|/eː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ē}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/eː/}} from short {{IPA|/e/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ē}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/eː/}} from short {{IPA|/e/}}.
|- |-
! rowspan=2 | ea ! rowspan="2" | ea
! ea ! scope="row" | ea
| {{IPA|/æɑ̯/}} | {{IPA|/æɑ̯/}}
| Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/ɑ/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}} (see ]). | Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/ɑ/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}
|- |-
! ēa ! scope="row" | ēa
| {{IPA|/æːɑ̯/}} | {{IPA|/æːɑ̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ēa}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/æːɑ̯/}} from short {{IPA|/æɑ̯/}}. Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/ɑː/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ēa}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/æːɑ̯/}} from short {{IPA|/æɑ̯/}}. Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/ɑː/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}.
Line 357: Line 351:
! eo ! eo
| {{IPA|/eo̯/}} | {{IPA|/eo̯/}}
| Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/o/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}} (see ]). | Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/o/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}
|- |-
! ēo ! scope="row" | ēo
| {{IPA|/eːo̯/}} | {{IPA|/eːo̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ēo}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/eːo̯/}} from short {{IPA|/eo̯/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ēo}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/eːo̯/}} from short {{IPA|/eo̯/}}.
|- |-
! colspan=2 | f ! colspan="2" | f
| {{IPA|/f/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|/f/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}
| See also {{vr|b}}. | See also {{vr|b}}.
|- |-
! rowspan=2 |g ! rowspan="2" | g
! scope="row" | g
! g
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}
| rowspan=2 | In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its ] {{vr|ᵹ}} (see also: ]). The {{IPA|}} and {{IPA|}} pronunciations are sometimes written {{vr|ġ}} in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative {{IPA|}}. Word-finally after {{angle bracket|i}}, it is always palatal {{IPA|}}. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly {{IPA|/j/}} before and after ]s (other than {{IPA|}}) and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} elsewhere. (For details, see {{section link|Phonological history of Old English|Palatalization}}.) | rowspan="2" | In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its ] {{vr|ᵹ}}. The {{IPA|}} and {{IPA|}} pronunciations are sometimes written {{vr|ġ}} in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative {{IPA|}}. Word-finally after {{angle bracket|i}}, it is always palatal {{IPA|}}. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly {{IPA|/j/}} before and after ]s (other than {{IPA|}}) and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} elsewhere.
|- |-
! ġ ! scope="row" | ġ
| {{IPA|/j/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}, which occurs after {{vr|n}} | {{IPA|/j/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}, which occurs after {{vr|n}}
|- |-
! colspan=2 | h ! colspan="2" | h
| {{IPA|/x/}}, including its allophones {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|/x/}}, including its allophones {{IPA|}}
| The combinations {{vr|hl}}, {{vr|hr}}, {{vr|hn}}, {{vr|hw}} may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with {{IPA|}}. | The combinations {{vr|hl}}, {{vr|hr}}, {{vr|hn}}, {{vr|hw}} may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with {{IPA|}}.
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | i ! rowspan="2" | i
! scope="row" | i
! i
| {{IPA|/i/}}, rarely {{IPA|}} || Although the spelling {{vr|g}} is used for the palatal consonant {{IPA|/j/}} from the earliest Old English texts, the letter {{vr|i}} is also found as a minority spelling of {{IPA|/j/}}. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use {{vr|ri}} rather than {{vr|rg}} to spell the {{IPA|/rj/}} sequence found in verbs like ] and ], whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used {{vr|rg}} in the spelling of these words.<ref>{{cite book|page=45|doi=10.1515/9783110820263-004 |chapter=On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English |title=Philological Essays |year=1970 |last1=Kuhn |first1=Sherman M. |isbn=9783110820263 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynmVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45}}</ref> | {{IPA|/i/}}, rarely {{IPA|}} || Although the spelling {{vr|g}} is used for the palatal consonant {{IPA|/j/}} from the earliest Old English texts, the letter {{vr|i}} is also found as a minority spelling of {{IPA|/j/}}. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use {{vr|ri}} rather than {{vr|rg}} to spell the {{IPA|/rj/}} sequence found in verbs like ''herian'' and ''swerian'', whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used {{vr|rg}} in the spelling of these words.<ref>{{cite book |page=45 |doi=10.1515/9783110820263-004 |chapter=On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English |title=Philological Essays |year=1970 |last1=Kuhn |first1=Sherman M. |isbn=978-3-11-082026-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynmVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45}}</ref>
|- |-
! ī ! scope="row" | ī
| {{IPA|/iː/}} | {{IPA|/iː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ī}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iː/}} from short {{IPA|/i/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ī}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iː/}} from short {{IPA|/i/}}.
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | ie ! rowspan="2" | ie
! ie ! scope="row" | ie
| {{IPA|/iy̯/}} | {{IPA|/iy̯/}}
| |
|- |-
! scope="row" | īe
! īe
| {{IPA|/iːy̯/}} | {{IPA|/iːy̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|īe}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iːy̯/}} from short {{IPA|/iy̯/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|īe}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iːy̯/}} from short {{IPA|/iy̯/}}.
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | io ! rowspan="2" | io
! io ! scope="row" | io
| {{IPA|/io̯/}} | {{IPA|/io̯/}}
| By the time of the first written prose, {{IPA|/i(ː)o̯/}} had merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} was often written {{vr|io}} instead of {{vr|eo}}, but by Late West Saxon only the {{vr|eo}} spelling remained common. | By the time of the first written prose, {{IPA|/i(ː)o̯/}} had merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} was often written {{vr|io}} instead of {{vr|eo}}, but by Late West Saxon only the {{vr|eo}} spelling remained common.
|- |-
! īo ! scope="row" | īo
| {{IPA|/iːo̯/}} | {{IPA|/iːo̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|īo}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iːo̯/}} from short {{IPA|/io̯/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|īo}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iːo̯/}} from short {{IPA|/io̯/}}.
|- |-
! colspan=2 | k ! colspan="2" | k
| {{IPA|/k/}} | {{IPA|/k/}}
| Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by {{vr|c}}. | Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by {{vr|c}}.
|- |-
! colspan=2 | l ! colspan="2" | l
| {{IPA|/l/}} | {{IPA|/l/}}
| Probably ]d {{IPA|}} (as in Modern English) when in ] position. | Probably ] {{IPA|}} (as in Modern English) when in ] position.
|- |-
! colspan=2 | m ! colspan="2" | m
| {{IPA|/m/}} || | {{IPA|/m/}} ||
|- |-
! colspan=2 | n ! colspan="2" | n
| {{IPA|/n/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|/n/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}
| The allophone {{IPA|}} occurred before a velar plosive ({{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}}). | The allophone {{IPA|}} occurred before a velar plosive ({{IPA|}} or {{IPA|}}).
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | o ! rowspan="2" | o
! scope="row" | o
! o
| {{IPA|/o/}} | {{IPA|/o/}}
| See also {{vr|a}}. | See also {{vr|a}}.
|- |-
! ō ! scope="row" | ō
| {{IPA|/oː/}} | {{IPA|/oː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ō}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/oː/}} from short {{IPA|/o/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ō}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/oː/}} from short {{IPA|/o/}}.
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | oe ! rowspan="2" | oe
! scope="row" | oe, œ
! oe
| {{IPA|/ø/}} | {{IPA|/ø/}}
| rowspan=2| Only occurs in some dialects. Modern editions use {{vr|ōe}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/øː/}} from short {{IPA|/ø/}}. | rowspan="2"| Only occurs in some dialects. Written as {{vr|oe}} in Old English manuscripts, but some modern editions use the ligature {{vr|œ}} to indicate that it is a single vowel sound. Modern editions use {{vr|ōe}} or {{vr|œ̄}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/øː/}} from short {{IPA|/ø/}}.
|- |-
! scope="row" | ōe, œ̄
! ōe
| {{IPA|/øː/}} | {{IPA|/øː/}}
|- |-
! colspan=2 | p ! colspan="2" | p
| {{IPA|/p/}} || | {{IPA|/p/}} ||
|- |-
! colspan=2 | qu ! colspan="2" | qu
| {{IPA|/kw/}} | {{IPA|/kw/}}
| A rare spelling of {{IPA|/kw/}}, which was usually written as {{vr|cƿ}} ({{vr|cw}} in modern editions). | A rare spelling of {{IPA|/kw/}}, which was usually written as {{vr|cƿ}} ({{vr|cw}} in modern editions).
|- |-
! colspan=2 | r ! colspan="2" | r
| {{IPA|/r/}} | {{IPA|/r/}}
| The exact nature of Old English {{IPA|/r/}} is not known; it may have been an ] {{IPA|}} as in most modern English, an ] {{IPA|}}, or an ] {{IPA|}}. | The exact nature of Old English {{IPA|/r/}} is not known; it may have been an ] {{IPA|}} as in most modern English, an ] {{IPA|}}, or an ] {{IPA|}}.
|- |-
! colspan=2 | s ! colspan="2" | s
| {{IPA|/s/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} || | {{IPA|/s/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} ||
|- |-
! rowspan="2" |sc ! rowspan="2" | sc
! sc ! scope="row" | sc
| {{IPA|/sk/}} (rare)<ref name="Ringe & Taylor 2014, p. 4"/> | {{IPA|/sk/}} (rare)<ref name="RingeTaylor2014" />
| rowspan=2 | At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized {{lang|ang|sċ}} {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. | rowspan="2" | At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized {{lang|ang|sċ}} {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.


Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate {{IPA|/ʃː/}}, as in {{lang|ang|fisċere}} {{IPA|/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/}} ('fisherman') and {{lang|ang|wȳsċan}}, {{IPA|/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn}} 'to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence {{IPA|/sk/}}, as in {{lang|ang|āscian}} {{IPA|/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/}} ('to ask'). The pronunciation {{IPA|/sk/}} occurs when {{vr|sc}} had been followed by a back vowel ({{IPA|/ɑ/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}) at the time of palatalization,<ref>Hogg (1992), p. 257</ref> as illustrated by the contrast between {{lang|ang|fisċ}} {{IPA|/fiʃ/}} ('fish') and its plural {{lang|ang|fiscas}} {{IPA|/ˈfis.kɑs/}}. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty (for details, see ]). Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate {{IPA|/ʃː/}}, as in {{lang|ang|fisċere}} {{IPA|/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/}} ('fisherman') and {{lang|ang|wȳsċan}}, {{IPA|/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn}} ('to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence {{IPA|/sk/}}, as in {{lang|ang|āscian}} {{IPA|/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/}} ('to ask'). The pronunciation {{IPA|/sk/}} occurs when {{vr|sc}} had been followed by a back vowel ({{IPA|/ɑ/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}) at the time of palatalization,<ref>Hogg (1992), p.&nbsp;257</ref> as illustrated by the contrast between {{lang|ang|fisċ}} {{IPA|/fiʃ/}} ('fish') and its plural {{lang|ang|fiscas}} {{IPA|/ˈfis.kɑs/}}. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty.


In word-final position, the pronunciation of {{lang|ang|sċ}} was either {{IPA|/ʃ/}} or possibly {{IPA|/ʃː/}} when the preceding vowel was short.<ref name="Ringe & Taylor 2014, p. 4"/> In word-final position, the pronunciation of {{lang|ang|sċ}} was either {{IPA|/ʃ/}} or possibly {{IPA|/ʃː/}} when the preceding vowel was short.<ref name="RingeTaylor2014" />
|- |-
! sċ ! scope="row" |
| {{IPA|/ʃː/}} (between vowels),<br>{{IPA|/ʃ/}} (elsewhere) | {{IPA|/ʃː/}} (between vowels),<br />{{IPA|/ʃ/}} (elsewhere)
|- |-
! colspan=2 | t ! colspan="2" | t
| {{IPA|/t/}} || | {{IPA|/t/}} ||
|- |-
! colspan=2 | th ! colspan="2" | th
| {{IPA|/θ/}} | {{IPA|/θ/}}
| Represented {{IPA|/θ/}} in the earliest texts (see {{vr|þ}}) | Represented {{IPA|/θ/}} in the earliest texts (see {{vr|þ}})
|- |-
! colspan=2 | þ ! colspan="2" | þ
| {{IPA|/θ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|/θ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|}}
| Called ] and derived from ]. In the earliest texts {{vr|d}} or {{vr|th}} was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth {{vr|ð}} and thorn {{vr|þ}}. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before ]'s time. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn. See also ]. | Called '']'' and derived from ]. In the earliest texts {{vr|d}} or {{vr|th}} was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth {{vr|ð}} and thorn {{vr|þ}}. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before the time of Alfred. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn.
|- |-
! rowspan=2 | u ! rowspan="2" | u
! scope="row" | u
! u
| {{IPA|/u/}}, also sometimes {{IPA|/w/}} (see {{vr|ƿ}}) || | {{IPA|/u/}}, also sometimes {{IPA|/w/}}. See {{vr|ƿ}}. ||
|- |-
! ū ! scope="row" | ū
| {{IPA|/uː/}} ||Modern editions use {{vr|ū}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/uː/}} from short {{IPA|/u/}}. | {{IPA|/uː/}} ||Modern editions use {{vr|ū}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/uː/}} from short {{IPA|/u/}}.
|- |-
! uu ! scope="row" | uu
! rowspan=2| w ! rowspan="2" | w
| rowspan=2| {{IPA|/w/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/w/}}
| rowspan=2| Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound {{IPA|/w/}} with the letter {{vr|ƿ}}, called ] and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north, {{IPA|/w/}} was represented by {{vr|u}} or {{vr|uu}}. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by {{vr|w}}, to prevent confusion with {{vr|p}}. | rowspan="2" | Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound {{IPA|/w/}} with the letter {{vr|ƿ}}, called '']'' and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north, {{IPA|/w/}} was represented by {{vr|u}} or {{vr|uu}}. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by {{vr|w}}, to prevent confusion with {{vr|p}}.
|- |-
! ƿ ! scope="row" | ƿ
|- |-
! colspan=2 | x ! colspan="2" | x
| {{IPA|/ks/}} || | {{IPA|/ks/}} ||
|- |-
! rowspan="2" | y ! rowspan="2" | y
! scope="row" | y
! y
| {{IPA|/y/}} || | {{IPA|/y/}} ||
|- |-
! ȳ ! scope="row" | ȳ
| {{IPA|/yː/}} | {{IPA|/yː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ȳ}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/yː/}} from short {{IPA|/y/}}. | Modern editions use {{vr|ȳ}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/yː/}} from short {{IPA|/y/}}.
|- |-
! colspan=2 | z ! colspan="2" | z
| {{IPA|/ts/}} | {{IPA|/ts/}}
| A rare spelling for {{IPA|/ts/}}; e.g. {{lang|ang|betst}} ("best") is occasionally spelt {{lang|ang|bezt}}. | A rare spelling for {{IPA|/ts/}}; e.g. {{lang|ang|betst}} ('best') is occasionally spelt {{lang|ang|bezt}}.
|} |}


Doubled consonants are ]; the geminate fricatives {{vr|ff}}, {{vr|ss}} and {{vr|ðð}}/{{vr|þþ}}/{{vr|ðþ}}/{{vr|þð}} are always voiceless {{IPA|}}, {{IPA|}}, {{IPA|}}. Doubled consonants are ]; the geminate fricatives {{vr|ff}}, {{vr|ss}} and {{vr|ðð}}/{{vr|þþ}}/{{vr|ðþ}}/{{vr|þð}} are always voiceless {{IPA|}}, {{IPA|}}, {{IPA|}}.


==Literature== == Literature ==
] manuscript with its opening<br>{{lang|ang|Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...}}<br>"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."]] ]
{{Main|Old English literature}} {{Main|Old English literature}}


The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon|last=Ker|first=N. R.|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1957|location=Oxford}}</ref> The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples.<ref name=":2" /> In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's ''Anglo-Saxon Reader'', Dr. James Hulbert writes: The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon |last=Ker |first=N. R. |publisher=Clarendon |year=1957 |location=Oxford}}</ref> The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's ''Anglo-Saxon Reader'', James Hulbert writes:


{{blockquote|In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.}} {{blockquote|In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.}}


Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are '']'', an ]; the '']'', a record of early English history; the ], an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and ], a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as ] and ]. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.<ref name=":2" /> Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are '']'', an ]; the '']'', a record of early English history; the ], an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and ], a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as ] and ]. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.<ref name="Baugh1951" />


===''Beowulf''=== === ''Beowulf'' ===
{{original research section|date=December 2024}}
The first example is taken from the opening lines of the folk epic '']'', a poem of some 3,000 lines.<ref name=":2" /> This passage describes how ]'s legendary ancestor ] was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem. The first example is taken from the opening lines of ''Beowulf'', a work with around 3,000 lines.<ref name="Baugh1951" /> This passage describes how ]'s legendary ancestor ] was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem.


The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how ''what'' is used by the poet where a word like ''lo'' or ''behold'' would be expected. This usage is similar to ''what-ho!'', both an expression of surprise and a call to attention. The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how ''what'' is used by the poet where a word like ''lo'' or ''behold'' would be expected. This usage is similar to ''what-ho!'', both an expression of surprise and a call to attention.
Line 524: Line 519:


{| cellspacing="10" {| cellspacing="10"
! scope="col" | {{numero}}
|-
! scope="col" style="width:35%" | Original
!
! scope="col" style="width:65%" | Representation with ] ]s
| style=width:35% | Original
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| style=width:65% | Representation with ] ]s
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| 1 || {{lang|ang|Hƿæt! ƿē '''G'''ār-Dena in '''ġ'''eār-dagum,}} | 1 || {{lang|ang|Hƿæt! ƿē '''G'''ār-Dena in '''ġ'''eār-dagum,}}
| What! We of Gare-Danes''' (lit. Spear-Danes)''' in yore-days, | What! We of Gare-Danes''' (lit. Spear-Danes)''' in yore-days,
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''þ'''ēod-cyninga, '''þ'''rym ġefrūnon,}} | || {{lang|ang|'''þ'''ēod-cyninga, '''þ'''rym ġefrūnon,}}
| of thede''' (nation/people)'''-kings, did thrum''' (glory)''' frain''' (learn about by asking)''', | of thede''' (nation/people)'''-kings, did thrum''' (glory)''' frain''' (learn about by asking)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|hū ðā '''æ'''þelingas '''e'''llen fremedon.}} | || {{lang|ang|hū ðā '''æ'''þelingas '''e'''llen fremedon.}}
| how those athelings''' (noblemen)''' did ellen '''(fortitude/courage/zeal)''' freme''' (promote)'''. | how those athelings''' (noblemen)''' did ellen '''(fortitude/courage/zeal)''' freme''' (promote)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Oft '''Sc'''yld '''Sc'''ēfing '''sc'''eaþena þrēatum,}} | || {{lang|ang|Oft '''Sc'''yld '''Sc'''ēfing '''sc'''eaþena þrēatum,}}
| Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats''' (troops)''', | Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats''' (troops)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| 5 || {{lang|ang|'''m'''onegum '''m'''ǣġþum, '''m'''eodosetla oftēah,}} | 5 || {{lang|ang|'''m'''onegum '''m'''ǣġþum, '''m'''eodosetla oftēah,}}
| of many maegths''' (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)''', of mead-settees atee '''(deprive)''', | of many maegths''' (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)''', of mead-settees atee '''(deprive)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''e'''gsode '''eo'''rlas. Syððan '''ǣ'''rest ƿearð}} | || {{lang|ang|'''e'''gsode '''eo'''rlas. Syððan '''ǣ'''rest ƿearð}}
| ugg''' (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")''' earls. Sith '''(since, as of when)''' erst''' (first)''' worthed''' (became)''' | ugg''' (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")''' earls. Sith '''(since, as of when)''' erst''' (first)''' worthed''' (became)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''f'''ēasceaft '''f'''unden, hē þæs '''f'''rōfre ġebād,}} | || {{lang|ang|'''f'''ēasceaft '''f'''unden, hē þæs '''f'''rōfre ġebād,}}
| fewship''' (destitute)''' found, he of this frover''' (comfort)''' abode, | fewship''' (destitute)''' found, he of this frover''' (comfort)''' abode,
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''ƿ'''ēox under '''ƿ'''olcnum, '''ƿ'''eorðmyndum þāh,}} | || {{lang|ang|'''ƿ'''ēox under '''ƿ'''olcnum, '''ƿ'''eorðmyndum þāh,}}
| waxed under welkin''' (firmament/clouds)''', worthmint''' (honour/worship)''' theed''' (throve/prospered)''' | waxed under welkin''' (firmament/clouds)''', worthmint''' (honour/worship)''' theed''' (throve/prospered)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''o'''ðþæt him '''ǣ'''ġhƿylc þāra '''y'''mbsittendra}} | || {{lang|ang|'''o'''ðþæt him '''ǣ'''ġhƿylc þāra '''y'''mbsittendra}}
| oth that''' (until that)''' him each of those umsitters''' (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)''' | oth that''' (until that)''' him each of those umsitters''' (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| 10 || {{lang|ang|ofer '''h'''ronrāde '''h'''ȳran scolde,}} | 10 || {{lang|ang|ofer '''h'''ronrāde '''h'''ȳran scolde,}}
| over whale-road''' ('']'' for "sea")''' hear should, | over whale-road''' ('']'' for "sea")''' hear should,
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''g'''omban '''g'''yldan. Þæt ƿæs '''g'''ōd cyning!}} | || {{lang|ang|'''g'''omban '''g'''yldan. Þæt ƿæs '''g'''ōd cyning!}}
| yeme '''(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")''' yield. That was good king! | yeme '''(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")''' yield. That was good king!
Line 572: Line 566:
After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good king!}} After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good king!}}


===The Lord's Prayer=== === The Lord's Prayer ===
{{original research section|date=December 2024}}

] ]
{{Clear}} {{Clear}}
This text of the ] is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect. This text of the ] is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.


{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap;" {| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap"
! Line || Original || ] || Word-for-word translation into Modern English || Translation
|-
|- style="vertical-align: top"
! Line || Original || ] || ] into ] || Translation
| 1 ||{{lang|ang|Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,}}
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| ||{{lang|ang|Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
|Father Ours, thou which art in heavens, |Father Ours, thou which art in heavens,
|Our Father, who art in heaven, |Our Father, who art in heaven,
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.}} | 2 || {{lang|ang|Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
| Be thine name hallowed. | Be thine name hallowed.
| Hallowed be thy name. | Hallowed be thy name.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Tōbecume þīn rīċe,}} | 3 || {{lang|ang|Tōbecume þīn rīċe,}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
|To be come thine kingdom, |To be come thine kingdom,
|Thy kingdom come, |Thy kingdom come,
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.}} | 4 || {{lang|ang|Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
| Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens. | Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens.
| Thy will be done on earth as in heaven. | Thy will be done on earth as in heaven.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,}} | 5 || {{lang|ang|Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
| Our daily loaf sell us today, | Our daily loaf sell us today,
| Give us this day our daily bread, | Give us this day our daily bread,
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.}} | 6 || {{lang|ang|And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
| And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters. | And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters.
| And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. | And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.}} | 7 || {{lang|ang|And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
| And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil. | And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil.
| And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. | And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Sōðlīċe.}} | 8 || {{lang|ang|Sōðlīċe.}}
| {{IPA|}} | {{IPA|}}
| Amen. | Amen.
| Amen. | Amen.
|} |}


===Charter of Cnut=== === Charter of Cnut ===
This is a proclamation from King ] to his ] ] and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the ]s represent the original division. This is a proclamation from ] to his earl ] and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the ]s represent the original division.


{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap;" {| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap"
|- |-
!width=50%| Original ! scope="col" style="width:50%" | Original
!width=50%| Representation with constructed cognates ! scope="col" style="width:50%" | Representation with constructed cognates
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| ¶ {{lang|ang|Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.}} | ¶ {{lang|ang|Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.}}
| ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede''''(people's)''''-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his '''''people'''''ship, '''''greater''''' '''(having a 1200 ] ])''' and '''''lesser''''' '''(200 shilling weregild)''', hooded'''(ordained to priesthood)''' and lewd'''(lay)''', in England friendly. | ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede''''(people's)''''-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his '''''people'''''ship, '''''greater''''' '''(having a 1200 ] ])''' and '''''lesser''''' '''(200 shilling weregild)''', hooded'''(ordained to priesthood)''' and lewd'''(lay)''', in England friendly.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| {{lang|ang|And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.}} | {{lang|ang|And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.}}
| And I kithe'''(make known/couth to)''' you, that I will be hold'''(civilised)''' lord and unswiking'''(uncheating)''' to God's rights'''(laws)''' and to rights'''(laws)''' worldly. | And I kithe'''(make known/couth to)''' you, that I will be hold'''(civilised)''' lord and unswiking'''(uncheating)''' to God's rights'''(laws)''' and to rights'''(laws)''' worldly.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| ¶ {{lang|ang|Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan ƿolde.}} | ¶ {{lang|ang|Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan ƿolde.}}
| ¶ I nam'''(took)''' me to mind the writs and the word that the ] me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere'''(everywhere)''' God's love'''(praise)''' uprear'''(promote)''', and unright'''(outlaw)''' lies, and full frith'''(peace)''' work'''(bring about)''' by the might that me God would'''(wished)''' sell''''(give)'''. | ¶ I nam'''(took)''' me to mind the writs and the word that the ] me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere'''(everywhere)''' God's love'''(praise)''' uprear'''(promote)''', and unright'''(outlaw)''' lies, and full frith'''(peace)''' work'''(bring about)''' by the might that me God would'''(wished)''' sell''''(give)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| ¶ {{lang|ang|Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.}} | ¶ {{lang|ang|Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.}}
| ¶ Now, ne went'''(withdrew/changed)''' I not my shot'''(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)''' the while that you stood'''(endured)''' unfrith'''(turmoil)''' on-hand: now I, mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', that totwemed'''(separated/dispelled)''' mid'''(with)''' my shot'''(financial contribution)'''. | ¶ Now, ne went'''(withdrew/changed)''' I not my shot'''(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)''' the while that you stood'''(endured)''' unfrith'''(turmoil)''' on-hand: now I, mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', that totwemed'''(separated/dispelled)''' mid'''(with)''' my shot'''(financial contribution)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top;" |- style="vertical-align: top"
| {{lang|ang|Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.}} | {{lang|ang|Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.}}
| Tho'''(then)''' man kithed'''(made known/couth to)''' me that us more harm '''''had''''' found'''(come upon)''' than us well liked'''(equalled)''': and tho'''(then)''' fore'''(travelled)''' I, meself, mid'''(with)''' those men that mid'''(with)''' me fore'''(travelled)''', into Denmark that you most harm came of'''(from)''': and that have , mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', afore'''(previously)''' forefangen'''(forestalled)''' that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith'''(breach of peace)''' ne come the while that ye me rightly hold'''(behold as king)''' and my life beeth. | Tho'''(then)''' man kithed'''(made known/couth to)''' me that us more harm '''''had''''' found'''(come upon)''' than us well liked'''(equalled)''': and tho'''(then)''' fore'''(travelled)''' I, meself, mid'''(with)''' those men that mid'''(with)''' me fore'''(travelled)''', into Denmark that you most harm came of'''(from)''': and that have , mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', afore'''(previously)''' forefangen'''(forestalled)''' that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith'''(breach of peace)''' ne come the while that ye me rightly hold'''(behold as king)''' and my life beeth.
Line 659: Line 652:
At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard me rightly and my life persists.}} At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard me rightly and my life persists.}}


==Dictionaries== == Dictionaries ==
===Early history=== === Early history ===
The earliest history of Old English ] lies in the ] period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English ] on ] texts. At first these were often ] or ] glosses, but soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the ], ] and ] Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabeticised to create extensive Latin-Old English glossaries with some of the character of ], such as the ], the ] and the ].<ref>Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp. 1–26.</ref> In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in ] glossaries, such as the ] and the ].<ref>''Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish'', ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941).</ref> The earliest history of Old English ] lies in the Anglo-Saxon period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English ] on Latin texts. At first, these were often ] or ] glosses; however, they soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the ], ] and ] Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabetised to create extensive Latin–Old English glossaries with some of the character of dictionaries, such as the ], the ] and the ].<ref>Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp.&nbsp;1–26.</ref> In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in ] glossaries, such as the ] and the ].<ref>''{{lang|de|Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish}}'', ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941).</ref>


Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was ]'s ''Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum''.<ref>William Somner, ''Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum'', English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970).</ref> The next substantial Old English dictionary was ]'s ''Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' of 1838. Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was ]'s ''Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum''.<ref>William Somner, ''Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum'', English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970).</ref> The next substantial Old English dictionary was ]'s ''Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' of 1838.


===Modern=== === Modern ===
In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current: In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:
* ], et al. (ed.) (1983–). '']''. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at . This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.

* ] and ]. (1898). '']''. Oxford: Clarendon. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the ''Dictionary of Old English''. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at . Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with:
* ], et al. (ed.) (1983–). '']''. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at . This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.
** T. Northcote Toller. (1921). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* ] and ]. (1898). '']''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the ''Dictionary of Old English''. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at . Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with:
** T. Northcote Toller. (1921). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ** Alistair Campbell (1972). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* ] (1969). ''A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary''. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including .
** Alistair Campbell (1972). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda''. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* ] (1969). ''A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary''. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including .
* Roberts, Jane and ], with Lynne Grundy, ''A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes'', Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available . A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of '']''. * Roberts, Jane and ], with Lynne Grundy, ''A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes'', Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available . A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of '']''.


Though focused on later periods, the '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'' all also include material relevant to Old English. Though focused on later periods, the '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'' all also include material relevant to Old English.


==Modern legacy== == Modern legacy ==
Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include ] and ].<ref>Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'. ''The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English''. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. 275–303.</ref> ] uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of ] often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones. Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include ] and ].<ref>Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'. ''The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English''. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. pp.&nbsp;275–303.</ref> ] uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of ] often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.


A number of websites devoted to ] and ] offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an ]. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.<ref>Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.), ''The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond'' (pp. 486–504). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Tichy|first2=Martin |last2=Rocek |first1=Ondrej|title=Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online|url=https://bosworthtoller.com/|access-date=2022-02-23|website=bosworthtoller.com |language=en}}</ref> A number of websites devoted to ] and ] offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an ]. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.<ref>Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.), ''The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond'', pp.&nbsp;486–504. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tichy |first2=Martin |last2=Rocek |first1=Ondrej |title=Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online |url=https://bosworthtoller.com/ |access-date=23 February 2022 |website=bosworthtoller.com}}</ref>


==See also== == See also ==
{{Portal|Anglo-Saxon England}} {{Portal|Anglo-Saxon England}}
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
Line 693: Line 685:
* ] * ]


==References== == References ==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}


==Bibliography== == Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}} {{refbegin}}
{{divcol}} {{divcol}}

;Sources
*{{cite book |editor-last=Whitelock |editor-first=Dorothy |editor-link=Dorothy Whitelock |year=1955 |title=English Historical Documents |volume=I: c. 500–1042 |place=London |publisher=]}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Whitelock |editor-first=Dorothy |editor-link=Dorothy Whitelock |year=1955 |title=English Historical Documents |volume=I: c. 500–1042 |place=London |publisher=]}}


;General === General ===
* {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Peter S |title=Introduction to Old English |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=0-631-23454-3}} * {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Peter S. |title=Introduction to Old English |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=0-631-23454-3}}
* Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). ''A History of the English Language'' (4th ed.). London: Routledge. * Baugh, Albert C.; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). ''A History of the English Language'' (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
* Blake, Norman (1992). ''The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Blake, Norman (1992). ''The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2''. Cambridge University Press.
* ] (1959). ''Old English Grammar''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * ] (1959). ''Old English Grammar''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* {{cite book |last=Earle |first=John |title=A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon |publisher=Evolution Publishing |place=Bristol, PA |year=2005 |isbn=1-889758-69-8}} (Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902) * {{cite book |last=Earle |first=John |title=A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon |publisher=Evolution |place=Bristol, PA |year=2005 |isbn=1-889758-69-8}} (Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
* ] (2013). ''Das Westgermanische : von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion'' (West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-9812110-7-8}}. * ] (2013). ''{{lang|de|Das Westgermanische: von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion}}'' . 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-9812110-7-8}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Fulk |first1=R. D. |title=An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings |date=2014 |publisher=ACMRS Press |location=Tempe, Arizona |isbn=978-0866985147}} * {{cite book |last1=Fulk |first1=R. D. |title=An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings |date=2014 |publisher=ACMRS Press |location=Tempe, Arizona |isbn=978-0-86698-514-7}}
* Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). ''The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). ''The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066''. Cambridge University Press.
* Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) ''A History of the English Language''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) ''A History of the English Language''. Cambridge University Press.
* ] (1909–1949) ''A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles''. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard * ] (1909–1949) ''A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles''. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard
* Lass, Roger (1987) '']''. London: J. M. Dent & Sons * Lass, Roger (1987) '']''. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |title=Old English: A historical linguistic companion |place=Cambridge |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=0-521-43087-9}} * {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |title=Old English: A historical linguistic companion |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=0-521-43087-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Magennis|first=Hugh |title=The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature|publisher=] |year=2011}} * {{cite book |last=Magennis |first=Hugh |title=The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature |publisher=] |year=2011}}
* {{cite book |last=Millward |first=Celia |title=A Biography of the English Language |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=0-15-501645-8}} * {{cite book |last=Millward |first=Celia |title=A Biography of the English Language |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=0-15-501645-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Bruce |last2=Robinson |first2=Fred C |title=A Guide to Old English | edition=6th |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=2001 |isbn=0-631-22636-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Bruce |last2=Robinson |first2=Fred C. |title=A Guide to Old English |edition=6th |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=2001 |isbn=0-631-22636-2}}
* Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, CL (1957). ''An Old English Grammar'' (2nd ed.) London: Methuen. * Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). ''An Old English Grammar'' (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
* ] and Taylor, Ann (2014). ''The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II'', {{ISBN|978-0199207848}}. Oxford. * ] and Taylor, Ann (2014). ''The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II'', {{ISBN|978-0199207848}}. Oxford.
* Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) ''A History of English''. London: Methuen. * Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) ''A History of English''. London: Methuen.


;External history === External history ===
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin W. |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) |title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives |publisher=] |year=1992 |isbn=0-8047-2221-8}} * {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin W. |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) |title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives |publisher=] |year=1992 |isbn=0-8047-2221-8}}
* Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). ''An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary''. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. * Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). ''An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary''. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
* Stenton, FM (1971). ''Anglo-Saxon England'' (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Stenton, F. M. (1971). ''Anglo-Saxon England'' (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon.


;Orthography/Palaeography === Orthography and palaeography ===
* Bourcier, Georges. (1978). ''L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. * Bourcier, Georges. (1978). ''{{lang|fr|L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle}}''. Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
* ] (1959). ''Runes: An introduction''. Manchester: Manchester University Press. * ] (1959). ''Runes: An introduction''. Manchester University Press.
* Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). ''Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung''. Berlin: Mayer & Müller. * Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). ''Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung''. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
* ] (1957). ''A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * ] (1957). ''A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* Ker, NR (1957: 1990). ''A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon''; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in ''Anglo-Saxon England''; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press {{ISBN|0-19-811251-3}} * Ker, N. R. (1990) . ''A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon''; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in. ''Anglo-Saxon England''; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon {{ISBN|0-19-811251-3}}
* Page, RI (1973). ''''. London: Methuen. * Page, R. I. (1973). ''''. London: Methuen.
* Scragg, Donald G (1974). ''A History of English Spelling''. Manchester: Manchester University Press. * Scragg, Donald G. (1974). ''A History of English Spelling''. Manchester University Press.
* Shaw, Philip A (2012). "Coins As Evidence". ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of English,'' Chapter 3, pp.&nbsp;50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. * Shaw, Philip A. (2012). "Coins As Evidence". ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of English'', Chapter 3, pp.&nbsp;50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.
* Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph {{angle bracket|cg}} Again". ''Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics'' (pp.&nbsp;753–762). Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek. * Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph {{angle bracket|cg}} Again". ''Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics'', pp.&nbsp;753–762. Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek.


;Phonology === Phonology ===
* Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). ''Phonological structure and the history of English''. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland. * Anderson, John M.; & Jones, Charles. (1977). ''Phonological structure and the history of English''. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
* Brunner, Karl. (1965). ''Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)'' (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. * Brunner, Karl. (1965). ''{{lang|de|Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)}}'' (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
* Campbell, A. (1959). ''Old English Grammar''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Campbell, A. (1959). ''Old English Grammar''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* ] (1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English". ''Journal of English and Germanic Philology'', 82 (3): 313–323. * ] (1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English". ''Journal of English and Germanic Philology'', 82 (3): 313–323.
* Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). ''Angelsaksisch Handboek''; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink. * Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). ''Angelsaksisch Handboek''; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
* Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). ''English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse''. New York: Harper & Row. * Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). ''English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse''. New York: Harper & Row.
* {{Cite journal |doi= 10.2307/410597 |last1=Hockett |first1=Charles F |year=1959 |title=The stressed syllabics of Old English |jstor=410597 |journal=Language |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=575–597}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Hockett |first1=Charles F. |year=1959 |title=The stressed syllabics of Old English |jstor=410597 |journal=Language |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=575–597}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=Richard M. |title=A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology |date=2011 |location=Malden, MA |isbn=9781444339338 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781444341355?cookieSet=1 |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444341355 }} * {{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=Richard M. |title=A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-3933-8 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781444341355?cookieSet=1 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |doi=10.1002/9781444341355}}
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.2307/411354 |last1=Kuhn |first1=Sherman M |year=1961 |title=On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English |jstor=411354 |journal=Language |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=522–538}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Kuhn |first1=Sherman M. |year=1961 |title=On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English |jstor=411354 |journal=Language |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=522–538}}
* Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.) ''Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt'' (pp.&nbsp;16–49). The Hague: Mouton. * Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.) ''Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt'' (pp.&nbsp;16–49). The Hague: Mouton.
* Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). ''Old English Phonology''. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). ''Old English Phonology''. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge University Press.
* Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). ''Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache''. Stuttgart: ]. * Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). ''Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache''. Stuttgart: ].
* {{Cite journal |last1=Maling |first1=J |year=1971 |title=Sentence stress in Old English |jstor=4177642 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=379–400}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Maling |first1=J. |year=1971 |title=Sentence stress in Old English |jstor=4177642 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=379–400}}
* {{Cite journal |doi= 10.1017/S0022226700014699 |last1=McCully |first1=CB |last2=Hogg |first2=Richard M |year=1990 |title=An account of Old English stress |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=26 |pages=315–339 |issue=2|s2cid=144915239 }} * {{Cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0022226700014699 |last1=McCully |first1=C. B. |last2=Hogg |first2=Richard M. |year=1990 |title=An account of Old English stress |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=26 |pages=315–339 |issue=2 |s2cid=144915239}}
* Minkova, Donka (2014). ''A Historical Phonology of English.'' Edinburgh University Press. * Minkova, Donka (2014). ''A Historical Phonology of English.'' Edinburgh University Press.
* Moulton, WG (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In: ] & HL Kufner (Eds.), ''Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic'' (pp.&nbsp;141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. * Moulton, W. G. (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In: ] & H. L. Kufner (Eds.), ''Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic'' (pp.&nbsp;141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
* Sievers, Eduard (1893). ''Altgermanische Metrik''. Halle: Max Niemeyer. * Sievers, Eduard (1893). ''{{lang|de|Altgermanische Metrik}}''. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
* Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). ''Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language''. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. * Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). ''Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language''. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.


;Morphology === Morphology ===
* Brunner, Karl. (1965). ''Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)'' (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. * Brunner, Karl. (1965). ''{{lang|de|Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)}}'' (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
* Campbell, A. (1959). ''Old English grammar''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Campbell, A. (1959). ''Old English grammar''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). ''Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language''. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. * Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). ''Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language''. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.


;Syntax === Syntax ===
* Brunner, Karl. (1962). ''Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung'' (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. * Brunner, Karl. (1962). ''{{lang|de|Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung}}'' (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
* Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). ''Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English''. Dordrecht: Foris. * Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). ''Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English''. Dordrecht: Foris.
* MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). ''Old English Syntax: a handbook''. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. * MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). ''Old English Syntax: a handbook''. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
* Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). ''Old English Syntax'' (Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published) * Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). ''Old English Syntax'' (Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon (no more published)
** Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence ** Vol. 1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence
** Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order ** Vol. 2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order
* Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) ''A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax" ''. Oxford: Blackwell * Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) ''A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax"''. Oxford: Blackwell
* Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) ''Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin'', PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique. * Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) ''Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin'', PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique.
* Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). ''A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure''. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. * Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). ''A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure''. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
* Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). ''An Historical Syntax of the English Language'' (Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill. * Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). ''An Historical Syntax of the English Language'' (Vols. 1–3). Leiden: Brill.


;Lexicons === Lexicons ===
* Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). '']''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller) * Bosworth, J.; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). '']''. Oxford: Clarendon. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)
* Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* Campbell, A. (1972). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Campbell, A. (1972). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* ]; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). ''A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * ]; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). ''A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
* Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) '']''. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the .) * Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) '']''. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the .)
{{divcol-end}} {{divcol-end}}
{{refend}} {{refend}}


==External links== == External links ==
{{interWiki|code=ang}} {{interWiki|code=ang}}
{{Wiktionary category|type=Old English|category=Old English language}} {{Wiktionary category|type=Old English|category=Old English language}}
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{{Commons category}} {{Commons category}}


;Dictionaries === Dictionaries ===
* *
*{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050702002228/http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/oeme_dictionaries.htm |title=Old English – Modern English dictionary |date=2 July 2005}} *{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050702002228/http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/oeme_dictionaries.htm |title=Old English – Modern English dictionary |date=2 July 2005}}
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* *


;Lessons === Lessons ===
* by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the at the ] * by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the at the ]
*{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907011523/https://wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html |title=The Electronic Introduction to Old English |date=7 September 2015}} *{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907011523/https://wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html |title=The Electronic Introduction to Old English |date=7 September 2015}}

Latest revision as of 16:17, 28 December 2024

Earliest historical form of English language This article is about the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons. For other uses, see Old English (disambiguation).

Old English
  • Englisċ
  • Ænglisċ
A detail of the first page of the Beowulf manuscript, showing the words ofer hron rade, translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the kenning.
Pronunciation[ˈeŋɡliʃ]
RegionEngland (except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern Scotland, and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern Wales
EthnicityAnglo-Saxons
EraMostly developed into Middle English and Early Scots by the 12th century
Language familyIndo-European
Early formsProto-Indo-European
Dialects
Writing systemRunic, later Latin (Old English Latin alphabet)
Language codes
ISO 639-2ang
ISO 639-3ang
ISO 639-6ango
Glottologolde1238
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Part of a series on
Old English
Dialects
Use
Literature
History
Influences
Legacy

Old English (Englisċ or Ænglisc, pronounced [ˈeŋɡliʃ]), or Anglo-Saxon, was the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the mid-5th century, and the first Old English literature date from the mid-7th century. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by Anglo-Norman (a type of French) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as Middle English in England and Early Scots in Scotland.

Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or Ingvaeonic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain: Common Brittonic, a Celtic language; and Latin, brought to Britain by the Roman conquest. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Kentish, Mercian, Northumbrian, and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle and Modern English would develop mainly from Mercian, and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule and settlement beginning in the 9th century.

Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study. Within Old English grammar nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms, and word order is much freer. The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a runic system, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a version of the Latin alphabet.

Etymology

Englisċ, from which the word English is derived, means 'pertaining to the Angles'. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century. By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as Englisċ.

This name probably either derives from Proto-Germanic *anguz, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast, or else it may derive from a related word *angô which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks. Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a fishhook, or else because they were fishermen (anglers).

History

Further information: History of English
West Germanic languages c. 580 CE
The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:   Old West Norse   Old East Norse   Old Gutnish   Old English   Continental West Germanic languages (Old Frisian, Old Saxon, Old Dutch, Old High German).   Crimean Gothic (East Germanic)

Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman Conquest. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a synthetic language. Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of Modern English vocabulary.

Old English is a West Germanic language, and developed out of North Sea Germanic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island continued to use Celtic languages (Gaelic – and perhaps some Pictish – in most of Scotland, Medieval Cornish all over Cornwall and in adjacent parts of Devon, Cumbric perhaps to the 12th century in parts of Cumbria, and Welsh in Wales and possibly also on the English side of the Anglo-Welsh border); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where Old Norse was spoken and Danish law applied.

Old English literacy developed after the Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of Old English literature is Cædmon's Hymn, which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century. There is a limited corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the Franks Casket) date to the early 8th century. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 8th century.

Alfred the Great statue in Winchester, Hampshire. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.

With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the Danelaw) by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect (Early West Saxon). Alfred advocated education in English alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as Pope Gregory I's treatise Pastoral Care, appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.

A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham ("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "Winchester standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English. It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.

The history of Old English can be subdivided into:

  • Prehistoric Old English (c. 450–650); for this period, Old English is mostly a reconstructed language as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited epigraphic evidence). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.
  • Early Old English (c. 650–900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as Cædmon, Bede, Cynewulf and Aldhelm.
  • Late Old English (c. 900–1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to Early Middle English.

The Old English period is followed by Middle English (1150–1500), Early Modern English (1500–1650) and finally Modern English (after 1650), and in Scotland Early Scots (before 1450), Middle Scots (c. 1450–1700) and Modern Scots (after 1700).

Dialects

The dialects of Old English c. 800 CE

Just as Modern English is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a written standard based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent Modern English dialects.

The four main dialectal forms of Old English were Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish, and West Saxon. Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as Anglian. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the Thames and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains. The term West Saxon actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named Alfredian Saxon and Æthelwoldian Saxon, respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.

Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the Tyne, and most of Mercia, were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of Kent, were then integrated into Wessex under Alfred the Great. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period.

The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see § History), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former diphthong /iy/ tended to become monophthongised to /i/ in EWS, but to /y/ in LWS.

Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars. Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while Scots developed from the Northumbrian dialect. It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the dialect of Somerset.

Influence of other languages

Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe ('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th century St Mary's parish church, Breamore, Hampshire
Further information: Celtic influence in English, Latin influence in English, and Scandinavian influence in English

The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native British Celtic languages which it largely displaced. The number of Celtic loanwords introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may have had on developments in English syntax in the post–Old English period, such as the regular progressive construction and analytic word order, as well as the eventual development of the periphrastic auxiliary verb do. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorised Brittonicisms do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.

Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from Latin, which was the scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral Angles and Saxons left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the Latin alphabet was introduced and adapted for the writing of Old English, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly Old French) words into English occurred in the Middle English period.

Another source of loanwords was Old Norse, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the Danelaw from the late 9th century, and during the rule of Cnut and other Danish kings in the early 11th century. Many place names in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the West Saxon dialect, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in Middle English texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence.

The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language along the continuum to a more analytic word order, and Old Norse most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language. The eagerness of Vikings in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings. Simeon Potter notes:

No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength.

The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language – pronouns, modals, comparatives, pronominal adverbs (like hence and together), conjunctions and prepositions – show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other; in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".

Phonology

Main article: Old English phonology

The inventory of Early West Saxon surface phones is as follows:

Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Post-
alveolar
Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m () n (ŋ)
Stop p b t d k (ɡ)
Affricate ()
Fricative f (v) θ (ð) s (z) ʃ (ç) x ɣ (h)
Approximant () l j (ʍ) w
Trill () r

The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be phonemes:

  • is an allophone of /j/ occurring after /n/ and when geminated (doubled).
  • is an allophone of /n/ occurring before and .
  • are voiced allophones of /f, θ, s/ respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants when the preceding sound was stressed.
  • are allophones of /x/ occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.
  • is an allophone of /ɣ/ occurring after /n/ or when doubled. At some point before the Middle English period, also became the pronunciation word-initially.
  • the voiceless sonorants occur after in the sequences /xw, xl, xn, xr/.

The above system is largely similar to that of Modern English, except that (and for most speakers) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including /ʒ/) have become independent phonemes, as has /ŋ/.

Monophthongs
Front Back
unrounded rounded unrounded rounded
Close i iː y yː u uː
Mid e eː o oː
Open æ æː ɑ ɑː (ɒ)

The open back rounded vowel was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelt either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.

The Anglian dialects also had the mid front rounded vowel /ø(ː)/, spelled ⟨oe⟩, which had emerged from i-umlaut of /o(ː)/. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with /e(ː)/ before the first written prose.

Diphthongs
First
element
Short
(monomoraic)
Long
(bimoraic)
Close iy̯ iːy̯
Mid eo̯ eːo̯
Open æɑ̯ æːɑ̯

Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained /i(ː)o̯/, which had merged with /e(ː)o̯/ in West Saxon.

Sound changes

Main article: Phonological history of Old English

Some of the principal sound changes occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:

  • Fronting of to except when nasalised or followed by a nasal consonant ("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction.
  • Monophthongisation of the diphthong , and modification of remaining diphthongs to the height-harmonic type.
  • Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").
  • Palatalisation of velars , , , to , , , in certain front-vowel environments.
  • The process known as i-mutation (which for example led to modern mice as the plural of mouse).
  • Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.
  • Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").
  • Loss of /x/ between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.
  • Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.
  • "Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as six (compare German sechs).

Grammar

Main article: Old English grammar

Morphology

Nouns decline for five cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental; three genders: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two numbers: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives retain separate instrumental forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the locative. The evidence comes from Northumbrian Runic texts (e.g. ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ on rodi 'on the Cross').

Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak. Pronouns and sometimes participles agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-person pronouns occasionally distinguish dual-number forms. The definite article and its inflections serve as a definite article (the), a demonstrative adjective (that), and demonstrative pronoun. Other demonstratives are þēs ("this"), and ġeon ("that over there"). These words inflect for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive determiner is also present.

Verbs conjugate for three persons: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two tenses: present, and past; three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative; and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two infinitive forms: bare and bound; and two participles: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with subjects in person and number. The future tense, passive voice, and other aspects are formed with compounds. Adpositions are mostly before but are often after their object. If the object of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.

Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the forms of a few pronouns (such as I/me/mine, she/her, who/whom/whose) and in the possessive ending -'s, which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending -es. The modern English plural ending -(e)s derives from the Old English -as, but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had grammatical gender, while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of ƿīf, a neuter noun referring to a female person.

In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the compound tenses of Modern English. Old English verbs include strong verbs, which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and weak verbs, which use a suffix such as -de. As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in work and worked.

Syntax

Old English syntax is similar to that of modern English. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer word order.

  • Default word order is verb-second in main clauses, and verb-final in subordinate clauses
  • No do-support in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by inverting subject and finite verb, and negatives by placing ne before the finite verb, regardless of which verb.
  • Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (negative concord).
  • Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a wh-type conjunction, but rather a th-type correlative conjunction such as þā, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. þā X, þā Y in place of "when X, Y"). The wh-words are used only as interrogatives and as indefinite pronouns.
  • Similarly, wh- forms were not used as relative pronouns. Instead, the indeclinable word þe is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative se.

Orthography

Main articles: Anglo-Saxon runes and Old English Latin alphabet
The runic alphabet used to write Old English before the introduction of the Latin alphabet

Old English was first written in runes, using the futhorc – a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character elder futhark, extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) half-uncial script of the Latin alphabet introduced by Irish Christian missionaries. This was replaced by Insular script, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental Carolingian minuscule (also known as Caroline) replaced the insular.

The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨w⟩, and there was no ⟨v⟩ as distinct from ⟨u⟩; moreover native Old English spellings did not use ⟨k⟩, ⟨q⟩ or ⟨z⟩. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by 4 more: ⟨æ⟩ (æsc, modern ash) and ⟨ð⟩ (ðæt, now called eth or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and thorn ⟨þ⟩ and wynn ⟨ƿ⟩, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as digraphs, representing a single sound. Also used was the Tironian note ⟨⁊⟩ (a character similar to the digit ⟨7⟩) for the conjunction and. A common scribal abbreviation was a thorn with a stroke ⟨ꝥ⟩, which was used for the pronoun þæt (that). Macrons over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩.

Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including ⟨g⟩ instead of insular G, ⟨s⟩ instead of insular S and long S, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably ⟨e⟩, ⟨f⟩ and ⟨r⟩. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an acute accent mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between velar and palatal ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ by placing dots above the palatals: ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩. The letter wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ is usually replaced with ⟨w⟩, but ⟨æ⟩, ⟨ð⟩ and ⟨þ⟩ are normally retained – except when ⟨ð⟩ is replaced by ⟨þ⟩.

In contrast with modern English orthography, Old English spelling was reasonably regular, with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and phonemes. There were not usually any silent letters – in the word cniht, for example, both the ⟨c⟩ and ⟨h⟩ were pronounced (/knixt ~ kniçt/) unlike the ⟨k⟩ and ⟨gh⟩ in the modern knight (/naɪt/).

OE Variants in modern editions IPA transcription Notes
a a /ɑ/ Spelling variations like ⟨land⟩ ~ ⟨lond⟩ ("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded allophone before /m/ and /n/ when it occurred in stressed syllables.
ā /ɑː/ Modern editions use ⟨ā⟩ to distinguish long /ɑː/ from short /ɑ/.
æ æ /æ/ Formerly the digraph ⟨ae⟩ was used; ⟨æ⟩ became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use ⟨ǣ⟩ to distinguish long /æː/ from short /æ/.
ǣ /æː/
ę /æ/, /æː/ In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of ⟨æ⟩ that was missing the upper hook of the ⟨a⟩ part was used; it is not clear whether this represented /æ/ or /e/. The symbol ⟨ę⟩ is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of ⟨æ⟩. Compare e caudata, ⟨ę⟩.
b /b/
(an allophone of /f/) Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word sheaves is spelled scēabas in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as scēafas.
c c /k/ The /tʃ/ pronunciation is sometimes written with a diacritic by modern editors: most commonly ⟨ċ⟩, sometimes ⟨č⟩ or ⟨ç⟩. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always /k/; word-finally after ⟨i⟩ it is always /tʃ/. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly /tʃ/ before front vowels (other than ) and /k/ elsewhere.
ċ /tʃ/
cg cg (between vowels; rare),
(after /n/)
Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent West Germanic gemination, resulting in the voiced palatal geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as /jj/). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as /ɣɣ/) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as frocga 'frog') is unclear. Alternative spellings of either geminate included ⟨gg⟩, ⟨gc⟩, ⟨cgg⟩, ⟨ccg⟩ and ⟨gcg⟩. The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written ⟨ċġ⟩ to distinguish it from velar ⟨cg⟩.

After /n/, /j/ was realized as and /ɣ/ was realized as . The spellings ⟨ncg⟩, ⟨ngc⟩ and even ⟨ncgg⟩ were occasionally used instead of the usual ⟨ng⟩. The addition of ⟨c⟩ to ⟨g⟩ in spellings such as ⟨cynincg⟩ and ⟨cyningc⟩ for ⟨cyning⟩ may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just ⟨nc⟩ such as ⟨cyninc⟩ are also found. To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written ⟨nċġ⟩ (or ⟨nġċ⟩) by modern editors.

ċġ (between vowels),
(after /n/)
d /d/ In the earliest texts it also represented /θ/. See ⟨þ⟩.
ð ð, þ /θ/, including its allophone Called ðæt in Old English; now called eth or edh. Derived from the insular form of ⟨d⟩ with the addition of a cross-bar. Both ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ could represent either allophone of /θ/, voiceless or voiced , but some texts show a tendency to use ⟨þ⟩ at the start of words and ⟨ð⟩ in the middle or at the end of a word. Some modern editors replace ⟨ð⟩ with ⟨þ⟩ as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. See ⟨þ⟩.
e e /e/
ē /eː/ Modern editions use ⟨ē⟩ to distinguish long /eː/ from short /e/.
ea ea /æɑ̯/ Sometimes stands for /ɑ/ after ⟨ċ⟩ or ⟨ġ⟩
ēa /æːɑ̯/ Modern editions use ⟨ēa⟩ to distinguish long /æːɑ̯/ from short /æɑ̯/. Sometimes stands for /ɑː/ after ⟨ċ⟩ or ⟨ġ⟩.
eo eo /eo̯/ Sometimes stands for /o/ after ⟨ċ⟩ or ⟨ġ⟩
ēo /eːo̯/ Modern editions use ⟨ēo⟩ to distinguish long /eːo̯/ from short /eo̯/.
f /f/, including its allophone See also ⟨b⟩.
g g /ɣ/, including its allophone In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its insular form ⟨ᵹ⟩. The and pronunciations are sometimes written ⟨ġ⟩ in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative . Word-finally after ⟨i⟩, it is always palatal . Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly /j/ before and after front vowels (other than ) and /ɣ/ elsewhere.
ġ /j/, including its allophone , which occurs after ⟨n⟩
h /x/, including its allophones The combinations ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hr⟩, ⟨hn⟩, ⟨hw⟩ may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with .
i i /i/, rarely Although the spelling ⟨g⟩ is used for the palatal consonant /j/ from the earliest Old English texts, the letter ⟨i⟩ is also found as a minority spelling of /j/. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use ⟨ri⟩ rather than ⟨rg⟩ to spell the /rj/ sequence found in verbs like herian and swerian, whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used ⟨rg⟩ in the spelling of these words.
ī /iː/ Modern editions use ⟨ī⟩ to distinguish long /iː/ from short /i/.
ie ie /iy̯/
īe /iːy̯/ Modern editions use ⟨īe⟩ to distinguish long /iːy̯/ from short /iy̯/.
io io /io̯/ By the time of the first written prose, /i(ː)o̯/ had merged with /e(ː)o̯/ in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon /e(ː)o̯/ was often written ⟨io⟩ instead of ⟨eo⟩, but by Late West Saxon only the ⟨eo⟩ spelling remained common.
īo /iːo̯/ Modern editions use ⟨īo⟩ to distinguish long /iːo̯/ from short /io̯/.
k /k/ Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by ⟨c⟩.
l /l/ Probably velarised (as in Modern English) when in coda position.
m /m/
n /n/, including its allophone The allophone occurred before a velar plosive ( or ).
o o /o/ See also ⟨a⟩.
ō /oː/ Modern editions use ⟨ō⟩ to distinguish long /oː/ from short /o/.
oe oe, œ /ø/ Only occurs in some dialects. Written as ⟨oe⟩ in Old English manuscripts, but some modern editions use the ligature ⟨œ⟩ to indicate that it is a single vowel sound. Modern editions use ⟨ōe⟩ or ⟨œ̄⟩ to distinguish long /øː/ from short /ø/.
ōe, œ̄ /øː/
p /p/
qu /kw/ A rare spelling of /kw/, which was usually written as ⟨cƿ⟩ (⟨cw⟩ in modern editions).
r /r/ The exact nature of Old English /r/ is not known; it may have been an alveolar approximant as in most modern English, an alveolar flap , or an alveolar trill .
s /s/, including its allophone
sc sc /sk/ (rare) At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized /ʃ/.

Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate /ʃː/, as in fisċere /ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/ ('fisherman') and wȳsċan, /ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn ('to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence /sk/, as in āscian /ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/ ('to ask'). The pronunciation /sk/ occurs when ⟨sc⟩ had been followed by a back vowel (/ɑ/, /o/, /u/) at the time of palatalization, as illustrated by the contrast between fisċ /fiʃ/ ('fish') and its plural fiscas /ˈfis.kɑs/. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty.

In word-final position, the pronunciation of was either /ʃ/ or possibly /ʃː/ when the preceding vowel was short.

/ʃː/ (between vowels),
/ʃ/ (elsewhere)
t /t/
th /θ/ Represented /θ/ in the earliest texts (see ⟨þ⟩)
þ /θ/, including its allophone Called thorn and derived from a rune of the same name. In the earliest texts ⟨d⟩ or ⟨th⟩ was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth ⟨ð⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before the time of Alfred. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn.
u u /u/, also sometimes /w/. See ⟨ƿ⟩.
ū /uː/ Modern editions use ⟨ū⟩ to distinguish long /uː/ from short /u/.
uu w /w/ Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound /w/ with the letter ⟨ƿ⟩, called wynn and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north, /w/ was represented by ⟨u⟩ or ⟨uu⟩. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by ⟨w⟩, to prevent confusion with ⟨p⟩.
ƿ
x /ks/
y y /y/
ȳ /yː/ Modern editions use ⟨ȳ⟩ to distinguish long /yː/ from short /y/.
z /ts/ A rare spelling for /ts/; e.g. betst ('best') is occasionally spelt bezt.

Doubled consonants are geminated; the geminate fricatives ⟨ff⟩, ⟨ss⟩ and ⟨ðð⟩/⟨þþ⟩/⟨ðþ⟩/⟨þð⟩ are always voiceless , , .

Literature

The first page of the Beowulf manuscript with its opening
Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...
"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
Main article: Old English literature

The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts. The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples. In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, James Hulbert writes:

In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.

Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are Beowulf, an epic poem; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of early English history; the Franks Casket, an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and Cædmon's Hymn, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as Bede and Cædmon. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.

Beowulf

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The first example is taken from the opening lines of Beowulf, a work with around 3,000 lines. This passage describes how Hrothgar's legendary ancestor Scyld was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem.

The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how what is used by the poet where a word like lo or behold would be expected. This usage is similar to what-ho!, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention.

English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with Gār-Dena and ġeār-dagum. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with æþelingas and ellen. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded.

No.  Original Representation with constructed cognates
1 Hƿæt! ƿē Gār-Dena in ġeār-dagum, What! We of Gare-Danes (lit. Spear-Danes) in yore-days,
þēod-cyninga, þrym ġefrūnon, of thede (nation/people)-kings, did thrum (glory) frain (learn about by asking),
hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon. how those athelings (noblemen) did ellen (fortitude/courage/zeal) freme (promote).
Oft Scyld Scēfing sceaþena þrēatum, Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats (troops),
5 monegum mǣġþum, meodosetla oftēah, of many maegths (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-), of mead-settees atee (deprive),
egsode eorlas. Syððan ǣrest ƿearð ugg (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly") earls. Sith (since, as of when) erst (first) worthed (became)
fēasceaft funden, hē þæs frōfre ġebād, fewship (destitute) found, he of this frover (comfort) abode,
ƿēox under ƿolcnum, ƿeorðmyndum þāh, waxed under welkin (firmament/clouds), worthmint (honour/worship) theed (throve/prospered)
oðþæt him ǣġhƿylc þāra ymbsittendra oth that (until that) him each of those umsitters (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)
10 ofer hronrāde hȳran scolde, over whale-road (kenning for "sea") hear should,
gomban gyldan. Þæt ƿæs gōd cyning! yeme (heed/obedience; related to "gormless") yield. That was good king!

Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:

What! We spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the nation-kings, how the princes performed bravery.

Often Shield the son/descendant of Sheaf ripped away the mead-benches from many tribes' enemy bands – he terrified men!

After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good king!

The Lord's Prayer

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A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly

This text of the Lord's Prayer is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.

Line Original IPA Word-for-word translation into Modern English Translation
1 Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, Father Ours, thou which art in heavens, Our Father, who art in heaven,
2 Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod. Be thine name hallowed. Hallowed be thy name.
3 Tōbecume þīn rīċe, To be come thine kingdom, Thy kingdom come,
4 Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens. Thy will be done on earth as in heaven.
5 Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ, Our daily loaf sell us today, Give us this day our daily bread,
6 And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum. And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters. And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
7 And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele. And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
8 Sōðlīċe. Amen. Amen.

Charter of Cnut

This is a proclamation from Cnut to his earl Thorkell the Tall and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the pilcrows represent the original division.

Original Representation with constructed cognates
Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice. ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'(people's)'-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and lesser (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.
And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage. And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to rights(laws) worldly.
Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan ƿolde. ¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) sell'(give).
Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum. ¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial contribution).
Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð. Tho(then) man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that you most harm came of(from): and that have , mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.

The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:

King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.

And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.

I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.

I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.

At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard me rightly and my life persists.

Dictionaries

Early history

The earliest history of Old English lexicography lies in the Anglo-Saxon period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English glosses on Latin texts. At first, these were often marginal or interlinear glosses; however, they soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the Épinal-Erfurt, Leiden and Corpus Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabetised to create extensive Latin–Old English glossaries with some of the character of dictionaries, such as the Cleopatra Glossaries, the Harley Glossary and the Brussels Glossary. In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in Middle English glossaries, such as the Durham Plant-Name Glossary and the Laud Herbal Glossary.

Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was William Somner's Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum. The next substantial Old English dictionary was Joseph Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary of 1838.

Modern

In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:

  • Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983–). Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at https://www.doe.utoronto.ca. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.
  • Bosworth, Joseph and T. Northcote Toller. (1898). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the Dictionary of Old English. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with:
    • T. Northcote Toller. (1921). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon.
    • Alistair Campbell (1972). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Clark Hall, J. R. (1969). A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including here.
  • Roberts, Jane and Christian Kay, with Lynne Grundy, A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes, Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available online. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of Roget's Thesaurus.

Though focused on later periods, the Oxford English Dictionary, Middle English Dictionary, Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue, and Historical Thesaurus of English all also include material relevant to Old English.

Modern legacy

Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include Alistair Campbell and J. R. R. Tolkien. Ransom Riggs uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of linguistic purism in English often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.

A number of websites devoted to Modern Paganism and historical reenactment offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an Old English version of Misplaced Pages. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.

See also

References

  1. By the 16th century the term Anglo-Saxon came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.
    Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53033-4.
  2. ^ Baugh, Albert (1951). A History of the English Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence).
  3. Okrent, Arika. "Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent?". Aeon. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  4. Fennell, Barbara 1998. A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach. Oxford: Blackwell.
  5. Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. Origins and development of the English language. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich).
  6. Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009. The English language. A historical introduction. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge University Press.
  7. Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006. The Oxford History of English. Oxford University Press.
  8. Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006. A history of the English language. Cambridge University Press.
  9. Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 A history of the English language. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall).
  10. Hogg (1992), p. 83.
  11. Stumpf, John (1970). An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7. We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call Primitive Old English.
  12. Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011). A Practical Introduction to the History of English. Universitat de València. p. 21. ISBN 9788437083216. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
  13. A. Campbell, Old English Grammar (Oxford: Clarendon, 1959), §§ 5–22.
  14. Campbell, Alistair (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-811943-7.
  15. Hogg (1992), p. 117.
  16. Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60.
  17. The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861) Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856
  18. "Rotary-munich.de" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
  19. John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter, De Gruyter (2018)
  20. Koch, Anthony S. "Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do" (PDF).
  21. Culicover, Peter W. "The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support" (PDF).
  22. Elsness, Johann (1997). "On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English" (PDF). ICAME Journal. 18. S2CID 13441465. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2020.
  23. Alexiadou, Artemis (2008), Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive
  24. Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English, Edinburgh University Press (2016)
  25. Hoeksema, Jack. "Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses" (PDF).
  26. Scott, Shay (30 January 2008). The history of English: a linguistic introduction. Wardja. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-615-16817-3. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  27. ^ Jespersen, Otto (1919). Growth and Structure of the English Language. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82.
  28. "Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20". BBC. 27 December 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via YouTube.
  29. Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. p. 32.
  30. ^ McCrum, Robert (1987). The Story of English. London: Faber & Faber. pp. 70–71.
  31. Potter, Simeon (1950). Our Language. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. p. 33.
  32. Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012). Evolution of the English Language. Event occurs at 23:40–25:00; 30:20–30:45; 45:00–46:00 – via Youtube.
  33. Campbell (1959), p. 21.
  34. ^ Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4.
  35. Kuhn (1970), pp. 42–44.
  36. Hogg (1992), p. 39.
  37. Boydell (1999). An Introduction to English Runes. p. 230.
  38. ^ "Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature". Continuum.
  39. Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C. (2002). A Guide to Old English. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 109–112.
  40. Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, pp. 351–361
  41. Crystal, David (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press. p. 203. ISBN 0-521-26438-3.
  42. C. M. Millward, Mary Hayes, A Biography of the English Language, Cengage 2011, p. 96.
  43. Stephen Pollington, First Steps in Old English, Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138.
  44. Minkova (2014), p. 79.
  45. Wełna (1986), p. 755.
  46. Shaw (2012), p. 51
  47. Hogg (1992), p.  91.
  48. Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755.
  49. Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69
  50. Fulk (2014), p. 69
  51. Flom, George T. (1915). Flom, George T. (ed.). "On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway". Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study. 2 (2): 94. JSTOR 40914943.
  52. Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English". Philological Essays. p. 45. doi:10.1515/9783110820263-004. ISBN 978-3-11-082026-3.
  53. Hogg (1992), p. 257
  54. Ker, N. R. (1957). Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon.
  55. Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp. 1–26.
  56. Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish, ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941).
  57. William Somner, Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum, English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970).
  58. Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'. The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. pp. 275–303.
  59. Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.), The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond, pp. 486–504. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
  60. Tichy, Ondrej; Rocek, Martin. "Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online". bosworthtoller.com. Retrieved 23 February 2022.

Bibliography

General

  • Baker, Peter S. (2003). Introduction to Old English. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23454-3.
  • Baugh, Albert C.; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). A History of the English Language (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
  • Blake, Norman (1992). The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press.
  • Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Earle, John (2005). A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon. Bristol, PA: Evolution. ISBN 1-889758-69-8. (Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
  • Euler, Wolfram (2013). Das Westgermanische: von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion . 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-9812110-7-8.
  • Fulk, R. D. (2014). An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings. Tempe, Arizona: ACMRS Press. ISBN 978-0-86698-514-7.
  • Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge University Press.
  • Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) A History of the English Language. Cambridge University Press.
  • Jespersen, Otto (1909–1949) A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard
  • Lass, Roger (1987) The Shape of English: structure and history. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
  • Lass, Roger (1994). Old English: A historical linguistic companion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43087-9.
  • Magennis, Hugh (2011). The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature. Cambridge University Press.
  • Millward, Celia (1996). A Biography of the English Language. Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-15-501645-8.
  • Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C. (2001). A Guide to Old English (6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22636-2.
  • Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English Grammar (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
  • Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014). The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II, ISBN 978-0199207848. Oxford.
  • Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) A History of English. London: Methuen.

External history

  • Robinson, Orrin W. (1992). Old English and Its Closest Relatives. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2221-8.
  • Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon.

Orthography and palaeography

  • Bourcier, Georges. (1978). L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle. Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
  • Elliott, Ralph W. V. (1959). Runes: An introduction. Manchester University Press.
  • Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
  • Ker, N. R. (1957). A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Ker, N. R. (1990) . A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in. Anglo-Saxon England; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon ISBN 0-19-811251-3
  • Page, R. I. (1973). An Introduction to English Runes. London: Methuen.
  • Scragg, Donald G. (1974). A History of English Spelling. Manchester University Press.
  • Shaw, Philip A. (2012). "Coins As Evidence". The Oxford Handbook of the History of English, Chapter 3, pp. 50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.
  • Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph ⟨cg⟩ Again". Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics, pp. 753–762. Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek.

Phonology

  • Anderson, John M.; & Jones, Charles. (1977). Phonological structure and the history of English. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
  • Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Cercignani, Fausto (1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English". Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 82 (3): 313–323.
  • Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). Angelsaksisch Handboek; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
  • Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse. New York: Harper & Row.
  • Hockett, Charles F. (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English". Language. 35 (4): 575–597. JSTOR 410597.
  • Hogg, Richard M. (2011). A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781444341355. ISBN 978-1-4443-3933-8.
  • Kuhn, Sherman M. (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English". Language. 37 (4): 522–538. JSTOR 411354.
  • Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.) Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt (pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton.
  • Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). Old English Phonology. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge University Press.
  • Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Stuttgart: Bernhard Tauchnitz.
  • Maling, J. (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English". Linguistic Inquiry. 2 (3): 379–400. JSTOR 4177642.
  • McCully, C. B.; Hogg, Richard M. (1990). "An account of Old English stress". Journal of Linguistics. 26 (2): 315–339. doi:10.1017/S0022226700014699. S2CID 144915239.
  • Minkova, Donka (2014). A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh University Press.
  • Moulton, W. G. (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In: F. van Coetsem & H. L. Kufner (Eds.), Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic (pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Sievers, Eduard (1893). Altgermanische Metrik. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
  • Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.

Morphology

  • Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.

Syntax

  • Brunner, Karl. (1962). Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English. Dordrecht: Foris.
  • MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). Old English Syntax: a handbook. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). Old English Syntax (Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon (no more published)
    • Vol. 1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence
    • Vol. 2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order
  • Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax". Oxford: Blackwell
  • Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique.
  • Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  • Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). An Historical Syntax of the English Language (Vols. 1–3). Leiden: Brill.

Lexicons

  • Bosworth, J.; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)
  • Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Campbell, A. (1972). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda. Oxford: Clarendon.
  • Clark Hall, J. R.; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  • Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the World Wide Web.)

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