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Islam (Arabic: الإسلام; al-'islām) is a monotheistic religion originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. It is the second-largest religion in the world after Christianity, and its adherents are called "Muslims". The word Islam means "submission", or the total surrender of one's self to God (Arabic: ]), and the word Muslim means "one who submits (to God)".

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad, God's final prophet, and regard the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam. They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. Islamic tradition holds that Judaism and Christianity distorted the messages of these prophets over time either in interpretation, in text, or both.

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are required to observe the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community. In addition to the Five Pillars, Islamic law (Sharia) has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like dietary laws to practices like jihad.

Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni and Shi'a. The schism developed in the late 7th century as a result of disagreements over the leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85% of Muslims are Sunni and 15% are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion in parts of Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Large communities can also be found in China, Western Europe, the Balkan Peninsula, and Russia. Only about 20 percent of Muslims come from Arab countries.

Etymology and meaning

The word islām is derived from the Arabic verb aslama, which means to accept, surrender, or submit. Thus, Islam means submission to and acceptance of God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam." Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion." Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God — more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.

Beliefs

Islamic belief has six essential components (contained in the Islamic creed called Aqidah): belief in God; his revelations; his angels; his messengers; divine decree; and the "Day of Judgment".

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the angel Gabriel. For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an the revelations he received over more than two decades. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind", and the Qur'an states that the proper name Muslim was given by Abraham.

As a historical phenomenon Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th century. Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.

God

Islam's fundamental theological concept is tawhīd—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is Allāh; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and Template:ArabDIN (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (Template:ArabDIN), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alāhā. The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawhīd is expressed in the shahadah (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is transcendent and above all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to know God directly but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology Jesus is just a man and not the son of God; God is described in a chapter (sura) of the Qu'ran as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."

Qur'an

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam. (It has also been called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran.) Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between the years 610 and his death on July 6 632. From textual evidence modern Western academics think that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.

The word Qur'an means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.

The Qur'an contains over a hundred chapters of verse on topics such as theology, morality, and matters of law. It occupies a status of primacy in Islamic jurisprudence, and Muslims consider it a definitive source of guidance. To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as tafsir.

Angels

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malʾak) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels were created from light, do not possess free will, and worship God in perfect obedience. Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He adds to Creation as He pleases…"

Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 – July 6 632), (also Mohammed, Mohamet, and other variants), was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. They see him as the last and the greatest in a series of prophets—as the "Perfect Man", the possessor of all virtues. For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his followers.

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the Arabian peninsula.

In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) established the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims were encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as a crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.

Divine decree

Islamic belief in divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadr) is called Qadr, which means that God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…" For Muslims, nothing in the world can happen, good or evil, unless it has been preordained and permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic scholars such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and al-Bukhari. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death (although some interpret this symbolically). It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.

The Qur'an list several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as dishonesty and the exploitation of others. Muslims view paradise as a place of joy and bliss, but despite the Qur'an's descriptions of the physical pleasures to come, there are clear references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (ridwān). There is also a strong mystical tradition in Islam that places these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God, stressing an allegorical interpretation of the Qur'anic verses describing heaven.

Duties and practices

Five Pillars

The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: اركان الدين) are "the five duties incumbent on every Muslim". They are:

• The shahadah, which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "Template:ArabDIN", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." As the most important pillar, this testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.

• Salah, or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. Each salah is done facing towards the Kaaba in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. According to the Qur'an, the benefit of prayer "restrains from shameful and evil deeds". Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called calls to prayer are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of quotes from the Qur'an.

• Zakat, or alms-giving. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a khums tax.

• Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.

• The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in Ihram clothing, which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black Stone, running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina. The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.

Law

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state like governance and foreign relations to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.

Religion and state

Islamic law does not distinguish between matters of church and matters of state; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with a conservative Shi'ite theocracy led by the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.

Etiquette and diet

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.

Jihad

Jihad is literally to "struggle in the way of God" and is sometimes called the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official status as such. Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants. In broader usage, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. Among other things, it can imply striving to live a moral and virtuous life, to spreading and defending Islam, and to fighting injustice and oppression. Some believe that Muhammad himself regarded the inner struggle for faith to be a "greater jihad" than fighting by force in the way of God.

For most of Muslim history, jihad was taken to mean armed struggle for the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. The expectation was that jihad would continue until everyone had either converted to Islam or submitted to Muslim rule. Forced conversion was rarely practiced or sanctioned, and non-Muslims in a Muslim were traditionally allowed to live as dhimmis. Recently, some Muslim scholars have said that jihad only obligates warfare of a defensive nature. There are also Muslims who believe that physical "jihad against unbelief and unbelievers is a religious duty" that justifies terrorism, but this claim about jihad is disputed.

History

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an, an Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century new political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.

Rise of empire (632–750)

Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Muhammad, who united the tribes of Arabia under Islamic law. With Muhammad's death in 632, there was confusion about who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. Like Umar, Uthman was assassinated (in 656), and Ali assumed the position of caliph. Tensions escalated into what became the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), in which numerous companions of Muhammad sought to avenge the slaying of Uthman. Ali managed to retain his position as caliph but was killed in 661, marking the start of the Umayyad dynasty under Mu'awiyah.

This dispute over leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib as well as Spain and the Narbonnese Gaul. During this time, the decadence of the Umayyads inspired the formation of a movement of ascetics led by a devout Muslim named Hasan al-Basri. This movement would evolve into Sufism.

The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750 on a wave of dissatisfaction against the Umayyads instigated by a revolutionary named Abu Muslim. Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad. It was under the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun that the events of the mihna ("trial") occured, in which theological dispute over the Qur'an resulted in the beating and temporary imprisonment of jurists, such as the traditionist Ahmad bin Hanbal.

Golden Age (750–1258)

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate was showing signs of fracture. Egypt, Persia, and other provinces broke away, and by 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power. Nevertheless, they continued to respect the caliph's religious position, and from then on he then became a ruler in name only. During this time expansion continued—sometimes by military warfare amd sometimes by peaceful proselytism. The first stage in the conquest of India began around the year 1000, at the same time that Islam was established in sub-Saharan West Africa.

Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i, who cemented the importance of the Sunnah as a source second only to the Qur'an. Also, by the 9th century Sufism had become a full-fledged religious movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots. At the same time the Shi'ite community underwent a schism due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.

This period was also notable for philosophical dialectic discourse, in which philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate neoplatonic principles into Islamic theology. However, the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali's well-known work, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, argued against these principles. Also, advances in science and medicine were made by scholars such as al-Biruni, and Persian writers like Rumi became well-known for their poetry and literature.

Islamic conquest into Christian Europe spread as far as southern France. At the behest of the Pope, the Crusades were launched in response to Muslim gains in the Mediterranean and in support of the Byzantine empire against the Seljuk Turks. Successful at first, the Crusaders' advance was halted by the Muslim general Saladin, who regained Jerusalem at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbasid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250.

Ottomans and Mughals (1258–1878)

The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire (named after Osman I) was established with a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress succumbed shortly afterward, having been battered by the Ottoman's superior cannon, and was renamed "Istanbul".

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students. Although Islam continued to expand, in Spain a series of confrontations with the Christian kingdoms ended in the fall of Granada in 1492. In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.

During the early 16th century the Mughal empire was formed in the Indian subcontinent under the rules of Babur, Humayun, and Akbar (later known as "Akbar the Great"). Although stable under Jahangir and Shah Jahan, decline set in after the death of Aurangzeb, and by the mid-18th century the British had ended the Mughal dynasty. The Mughals were noted for their achievements in art and architecture, exemplified by the Taj Mahal, which Shah Jahan built as a memorial to his wife. Simultaneously the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.

By the 17th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages despite attempts at modernization. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, and several Balkan states followed suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

Modern times (1878–present)

In the aftermath of World War I losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the state of Israel have assumed prominence.

The 20th century saw two new important trends develop within Islam. Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". In contrast, Islamism is a movement that includes many different politically-oriented groups influenced by Islamic fundamentalism. Its immediate origins lie in the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan, and further back in Wahhabism. Islamists advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every question of importance, both public and private. Islamist terrorism means acts of terrorism claimed by their supporters and practitioners to further the goals of Islam. Since the 1980s it has increased in prevalence, and has become a contentious political issue in many nations. There are Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who have spoken out against it stating that Islamic texts do not sanction these activities.

Community

Demographics

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range between 900 million and 1.3 billion people. About 85% are Sunni and 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30 to 40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for about 20 percent of all Muslims worldwide.South Asia and Southeast Asia contain the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India having more than 100 million adherents each. In the Middle East, Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries, while in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria lead the pack. (China also holds an unknown but large Muslim population.) Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, such as France.

Mosques

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.

Family life

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family. Islam prescribes mutual respect and responsibility among family members, along with legal rights and obligations. The father is seen as financially responsible for the family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a dowry (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.

A man may marry up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may marry one man only. The process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which is more easily initiated by the husband than by the wife. Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these restrictions and other practices such as polygamy, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Islamist groups and regimes like the Taliban mostly seek to continue traditional law as applied to women.

Calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar. The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 AD.

Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1 of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10 of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Arts and sciences

Islamic civilization has produced many accomplishments in religious art. Arabic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration and is usually expressed in the form of Qur'anic verses. Islamic architecture demonstrates such techniques as the use of domes in mosques like the Dome of the Rock.

Islamic philosophy can be defined as "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture". It is deeply influenced by both Islamic theology and Greek philosophy. Notable Islamic philosophers include al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and al-Ghazali. In the field of literature, the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi, contributed greatly to the development of Sufi religious thought.

Other religions

The Qur'an "claimed it was restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, not clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians". This accusation may originally have been a just a charge of false interpretation, but was later understood to have meant that the Bible itself had become textually corrupted. Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands had the status of dhimmi and were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy". They were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute (jizya) and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Dhimmis were subject to legal restrictions such as prohibitions against bearing arms or bans against giving testimony in court in cases involving Muslims.

Regarding religions other than Judaism and Christianity, Islamic law states that unless there is a pact between members of these religions and Muslims, they are to be fought and compelled to accept Islam. However, in practice the status of dhimmi was extended to Zoroastrians, Hindus, and members of other scriptural faiths as well. Outspoken atheists and agnostics and those who belonged to "deviant forms" of Islam were not included in this exception, and were accorded no tolerance at all.

Denominations

Islam consists of number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The major division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, while Sufism is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other Islamic sects.

Sunni

Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or madhhabs: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (bidah). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent Salafi movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.

Shi'a

The Shi'a, who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, reject the authority of the first three caliphs. In Shi'a doctrine, the Imam and not the caliph (a term preferred by the Sunni) is the leader of the Muslim community. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam. To them, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shi'a Muslims accept the Five Pillars of Islam, although their practices differ from the majority Sunni in many ways. The two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith, and the Shi'a have their own legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.

Sufism

Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified religious innovation. Most Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.

Others

The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites (which was itself divided into numerous sub-sects) is the Ibadi. Ibadism is distinguished from Sunni Islam by its rejection of Uthman and Ali, and from Shi'ism by its belief that the Muslim leader should be chosen on the basis of his faith rather than his ancestry. Ibadi Islam is noted for its strictness, but unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard major sins as automatically rendering a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.

The Yazidi, Druze, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim religions either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Sikhism's holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains some writings by Muslim figures, as well as by Sikh and Hindu saints.

Criticism

The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are found in the writings of Christians like John of Damascus (born c. 676). In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated. Medieval Christian ecclesiastical writers emphatically denied the validity of Islamic beliefs and portrayed Muhammad as possessed by Satan. More recently, in the 19th century, the Orientalist scholar William Muir wrote harshly about the Qu'ran.

Modern critique of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates. Critics such as Robert Spencer and Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu'ran; for example, they say that its contents both justify the ill-treatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians. Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored. Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics, while Carl Ernst says that "Islamophobia" has played a part. Notable Muslim apologists include Fazlur Rahman, Syed Ameer Ali, Ahmed Deedat, and Yusuf Estes.

See also

Notes

1. Teece (2003), p.10
2. ^ L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
3. See:
   • Esposito (1996), p.41
   • Ghamidi (2001): Sources of Islam
4. ^ See:
   • Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
   • Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
   • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
   • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
   • F. Buhl. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
   • Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
5. Esposito (2002b), p.17
6. See:
   • Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
   • "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
7. See:
   • Esposito (2002b), p.21
   • Esposito (2004), pp.2,43
8. Quran 6:125, Quran 61:7, Quran 39:22
9. Quran 5:3, Quran 3:19, Quran 3:83
10. See:
    • Quran 9:74, Quran 49:14
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
11. See:
    • Template:Muslim, Quran 4:136
    • Farah (2003), p.109
12. Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
13. Quran 30:30
14. See:
    • Quran 22:78
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion
15. "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion
16. See:
    • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
    • L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
17. David Thomas. "Tathlith, Trinity". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.
18. See:
    • Quran 112:1–4
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
    • Esposito (2004), p.22
    • Griffith (2006), p.248
    • D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
19. F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
20. See:
    • Teece (2003), pp.12,13
    • C. Turner (2006), p.42
    • "Qu'ran". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
21. See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.21–31
    • Paul L. Heck. "Politics and the Qurʾān". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
22. See:
    • A.T. Welch. "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    • A. Rippin. "Tafsir". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
23. Quran 21:19–20, Quran 35:1
24. See:
    • Quran 35:1
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
    • W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
25. See:
    • Esposito (1998), p.12
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
    • "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
26. See:
    • Quran 18:110
    • F. Buhl. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
27. F. Buhl. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
28. See:
    • Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
    • J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • D. W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
29. See:
    • Quran 9:51
    • D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' "
    • Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
30. See:
    • Farah (2003), pp.119–122
    • Patton (1900), p.130
31. See:
    • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
    • "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
    • L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
32. Quran 9:72
33. See:
    • Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
    • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
    • Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Paradise". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
34. "Pillars of Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
35. See:
    • Farah (1994), p.135
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004)
36. Quran 29:40
37. See:
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
    • Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
    • Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
38. See:
    • Quran 2:177
    • Esposito (2004), p.90
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
39. See:
    • Quran 2:184
    • Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "For whom fasting is mandatory". Compendium of Muslim Texts. USC-MSA. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
40. See:
    • Farah (1994), pp.145–147
    • Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
    • "Hajj". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
41. "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
42. See:
    • Menski (2006), p.290
    • B. Carra de Vaux. "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    • N. Calder. "Sharia". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
43. Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162
44. See:
    • Esposito (2004), p.84
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845
    • Lewis (2003), p.100
45. See:
    • Quran 5:5
    • Curtis (2005), p.164
    • Esposito (2002b), p.111
    • Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
    • Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws
    • Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer
    • Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
46. Esposito (2003), p.93
47. See:
    • R. Peters (1977), pp.3–5
    • "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
48. Esposito (2002a), p.26
49. "BBC—Religion & Ethics—Jihad: The internal Jihad". Retrieved 2007-01-09.
50. Lewis (2004), p.31
51. Esposito (2004), pp.34,93
52. See:
    • R. Peters (1977), pp.3-5
    Ghamidi (2001): The Islamic Law of Jihad
53. Esposito (2004), pp.34,166
54. See:
    • Esposito (2004), p.93
    • Lewis (2004), pp.39,137,138
55. Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
56. See:
    • Holt (1977a), p.57
    • Hourani (2003), p.22
    • Lapidus (2002), p.32
57. See
    • Holt (1977a), p.74
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
58. Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
59. Waines (2003) p.46
60. See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
61. See:
    • Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
    • Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
    • Lapidus (2002), p.56
    • Lewis (1993), p.84
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
62. Waines (2003) p. 70
63. See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.107
    • "Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
64. Lapidus (2002), p.86
65. See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90-94
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
66. See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.160
    • Waines (2003) p.126,127
67. See:
    • Lapidus (2002),pp.130
    • Lewis (2002), p.149
68. Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
69. See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.292
    • "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
70. See:
    • Holt (1977a), p.263
    • Lapidus (2002), p.250
    • "Istanbul". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
71. Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
72. See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
73. Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
74. Esposito (2004), p.65
75. See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.572
    • Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
76. Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
77. Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835
78. Lapidus (2002), pp.823–825
79. See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.823–825
    • Lewis (2004), p.23
80. Lapidus (2002), pp.829–835
81. See:
    • Lewis (2004), pp.39,137,138: "At no point do the basic texts of Islam enjoin terrorism and murder. At no point—as far as I am aware—do they even consider the random slaughter of uninvolved bystanders."
    • Esposito (2004), p.93
    • "Official site". Muslims Against Terrorism. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
82. See"
    • Esposito (2004), pp.2,43
    • "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
    • "Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. BBC. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2006-09-28. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
    • "Religion In Britain". National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13. Retrieved 2006-08-27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
83. See:
    • J. Pedersen. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    • "Mosque". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
84. • Waines (2003) pp. 93—96
    • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
    • Esposito (1998) p. 79
85. • Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
    • Harald Motzki. "Marriage and Divorce". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • Lori Peek. "Marriage Practices". Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
86. See:
    • Adil (2002), p.288
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
    • B. van Dalen. "Tarikh̲". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
87. Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
88. See:
    • Ettinghausen (2003), pp.3,87
    • Madden (1975), pp.423–430
    • O. Grabar (2006), p.87
    • "Islamic Art and Architecture", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
89. See:
    • "Islamic Philosophy", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998)
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
90. "Islamic Art". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
91. Holt (1977a), pp.43–44
92. See:
    • Holt (1977a), pp.43–44
    • Watt (1974), p.116
93. Lewis (1984), p.21
94. Lewis (1984), pp.9,27
95. See:
    • Ruthven (2005), p.45
    • Cl. Cahen. "Dhimma". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • A. Kevin Reinhart. "Ethics and the Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
96. Lewis (2001), p.273
97. See:
    • Esposito (2002b), p.2
    • "Sunni and Shia Islam". Country Studies. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
98. See:
    • Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
    • "Shariah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Sunnite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
99. See
    • Lapidus (2002), p.46
    • "Imam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
100. See:
     • Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
     • Nasr (1994), p.466
101. Trimingham (1998), p.1
102. See:
     • Esposito (2003), p.302
     • Malik (2006), p.3
     • B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
     • "Afghanistan: A Country Study". Country Studies. U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). p. 150. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
103. See:
     • J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
     • "al-Ibāḍiyya". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
104. Parrinder (1971), p.259
105. See:
     • Novak (February 1999)
     • Sahas (1997), pp.76–80
     • Warraq (2003), p.67
106. See:
     • Gabriel Oussani. "Mohammed and Mohammedanism". Catholic Encyclopedia.
     • Toby Lester (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". The Atlantic Monthly. The Atlantic Monthly Group.
107. See:
     • Spencer (2005), p.358
     • Warraq (2000), p.103
     • Timothy Garton Ash (10-05-2006). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books. NYRB. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
     • Bostom, Andrew (July 21, 2003). "Islamic Apostates' Tales—A Review of Leaving Islam by Ibn Warraq". FrontPage Magazine. FrontPageMagazine.com.
108. Bernstein, Richard. "Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-05-14.
109. See:
     • Ernst (2004), p.11
     • Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
     • Watt (1974), p.231
110. For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
111. For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.
112. Westerlund (2003)
113. Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu (11-17-2003). "Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images". Advance, University of Connecticut. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

References

Books and journals

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• Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0764122266.
• Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
• Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342757. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Grabar, Oleg (2006). Islamic Art And Beyond. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0860789225.
• Griffith, Ruth Marie (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1553698425.
• Holt, P. M. (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Holt, P. M. (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Hourani, Albert (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0313324727.
• Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114.
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0.
• Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5258-2.
• Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684832807.
• Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0812695182.
• Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0060516055.
• Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0812967852.
• Madden, Edward H. (1975). "Some Characteristics of Islamic Art". Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 33 (4).
• Malik, Jamal (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415274087. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858593.
• Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction". Journal of Law and Religion. 3 (2).
• Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06067-700-7.
• Novak, David (February 1999). "The Mind of Maimonides". First Things.
• Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
• Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 16 (3). Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004103147.
• Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies.
• Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
• Peters, Rudolph (1977). Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-04854-5.
• Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 01-92-80606-8.
• Sahas, Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004034952.
• Seibert, Robert F. (1994). "Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of Religious Research. 36 (1).
• Sells, Michael Anthony (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126670. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156492.
• Spencer, Robert (2005). The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1591022497.
• Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1.
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (2002). Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. Green Gold. ISBN 0-922817-00-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0749647964.
• Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195120582.
• Tritton, Arthur S. (1970). The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN 0-7146-1996-5.
• Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 041534106X.
• Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0415174589.
• Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064.
• Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for Historical Muhammad. Prometheus. ISBN 978-1573927871.
• Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out. Prometheus. ISBN 1-59102-068-9.
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85-224254-X.
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
• Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 9004120661.
• Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-79076-7.
• Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle East. Greenhaven Pr. ISBN 0737701331.

Encyclopedias

• William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1593392369. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed. (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor, ed. (1995). Encyclopedia of the Future. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028972053. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028656038. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657332. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415941808. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Peter N. Stearns, ed. (2000). The Encyclopedia of World History Online (6th ed.). Bartleby. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Edward Craig, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415073103. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Further reading

• Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076.
• Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240727.
• Khan, Muhammad Muhsin (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-9652240408. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
• Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132.
• Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0812692174.
• Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611.
• Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833.
• Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440710.
• Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440345.
• Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New Edition ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253216274. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
• Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
• Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0720610383.

External links

Academic resources

• University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts
• Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)
• Unit on Islam from the NITLE Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
• Islam, article at Enyclopaedia Britannica Online

Directories

• Islam in Western Europe, the United Kingdom, Germany and South Asia
• Template:Dmoz
• Islam (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg
• The Islam Page

Islam and the arts

• BBC Islam Focus
• Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
• Muslim Heritage (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
• Islamic Architecture (IAORG) illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
• Islamic Philosophy (Journal of Islamic Philosophy, University of Michigan)
• Islamic Civilization

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA ru-sib:Басурмансво

• Islam
• Monotheism
• Theism
• Middle Eastern culture