Misplaced Pages

Ottoman Empire: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 09:25, 6 June 2005 view source67.150.123.228 (talk)No edit summary← Previous edit Revision as of 09:26, 6 June 2005 view source Nohat (talk | contribs)Administrators11,044 editsm Reverted edits by 67.150.123.228 to last version by FrisoHoltkampNext edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
:''This article refers to the Turkish empire. For the furniture piece, see ]''
The '''Azeri''', also referred to as Azerbaijanian ], are a Turkic-Muslim people who live in the ], located in a crossroads between eastern ] and western ]. Term Azerbajanis was first introduced by bolsheviks, with intention to claim northern province of Persia (from ] - Iran). Thus, referring to term Azerbaijan in historivcal context before 1918 is nonsence.
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''Osmanl&#x131; &#x130;mparatorlu&#x11F;u'''</big></big><br/>'''Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye'''
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: left; background: white;" |
{| align=center
| ]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | ]
|}
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;" | ]<br/><small>''The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power''</small>
|-
| ''']'''
| ''El Muzaffer Daima The Ever Victorious'' (as written in tugra)
|-
| ''']'''
| ]
|-
| ''']'''
| ] (]/]/] )
|-
| ''']s'''
| ]s of the ]
|-
| ''']'''
| ''ca'' 40 million
|-
| ''']'''
| 6.3m km&sup2; (1902); 19.9m km&sup2; maximum extent (1595)
|-
| ''']'''
| ]
|-
| ''']'''
| ] ]
|-
| ''']'''
| ], ], ]
|-
| '''Flag'''
| align=center | ]<br/><small>The ] of the later Ottoman period</small>
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center;" | Part of the ] series
|}
The '''Ottoman Empire''' ('''Osmanl&#305; &#304;mparatorlu&#287;u''' in Turkish) was an imperial power that existed from ] to ] (634 years), one of the largest ]s to rule the borders of the ]. At the height of its power, it included ], the ], part of ], and south-eastern ]. It was established by a tribe of ] in western ] and ruled by the ] dynasty. In diplomatic circles it was often referred to as the '']'' or simply as ''the Porte'', from the ] translation of the ] name B&acirc;b-i-&acirc;l&icirc; "high gate", due to the greeting ceremony the sultan held for foreign ambassadors at the Palace Gate. This has also been interpreted as referring to the Empire's position as gateway between Europe and Asia. In its day, the Ottoman Empire was also commonly referred to as the ''Turkish Empire'' or ''Turkey'', though it should not be confused with the modern ] of that name.


The Empire was founded by ] (in Arabic ''&#x02bf;Uthm&#257;n'', hence the name ''Ottoman'' Empire). In the ] and ], the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities and the countries of Europe felt threatened by its steady advance through the ]. At its height, it comprised an area of over ]&mdash;though much of this was under indirect control of the central government(see ''Main article: ]'') . From ] onwards, the Ottoman Sultan was also the ], and the Ottoman Empire was from 1517 until ] (or ]) synonymous with the ], the Islamic State. In ], after the Ottomans ] ] (modern ]) from the ], it became the Ottoman capital. Following ], during which most of its territories were captured by the ], Ottoman elites established modern ] during the ].
Before ] muslim population of modern territory of Azerbajdzhan did not have ethnic identification and call themselves just muslims. By 1918 approximately 60% of population were ], whereas Azerbaijanis (or, correclty, Azeri Turks) contituted ca 30% of population. Ethnic cleansing and descrimination on ethnic basis almost completely eliminated Talysh and ] population. Azeri historians use georgraphical principle in their studies. According to theory of ], Azeriz did not change at all during centuries, withstanding all invasions and wars and inherit all territories of nation lived on territory of contemporary Azerbaijan.


==History==
The northern half of Iranian province of Azerbaijan was annexed by the Russians in ]. Between ] and ] approximately one million Azeri Turks migrated to ] from ]. Total number of Azeri Turks is more than 10 million worldwide, with the majority living outside of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Republic of ] has a population of 5 million, while more than 2 million live in Russia and 1 million living in different CIS contries, mainly in ], the northwestern region of Iran in the provinces of Ardebil, East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan and Zanjan; the territory of South Azerbaijan.
''Main article: ]''
]]]


The Ottoman State originated as a '']lik'' within the ] in the ]. In ], ] declared independence of the ''Ottoman Principality''. ] was the first Ottoman to claim the title of ] (king). With the capture of ] in ], the state became a mighty ] with ] as its ]. The Empire reached its apex under ] in the ], when it stretched from the ] in the east to ] in the northwest, and from ] in the south to the ] in the north. The Empire was situated in the middle of East and West and interacted throughout its six-century history with both the ] and the ].
More than 8 million live in various cities in central ] especially in the capital of Tehran. Most analysts state that at least 50% of the city and province of Tehran including the city of Karaj, is inhabited by Azeri Turks. The nomadic Turkic tribes of Afshar, Shahseven, Qarapapaq, Qajar and Timurtash who are spread across Iran are tribes of the Azerbaijanians. There are also 2 million indigenous Azerbaijanians living in the eastern region of Turkey (mostly in Kars and Igdir), 2.5 million throughout the ] (mostly in the autonomous republic of ] and the capital city of ]) 1 million living in northern Iraq (whom are referred to as Turkmens that live mostly in ], ] and ]) and 300,000 living in the southern region of Georgia. There are also scattered populations of Azerbaijanians in ], ], ] and ], including a large diaspora living in ] and ].

During this period, the Empire vied with the emerging European ] in the ]. Fleets with soldiers and arms were sent to support ] rulers in ] and ] and to defend the Ottoman ] and ] trade. In Aceh, the Ottomans built a fortress and supplied huge cannon. The ] ] were helped by the ] against ] ].

In the ], the Ottomans were weakened both internally and externally by costly wars, especially against ], the ], ] and ]. There was a long succession of sultans who were not as good as the generation of ], ] and ]. The scientific advantage the Ottomans had over the other European countries also diminished. While the Ottomans were stagnating in a stalemate with their European and Asian neighbor countries, the European development went into overdrive. Eventually, after a defeat at the ], in ], it was clear the Ottoman Empire was no longer the sole ] in Europe.
In 1699, for the first time in its history the Ottomans acknowledged that the Austrian empire could sign a treaty with the Ottomans on equal terms, and actually lost a large territory which had been in Ottoman possession for two centuries.
Through a series of reforms, the empire continued to be one of the major political powers of Europe. The banking system was reformed and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. The ] were disbanded, and a modern conscripted army was formed.
Externally, the empire stopped going into conflicts alone, and started entering alliances like the other European countries. There was a series of alliances with countries such as France, Holland, Britain and Russia. A prime example of this was the ] in which the English, French, Ottomans and others united against Russia.
By the end of the 19th century the empire was weakened to a great extent. Economically, it had trouble paying the loans to the European banks. Militarily, it had trouble defending itself from foreign occupation (e.g. Egypt occupied by the French in 1798, Cyprus occupied by the British in 1876 etc.). Socially, the advent of nationalism and the yearning for democracy was making the population restless.

This eventually led to a series of military coups and counter coups, resulting in a constitutional monarchy, in which the sultan had little to no power and the ] party was ruling the empire. The nationalistic policies of the Ittihad and Terakki party resulted in the secession of the Balkans in the Balkan war of 1910-12.

In a last-ditch effort to keep power in their hands by regaining at least some of the lost territories, the triumvirate led by ] joined the ] in ]. The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war. The ], including the newly formed ]s were defeated in ], ] and the ], and some territories were regained.
However, the Ottomans were eventually defeated by the ] in the ], ], ], ] and ] and its territories were colonized by the victors. In the ] there was a stalemate between the Ottomans and the Russians. The ] used their advanced guns and cannons and out-maneuvered the Ottomans using their ] allies within the empire. The subsequent ] is today viewed as ] by most historians. Militarily the Ottomans made use of the mountainous terrain and the cold climate, launching a series of surprise attacks. The Russian forces retreated after the Communist revolution in Russia, resulting in Ottoman victory on this front. ], who had made his reputation earlier during the ] and ] campaigns, was offically sent from occupied Istanbul to take control of the victorius Caucasus army , and to disband it. This army was instrumental in winning the ] (]&ndash;]), and the ] was founded on ], ] from the remnants of the fallen empire.

==State organization==
''Main article: ]''

Ottoman state organization was based on a hierarchy with the sultan, who was usually the Caliph at the top and below him his ]s, other court officials, and military commanders.

==Culture==
''Main article: ]''

During the medieval age, the Ottoman Turks had a high tolerance of alien cultures and religions, especially as compared to the Christian West. Early on the Turks drove the Byzantines from Anatolia and later pursued them into Europe. But, as the Ottomans moved further west the Turkic leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of the conquered people. The alien culture was gradually added to the Turks' own, creating the characteristic Ottoman culture. After the capture of Constantinopole (later dubbed Istanbul) in ], most churches were left intact and only ] was turned into a ]. The Ottoman court life in many aspects resembled ancient traditions of the ] ]s, but had many ] and European influences. For centuries, the Ottoman Empire was the refuge of the ]s of Europe, who did not have the freedom of religion in Europe that the citizens of the Ottoman Empire did.

==Military==
''Main article: ]''

The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called ''timar''s. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the ]. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The famous ] corps provided élite troops and bodyguards for the sultan. After the 17th century, however, the Ottomans could no longer produce a modern fighting force because of a lack of reforms, mainly because of the corrupted Janissaries. The abolition of the Janissary corps in ] was not enough, and in the war against Russia, the Ottoman Empire severely lacked modern weapons and technologies.

&#8220;The beginnings of legal reform in the Middle East were initiated in the ottoman empire in the middle of the nineteenth century through the promulgation of commercial and penal codes such as the Ottoman Commercial code (1850) and the Ottoman Penal code (1858).&#8221; (Haddad, Y.Y., Byron H. and Ellison F., Eds.)

==Provinces==
''Main article: ]''

At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire had 29 provinces plus three tributary principalities and ], a kingdom which swore allegiance to the Porte.

==Sultans==
''Main article: ]''

The ], also known as the ], in Europe sometimes the Grand Turk, was the sole regent and government of the empire, at least officially. The dynasty is most often called the ] or the House of Osman. The sultan enjoyed many titles such as Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, ] of Khans, and from ] onwards, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the ] of the Lord of the Universe, i.e. ], which theoretically also gave him overlordship over other Muslim rulers around the world. For example, among the ] of ], only ] had the ] read in his own name. Note that the first rulers never called themselves ''sultan'', but rather '']'' thereby acknowledging the sovereignety of the ] sultanate and its successor the ] sultanate. The sultan title was established by ] in ]. See the article on ] for further information on the sultan and the structure of power.
{| cellpadding=12
| valign=top |

* ] (]&ndash;]; ''bey'')
* ] (]&ndash;]; ''bey'')
* ] (]&ndash;]; Sultan from ])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* '']'' (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;]) (]&ndash;])
* ] (the Conqueror) (]&ndash;], ]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;]; Caliph from 1517)
* ] (the Magnificent) (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
| valign=top |
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (])
* ] (]&ndash;])
* ] (Re&#351;ad) (]&ndash;])
* ] (Vahideddin) (]&ndash;])
|}
''Note'': Although ] was chosen as ] in 1922, he was not a sultan, as the National Assembly had abolished the sultanate. The caliphate was abolished in turn in ].

==External links==
* - Site with a lot of information on the Ottomans
* - Everything about the history and culture of Ottoman Empire (in Turkish)
* - Extensive site with a lot of detailed information
* - Comprehensive site that covers much about the state and government
* - Good site that covers various aspects of the Ottoman Empire in detail

==See also==
*]

==References==
* ], ''History of the ], ] and ] Centuries'', Cambridge University Press, ]. ISBN 0521252490. See "Balkan Christians under Ottoman Rule", pages 39-126.
* ], ''The Ottoman Empire, ]&ndash;]: The Structure of Power'', ]. ISBN 0333613864.
* ] ''Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The ] in the ] and ] Centuries'', ]. ISBN 0262140500.
*

]
]
{{1911}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Revision as of 09:26, 6 June 2005

This article refers to the Turkish empire. For the furniture piece, see Ottoman (furniture)
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu
Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye
Ottoman Coat of Arms
Ottoman Coat of Arms
Map of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power
Imperial motto El Muzaffer Daima The Ever Victorious (as written in tugra)
Official language Ottoman Turkish
Capital İstanbul (Constantinople/Asitane/Konstantiniyye )
Sovereigns Sultans of the Osmanli Dynasty
Population ca 40 million
Area 6.3m km² (1902); 19.9m km² maximum extent (1595)
Establishment 1299
Dissolution October 29 1923
Currency Akce, Kurus, Lira
Flag Flag of Turkey
The flag of the later Ottoman period
Part of the History of Turkey series

The Ottoman Empire (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu in Turkish) was an imperial power that existed from 1299 to 1923 (634 years), one of the largest empires to rule the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. At the height of its power, it included Anatolia, the Middle East, part of North Africa, and south-eastern Europe. It was established by a tribe of Oghuz Turks in western Anatolia and ruled by the Osmanlı dynasty. In diplomatic circles it was often referred to as the Sublime Porte or simply as the Porte, from the French translation of the Ottoman name Bâb-i-âlî "high gate", due to the greeting ceremony the sultan held for foreign ambassadors at the Palace Gate. This has also been interpreted as referring to the Empire's position as gateway between Europe and Asia. In its day, the Ottoman Empire was also commonly referred to as the Turkish Empire or Turkey, though it should not be confused with the modern nation-state of that name.

The Empire was founded by Osman I (in Arabic ʿUthmān, hence the name Ottoman Empire). In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities and the countries of Europe felt threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans. At its height, it comprised an area of over 19.9m km²—though much of this was under indirect control of the central government(see Main article: State organization of the Ottoman Empire) . From 1517 onwards, the Ottoman Sultan was also the Caliph of Islam, and the Ottoman Empire was from 1517 until 1922 (or 1924) synonymous with the Caliphate, the Islamic State. In 1453, after the Ottomans captured Constantinople (modern İstanbul) from the Byzantine Empire, it became the Ottoman capital. Following World War I, during which most of its territories were captured by the Allies, Ottoman elites established modern Turkey during the Turkish War of Independence.

History

Main article: History of the Ottoman Empire

File:Mehmedii.jpg
Mehmed II (the Conqueror)

The Ottoman State originated as a Beylik within the Seljuk Empire in the 13th century. In 1299, Osman I declared independence of the Ottoman Principality. Murad I was the first Ottoman to claim the title of sultan (king). With the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the state became a mighty empire with Mehmed II as its emperor. The Empire reached its apex under Suleiman I in the 16th century, when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the northwest, and from Egypt in the south to the Caucasus in the north. The Empire was situated in the middle of East and West and interacted throughout its six-century history with both the East and the West.

During this period, the Empire vied with the emerging European colonial powers in the Indian Ocean. Fleets with soldiers and arms were sent to support Muslim rulers in Kenya and Aceh and to defend the Ottoman slave and spice trade. In Aceh, the Ottomans built a fortress and supplied huge cannon. The Dutch Protestants were helped by the Ottomans against Catholic Spain.

In the 17th century, the Ottomans were weakened both internally and externally by costly wars, especially against Persia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia and Austria-Hungary. There was a long succession of sultans who were not as good as the generation of Mehmed II, Selim I and Suleyman I. The scientific advantage the Ottomans had over the other European countries also diminished. While the Ottomans were stagnating in a stalemate with their European and Asian neighbor countries, the European development went into overdrive. Eventually, after a defeat at the Battle of Vienna, in 1683, it was clear the Ottoman Empire was no longer the sole superpower in Europe. In 1699, for the first time in its history the Ottomans acknowledged that the Austrian empire could sign a treaty with the Ottomans on equal terms, and actually lost a large territory which had been in Ottoman possession for two centuries. Through a series of reforms, the empire continued to be one of the major political powers of Europe. The banking system was reformed and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. The Janissaries were disbanded, and a modern conscripted army was formed. Externally, the empire stopped going into conflicts alone, and started entering alliances like the other European countries. There was a series of alliances with countries such as France, Holland, Britain and Russia. A prime example of this was the Crimean war in which the English, French, Ottomans and others united against Russia. By the end of the 19th century the empire was weakened to a great extent. Economically, it had trouble paying the loans to the European banks. Militarily, it had trouble defending itself from foreign occupation (e.g. Egypt occupied by the French in 1798, Cyprus occupied by the British in 1876 etc.). Socially, the advent of nationalism and the yearning for democracy was making the population restless.

This eventually led to a series of military coups and counter coups, resulting in a constitutional monarchy, in which the sultan had little to no power and the Ittihad ve Terakki party was ruling the empire. The nationalistic policies of the Ittihad and Terakki party resulted in the secession of the Balkans in the Balkan war of 1910-12.

In a last-ditch effort to keep power in their hands by regaining at least some of the lost territories, the triumvirate led by Enver Pasha joined the Central Powers in World War I. The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war. The Allies, including the newly formed ANZACs were defeated in Gallipoli, Iraq and the Balkans, and some territories were regained. However, the Ottomans were eventually defeated by the Allies in the Balkans, Thrace, Syria, Palestine and Iraq and its territories were colonized by the victors. In the Caucasus there was a stalemate between the Ottomans and the Russians. The Russians used their advanced guns and cannons and out-maneuvered the Ottomans using their Armenian allies within the empire. The subsequent persecution of the Armenians is today viewed as genocide by most historians. Militarily the Ottomans made use of the mountainous terrain and the cold climate, launching a series of surprise attacks. The Russian forces retreated after the Communist revolution in Russia, resulting in Ottoman victory on this front. Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who had made his reputation earlier during the Gallipoli and Palestine campaigns, was offically sent from occupied Istanbul to take control of the victorius Caucasus army , and to disband it. This army was instrumental in winning the Turkish War of Independence (19181923), and the Republic of Turkey was founded on October 29, 1923 from the remnants of the fallen empire.

State organization

Main article: State organization of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman state organization was based on a hierarchy with the sultan, who was usually the Caliph at the top and below him his viziers, other court officials, and military commanders.

Culture

Main article: Culture of the Ottoman Empire

During the medieval age, the Ottoman Turks had a high tolerance of alien cultures and religions, especially as compared to the Christian West. Early on the Turks drove the Byzantines from Anatolia and later pursued them into Europe. But, as the Ottomans moved further west the Turkic leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of the conquered people. The alien culture was gradually added to the Turks' own, creating the characteristic Ottoman culture. After the capture of Constantinopole (later dubbed Istanbul) in 1453, most churches were left intact and only Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque. The Ottoman court life in many aspects resembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Byzantine and European influences. For centuries, the Ottoman Empire was the refuge of the Jews of Europe, who did not have the freedom of religion in Europe that the citizens of the Ottoman Empire did.

Military

Main article: Military of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called timars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The famous Janissary corps provided élite troops and bodyguards for the sultan. After the 17th century, however, the Ottomans could no longer produce a modern fighting force because of a lack of reforms, mainly because of the corrupted Janissaries. The abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826 was not enough, and in the war against Russia, the Ottoman Empire severely lacked modern weapons and technologies.

“The beginnings of legal reform in the Middle East were initiated in the ottoman empire in the middle of the nineteenth century through the promulgation of commercial and penal codes such as the Ottoman Commercial code (1850) and the Ottoman Penal code (1858).” (Haddad, Y.Y., Byron H. and Ellison F., Eds.)

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of the Ottoman Empire

At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire had 29 provinces plus three tributary principalities and Transsylvania, a kingdom which swore allegiance to the Porte.

Sultans

Main article: Osmanli Dynasty

The sultan, also known as the Padishah, in Europe sometimes the Grand Turk, was the sole regent and government of the empire, at least officially. The dynasty is most often called the Osmanli or the House of Osman. The sultan enjoyed many titles such as Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan of Khans, and from 1517 onwards, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe, i.e. Caliph, which theoretically also gave him overlordship over other Muslim rulers around the world. For example, among the Mughal Emperors of India, only Aurangzeb had the Khutba read in his own name. Note that the first rulers never called themselves sultan, but rather bey thereby acknowledging the sovereignety of the Seljuk sultanate and its successor the Ilkhanid sultanate. The sultan title was established by Murad I in 1383. See the article on State organisation of the Ottoman Empire for further information on the sultan and the structure of power.

Note: Although Abdul Mejid II was chosen as caliph in 1922, he was not a sultan, as the National Assembly had abolished the sultanate. The caliphate was abolished in turn in 1924.

External links

See also

References

Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domainChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Categories: