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'''Allegations of apartheid''' have been made, ], against societies beyond ] in the years since the international condemnation of the now dismantled ] system. Activists and political theorists have used the term "apartheid" to describe other perceived social or political ]. Apartheid has been used in compound phrases coined to compare actual or alleged forms of ], discrimination or disparity to South African Apartheid. '''Allegations of apartheid''' have been made, ], against societies beyond ] in the years since the international condemnation of the now dismantled ] system. Activists and political theorists have used the term "apartheid" to describe other perceived social or political ].


==History==
The term '''apartheid''' (meaning ''separateness'' in ]) referred to a system of segregation used in South Africa between 1947 and 1994 and "]", the political program of the now defunct ].

As a result of international attention and widespread opposition to the apartheid system in South Africa the concept of the ] was developed internationally and recognized in 1973 by the ] in the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid.<ref name="ICSPCA">{{cite web
|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/11.htm
|title=International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of ''Apartheid''
|author=United Nations
|date=30 November
|year=2006
|accessdaymonth=8 October
|accessyear=2006}}</ref> "As such, apartheid was declared to be a ], with a scope that went far beyond South Africa. While the crime of apartheid is most often associated with the racist policies of South Africa after 1947, the term more generally refers to racially based policies in any state."<ref>{{cite book
|title=The International Law Commission of the United Nations
|first=Jeffrey S.
|last=Morton
|year=2000
|publisher=University of South Carolina Press
|isbn=1570031703
|pages=27}}</ref> In light of South African Apartheid being dismantled by the end of 1993, legal scholars discussed whether the convention could be invoked by other victimized ].<ref>{{cite book
|title=Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy
|first=Jason S.
|last=Abrams
|coauthors=Steven Richard Ratner
|year=2001
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=0198298714
|pages=122-123}}</ref> The U.N. again defined the crime in the 2002 ], the treaty establishing the ].<ref name="rome_art5">{{cite web
|url=http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm#art.5
|title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Part 2, Article 5
|author=United Nations
|year=2002
|accessdaymonth=21 July
|accessyear=2007}}</ref>

==Alternate uses==
Activists and political theorists have adopted the term apartheid to describe other social or political discrimination.
The term apartheid has been used in the ] to allege systematic discrimination against ]s by ]; see '']''. In France the word apartheid has been used to describe the ] where Arab immigrants are not integrated with the general French population and live with inferior social services and housing.<ref name=Silverstein>Silverstein, Paul A. & Tetreault, Chantal., Civil Unrest in the French Suburbs, November 2005, ], June 11, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2007.</ref><ref name=Follath>"The truth is that certain French citizens are treated as second-class citizens, if not the leprous members of the national community. Their children are sent to ghetto schools and taught by inexperienced teachers, they are crammed into inhumane public housing developments, and they are confronted with an essentially closed job market. In short, they live in a bleak, devastated universe. France is disintegrating before our eyes into socio-economic communities, into territorial and social apartheid. The rich live in their own ghettos. Institutionalized racism is a daily reality." Follath, Erich. , '']'', November 16, 2005.</ref> ] has been used to describe the ] of the poor (who are mostly dark-skinned) from wealthier classes.<ref>Ladle, Jane. ''Insight Guides: Brazil'', American Map, 1999, p. 76.</ref> The term apartheid has been used in the ] to allege systematic discrimination against ]s by ]; see '']''. In France the word apartheid has been used to describe the ] where Arab immigrants are not integrated with the general French population and live with inferior social services and housing.<ref name=Silverstein>Silverstein, Paul A. & Tetreault, Chantal., Civil Unrest in the French Suburbs, November 2005, ], June 11, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2007.</ref><ref name=Follath>"The truth is that certain French citizens are treated as second-class citizens, if not the leprous members of the national community. Their children are sent to ghetto schools and taught by inexperienced teachers, they are crammed into inhumane public housing developments, and they are confronted with an essentially closed job market. In short, they live in a bleak, devastated universe. France is disintegrating before our eyes into socio-economic communities, into territorial and social apartheid. The rich live in their own ghettos. Institutionalized racism is a daily reality." Follath, Erich. , '']'', November 16, 2005.</ref> ] has been used to describe the ] of the poor (who are mostly dark-skinned) from wealthier classes.<ref>Ladle, Jane. ''Insight Guides: Brazil'', American Map, 1999, p. 76.</ref>


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Muslim countries accused of ] (see below) include ],<ref>, Women's Human Rights Resource Programme, ] ] Law Library.</ref> Iran,<ref> Phyllis Chesler, "", '']'', December 16, 2005</ref> ],<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4784784.stm</ref> and ].<ref name=Hanigsberg>"In 'From the Valley of the Chador,' Jan Goodwin (1994) discusses 'gender apartheid' in Saudi Arabia, unmasking a phenomenon that, she argues, has long been thought of as a 'personal problem' and revealing it to be a political issue that deserves attention from the international human rights community." Hanigsberg (1997), p. 76.</ref> Muslim countries accused of ] (see below) include ],<ref>, Women's Human Rights Resource Programme, ] ] Law Library.</ref> Iran,<ref> Phyllis Chesler, "", '']'', December 16, 2005</ref> ],<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4784784.stm</ref> and ].<ref name=Hanigsberg>"In 'From the Valley of the Chador,' Jan Goodwin (1994) discusses 'gender apartheid' in Saudi Arabia, unmasking a phenomenon that, she argues, has long been thought of as a 'personal problem' and revealing it to be a political issue that deserves attention from the international human rights community." Hanigsberg (1997), p. 76.</ref>

==Subtypes==
The word "apartheid" has been used in compound phrases coined to compare actual or alleged forms of segregation, discrimination or disparity to South African apartheid.

Terms such as "Islamic apartheid", "Muslim apartheid" or "]" have been used to describe discrimination against non-Muslims in Muslim countries.<ref>See, e.g., http://www.americanthinker.com/2006/12/islams_apartheid.html</ref> <ref> http://catholicinsight.com/online/culture/printer_691.shtml </ref> <ref> http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/minette_marrin/article589708.ece </ref> <ref> http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/Article.aspx?id=275 </ref><ref> http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/intlrel/hfa96357.000/hfa96357_0.HTM</ref> "]" (or "sexual apartheid") has been used to describe ] and ]<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,580180,00.html</ref><ref>http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jan1978/v34-4-article6.htm</ref>, particularly ].<ref> Phyllis Chesler, "", '']'', December 16, 2005</ref> The term "sexual apartheid" has also been used to describe discrimination against gays and lesbians.<ref>http://www.petertatchell.net/discrimination/discrimination%20-%20sexual%20apartheid.htm</ref><ref>http://www.scottishgreens.org.uk/site/id/3927/title/CIVIL_PARTNERSHIPS_BILL_DOES_NOT_END_SEXUAL_APARTHEID.html</ref>

"]" has been used by advocates for the developing world, including ] ], to describe what they believe is an "international system of minority rule"<ref> http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/africa/08/26/summit.opening.glb/</ref> and the disparity between a minority of the world's population in developed countries and the rest of the world.<ref>
* by Salih Booker and William Minter in '']'', ] ]
* resources from the Africa Action website.
* by ].
* by ]
* from the from the ]</ref>

Disparities between rich and poor in various countries has been described as ], ] or economic apartheid, particularly in countries where the poor are more likely to have darker skin than the rich<ref></ref> or in European countries to describe the disparity and perceived ghettoization of Muslim immigrants.<ref></ref>

The lack of access of many of the world's poor to clean water has been called "water apartheid" <ref>Lyon, David. , '']'', November 9, 2006.</ref> while the government of Iran has used the term "nuclear apartheid" to denounce international attempts to stop ].<ref>, Aljazeera, December 26, 2005.</ref> <ref>, News24.com, November 30, 2005.</ref>


==Countries whose practices have been compared to apartheid== ==Countries whose practices have been compared to apartheid==

Revision as of 04:29, 16 September 2007

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Allegations of apartheid have been made, informally, against societies beyond South Africa in the years since the international condemnation of the now dismantled South African apartheid system. Activists and political theorists have used the term "apartheid" to describe other perceived social or political discrimination.

The term apartheid has been used in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to allege systematic discrimination against Palestinians by Israel; see allegations of Israeli apartheid. In France the word apartheid has been used to describe the social situation in the French suburbs where Arab immigrants are not integrated with the general French population and live with inferior social services and housing. Social apartheid in Brazil has been used to describe the social segregation of the poor (who are mostly dark-skinned) from wealthier classes.

Other countries whose practices have been compared to apartheid include Australia for its White Australia policy and treatment of aborigines, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Canada for its treatment of native peoples, the People's Republic of China in regards to the Hukou pass system for peasant population, as well as Tibet. Cuba has been accused of practicing tourist apartheid, India for its caste system which has been described as a "hidden apartheid," Jordan for its nationality law which excludes Jews from citizenship and its two-tiered citizenship system in general, New Zealand for allegedly giving preferential treatment to Maoris, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, the Baltic states of the former Soviet Union, the Crimea, Sri Lanka, as well as the proposed state of Tamil Eelam, and the United Kingdom.

Muslim countries accused of gender apartheid (see below) include Afghanistan, Iran, Malaysia, and Saudi Arabia.

Countries whose practices have been compared to apartheid

See also

References

  1. Silverstein, Paul A. & Tetreault, Chantal."Postcolonial Urban Apartheid", Civil Unrest in the French Suburbs, November 2005, Social Science Research Council, June 11, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2007.
  2. "The truth is that certain French citizens are treated as second-class citizens, if not the leprous members of the national community. Their children are sent to ghetto schools and taught by inexperienced teachers, they are crammed into inhumane public housing developments, and they are confronted with an essentially closed job market. In short, they live in a bleak, devastated universe. France is disintegrating before our eyes into socio-economic communities, into territorial and social apartheid. The rich live in their own ghettos. Institutionalized racism is a daily reality." Follath, Erich. Tariq Ramadan on the crisis in France, Salon.com, November 16, 2005.
  3. Ladle, Jane. Insight Guides: Brazil, American Map, 1999, p. 76.
  4. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/177.html
  5. http://www.jcu.edu.au/aff/history/articles/limb.htm
  6. Steele, JonathanToday's Bosnia: a dependent, stifled, apartheid regime. The Guardian, November 11, 2005.
  7. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/series/apartheid/stories/introduction.html
  8. http://collections.ic.gc.ca/magic/mt3.html
  9. Luard, Tim. , BBC News, November 10, 2005.
  10. United States Congressional Serial Set, United States Government Printing Office, 1993, p. 110.
  11. ° "One of the most disconcerting aspects of contemporary Cuba is the government's creation of exclusive 'foreigner-only' tourism zones where Cuban nationals aren't welcome. Effectively, there are two Cubas, a reality that reeks of something akin to tourism apartheid, as many observers have noted.", Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
  12. http://www.unesco.org/courier/2001_09/uk/doss22.htm
  14. Davis, Uri (1997). Citizenship and the State: A Comparative Study of Citizenship Legislation in Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 7. ISBN 0863722180.
  15. "In the 1950s and 1960s the National government occasionally talked of abolishing the Maori seats. Some politicians described special representation as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa." , Elections New Zealand website, April 9 2005. Retrieved November 3, 2006.
  16. , Scoop, Jun 15, 2000.
  18. "US Congressman Urging Independence for PR Lives Paradox". San Juan Star. February 12, 1999. Retrieved 2007-7-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  19. http://www.finalcall.com/perspectives/who_is_black07-10-2001.htm
  20. Template:Ru icon Apartheid in Latvia (1996)
  21. Template:Ru icon Apartheid with Baltic flavor (2004)
  22. Template:Ru icon Latvia discontinues Russian language education in schools (2003)
  23. Template:Ru icon "Soft Apartheid" is flourishing in Crimea (2006)
  24. The Devolution Law of Sri Lanka "A Critique", Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity, publication no. 25b.
  25. The Devolution Law of Sri Lanka "A Critique", Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity, publication no. 25b.
  26. "Blair: Guantánamo is an anomaly", The Guardian, February 17, 2006.
  27. , Women's Human Rights Resource Programme, University of Toronto Bora Laskin Law Library.
  28. Phyllis Chesler, "", FrontPageMagazine.com, December 16, 2005
  29. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4784784.stm
  30. "In 'From the Valley of the Chador,' Jan Goodwin (1994) discusses 'gender apartheid' in Saudi Arabia, unmasking a phenomenon that, she argues, has long been thought of as a 'personal problem' and revealing it to be a political issue that deserves attention from the international human rights community." Hanigsberg (1997), p. 76.
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