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The history of Islam in the United States starts in the 18th century, with the first Muslim visitors. Once very small, the Muslim population has increased greatly in the last one hundred years: How much it has increased is unclear; there is much controversy over recent estimates of the Muslim population in the U.S. Much of the growth has been driven by immigration. Up to one-third of American Muslims are African Americans who have converted to Islam during the last seventy years, first into the Nation of Islam and then into mainstream Sunni Islam. Conversion to Islam in U.S. prisons has also contributed to its growth over the years.

Research indicates that Muslims in the United States are generally more assimilated and prosperous than Muslims in Europe. However surveys also suggest that they are less assimilated than other American subcultural and religious communities. There are many Islamic political and charity organizations supporting this community. Some of these organizations have come under considerable criticism for supporting Islamist agendas.

Muslim immigration to the U.S. is rising and in 2005 alone more people from Muslim countries became legal permanent United States residents — nearly 96,000 — than in any year in the previous two decades. In fiscal year 2006 just 202 refugees from Iraq were allowed to resettle in the United States.

History

The History of Islam in the United States is divided into three periods: the pre-Columbian and colonization period, post World War I period, and the last few decades.

Early Muslims hypotheses

Author Cleve Hallenbeck has suggested that Estevanico of Azamor, a slave servant aboard the Spanish exlorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca's expeditions to America in the 16th century could have been a Moor based on a description of Estevanico in Alvar Nunez's journal using the spanish world "negro alarabe" ( black arabe or uncivilized or brutal"). Cabeza de Vaca landed in Florida in 1527, where most of his party perished save for four , one of which was Estevanico . De Vaca and Estevanico were enslaved by Indians in 1530 for the next 6 years and finally escaped in 1936. In 1539, Estevanico was purchased by the explorer Mendoza and used as a guide during his explorations of Arizona and New Mexico.

Amadou Mahtar suggests that in 1587, a shipload of Moriscos landed and settled in the coastal towns of South Carolina, Eastern Tennessee and along the western belt of North Carolina mountains.

In 1790, the South Carolina legislative body granted a special statute to a community of Moroccans, as the Sultan of Morocco had recognized the United States in 1777. Morocco was the first nation to recognize the United States of America. In 1796, then president John Adams signed a treaty declaring the United States had no "character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen".

In 1888, Alexander Russell Webb is considered by historians to be the earliest prominent Anglo-American convert to Islam. In 1893, he was the only person representing Islam at the first Parliament for the World's Religions.

Slaves

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Records of the slave trade shed very little information as to the origins of slaves and the differences among them but some contemporary authors have suggested that a percentage of slaves that came to America must have at least had some knowledge of the existence of Islam. Estimates of the percentages of Muslim slaves purchased from Arab Slave traders as a total of the whole vary from 10-20%. Slaves first arrived in what is now the United States during the 1520's. Some of these came from Senegambia, a region which had some Muslims inhabitants . Two of the best known early Muslims are West Africa slaves: Ayuba Suleiman Diallo, who was brought to America in 1731 and returned to Africa in 1734, and Omar Ibn Said in the mid 19th century.

Slightly over 50 percent of Africans imported to North America came from areas in which Islam was at least a religion of the minority. Thus, no less than 200,000 of the 400,000-523,000 slaves imported came from areas influenced by Islam. Michael A. Gomez suggests that many non-Muslim slaves were acquainted with some portion of the tenets of Islam, due to Muslim trading and proselytizing activities.

There exists evidence that Muslim slaves, despite living in a society hostile to slaves, assembled communal prayers. In some cases Muslim slaves were provided a private praying area bby their owner. Bilali, a notorious Muslim slave, is known to have fasted, wear a fez and kaftan and observe the Muslim feasts in addition to his prayers. Many Muslim slaves conversed in the Arabic language. Some even wrote literature (such as an autobiographies) and chapters from the Quran.

There exists evidence that Muslim slaves, despite living in a society hostile to slaves, assembled communal prayers. In some cases Muslim slaves were provided a private praying area bby their owner. Bilali, a notorious Muslim slave, is known to have fasted, wear a fez and kaftan and observe the Muslim feasts in addition to his prayers. Many Muslim slaves conversed in the Arabic language. Some even wrote literature (such as an autobiographies) and chapters from the Quran.

There were, however, many impediments to this observation of religious rituals. For example, a white boy threw dirt at Ayub Sulayman's face after he caught him praying. Sulayman, however, was eventualy provided with a private place to pray by his master.

Modern immigration

Small scale migration to the U.S. of Muslims began in 1840, with the arrival of Yemenites and Turks, and lasted until World war I. Most of the immigrants, from Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire, came with the purpose of making money and returning to their homeland. The economic hardships of 19th century America, however, prevented them from prospering. As a result the immigrants permanently settled. These immigrants setteld primarily in dearborn (Michigan), Quincy (Massachussets) and Rose (North Dakota).

In 1915, what is most likely the first mosque, was founded by Albanian Muslims in Maine. Construction of mosques sped up in the 1920s and 1930s, and by 1952, there were over 20 mosques.

• 1907 Immigrants from Poland, Russia, and Lithuania founded the first Muslim organization in New York City.

• 1934 The first building built specifically to be a mosque is established in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

Although the first mosque was established in the U.S. in 1915, relatively few mosques were founded before the 1960s. Eighty-seven percent of mosques in the U.S. were founded within the last three decades according to the Faith Communities Today (FACT) survey. California has more mosques than any other state.

Mosques

Mosque (or "masjid" in Arabic) are usually explicitly Sunni or Shi'a. The mosque is often run by an elected board that hires or fires the imam and decides which national Islamic federation(s) to support. The influence of Saudi Arabia and the Wahabi school of Islam on Muslims in the United States has caused concern.

In many areas, a mosque may be dominated by whatever group of immigrants is the largest. Sometimes the Friday sermons, or khutbahs, are given in languages like Urdu or Arabic rather than English. Areas with large Muslim populations may support a number of mosques serving different immigrant groups or varieties of belief within Sunni or Shi'a traditions.

At present, many mosques are served by imams imported from overseas, as only these imams have certificates from Muslim seminaries. This sometimes leads to conflict between the congregation and an imam who speaks little English and has little understanding of American culture. Some American Muslims have founded seminaries in the US in an attempt to prevent such problems.

Demographics

There is no accurate count of the number of Muslims in the United States, as the U.S. Census Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. There is an on-going debate as to the true size of the Muslim population in the US. Various institutions and organizations have given widely varying estimates about how many Muslims live in the US. The following are a few recent studies:

• 1.1 million (2001) City University of New York - American Religious Identification Survey
• 1.6 million (2000) Glenmary Research Center
• 1.9 million (2001) American Jewish Committee
• 2.0 million (2000) Hartford Institute for Religious Research
• 2.4 million (2007) Pew Research Center.
• 4.7 million (2005) Encyclopædia Britannica Book of the Year
• 6.7 million (1997) J. Ilyas Ba-Yunus
• (2002) CIA World Factbook

Population estimates have been controversial, with a number of academic researchers, including Tom Smith, responsible for the University of Chicago study, being explicitly critical of the survey methodologies that have led to high estimates. Some journalists have alleged that numbers have been inflated for political purposes.

There are only 1,209 mosques in the United States , meaning that each mosque, if there are actually five million Muslims in the U.S., would serve nearly 4,200 Muslims.. However, the nation's largest mosque, Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan was rebuilt in 2005 to accommodate over 3,000 Muslims for the increasing Muslim population in the region.

The Council on American-Islamic Relations states that, in their opinion, no scientific count of Muslims in the U.S. has been done, but that six to seven million is the figure that they provide. They do not provide the reasoning or analysis behind the figure See the CAIR article for a more detailed account of one particular controversy, over the six million estimate by that organization. Another example of a controversial estimate is the one from William B. Milam, the former U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, where he claims that "the Muslim community in the U.S. numbers some 7 million and is thriving". No scientific study backed up the claim and he estimated six million merely one year before. Milam admits in the speech that "I am not a scholar, and I do not wish to engage in debate with scholars on the nature of Islam."

Some Muslim groups, however, say that the recent independent studies and surveys have undercounted the Muslim population. Undercounts are due, they say, to Islamophobia, Muslim fear of revealing their faith in a survey, and the fact that many Muslims identify themselves as Muslims but do not attend mosques.

Ethnicity and Nationality

The 2007 Pew survey of Muslim Americans finds two-thirds of the Muslim-Americans are foreign-born. Among the foreign-born, most have immigrated since 1990. Of the roughly one-third of Muslim-Americans that are native-born, the majority are converts and African-American. In 2005, according to the New York Times, more people from Muslim countries became legal permanent United States residents — nearly 96,000 — than in any year in the previous two decades.

According to a CAIR survey, regular Sunni mosque attendees come from the following backgrounds: South Asian (33%), African-American (30%), Arab (25%), African (3.4%), European (2.1%), White American (1.6%), Southeast Asian (1.3%), Caribbean (1.2%), Turkish (1.1%), Iranian (0.7%), and Hispanic/Latino (0.6%).

Geographic Distribution

A map prepared by the Harvard Pluralism Project, shows the distribution of mosques/masjids in the United States. Another map from Valparaiso University shows an estimation of the Muslim populations per county, noting heavy concentrations of Muslim Americans in the Washington-Boston corridor, Houston, and southern California.

Islam in US Prisons

In addition to immigration, the state, federal and local prisons of the United States may be a major contributor to the phenomenal growth of Islam in the country. Although America has around 1-2% Muslims in all, official estimates suggest that the percentage of Muslim inmates is 15-20% of the prison population. Roughly 80% of the prisoners who "find faith" while in prison convert to Islam. The population of Muslim inmates has reached approximately 350,000 (in 2003) with 30,000-40,000 added each year. These converted inmates are mostly African American with a small but growing Hispanic minority. According to Dr. Michael Waller radical Islamist groups, suspected by the U.S. government of being closely linked to terrorism, dominate Muslim prison recruitment in the U.S. and seek to create a radicalized cadre of felons who will support their anti-American efforts.

Variety of Islamic traditions

Within the Muslim community in the United States there exist a number of different traditions. As in the rest of the world, the Sunni Muslims are in the majority. The Shi'a Muslims, especially those in the Iranian immigrant community, are also active in community affairs. All four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence fiqh are found among the Sunni community. Some Muslims in the US are also adherents of certain global movements within Islam such as the Salafi/Wahabi, the Muslim Brotherhood, and the Tablighi Jamaat, as well as movements which most Muslims would consider non-Muslim, such as Jama'at Ahmadiyya or the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement or Louis Farrakhan's Nation of Islam.

Assimilation

According to a 2004 telephone survey of a sample of 1846 Muslims conducted by the polling organization Zogby the respondents were more educated and affluent than the national average, with 59% of them holding at least an undergraduate college degree. Citing the Zogby survey, a 2005 Wall Street Journal editorial, by Bret Stephens and Joseph Rago expressed the tendency of American Muslims to report employment in professional fields, with one in three having an income over $75,000 a year. The editorial also characterized American Muslims as "role models both as Americans and as Muslims".

Unlike many Muslims in Europe, American Muslims do not tend to feel marginalized or isolated from political participation. Several organizations were formed by the American Muslim community to serve as 'critical consultants' on U.S. policy regarding Iraq and Afghanistan. Other groups have worked with law enforcement agencies to point out Muslims within the United States that they suspect of fostering 'intolerant attitudes'. Still others have worked to invite interfaith dialogue and improved relations between Muslim and non-Muslim Americans.

Some progressive Muslims press for more accommodations to the surrounding society. For instance, they want mosques re-designed to make them more woman-friendly; they believe that women can be imams, that is, lead the congregation in prayer .

There are also those Muslims who feel that U.S. Muslims are lukewarm in their faith, and press for even more stringent observance of halal rules, male-female segregation, hijab, daily prayer, fasting, etc.

Growing Muslim populations have also caused public agencies to adapt to their religious practices. Airports such as the Indianapolis International Airport, Phoenix's Sky Harbor International Airport as well as the Kansas City International Airport have installed foot-baths to allow Muslims, particularly taxicab drivers who service the airports, to perform their religious ablutions in a safe and sanitary manner. In addition, Denver International Airport included a masjid as part of its Interfaith Chapel when opened in 1996.

Organizations

There are many Islamic organizations in the U.S.

• The largest of these groups is the American Society of Muslims (ASM), the successor organization to the Nation of Islam, once better-known as the Black Muslims. The American Society Of Muslims accepts the leadership of Warith Deen Muhammad. This group has evolved from the Black separatist Nation (or Temples) of Islam (1930-1975). This has been a twenty-three year process of religious reorientation and organizational decentralization, in the course of which the group was known by other names, such as the American Muslim Mission. It is not clear just how many Americans belong to the ASM. The vast majority of ASM adherents are African Americans. It should be noted that the original Nation of Islam beliefs differed sharply from traditional Islam in that they did not recognize Muhammad as God's final Prophet.

• The second largest group is the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA). ISNA is an association of Muslim organizations and individuals that provides a common platform for presenting Islam. It is mostly comprised of immigrants as well as some Caucasian, and small group of African American converts. Its membership may have recently exceeded ASM as many independent Mosques throughout the United States are choosing to affiliate with it. ISNA's annual convention is the largest gathering of Muslims within the United States. The organization has been criticized for spreading Wahhabist teachings (e.g. in prisons) and for having alleged connections to terrorism.

• The third largest group is the Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA). ICNA describes itself as a non-ethnic, open to all, independent, North America-wide, grass-roots organization. It is mostly comprised of immigrants and some Caucasian, and African American converts. It also is growing as various independent Mosques throughout the United States join. It also may be larger than ASM at the present moment. Its youth division is Young Muslims

• The Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA) represents many Muslims. Its stated aims include providing practical solutions for American Muslims, based on the traditional Islamic legal rulings of an international advisory board, many of whom are recognized as the highest ranking Islamic scholars in the world. ISCA strives to integrate traditional scholarship in resolving contemporary issues affecting the maintenance of Islamic beliefs in a modern, secular society.

• The Islamic Assembly of North America (IANA) is a leading Muslim organization in the United States. According to its website, among the goals of IANA is to "unify and coordinate the efforts of the different dawah oriented organizations in North America and guide or direct the Muslims of this land to adhere to the proper Islamic methodology." In order to achieve its goals, IANA uses a number of means and methods including conventions, general meetings, dawah-oriented institutions and academies, etc.

• The Muslim Student Association (MSA) is a group dedicated, by its own description, to Islamic societies on college campuses in Canada and the United States for the good of Muslim students. The MSA is involved in providing Muslims on various campuses the opportunity to practice their religion and to ease and facilitate such activities. MSA is also involved in social activities, such as fund raisers for the homeless during Ramadan. The founders of MSA would later establish the Islamic Society of North America and Islamic Circle of North America.

• The Islamic Information Center (IIC) is a "grass-roots" organization that has been formed for the purpose of informing the public, mainly through the media, about the real image of Islam and Muslims. The IIC is run by chairman, (Hojatul-Islam) Imam Syed Rafiq Naqvi, various committees, and supported by volunteers.

Political

Muslim political organizations lobby on behalf of various Muslim political interests. Organizations such as the American Muslim Council are actively engaged in upholding human and civil rights for all Americans.

• The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) is the United States largest Muslim civil rights and advocacy group, originally established to promote a positive image of Islam and Muslims in America. CAIR portrays itself as the voice of mainstream, moderate Islam on Capitol Hill and in political arenas throughout the United States. It has aggressively condemned all acts of terrorism, and has been working in collaboration with the White House in "issues of safety and foreign policy." The group has been criticized for alleged links to Islamist terrorism, but its leadership strenuously denies any involvement with such activities.

• The Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC) is an American Muslim public service & policy organization headquartered in Los Angeles and with offices in Washington D.C. MPAC was founded in 1988. The mission of MPAC "encompasses promoting an American Muslim identity, fostering an effective grassroots organization, and training a future generation of men and women to share our vision. MPAC also works to promote an accurate portrayal of Islam and Muslims in mass media and popular culture, educating the American public (both Muslim and non-Muslim) about Islam, building alliances with diverse communities and cultivating relationships with opinion- and decision-makers."

• The American Islamic Congress is a small but growing moderate Muslim organization that promotes religious pluralism. Their official Statement of Principles states that "Muslims have been profoundly influenced by their encounter with America. American Muslims are a minority group, largely comprising African-Americans, immigrants, and children of immigrants, who have prospered in America's climate of religious tolerance and civil rights. The lessons of our unprecedented experience of acceptance and success must be carefully considered by our community." Their Statement of Principles describes their full agenda.

• The Free Muslims Coalition was created to eliminate broad base support for Islamic extremism and terrorism and to strengthen secular democratic institutions in the Middle East and the Muslim World by supporting Islamic reformation efforts.

Charity

In addition to the organizations just listed, other Muslim organizations in the United States serve more specific needs. For example, some organizations focus almost exclusively on charity work. As a response to a crackdown on Muslim charity organizations working overseas such as the Holy Land Foundation, more Muslims have begun to focus their charity efforts within the United States.

• Inner-City Muslim Action Network (IMAN) is one of the leading Muslim charity organizations in the United States. According to the Inner-City Muslim Action Network, IMAN seeks "to utilize the tremendous possibilities and opportunities that are present in the community to build a dynamic and vibrant alternative to the difficult conditions of inner city life." IMAN sees understanding Islam as part of a larger process to empower individuals and communities to work for the betterment of humanity.

• Islamic Relief USA is the American branch of Islamic Relief Worldwide, an international relief and development organization. Their stated goal is “to alleviate the suffering, hunger, illiteracy and diseases worldwide without regard to color, race or creed.” They focus of development projects; emergency relief projects, such as providing aid to victims of Hurricane Katrina; orphans projects; and seasonal projects, such as food distributions during the month of Ramadan. They provide aid internationally and in the United States.

Other

With the growth of Islam within the United States, Muslims with similar interests and ideas have organized for various purposes. Among the types of Muslim organizations that exist are those for entertainment purposes as well as for professionals, such as doctors and engineers. The most well-known organization for Muslims within the medical profession is the Islamic Medical Association of North America (IMANA). The largest Muslim organizations for women is the Muslim Women's League.

American Muslims can be found in all professions in the United States. Muslim doctors, lawyers, teachers, and businessmen serve large and small communities. Muslims have made contributions to the cultural, scientific, political, and economic life of the United States. For more information on American Muslims and their contribution within the United States, see List of American Muslims.

Views of America and Islam

American populace's view on Islam

A nationwide survey conducted in 2003 by the Pew Research Center and the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life reported that the percentage of Americans with an unfavorable view of Islam increased by one percentage point between 2002 and 2003 to 34%, and then by another two percentage points in 2005 to 36%. At the same time the percentage responding that Islam was more likely than other religion to encourage violence fell from 44% in July 2003 to 36% in July 2005.

The July 2005 Pew surve also showed that 59% of American adults view Islam as "very different from their religion," down one percentage point from 2003. In the same survey 55% had a favorable opinion of Muslim Americans, up four percentage points from 51% in July 2003. A December 2004 Cornell University survey shows that 47% of Americans believe that the Islamic religion is more likely than others to encourage violence amongst its believers.

A CBS April 2006 poll showed that, in terms of faiths

• 58% of Americans have favorable attitudes toward Protestantism/Other Christians
• 48% favorable toward Catholicism
• 47% favorable toward Judaism
• 31% favorable toward Christian fundamentalism
• 20% favorable toward Mormonism
• 19% favorable toward Islam
• 8% favorable toward Scientology

The Pew survey shows that, in terms of adherents

• 77% of Americans have favorable opinions of Jews
• 73% favorable of Catholics
• 57% favorable of "evangelical Christians"
• 55% favorable of Muslims
• 35% favorable of Atheists

According to a July 2007 Newsweek survey of Americans,

• 32% believe that American Muslims are less loyal to the U.S. (40% believe they are as loyal to the U.S. as to Islam)
• 63% believe that American Muslims do not condone violence.
• 28% believe that the Koran condones violence (40% believe it doesn't)
• 41% believe that Muslim culture glorifies suicide
• 46% believe that America has too many Muslim immigrants.

American Muslims' views of the United States

In a 2007 survey titled Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream, the Pew Research Center found Muslim Americans to be

largely

assimilated, happy with their lives, and moderate with respect to many of the issues that

have divided Muslims and Westerners around the world.

47% of respondents said they considered themselves Muslims first and Americans second. However, this was compared to 81% of British Muslims and 69% of German Muslims, when asked the equivalent question. A similar disparity exists in income, the percentage of American Muslims living in poverty is 2% higher than the general population, compared to an 18% disparity for French Muslims and 29% difference for Spanish Muslims.

Politically, American Muslims were both pro-larger government and socially conservative. For example, 70% of respondents preferred a bigger government providing more services, while 61% stated that homosexuality should be discouraged by society. Despite their social conservatism, 71% of American Muslims expressed a preference for the Democratic Party.

The same poll also reported that only 40 percent of U.S. Muslims believe that Arabs carried out the 9/11 attacks. Another 28 percent don't believe it - and 32 percent said they had no view. Among 28 percent who doubted that Arabs were behind the conspiracy, one-fourth of those claim the U.S. government or President George W. Bush was responsible. Only 26 percent of American Muslims believe the U.S.-led war on terror is a sincere effort to root out international terrorism. Five percent of those surveyed had a "very favorable" or "somewhat favorable" view of the terrorist group Al-Qaeda. Only 35% of American Muslims stated that the decision for military action in Afghanistan was the right one and just 12% supported the use of military force in Iraq.

American Muslim life after the September 11, 2001 attacks

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, there were occasional attacks on some Muslims living in the U.S., although this was restricted to a small minority.

In a 2007 survey, 53% of American Muslims reported that it was more difficult to be a Muslim after the 9/11 attacks. Asked to name the most important problem facing them, the options named by more than ten percent of American Muslims were discrimination (19%), being viewed as a terrorist (15%), public's ignorance about Islam (13%), and stereotyping (12%). 54% believe that the U.S. government's anti-terrorism activities single out Muslims. 76% of surveyed Muslim Americans stated that they are very or somewhat concerned about the rise of Islamic extremism around the world, while 61% express a similar concern about the possibility of Islamic extremism in the United States.

On a small number of occasions Muslim women who wore distinctive hijab were harassed, causing some Muslim women to stay at home, while others temporarily abandoned the practice. While 51% of American Muslims express worry that women wearing hijab will be treated poorly, 44% of American Muslim women who always wear hijab express a similar concern. Yet many other Americans have expressed a rejection of such prejudice. In one city, women of various faiths all started wearing headscarves, so that Muslim women could not be singled out. In several cities, concerned neighbors patrolled mosques to prevent arson and vandalism. Many Americans have spoken out against anti-Muslim prejudice.

Controversy and criticism

Some Muslim Americans have been criticized for letting their religious beliefs affect their ability to act within mainstream American value systems. Muslim cab drivers in Minneapolis, Minnesota have been criticized for refusing passengers for carrying alcoholic beverages or dogs including disabled passengers with guide dogs. The airport authority has threatened to revoke the operating authority of any driver caught discriminating in this manner. There are reported incidents in which Muslim cashiers have refused to sell pork products to their clientèle.

Public institutions in the U.S. have also been criticized for accommodating Islam at the expense of taxpayers. The University of Michigan-Dearborn and a public college in Minnesota have been criticized for accommodating Islamic prayer rituals by constructing footbaths for Muslim students using tax payers money. Critics claim this exception which is made only for Muslims, is a violation of Constitutional provisions separating church and state.Along the same constitutional lines, a San Diego public elementary school is being criticized for making special accommodations specifically for American Muslims by adding Arabic to its curriculum and giving breaks for Muslim prayers. Since these exceptions have not been made for any religious group in the past, some critics see this as an endorsement of Islam

The first American Muslim Congressman, Keith Ellison, created controversy when he compared President George W. Bush's actions after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks to Adolf Hitler's actions after the Reichstag fire, suggesting that Bush was exploiting 9/11 for political gain.

The 2008 Pew poll reported that 15% of American Muslims under the age of 30 supported suicide bombings against civilian targets in at least some circumstances, while a further 11 percent said it could be "rarely justified." Among those over the age of 30, just 6% expressed their support for the same. (9% of Muslims over 30 and 5% under 30 chose not to answer). Only 5% of American Muslims had a favorable view of al-Qaeda.

The Pentagon's view on Islam

The relevance of particular information in (or previously in) this article or section is disputed. The information may have been removed or included by an editor as a result. Please see discussion on the talk page considering whether its inclusion is warranted.

According to Paul Sperry, the Pentagon has also criticized Islam at least on one occasion. He writes that after a detailed project undertaken to study Islam, Quran and Hadiths, the Pentagon has concluded that "Islam is an ideological engine of war (Jihad)." In its briefing paper titled "Motivations of Muslim Suicide Bombers", the Pentagon has concluded that "Suicide in defense of Islam is permitted, and the Islamic suicide bomber is, in the main, a rational actor. The bomber secures salvation and the pleasures of Paradise where 'beautiful mansions' and 'maidens' await him." It also describes 'Zakat' the Muslim charity as "an asymmetrical war-fighting funding mechanism." The paper also says that the actions of Prophet Muhammed could be considered quite radical by today's standards.

Saudi influence in mosques

The influence of Saudi Arabia and the Wahabi school of Islam on Muslims in the United States has caused concern. According to an article in the Washington Post, "backed by money from Saudi Arabia, Wahhabis have built or taken over hundreds of mosques in North America and opened branches of Saudi universities here for the training of imams as part of the effort to spread their beliefs, which are intolerant of Christianity, Judaism and even other strains of Islam."

Disaffected Muslims in the US

Some Muslims in the US have adopted the strident anti-American rhetoric common in many Muslim-majority countries. In some cases, these are recent immigrants who have carried their anti-American sentiments with them. The Egyptian cleric, Omar Abdel-Rahman is now serving a jail sentence for his involvement in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. He had a long history of involvement with Islamist and jihadi groups before arriving in the US.

There is an openly anti-American Muslim group in the U.S. The Islamic Thinkers Society , found only in New York City, engages in leafleting and picketing to spread their viewpoint.

Young, immigrant Muslims feel more frustrated and exposed to prejudice than their parents are. Because most U.S. Muslims are raised conservatively – and won't consider rebelling through sex or drugs – many experiment with their faith shows a poll, dated June 7 2007.

At least one non-immigrant American, John Walker Lindh, has also been imprisoned or convicted on charges of serving in the Taliban army and carrying weapons against US soldiers. He had converted to Islam in the U.S., moved to Yemen to study Arabic, and thence went to Pakistan where he was recruited by the Taliban.

It had also been noted that a growing form of Islam in US prisons pushes these same radicalized anti-American agendas. Commentators have pointed out that inmates are good targets for radicalized groups pushing these agendas because many of them are already dissatisfied with the system that has jailed them. To this end experts have testified that this situation causes a threat to security since it enables groups who engage in terrorism to recruit new members amongst the prison population.

Other notable cases include:

• The Lackawanna Six: Shafal Mosed, Yahya Goba, Sahim Alwan, Mukhtar Al-Bakri, Yasein Taher, Elbaneh Jaber. Six Muslims from the Lackawanna, N.Y. area were charged and convicted for providing material support to al Qaeda.
• Iyman Faris In October 2003, Iyman Faris was sentenced to 20 years in prison for providing material support and resources to al Qaeda and conspiracy for providing the terrorist organization with information about possible U.S. targets for attack.
• Ahmed Omar Abu Ali In November 2005, he was convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison for providing material support and resources to al Qaeda, conspiracy to assassinate the President of the United States, conspiracy to commit air piracy and conspiracy to destroy aircraft.
• Ali Al-Timimi was convicted and sentenced in April 2005 to life in prison for recruiting Muslims in the US to fight U.S. troops in Afghanistan.

Prominent critics of American Islamic radicalism

• Daniel Pipes, Steven Emerson and Robert Spencer have suggested that a segment of the U.S. Muslim population exhibit hate and a wish for violence towards the US.

• Muslim journalist Stephen Schwartz, American Jewish Committee terrorism expert Yehudit Barsky, and US Senator Charles Schumer have all separately testified to a growing radical Islamist Wahhabi influence in U.S. mosques, financed by extremist groups. According to Barsky 80% of US mosques are so radicalized. In an effort to address this extremist influence, ISNA has implemented assorted programs and guidelines in order to help mosques identify and counter any such individuals.

Responses to criticism

• Peter Bergen claims that Islamism is adopted by a minority of US Muslims, saying that a "vast majority of American Muslims have totally rejected the Islamist ideology of Osama Bin Laden".

• International Institute of Islamic Thought Director of Research Louay M. Safi has questioned the motives of several noted critics, alleging that members of what he terms the "extreme right" are exploiting security concerns to further various Islamophobic objectives.

See also

• List of American Muslims
• Western Muslims
• List of Muslims
• Timeline of Islamic history
• List of Islamic and Muslim related topics
• List of Iranian Americans
• Black Muslims
• Latino Muslims

Notes

1. Queen, Edward L., Stephen Prothero and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr. 1996. The Encyclopedia of American Religious History. New York: Facts on File.
2. http://judiciary.senate.gov/testimony.cfm?id=960&wit_id=2719
3. Zogby phone survey
4. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-09/Muslims2006-09-10-voa17.cfm?CFID=153038052&CFTOKEN=81586870 Voice of America
5. http://www.abpnews.com/2176.article
6. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=6579
7. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=19191
8. Moore, Art (April 14, 2005). "CAIR leader convicted on terror charges". WorldNetDaily. Retrieved 2007-05-06. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
9. Muslim immigration has bounced back
10. Migration Information Source - The People Perceived as a Threat to Security: Arab Americans Since September 11
11. "Iraq refugees find no refuge in America." By Ann McFeatters. Seattle Post-Intelligencer. May 25, 2007.
12. US Faced with a Mammoth Iraq Refugee Crisis
13. Koszegi (1992), pg. 3
14. Estevanico, Negro Discoverer of the Southwest: A Critical Reexamination Rayford W. Logan Phylon (1940-1956), Vol. 1, No. 4. (4th Qtr., 1940), pp. 305-314. Few writers, however, have gone as far as has Cleve Hallenbeck. This most recent writer states: "Several writers call Estevanico a Negro, for the reason that Nuiiez refers to him as a 'black'. Others call him a Moor or Arab, and Bandelier says that he was an 'Arab Moor'. Nufiez's plain statement that he was an Arab leaves no room for argument." In fact, however, Nuniez does not make a plain statement that Estevanico was an Arab but that he was a negro al6rabe. Mr. Hallenbeck then adds: "The Spanish word 'negro' means a black person; and in Nuiiez's time was applied to people of Hamitic and Malayan blood as well as to negroes.
15. ^ M'Bow, Amadou Mahtar (2001). Islam and Muslims in the American continent. Beirut: Center of historical, economical and social studies. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Pg. 109
16. ^ Koszegi, Michael; Melton, J. Gordon (1992). Islam in North America: A Sourcebook. New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 26–27.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
17. Hughes, Karen. The Partnership Between the United States and Morocco
18. Treaty of Peace and Friendship Article 11. The Avalon Project. Yale Law School.
19. Donnan Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I: 1441-1700 Our records of the slave trade shed little light upon the manner of people enslaved, their origins and differences among them.Elizabeth
20. Elizabeth Donnan Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I: 1441-1700 The center of this commerce was the island of Arguin , a settlement eight years old when Cadamosto visited it .Here he says, for wollen and linen cloth, silver tapestry and grain the Arabs gave slaves and gold.
21. Gomez, Michael A. (Nov., 1994). "Muslims in Early America". The Journal of Southern History. 60 (4): 682. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
22. ^ Gomez, Michael A. (Nov., 1994). "Muslims in Early America". The Journal of Southern History. 60 (4): 692, 693, 695. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
23. Queen, Edward L., Stephen Prothero and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr. 1996. The Encyclopedia of American Religious History. New York: Facts on File.
24. Ghazali, Abdul Sattar, "The number of mosque attendants increasing rapidly in America", American Muslim perspective
25. Jacoby, Jeff (January 10, 2007). "The Boston mosque's Saudi connection". Boston Globe. Retrieved 2007-06-15. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
26. "SCHUMER: SAUDIS PLAYING ROLE IN SPREADING MAIN TERROR INFLUENCE IN UNITED STATES". United States Senator Charles Schumer. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
27. Alexiev, Alex. "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". Retrieved 2007-06-15.
28. Kyl, Jon (July 3, 2003). "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". FrontPage Magazine. Retrieved 2007-06-15. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
29. {{"Darul Uloom Chicago" (pdf). Shari'ah Board of America. p. 2. Retrieved 2007-08-19. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
30. Religious Identification Survey - City University of New York. 19 December, 2001
31. "Religious Congregations & Membership: 2000," Report, Glenmary Research Center, Atlanta, GA. Published in 2002-SEP.
32. Tom W. Smith, Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States, New York, The American Jewish Committee, October 2001.
33. "Faith Communities Today: Mosque in America: A National Portrait," April 2001. Hartford Seminary's Hartford Institute for Religious Research.
34. ^ Template:PDFlink, Pew Research Center, 22 May 2007
35. The 2005 Annual Megacensus of Religions. (2007). In Britannica Book of the Year, 2006. Retrieved January 6, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9432655
36. Ilyas Ba-Yunus, Muslim of Illinois: A Demographic Report, East-West University, Chicago, 1997, p.9
37. United States- CIA World Factbook
38. Tom W. Smith, Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States, New York, The American Jewish Committee, October 2001.
39. Number of Muslims in the United States at Adherents.com. Retrieved on 6 January, 2006
40. The 8-Million Muslim Lie. January 17, 2007. Accessed June 11, 2007.
41. Demographic Jihad by the Numbers. Yoel Natan. June 2, 2007. Accessed June 11, 2007.
42. Detroit Islamic Center Open Largest Mosque in United States Brittany Sterrett. June 2, 2005 Accessed August 19,2007.
43. CAIR website, American Muslims: Population Statistics
44. Abdul Malik Mujahid, Muslims in America: Profile 2001 Soundvision.com
45. Islam and America, William B. Milam (U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan), Presented to the American Studies Conference, Islamabad, 5 November 1999
46. Private studies fuel debate over size of U.S. Muslim population - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 28 October, 2001
47. Muslim immigration has bounced back
48. Migration Information Source - The People Perceived as a Threat to Security: Arab Americans Since September 11
49. ,Source: Ihsan Bagby et. al, The American Mosque: A National Portrait. CAIR 2001.(CAIR Website Link)
50. The Mosque in America: A National Portrait, Bagby, I., Perl, P.M., and Froehle, B.T., CAIR, Washington, D.C., 2001
51. Image detailing concentrations of Muslim centres throughout the USA Harvard University, 2004
52. Map showing Muslims as a percentage of all residents, 2000 Valparaiso University, 2002
53. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=19191
54. United State Senate, Committee on the Judiciary , Testimony of Dr. Michael Waller, Annenberg Professor of International Communication, The Institute of World Politics, October 12, 2003
55. Zogby phone survey
56. Stars, Stripes, Crescent - A reassuring portrait of America's Muslims.. Wall Street Journal, 24 August, 2005
57. ^ The Diversity of Muslims in the United States - Views as americans - United States Institute of Peace. February 2006
58. For Muslims at AZ Airport, a Place to Wash Before Prayers, Arizona Republic, May 20, 2004
59. http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070916/LOCAL/709160457
60. Few find quiet chapel at DIA, Shannon Hurd, Boulder Daily Camera, April 20, 2002
61. Official Website - Islamic Society of North America (ISNA).
62. http://judiciary.senate.gov/testimony.cfm?id=960&wit_id=2719
63. http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/special/0404/final.pdf
64. official Website - Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA)
65. Official Website - Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA).
66. Official Website - Islamic Assembly of North America (IANA).
67. Official Website - Muslim Student Association (MSA)
68. Official Website - Islamic Information Center (IIC).
69. Official Website - The Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC)
70. Statement Of Principles - The American Islamic Congress
71. Official Website - Inner-City Muslim Action Network (IMAN)
72. - Islamic Relief USA.
73. ^ Views of Muslim-Americans hold steady after London Bombings - Pew Research Center. 26 July, 2005
74. Restrictions on Civil Liberties, Views of Islam, & Muslim Americans - Cornell University. December 2005
75. Poll news CBS.
76. The latest NEWSWEEK Poll paints a complicated portrait of attitudes toward America's Muslims.
81. "Minnesota's Muslim cab drivers face crackdown". Reuters. April 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-06. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
82. "Muslim cashiers won't ring up pork products". Newsday. March 18, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-06. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
83. http://www.startribune.com/kersten/story/1115081.html
84. http://detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070605/SCHOOLS/706050368
85. http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20070702/news_1n2prayer.html
86. Bush like Hitler, says first Muslim in Congress The Telegraph
87. Sperry, Paul (December 14, 2005). "The Pentagon Breaks the Islam Taboo". FrontPage Magazine. FrontPageMagazine.com.
88. "Suicide bombers follow Quran, concludes Pentagon briefing". World Net Daily News. worldnetdaily.com. September 27, 2006.
89. Jacoby, Jeff (January 10, 2007). "The Boston mosque's Saudi connection". Boston Globe. Retrieved 2007-06-15. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
90. "SCHUMER: SAUDIS PLAYING ROLE IN SPREADING MAIN TERROR INFLUENCE IN UNITED STATES". United States Senator Charles Schumer. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
91. Alexiev, Alex. "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". Retrieved 2007-06-15.
92. Kyl, Jon (July 3, 2003). "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". FrontPage Magazine. Retrieved 2007-06-15. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
93. Schmidt, Susan (October 2, 2003). "Spreading Saudi Fundamentalism in U.S." Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-06-15. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
94. CNS News Service, November 14, 2002
95. United State Senate, Committee on the Judiciary , Testimony of Dr. Michael Waller, Annenberg Professor of International Communication, The Institute of World Politics, October 12, 2003
96. United State Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Testimony of Mr. Harly G. Lappin, Director, Federal Bureau of Prisons, October 14, 2003
97. United State Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Testimony of Mr. Harly G. Lappin, Director, Federal Bureau of Prisons, October 14, 2003
98. ^ Fact Sheet: Department of Justice Anti-Terrorism Efforts Since Sept. 11, 2001, U.S. Department of Justice, September 5, 2006
99. The Enemy Within (and the Need for Profiling) by Daniel Pipes. New York Post, via danielpipes.org, 24 January, 2003
100. ‘American Jihad’ by Steven Emerson. Iranscope, 26 February, 2002
101. Robert Spencer
102. Wahhabism and Islam in the U.S. - GlobalSecurity.org. 26 June, 2003
103. Expert: Saudis have radicalized 80% of US mosques - Jerusalem Post. 8 December 2005
104. Schumer: Saudis Playing Role in Spreading Main Terror Influence in United States - Charles Schumer Press Release. September 10, 2003
105. ISNA Leadership Development Center News and Events
106. Peter Bergen on Jon Stewarts Daily Show - Comedy Central
107. Will the Extreme Right Succeed? Turning the War on Terror into a War on Islam - Media Monitors USA, Louay M. Safi. 29 December, 2005

References

• Timeline of Islam in the United States
• A Brief History of Islam in the United States
• The Islamic Community In The United States: Historical
• Muslim Americans Survey of Muslim Americans
• American Muslims Demographics

External links

• "The Diversity of Muslims in the United States: Views as Americans" United States Institute of Peace Special Report, February 2006
• Survey of U.S. Muslim population studies
• An Oral History of Islam in Pittsburgh
• "American Muslims Strive to Become Model Citizens" By Marc Hujer and Daniel Steinvorth, Spiegel Online, September 13, 2007

• Articles with unsourced statements from December 2006
• Islam in the United States