Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 14:33, 9 October 2007

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Part of a series on
Alternative medicine
General information Alternative medicine History Terminology Alternative veterinary medicine Quackery (health fraud) Rise of modern medicine Pseudoscience Antiscience Skepticism Scientific Therapeutic nihilism
Fringe medicine and science Acupressure Acupuncture Alkaline diet Anthroposophic medicine Apitherapy Applied kinesiology Aromatherapy Association for Research and Enlightenment Auriculotherapy Bates method Biological terrain assessment Black salve Bodywork Bone-setting Bowen technique Breathwork Fake COVID-19 treatments Camel urine Cancer treatments Charcoal cleanse Chiropractic Chiropractic treatment techniques Vertebral subluxation Christian Science Chromotherapy Colloidal silver Colon cleansing Coffee enema Colorpuncture Conversion therapy Craniosacral therapy Crystal healing Cupping therapy Dental amalgam controversy Detoxification Foot detox Dry needling Ear candling Energy medicine Correactology Esoteric energy Reiki Therapeutic touch Estrogen dominance Fabunan Antiviral Injection Facilitated communication FasciaBlaster Feldenkrais Method Functional medicine Hair analysis Holistic dentistry Hologram bracelet Homeopathy Bach flower remedies Hydrotherapy Hypnotherapy Ionized jewelry Iridology Jilly Juice Lightning Process Lymphotherapy Magnet therapy Manual therapy Manual lymphatic drainage Medical intuitive Megavitamin therapy Mesmerism Mind–body interventions MMS Myofascial release NAET Naturopathy Oil pulling Orgone Orthomolecular medicine Orthopathy Osteomyology Osteopathy Ozone therapy Parapsychology Phrenology Postural Integration Psychic surgery Psychodermatology Quantum healing Radionics Rapid prompting method Reflexology RBOP Rolfing Scientific racism ThetaHealing Thomsonianism Thought Field Therapy Urophagia Vaginal steaming Vegetotherapy Vision therapy Vitalism Young blood transfusion Zero balancing
Controversies Big Pharma conspiracy theories HIV/AIDS denialism OPV AIDS hypothesis Anti-vaccinationism Vaccine misinformation Vaccines and autism MMR vaccine and autism in chiropractic Water fluoridation controversy COVID-19 misinformation Turbo cancer
Classifications Alternative medical systems Mind–body intervention Biologically based therapy Manipulative methods Energy therapy
Traditional medicine African Muti Southern Africa Ayurveda Dosha MVAH Balneotherapy Brazilian Bush medicine Cambodian Chinese Blood stasis Chinese herbology Dit da Gua sha Gill plate trade Long gu Meridian Moxibustion Pressure point Qi San Jiao Tui na Zang-fu Chumash Curandero Faith healing Herbal medicine Hilot Iranian Jamu Kayakalpa Kambo Japanese Korean Maya Mien Shiang Mongolian Naftalan oil Prophetic medicine Shamanism Shiatsu Siddha Sri Lankan Thai massage Tibetan Unani Vietnamese
Alternative diagnoses Adrenal fatigue Aerotoxic syndrome Candida hypersensitivity Chronic Lyme disease Electromagnetic hypersensitivity Heavy legs Leaky gut syndrome Multiple chemical sensitivity Vertebral subluxation Wilson's temperature syndrome
v t e

Homeopathy (also homœopathy or homoeopathy; from the Greek, ὅμοιος, hómoios, "similar" + πάθος, páthos, "suffering" or "disease") is a controversial form of alternative medicine that aims to treat "like with like". Substances, which in large quantities would cause symptoms similar to the disease, are administered in heavily diluted formulations, with shaking at each stage of the dilution. Homeopaths contend that the shaking causes some imprint (or memory) of the diluted substance upon the medium (usually water or alcohol), thus enabling it to treat the patient, even though in many common homeopathic dilutions no molecules of the original substance are likely to remain. Homeopathy was invented in the late 18th century by German physician Samuel Hahnemann who noticed that cinchona, which was used to treat malaria, produced symptoms similar to those of malaria. Homeopathy is based on a vitalist world view, which sees the underlying causes of sickness as imbalances in a hypothetical vital force. Proponents claim that homeopathic treatment can harmonize and re-balance the vital force in the body, thus restoring health.

Many aspects of homeopathic philosophy are unsupported by modern biology or medicine. Claims for the medical efficacy of homeopathic treatments are unsupported by the collected weight of scientific and clinical studies. Homeopathy is inconsistent with the laws of chemistry and physics, since its theory states that extreme dilution makes drugs more powerful by enhancing their "spirit-like medicinal powers". Numerous studies have also found no evidence that water or alcohol retain any memory of a substance and that any positive effects of homeopathic treatment are simply a placebo effect. Homeopaths have been accused of giving 'false hope' to patients who might otherwise seek effective conventional treatments, or even advising patients to avoid standard medical procedures. Meta-analyses confirmed that any effects are unlikely to be beyond that of placebo, and studies that have shown positive results were flawed in design. These findings, along with the proscription by homeopaths against conventional medicine and encouragement of a "holistic" approach to health, are consistent with the argument that homeopathy is a sort of quackery.

History

Modern homeopathy was created by German physician Samuel Hahnemann during the late 18th and early 19th century. The system of similars emphasized in homeopathy was first described by doctors of the vitalist school of medicine and one of the most prominent proponents of vitalism was the Renaissance physician Paracelsus. Vienna physician Anton Freiherr von Störck and Scottish physician John Brown also held similar medical beliefs to Samuel Hahnemann prior to the conception of homeopathy.

18th century medicine

In Hahnemann's day, mainstream medicine employed such measures as bloodletting and purging, as well as the use of laxatives and enemas, and complicated mixtures of substances, such as Theriac, made from sixty-four substances including opium, myrrh, and viper's flesh. Such measures often made symptoms worse or proved fatal. By contrast, Hahnemann rebelled against these methods He later favored the use of single drugs at lower doses and came to promote an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function and thought that diseases have spiritual, as well as physical causes.   During the 18th century vitalism was part of mainstream science. However, in the twentieth century, medicine discarded vitalism, with the development of microbiology and the germ theory of disease by Robert Koch, Louis Pasteur, Alexander Fleming and Joseph Lister, followed by the final disproof of vitalism by advances in chemistry. 

The success of homeopathy in the 18th century, despite being widely believed in modern times to be no better than a placebo, is believed by some to have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of bloodletting and purging and have begun the move towards more effective, scientific medicine. However, critiques of homeopathy began in the early 19th century: Sir John Forbes, physician to Queen Victoria, said the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless, laughably ridiculous and "an outrage to human reason." Professor Sir James Young Simpson said of the highly diluted drugs: "no poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly." Nineteenth century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay in 1842 entitled Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions.

Concepts

This section describes the development of homeopathic thought in a primarily in-universe style. Please rewrite this section to clarify the disputed nature of Hahnemann's opinions and provide the mainstream perspective.

Samuel Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a Materia Medica, a treatise by Scottish physician and chemist William Cullen, into German. On reading about cinchona bark, from which quinine is extracted and is used to treat malaria, he noticed that Cullen described the mechanism of action as "stomach strengthening properties". Hahnemann was skeptical of this explanation and decided to test the effects of Cinchona bark by taking it himself. Upon ingesting the bark, he noticed that he experienced fever, shivering and joint pain. These symptoms are similar to some of those of malaria, which the substance was supposed to be treating, and from this Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs must produce the symptoms in healthy individuals that are similar to the diseases that the drugs are intended to treat. This later became known as the "Law of similars", and the most important concept of homeopathy. The term "homeopathy" was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807, although he began outlining his theories of 'medical similars' in a series of articles and monographs in 1796.

Hahnemann began to test which symptoms were produced by which substances, and this procedure would later become known as "proving". The tests were time-consuming and required subjects to clearly record all of their symptoms as well as when they appeared. Hahnemann used them to decide which substances would be used to treat which disease. The first collection of provings was published in 1805 and a second collection of 65 remedies appeared in the Materia Medica Pura in 1810. As Hahnemann believed that large doses of things that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated extreme dilutions of the substances, and came up with a technique for these dilutions that he believed would preserve a substance's hypothetical "essence" while removing any harmful effects. He gathered and published a complete overview of his new medical system in his 1810 book, The Organon of the Healing Art, whose 6th edition, published in 1921, is still used by homeopaths today.

During the 19th century homeopathy grew in popularity: In 1830 the first homeopathic schools opened, and throughout the 19th century dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States. Homeopathic hospitals also appeared and practitioners of homeopathy often had better outcomes compared to those of their counterparts in mainstream medicine, due to the then-common practices of blood-letting and use of untested medicines that were often poisonous. Homeopathic treatments, even if ineffective, would almost surely cause no harm, making the users of homeopathic medicine less likely to be killed by the medicine which was supposed to be helping them. The last school in the U.S. exclusively teaching homeopathy closed down in 1920.

General philosophy

Homeopathy is a vitalist philosophy in that it regards diseases and sickness to be caused by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force in humans and that these disturbances manifest themselves as unique symptoms. Homeopathy contends that the vital force has the ability to react and adapt to internal and external causes, which homeopaths refer to as the "law of susceptibility". The law of susceptibility states that a negative state of mind can attract hypothetical disease entities called "miasms" to invade the body and produce symptoms of diseases, However, Hahnemann rejected the notion of a disease as a separate thing or invading entity and insisted that it was always part of the "living whole".

Miasms and disease

Miasms were proposed by Hahnemann to explain the failure of homeopathic remedies to produce lasting cures for chronic diseases, in 1828, with hints of the idea found as early as 1816. Hahnemann associated various miasms with specific diseases that have historically plagued mankind, with each miasm causing several diseases. According to Hahnemann, miasmatic infection caused local symptoms, usually in the skin, and if these are suppressed by external medication, the cause goes deeper, and manifests itself later as disease of the internal organs. Homeopathy contends that treating symptoms by directly opposing their actions, as is done in conventional medicine, is not effective in treating diseases because the miasms still remain, and that the only way to correct the ailments is to correct the disturbance of the vital force.

This controversial claim remains common even in modern times. In 1978, Anthony Campbell, then a consultant physician at The Royal London Homeopathic Hospital,  criticized statements by George Vithoulkas claiming that syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous system. This conflicts with scientific studies, which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more than 90 % of cases. Campbell described this as "a thoroughly irresponsible statement which could mislead an unfortunate layman into refusing orthodox treatment" and said that it was not an isolated case, but part of a lengthy section arguing against conventional medicine. This echoes the idea in homeopathy that using medication to suppress the symptoms of a disease would only drive the underlying disease deeper into the body.

Originally Hahnemann presented only three miasms, of which the most important was "psora" (Greek for itch), described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin, supposed to be derived from suppressed scabies, and claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann claimed psora to be the cause of such diseases as epilepsy, cancer, jaundice, deafness, and cataracts. Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing one or more of psora's proposed functions, including tubercular miasms and cancer miasms.

Law of similars

Hahnemann experimented with Cinchona bark, which is used as a treatment of malaria, and observed that the side effects he experienced from the quinine in the Cinchona bark were similar to the symptoms of malaria. He reasoned that treatments for diseases must produce symptoms similar to of those disease being treated when taken by healthy individuals. From this Hahnemann conceived of the "law of similars", otherwise known as "like cures like" (Template:Lang-la). Hahnemann believed that by inducing artificial symptoms of a disease, the artificial symptoms would create another disturbance in the vital force thus pushing out the old disturbance and that the body would naturally recover from the artificially induced disturbance. The basic idea is that to cure a person suffering from an illness, one should administer a dilute dose of a substance that produces the same symptoms of the illness being treated in healthy individuals.

Development of remedies

Dilution and succussion

In producing treatments for diseases, homeopaths use a process called "dynamization" or "potentization" where the remedy is diluted into alcohol or water and then vigorously shaken by ten hard strikes against an elastic body in a process called "succussion". Hahnemann thought that the use of remedies which present symptoms similar to those of disease in healthy individuals would only intensify the symptoms and exacerbate the condition, so he advocated the dilution of the remedies to the point the symptoms were no longer experienced. During the process of potentization, homeopaths believe that the vital energy of the diluted substance is activated and its energy released by vigorous shaking of the substance. For this purpose, Hahnemann had a saddle maker construct a special wooden striking board covered in leather on one side and stuffed with horsehair. Insoluble solids, such as quartz and oyster shell, are diluted by grinding them with lactose (trituration).

Three potency scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann pioneered and always favored the centesimal or "C scale", diluting a substance 1 part in a 100 of diluent. Some homeopaths developed a decimal scale (D or X) diluting the substance 1 part in 10 of diluent. Hahnemann never used this scale but it was very popular throughout the 19th century and still is in Europe. This potency scale appears to have been introduced in the 1830s by the American homeopath, Dr. Constantine Hering. In the last ten years of his life Hahnemann also developed a quintamillesimal (Q) or LM scale diluting the drug 1 part in 50,000 parts of diluent. Higher potencies in homeopathy, which are more diluted, are considered to be stronger deep-acting remedies. Hahnemann advocated 30C dilutions for most purposes, i.e. dilution by a factor of 100, and a common homeopathic treatment for the flu is a 200c dilution of duck liver, called Oscillococcinum in homeopathy. As Avogadro's number is only 6.022 × 10 particles per mole, the chance of any molecule of the original substance being present in a 15x solution is very small, and the chances of a single molecule of the original substance remaining in a 24x(12c) dilution would be roughly 1 in 2 billion. For a perspective on these numbers, there are in the order of 10 molecules of water in an Olympic size swimming pool and if such a pool were filled with a homeopathic substance, to expect to get a single molecule from the original substance in a 15C solution, one would need to swallow 1 % of the volume of such a pool, or roughly 25 metric tons of water.

For more perspective, 1ml of a solution which has gone through a 30C dilution would have been diluted into a volume of water equal to that of a cube of 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 meters per side, or about 105 light years, the size of our galaxy. Thus, homeopathic remedies of the standard dilutions contain, with overwhelming probability, only water. Practitioners of homeopathy believe that this water retains some 'essential property' of the original substance, due to the shaking after each dilution. Hahnemann believed that the dynamization or shaking of the solution caused a "spirit like" healing force to be released from within the substance. He thought that even after every molecule of the previous substance has been removed from the water, the spiritual healing force still remained.

It should be noted however that not all homeopaths advocated extremely high potencies. Many of the early homeopaths were originally doctors and generally tended to use lower potencies such as "3x" or "6x", rarely going beyond "12x". A good example of this approach is that of Dr. Richard Hughes, who dismissed the extremely high potencies as unnecessary. This was the dominant pattern in Europe throughout the 1820s to 1930s, but in America many practitioners developed and preferred the higher dilutions. This trend became especially exemplified by James Tyler Kent and dominated US homeopathy from the 1850s until its demise in the 1940s. The split between lower and higher dilutions also followed ideological lines with the former stressing pathology and a strong link to conventional medicine, while the latter emphasized vital force, miasms and a spiritual take on sickness. 

Provings

In order to determine which specific remedies could be used to treat which diseases, Hahnemann experimented on himself for several years as well as with patients. His experiments did not initially consist of giving remedies to the sick, because he thought that the most similar remedy, by virtue of its ability to induce symptoms similar to the disease itself, would make it impossible to determine which symptoms came from the remedy and which from the disease itself. Therefore, sick people were excluded from the provings. The method used for determining which remedies were suitable for specific diseases was called "proving". A homeopathic proving is the method by which the profile of a homeopathic remedy is determined. The word 'proving' derives from the German word 'Prüfung' meaning 'test'.

During the process of proving, Hahnemann used healthy volunteers who were given remedies, often in molecular doses, and the resulting symptoms were compiled by observers into a "Drug Picture". During the process the volunteers were observed for months at a time and were made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times during the day. During the tests volunteers were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine. They were also not allowed to play chess, because Hahnemann considered it to be "too exciting", however they were allowed to drink beer and were encouraged to moderately exercise. After the experiments were over, Hahnemann made the volunteers offer their hands and take an oath swearing that what they reported in their journals was the truth, at which time he would interrogate them extensively concerning their symptoms.

Provings have been described as important in the development of the clinical trial, due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of statistics in medicine. The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For example, evidence nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time. and aconite.

The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 Essay on a New Principle. His Fragmenta de viribus (1805) contained the results of twenty-seven provings, and his 1810 Materia Medica Pura contained sixty-five. Two-hundred and seventeen remedies underwent provings for James Tyler Kent's 1905 Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica, and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions.

Repertory

A compilation of reports of many homeopathic provings is known as a homeopathic materia medica. In practice the usefulness of such a compilation is limited because a practitioner does not need to look up the symptoms for a particular remedy, but rather to explore the remedies for a particular symptom. This need is filled by the homeopathic repertory, which is an index of symptoms, listing after each symptom those remedies that are associated with it. Repertories are often very extensive and may include data from clinical experience in addition to provings. There is often lively debate among the compilers of a repertory and interested practitioners over the veracity of a particular inclusion. The first symptomatic index of the homeopathic materia medica was arranged by Hahnemann. Soon after, one of his students Clemens von Bönninghausen, created the Therapautic Pocket Book, another homeopathic repertory. The first such Homeopathic Repertory was Dr. George Jahr's Repertory, published in 1835 in German and then again in 1838 in English and edited by Dr. Constantine Hering. This version was less focused on disease categories and would be the forerunner to Kent's later works. It consisted of three large volumes. Such Repertories increased in size and detail as time progressed.

Treatments

Homeopathic treatments generally begin with a detailed examinations of their patients' histories, including questions regarding their physical, mental and emotional states, their one's life circumstances and any physical/emotional illnesses. The homeopath then translates this information into a complex formula of mental and physical symptoms, including likes, dislikes, innate predispositions and even body type. The goal is to develop a comprehensive representation of each individual's overall health. This information can then be compared with similar established data in the drug provings found in the homeopathic materia medica. Assisted by further dialogs with the patient, the homeopath then aims to find the one drug most closely matching the 'symptom totality' of the patient. There are many methods for determining the most-similar remedy (the simillimum), and homeopaths sometimes disagree. This is partly due to the complexity of the "totality of symptoms" concept. That is, homeopaths do not use all symptoms, but decide which are the most characteristic. This subjective evaluation of case analysis relies on knowledge and experience of the homeopath doing the diagnosis.

Some diversity in approaches to treatments exists among homeopaths. So called "Classical" homeopathy generally involves detailed examinations of a patient's history and infrequent doses of a single remedy as the patient is monitored for improvements in symptoms. On the other hand, "clinical" homeopathy uses a range of approaches including combinations of remedies to "cover" the various symptoms of an illness, similar to conventional drug treatments.

Remedies

"Remedy" is a technical term used in homeopathy to refer to a substance prepared with a particular procedure and intended for treating patients. Homeopathic practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing remedies. The Homeopathic Materia Medicae which is comprised of alphabetical indexes of "drug pictures" organized by remedy and describe the symptom patterns associated with individual remedies. They also rely on homeopathic repertories which consist of indexes of symptoms of diseases and listing remedies associated with specific symptoms.

Homeopathy uses many animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its remedies. Examples include Natrum muriaticum (sodium chloride or table salt), Lachesis muta (the venom of the bushmaster snake), Opium, and Thyroidinum (thyroid hormone). Homeopaths also use treatments called nosodes (from the Greek nosos, disease) made from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary, and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue. Homeopathic remedy prepared from healthy specimens are called Sarcodes.

Some modern homeopaths have also considered more esoteric substances, known as "imponderables" because they do not originate from a material but from electromagnetic energy presumed to have been "captured" by alcohol or lactose. Examples include X-rays, sunlight, and electricity. Recent ventures by homeopaths into even more esoteric substances include thunderstorms (prepared from collected rainwater). Today there are about 3,000 different remedies commonly used in homeopathy.

Some homeopaths use techniques that are regarded by other practitioners as controversial. These include paper remedies, where the substance and dilution are written on a piece of paper and either pinned to the patient's clothing, put in their pocket, or placed under a glass of water that is then given to the patient, as well as the use of radionics to prepare remedies. Such practices have been strongly criticized by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative and verging upon magic and superstition. 

Isopathy

Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy and was invented by Johann Joseph Wilhelm Lux in the 1830s. Isopathy differs from homeopathy in general in that the remedies are made up either from things that cause the disease, or from products of the disease, such as pus. Many so-called "homeopathic vaccines" are in fact a form of isopathy.

Tautopathy

Tautopathy is a practice of alternative medicine that is similar to homeopathy in that it uses very diluted substances to treat illness. However, tautopathy does not rely on the law of similars, as homeopathy does. According to practitioners of Tautopathy, dilute solutions of lead and arsenic can cause the body to secrete excess amounts of these toxic metals.

Veterinary homeopathy

Veterinary homeopathy is the term used to describe the treatment of animals with homeopathy. Hahnemann himself however did none of his work on animals and classical homeopathic principles would seem to conflict with the idea of homeopathic treatments for non humans as syphilis and gonorrhea are not conditions that are recognized in animals. In the USA veterinary homeopathy is used by veterinarian members of the Academy for Veterinary Homeopathy and/or the American Holistic Veterinary Medical Association. In the UK, veterinary surgeons who use homeopathy belong to the Faculty of Homeopathy and/or to the British Association of Homeopathic Veterinary Surgeons or BAHVS. Animals may only be treated by qualified veterinary surgeons in the UK and some other countries. Internationally, the body that supports and represents homeopathic veterinarians is the International Association for Veterinary Homeopathy or IAVH. There have been no rigorous scientific demonstrations of therapeutic effects of homeopathy in veterinary medicine and a German review of homeopathy in veterinary medicine has stated that the medical effectiveness of homeopathy in higher dilutions is not verified and that giving an animal a placebo can play an active role in influencing the owner to believe in the effectiveness of the treatment when none exists. 

Medical and scientific analysis

Homeopathy has been unsupported by scientific research since its inception. The extreme dilutions used in homeopathic preparations, which would often leave none of the active ingredient (no atoms, ions or molecules), is inconsistent with the well observed dose-response relationships of conventional drugs. The idea that the water contains the "memory" or "vibration" from the diluted ingredient is also counter to the accepted laws of chemistry and physics. Thus critics contend that any positive results obtained from homeopathic remedies are purely due to the placebo effect, where the patients subjective improvement of symptoms is based solely on the power of suggestion, due to the individual expecting or believing that it will work. Critics cite the lack of viable scientific studies for the effectiveness of homeopathic remedies as evidence that they are not effective and that any positive effects are due to the placebo effect. Critics also contend that homeopathy is inherently dangerous, because homeopaths offer a false hope to patients who could be getting proper treatment.

High dilutions

The extremely high dilutions in homeopathy have been a main point of criticism. Homeopaths believe that the methodical dilution of a substance, beginning with a 10% or lower solution and working downwards, with shaking after each dilution, produces a therapeutically active "remedy", in contrast to therapeutically inert water. However, homeopathy often dilutes remedies to the point where there are no molecules from the original substance left in the final remedy, leaving the remedy chemically identical to water. This has led many critics to conclude that any effect that might have been present from the original substance can no longer exist. As well, since water will has been in contact with millions of different substances through its history, critics point out that any glass of water is therefore an extreme dilution of almost any conceivable substance, and so by drinking water one would, according to homeopathic principles, receive treatment for every imaginable condition.

Homeopathy contends that the higher the dilution (lower dose) actually equates to stronger effects of the medicine. This is inconsistent with modern sciences observations of dose-response relationships that has been demonstrated by pharmacologists. According to the dose response relationship in modern medicine, smaller doses of chemicals produce smaller effects and larger doses produce larger effects generally. This has been confirmed in thousands of experiments on organisms as diverse as nematodes, rats and humans.

Clinical trials

The medical effectiveness of homeopathy has been a point of contention since its inception. One of the earliest studies concerning homeopathic medicine was sponsored by the British government during World War II in which volunteers tested the effectiveness of homeopathic remedies against diluted mustard gas burns. More recent controlled clinical trials on homeopathy have shown poor results, showing a slight to no difference between homeopathic remedies and placebo. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses, which analyze large groups of studies and draw conclusions based on the results as a whole have been used to test the effectiveness of homeopathy. Early meta-analyses investigating homeopathic remedies showed slightly positive results among the studies examined, however such studies have warned that it was impossible to draw conclusions due to low methodological quality and the unknown role of publication bias in the studies reviewed. A recent meta-analysis of clinical trials on the effectiveness of homeopathy has shown that earlier clinical trials showed signs of major weakness in methodology and reporting, and that homeopathy trials were less randomized and reported less on dropouts than other types of trials.

The medical effectiveness of homeopathy has been studied in detail since at least the 1980s. All large studies showing homeopathy to be effective for medical purposes have been methodologically flawed, and earlier studies showing positive results have been questioned. There have also been numerous landmark studies which have brought into question the validity of homeopathic treatments. In 2005 The Lancet medical journal published a meta-analysis of 110 placebo-controlled homeopathy trials and 110 matched conventional-medicine trials based upon the Swiss government's Program for Evaluating Complementary Medicine, or PEK. The study concluded that its findings were compatible with the notion that the clinical effects of homeopathy are nothing more than placebo effects. Critics cite numerous studies that show no evidence of homeopathy being effective beyond placebo, including a European Journal of Cancer study done in 2006. The study was a meta-analysis of six trials of homeopathic treatments for recovery from cancer therapy, including radio and chemotherapy done since 1985. Three of the trials included were randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials. The conclusions of the study was that there was insufficient evidence to support using homeopathic therapy to treat cancer.

Since homeopathic remedies at dilutions higher than about D23 (10) contain no ingredients apart from the diluent (water, alcohol or sugar), there is no chemical basis for them to have any medicinal action. While some tests have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of grain, histamine release by leukocytes, and enzyme reactions, such studies are disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed.     Newer randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials using high dilutions of substances such as Belladona also fail to find clinical effects of the substances.

Critics assert that the best standard for assessing efficacy and safety of health-care practices is evidence-based medicine because it is the expression of the scientific method in clinical medicine. They contend that systematic reviews with strict protocols are essential to establish the substantion of various therapies and that when homeopathy is tested in this way against specific diseases, it has failed to show any medical effectiveness. Systematic reviews conducted by the Cochrane Collaboration found no evidence that homeopathy is beneficial for asthma, dementia, or induction of labor. Systematic reviews conducted by other researchers found no evidence that homeopathy is beneficial for osteoarthritis, migranes or delayed-onset muscle soreness.

A notable controversy involved French immunologist Jacques Benveniste who in 1987 submitted a paper to the scientific journal Nature while working at INSERM. The paper purported to have discovered that basophils released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E, a type of white blood cell. Nature, skeptical of the results, requested that the study be replicated in a separate laboratory under identical conditions. Upon replication in four separate laboratories the study was published. Still skeptical of the findings, Nature assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research. The team consisted of Nature editor and physicist Sir John Maddox, American scientific fraud investigator and chemist Walter Stewart, and skeptic and former magician James Randi. After investigating the findings and methodology of the experiment, the team found that the experiments were "statistically ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim", and concluded "We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported."   James Randi stated that he doubted that there had been any conscious fraud, however he stated that the researchers had allowed "wishful thinking" to influence their interpretation of the data.

Numerous health organizations such as UK's National Health Service, the American Medical Association, and the FASEB also contend that there is no scientific evidence supporting the validity of homeopathic treatments.

Safety issues

While homeopathic remedies contain often only water and/or alcohol, they are often thought to be generally safe. However, critics of homeopathy have cited numerous concerns over homeopathic remedies including patients of homeopathy failing to receive proper treatment for diseases which could be diagnosed or cured with modern medicine. For instance there have even been numerous surveys showing that homeopathic practitioners frequently advise their patients against receiving immunization for diseases.  Modern homeopathic practitioners also use their own vaccines, which they refer to as "nosodes", and are created from dilutions of highly infectious agents including material such as vomit, fecal matter or infected human tissues. While Hahnemann was opposed to such preparations, modern homeopaths frequently use them and there is no evidence to suggests such vaccines have any effectiveness.  Homeopaths in advising against the use of anti-malarial drugs may often help to contribute in the spread of malaria due to the ineffectiveness of homeopathic remedies used to treat malaria.  

In 1978, Anthony Campbell, then a consultant physician at The Royal London Homeopathic Hospital,  criticised statements by George Vithoulkas made about miasms. Vithoulkas stated that syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous system. Campbell described this as a thoroughly irresponsible statement which could mislead an unfortunate layman into refusing orthodox treatment. This claim echos the idea that treating a disease with external medication used to treat the symptoms would only drive it deeper into the body and conflicts with scientific studies, which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a compete cure of syphilis in more than 90 % of cases.

Critics also contend that it is inherently unethical to provide homeopathic remedies to patients or to owners of animals when the effectiveness of homeopathy is clearly unproven. Critics also assert that all homeopathic patients or clients should be fully informed of the lack of experimental basis for the effectiveness of homeopathy prior to being provided the remedies. Critics say that it would be obviously unethical to employ unsupported and unproven remedies such as homeopathy when alternative remedies in modern medicine have been proven to be effective.

As well, in one unusual case, a low-potency (2X) solution of zinc gluconate, marketed as Zicam Nasal Spray, allegedly caused a small percentage of users to lose their sense of smell. 340 cases were settled out of court for 12 million U.S. dollars. 

Prevalence and legal trends

Homeopathic medicine is fairly common in some countries while uncommon in others and is also highly regulated in some countries while fairly unregulated in others. Homeopathy is common in Europe as a whole, where about 25 % to 50 % of the population have reported use of homeopathic treatments. Regulations vary in Europe depending on the country. In some countries, there are no specific legal regulations concerning the use of homeopathy, while in others, licenses or degrees in conventional medicine from accredited universities are required. In Austria and Germany, no specific regulations exist, while France and Denmark mandate licenses to diagnose any illness or dispense of any product whose purpose is to treat any illness. Some homeopathic treatment is covered by the national insurance coverage of several European countries, including France, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Luxembourg. In other countries, such as Belgium, homeopathy is not covered. In Austria, public insurance requires scientific proof of effectiveness in order to reimburse medical treatments, but exceptions are made for homeopathy. Two countries which formerly offered homeopathy under their public health insurance schemes have withdrawn this privilege. At the start of 2004, homeopathic medications, with some exceptions, were no longer covered by German public health insurance, and in June 2005, the Swiss Government, after a 5-year trial, withdrew insurance coverage for homeopathy and four other complementary treatments, claiming that they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria, though additional insurance can be bought to cover such treatments provided by a medical doctor.

In Britain homeopathy was first established by Dr. Frederick Quin around 1827, although two Italian homeopathic doctors (Drs Romani and Roberta) had been employed two years previously by the Earl of Shrewsbury based at Alton Towers in North Staffordshire. Homeopathy in Britain quickly became the preferred medical treatment of the upper classes, as well as the aristocracy and retained an elite clientele, including members of the royal family. At its peak in the 1870s, Britain had numerous homeopathic dispensaries and small hospitals as well as large busy hospitals in Liverpool, Birmingham, Glasgow, London and Bristol. The largest organization of homeopaths in Britain, the Society of Homeopaths, was founded in 1978 and the Faculty of Homeopathy, which is based in London, has over 1,400 members and was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1950. According to a 2006 study, forty nine percent of Scottish medical practices prescribed homeopathic remedies, with sixteen percent of children were prescribed homeopathic remedies. The study concluded that critical review of Homeopathy's role in the Scottish branch of the national health care system was needed.

In Australia, according to one study, about 4.4 % of Australian adults have used homeopathic remedies at least once in their lives and only about 1.2 % sought help exclusively from homeopathic practitioners. In Canada, a study detailing the use of alternative medicines by children in Quebec found that 11 % of the sample of 1911 children used alternative medicines and 25 % of those who did use alternative medicines used homeopathy. The study also pointed out that homeopathy is more commonly used in children in Canada than in adults, 19 % of whom used alternative medicine used homeopathy. Homeopathy is not officially recognized by Federal Food and Drug Act in Canada and physicians who choose to use alternative medicines such as Homeopathy must follow guidelines set by their province's College of Physicians and Surgeons. Provincial health care generally doesn't cover homeopathy.

Some countries in South America, such as Argentina, allow only professional doctors who are qualified and have graduated from a recognized medical school to practice homeopathy. Homeopathy has been regulated in other South American countries, such as Colombia, since the beginning of the 20th century. In Brazil, Homeopathy is included in the national health system and since 1991, physicians who want to practice homeopathy must complete 2,300 hours of education prior to receiving the proper licenses. In Mexico, Homeopathy is currently integrated into the national health care system. In 1985, a presidential decree established the first homeopathic school as well as regulations specifying training requirements for homeopathic doctors. In Mexico, of the individuals who use complementary alternative medicines, over 26 % use Homeopathy.

In the United States homeopathy is much less common, where the percentage of people seeking homeopathic treatment declined from 3.4 % in 1997 to 1.7 % in 2002. Homeopathy was first established in the United States by Dr Hans Burch Gram in 1825 and rapidly gained popularity, partly because of the fact that conventional medicine of the time was inherently dangerous and risky. The height of its influence was the end of the 19th century where hardly any city with over 50,000 people was without a homeopathic hospital. In 1890 there were 93 regular schools, 14 of them were fully homeopathic and 8 of them were eclectic and in 1900 there were 121 regular schools and 22 of them were homeopathic and 10 eclectic. The use of homeopathy in the United States among adults is about 0.3 %. According to one study, in 1990, 0.7 % of individuals used homeopathy in the past year of being questioned; in 1997, 3.4 % had used homeopathy at least once in the previous year. According to the same study, 31.7 % had seen a homeopathic practitioner in the past year in 1990 and the number dropped to 16.5 by 1997.

In the United States, homeopathic remedies are, like all health-care products, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration. However, the FDA treats homeopathic remedies very differently than conventional medicines. Homeopathic products do not need FDA approval before sale; they do have to be proven safe since the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994, any products prior to 1994 may or may not have been tested for safety, but they do not have to prove efficacy; they do not have to be labeled with an expiration date; and they do not have to undergo finished product testing to verify contents and strength, all of these are voluntary actions done by the manufacturer. The manufacturer is required to have all ingredients on the label; however, it might not specify which ones are active. In the USA, only homeopathic medicines that claim to treat self-limiting conditions may be sold over the counter; homeopathic medicines that claim to treat a serious disease can be sold only by prescription. A memorandum, written in 1985 by attorneys for the American Association of Homeopathic Manufacturers, describes a meeting between the AAHP attorneys and high-ranking FDA officials to discuss whether homeopathic products must be proven effective to remain legally marketable. Such negotiations led to the issuance in 1988 (revised in 1995) of an FDA Compliance Policy Guide that permits homeopathic products "intended solely for self-limiting disease conditions amenable to self-diagnosis (of symptoms) and treatment" to be marketed as nonprescription drugs. In 2001, the FDA published a comprehensive review of mercury compounds in homeopathic drugs. This report indicated that nearly all examined compounds derived from the use of mercury. However, due to the extreme dilution of materials, the presence of mercury in the finished product would be minimal. At present the FDA Health Fraud Division only pursues claims which may cause direct harm to consumers through their use. Homeopathic drugs, largely regarded as equivalent to placebos, are not considered under these guidelines. Due to the significant dilution of the products, the agents become practically immeasurable: the harmful effects of homeopathic drugs is more likely to be that patients avoid conventional treatments.

In Asia, the use of homeopathic treatments is increasing, especially in India. Homeopathy arrived in India with Dr John Martin Honigberger in Lahore, in 1829–1830.  India has the largest homeopathic infrastructure in the world, with low estimates at about 64,000, but going as high as 300,000 practicing homeopaths. In addition, there are 180 colleges teaching courses, and 7500 government clinics and 307 hospitals which dispense homeopathic remedies.  In Malaysia, homeopathy was introduced during World War II and was brought by Indians via the British army. There is no legislation governing homeopathy in Malaysia and only a few medical doctors are involved in homeopathic treatments. In South Africa, homeopathy is regulated by the Associated Health Service Professions Act of 1982, which was set up to provide a registration and licensing framework for health professions. During the 1960s, all homeopathic colleges were closed by the South African Medical Council. However, conventional medical doctors retained the right to use homeopathic treatments.

External links

General

• Questions and Answers About Homeopathy – National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) Research Report
• Homeopathy: Real Medicine or Empty Promises? – Food and Drug Administration's view of homeopathy
• A Critical Overview – Steven Novella, President of the New England Skeptical Society
• HomeoWatch: A Skeptical Guide to Homeopathic History, Theories, and Current Practices – Stephen Barrett
• The Scientific Evidence on Homeopathy – Critical article from the American Council on Science and Health
• Homeopathy – Skeptic's Dictionary
• Principles of Homeopathy – Commentary by the Creighton University School of Medicine

Videos

• Homeopathy Explained – Video (14 min 34 sec) – Portion of James Randi's 2001 Princeton lecture. (Complete 2 hr 10 min 43 sec lecture.)

Homeopathic orginizations

• National Center for Homeopathy

History

• Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions, a historical 1842 essay on homeopathy by nineteenth century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.

References

1. "Similia similibus curentur (Like cures like)". Creighton University Department of Pharmacology. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
2. ^ "History of Homeopathy". Creighton University Department of Pharmacology. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
3. ^ Brien S, Lewith G, Bryant T (2003). "Ultramolecular homeopathy has no observable clinical effects. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled proving trial of Belladonna 30C". British journal of clinical pharmacology. 56 (5): 562–568. PMID 14651731.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
4. ^ McCarney RW, Linde K, Lasserson TJ (2004). "Homeopathy for chronic asthma". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (1): CD000353. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000353.pub2. PMID 14973954.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
5. ^ McCarney R, Warner J, Fisher P, Van Haselen R (2003). "Homeopathy for dementia". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (1): CD003803. PMID 12535487.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ^ Long L, Ernst E (2001). "Homeopathic remedies for the treatment of osteoarthritis: a systematic review". The British homoeopathic journal. 90 (1): 37–43. PMID 11212088.
7. ^ Shang A, Huwiler-Müntener K, Nartey L; et al. (2005). "Are the clinical effects of homoeopathy placebo effects? Comparative study of placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy and allopathy". Lancet. 366 (9487): 726–732. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67177-2. PMID 16125589. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
8. ^ "Homeopathy results". National Health Service. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
9. ^ "Report 12 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (A–97)". American Medical Association. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
10. ^ Linde K, Jonas WB, Melchart D, Willich S (2001). "The methodological quality of randomized controlled trials of homeopathy, herbal medicines and acupuncture". International journal of epidemiology. 30 (3): 526–531. PMID 11416076.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
11. Altunç U, Pittler MH, Ernst E (2007). "Homeopathy for childhood and adolescence ailments: systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Mayo Clin Proc. 82 (1): 69–75. PMID 17285788.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
12. Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann's "Organon Of Medicine" translated by Dudgeon Fifth Edition § 269
13. ^ "Questions and Answers About Homeopathy". National Institutes of Health. NCCAM. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
14. ^ Ernst E (1997). "The attitude against immunisation within some branches of complementary medicine". Eur. J. Pediatr. 156 (7): 513–515. PMID 9243229.
15. ^ Ernst E, White AR (1995). "Homoeopathy and immunization". The British journal of general practice: the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 45 (400): 629–630. PMID 8554846.
16. ^ Walach H, Köster H, Hennig T, Haag G (2001). "The effects of homeopathic belladonna 30CH in healthy volunteers -- a randomized, double-blind experiment". Journal of psychosomatic research. 50 (3): 155–160. PMID 11316508.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
17. ^ Hirst SJ, Hayes NA, Burridge J, Pearce FL, Foreman JC (1993). "Human basophil degranulation is not triggered by very dilute antiserum against human IgE". Nature. 366 (6455): 525–527. doi:10.1038/366525a0. PMID 8255290.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
18. ^ Ovelgönne JH, Bol AW, Hop WC, van Wijk R (1992). "Mechanical agitation of very dilute antiserum against IgE has no effect on basophil staining properties". Experientia. 48 (5): 504–508. PMID 1376282.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
19. "The Chemical Philosophy". U.S. National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health. 1998-04-27. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
20. "About Homoeopathy". ccrhindia.org. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
21. Federspil, Giovanni. "Letters, A critical overview of homeopathy" (PDF). Annals. Retrieved 2007-10-01. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
22. * Template:Harvard reference page 18
23. Griffin, J. P., Venetian treacle and the foundation of medicines regulation, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 58:3, Page 317. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2004.02147.x
24. ^ Kaufman, Martin (1971-10-01). Homeopathy in America: The Rise and Fall of a Medical Heresy. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801812385.
25. Nichols, Philip (March 1988). Homeopathy and the Medical Profession. Croom Helm Ltd. ISBN 978-0709918363.
26. ^ Hahnemann, Dr Samuel (1818). Organon of medicine. Leipzig.
27. Hahnemann, Samuel (1831). "Appeal to Thinking Philanthropist Respecting the Mode of Propagation of the Asiatic Choler". Retrieved 2007-08-13.
28. Baxter AG (2001). "Louis Pasteur's beer of revenge". Nat. Rev. Immunol. 1 (3): 229–32. PMID 11905832.
29. Coley NG (2004). "Medical chemists and the origins of clinical chemistry in Britain (circa [[1750]]–[[1850]])". Clin. Chem. 50 (5): 961–72. PMID 15105362. {{cite journal}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
30. Ramberg PJ (2000). "The death of vitalism and the birth of organic chemistry: Wohler's urea synthesis and the disciplinary identity of organic chemistry". Ambix. 47 (3): 170–95. PMID 11640223.
31. Sir John Forbes, Homeopathy, Allopathy and Young Physic, London, 1846
32. James Y Simpson, Homoeopathy, Its Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical, Theological and Therapeutical, Edinburgh: Sutherland & Knox, 1853, 11
33. Holmes, Oliver Wendell. "Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions". Quackwatch. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
34. Emmans Dean, Michael (2001). "Homeopathy and "the progress of science"" (PDF). History of science; an annual review of literature, research and teaching. 39 (125 Pt 3): 255–83. PMID 11712570. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
35. ^ "Homeopathic Provings". Creighton University School of Medicine. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
36. Kirschmann, Anne Taylor (December 2003). A Vital Force: Women in American Homeopathy. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813533209.
37. "Homeopathic Dynamization and Dilution". Creighton University School of Medicine. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
38. Winston, Julian (2006). "Homeopathy Timeline". "The Faces of Homoeopathy". Whole Health Now. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
39. Ernst E, Kaptchuk TJ (1996). "Homeopathy revisited". Arch. Intern. Med. 156 (19): 2162–4. PMID 8885813.
40. Winston, Julian. "OUTLINE OF THE ORGANON". Retrieved 2007-08-04.
41. Hahnemann, Samuel. "Organon Of Medicine". Retrieved 2007-08-04.
42. The Chronic Diseases, their Nature and Homoeopathic Treatment, Dresden and Leipsic, Arnold. Vols. 1, 2, 3, 1828; vol. 4, 1830
43. ^ "Miasms in homeopathy". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
44. "Cause of Disease in homeopathy". Creighton University Department of Pharmacology. Retrieved 2007-07-23. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
45. ^ Homeopathy in Perspective, Anthony Campbell. Accessed 2007-03-24
46. Personal file, Anthony Campbell. Accessed 2007-03-24
47. Birnbaum NR, Goldschmidt RH, Buffett WO (1999). "Resolving the common clinical dilemmas of syphilis". American family physician. 59 (8): 2233–40, 2245–6. PMID 10221308.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
48. Critical review of The Science of Homeopathy from the British Homoeopathic Journal Volume 67, Number 4, October 1978
49. "Miasms in homeopathy". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
50. The Institute for the History of Medicine official website
51. Robert, Ellis Dudgeon (1853). Lectures on the Theory & Practice of Homeopathy (PDF). London. pp. 526–7. ISBN 81-7021-311-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
52. Little, David. "Hahnemann's Advanced Methods". Simillimum.com. Retrieved 2007-08-04.
53. ^ "Dynamization and Dilution". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
54. G. Resch and V. Gutmann, Scientific Foundations of Homoeopathy
55. Edwin Wheeler, Charles (1941). Dr. Hughes: Recollections of Some Masters of Homeopathy. Health Through Homeopathy.
56. Bodman, Frank (1970). he Richard Hughes Memorial Lecture. BHJ. pp. 179–193.
57. Campbell, Anthony. "HOMEOPATHY IN PERSPECTIVE". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
58. Cassedy, James H. (June 1999). American Medicine and Statistical Thinking, 1800–1860. iUniverse. ISBN 978-1583484289.
59. Fye WB (1986). "Nitroglycerin: a homeopathic remedy" (PDF). Circulation. 73 (1): 21–9. PMID 2866851.
60. Haller JS (1984). "Aconite: a case study in doctrinal conflict and the meaning of scientific medicine". Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. 60 (9): 888–904. PMID 6391591.
61. http://www.homeorizon.com/mainpagegeneral.asp?t=fragmenta.htm
62. http://www.hpathy.com/materiamedica/hahnemann-materia-pura/index.asp
63. "HOMEOPATHY". Retrieved 2007-08-20.
64. Stehlin, Isadora (1996-12-XX). "Homeopathy: Real Medicine or Empty Promises?". Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2007-10-01. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
65. ^ Jonas WB, Kaptchuk TJ, Linde K (2003). "A critical overview of homeopathy". Ann. Intern. Med. 138 (5): 393–399. PMID 12614092.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
66. Jones, Kathryn. "Materia Medica: Remedy Information". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
67. Bellavite P, Conforti A, Piasere V, Ortolani R (2005). "Immunology and homeopathy. 1. Historical background". Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine: eCAM. 2 (4): 441–452. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh141. PMID 16322800.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
68. Norland, Misha (1998). "The Homœopathic Proving of Positronium". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
69. CLARKE, John Henry. "MATERIA MEDICA". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
70. English, Mary. "The Homeopathic proving of 'Tempesta' the Storm". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
71. Doheny, Kathleen. "Homeopathy: Natural Approach or All a Fake?". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
72. Shah, Rajesh. "Call for Introspection and Awakening" (PDF). Life Force Center. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
73. Barwell, Bruce. "Homoeopathica: The Wo-wo Effect". New Zealand Homoeopathic Society. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
74. "Isopathy". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
75. "Isopathy". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
76. Tautopathy – An Introduction, Manish Bhatia, Tautopathy, Homeopathy for Everyone: Everything Homeopathic!
77. "Clinical trials". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
78. Aulas, JJ and Bardelay (1985). G. L'homéopathie vétérinaire, in L'homéopathie: Approce historique et critique et éevaluation scientifique de ses fondement empiriqes et de son efficacité thérapeutique. Paris, France: Roland Bettex Publ. pp. 209–224.
79. Ramey, David W. (2000-01-01). "The Scientific Evidence on Homeopathy". American Council on Science and Health. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
80. "Horizon's Homeopathic Coup, Cuzco's Altitude, More Funny Sites, The Clangers, Overdue, Orbito Nabbed in Padua, Randi A Zombie?, Stellar Guests at Amazing Meeting, and Great New Shermer Books!". Swift, Online Newsletter of the JREF, November 29, 2002, James Randi Educational Foundation. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
81. Barrett, Stephen (2004-12-28). "Homeopathy: The Ultimate Fake". National Institutes of Health. NCCAM. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
82. Boyd WA, Williams PL (2003). "Comparison of the sensitivity of three nematode species to copper and their utility in aquatic and soil toxicity tests". Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 22 (11): 2768–74. PMID 14587920.
83. Goldoni M, Vettori MV, Alinovi R, Caglieri A, Ceccatelli S, Mutti A (2003). "Models of neurotoxicity: extrapolation of benchmark doses in vitro". Risk Anal. 23 (3): 505–14. PMID 12836843.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
84. Yu HS, Liao WT, Chai CY (2006). "Arsenic carcinogenesis in the skin". J. Biomed. Sci. 13 (5): 657–66. doi:10.1007/s11373-006-9092-8. PMID 16807664.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
85. Gray, Bill (2000-05-26). Homeopathy: Science or Myth?. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1556433320.
86. ^ Kleijnen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G (1991). "Clinical trials of homoeopathy". BMJ. 302 (6772): 316–323. PMID 1825800.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
87. Milazzo S, Russell N, Ernst E (2006). "Efficacy of homeopathic therapy in cancer treatment". Eur. J. Cancer. 42 (3): 282–289. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2005.09.025. PMID 16376071.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
88. Kolisko, Lily, Physiologisher und physikalischer Nachweis der Wirksamkeit kleinster Entitäten, Stuttgart (1959), Junker, H. Biologisches Zentralblatt, 45. Nr. 1 (1925), p. 26 and Plügers Arhiv f. ges. Phys. 219B Nr. 5/6 (1928)
89. Wälchli C, Baumgartner S, Bastide M (2006). "Effect of low doses and high homeopathic potencies in normal and cancerous human lymphocytes: an in vitro isopathic study". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.). 12 (5): 421–427. doi:10.1089/acm.2006.12.421. PMID 16813505.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
90. Witt CM, Bluth M, Hinderlich S; et al. (2006). "Does potentized HgCl2 (Mercurius corrosivus) affect the activity of diastase and alpha-amylase?". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.). 12 (4): 359–365. doi:10.1089/acm.2006.12.359. PMID 16722785. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
91. Guggisberg AG, Baumgartner SM, Tschopp CM, Heusser P (2005). "Replication study concerning the effects of homeopathic dilutions of histamine on human basophil degranulation in vitro". Complementary therapies in medicine. 13 (2): 91–100. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2005.04.003. PMID 16036166.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
92. "Declaration of Helsinki should be strengthened" BMJ 2000;321:442–445 (12 August)
93. Smith CA (2003). "Homoeopathy for induction of labour". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (4): CD003399. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003399. PMID 14583972.
94. Whitmarsh TE, Coleston-Shields DM, Steiner TJ (1997). "Double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study of homoeopathic prophylaxis of migraine". Cephalalgia: an international journal of headache. 17 (5): 600–604. PMID 9251877.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
95. Maddox, John (28 July 1988). "'High-dilution' experiments a delusion" (PDF). Nature. 334: 287–290. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
96. ^ Sullivan, Walter (1988-07-27). "Water That Has a Memory? Skeptics Win Second Round". The New York Times. nytimes.com. Retrieved 2007-10-03. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
97. Dr. Beneveniste defended his results however, comparing the inquiry to the Salem witch hunts and asserting that "It may be that all of us are wrong in good faith. This is no crime but science as usual and only the future knows."
98. Weissmann, Gerald (2006). "Homeopathy: Holmes, Hogwarts, and the Prince of Wales". The FASEB Journal. 20: 1755–1758. PMID 16940145. Retrieved 2007-08-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
99. Pray, W.S. (1992). "A challenge to the credibility of homeopathy". Am. J. Pain Mangmnt., (2): 63–71. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
100. English, John (October 1992). "The issue of immunization". British Homoeopathic journal. 81 (4): 161–163. Retrieved 2007-10-01. {{cite journal}}: Text "10.1016/S0007-0785(05)80171-1" ignored (help); Text "doi" ignored (help)
101. Jha, Alok (2006-07-14). "Homeopaths 'endangering lives' by offering malaria remedies". Retrieved 2007-07-25. {{cite news}}: Text "work Guardian Unlimited" ignored (help)
102. Delaunay P, Cua E, Lucas P, Marty P (2000). "Homoeopathy may not be effective in preventing malaria". BMJ. 321 (7271): 1288. PMID 11082104.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
103. Jones, Meirion (2006-07-14). "Malaria advice 'risks lives'". BBC News. BBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
104. Personal file, Anthony Campbell. Accessed 2007-03-24
105. Critical review of The Science of Homeopathy from the British Homoeopathic Journal Volume 67, Number 4, October 1978
106. Birnbaum NR, Goldschmidt RH, Buffett WO (1999). "Resolving the common clinical dilemmas of syphilis". American family physician. 59 (8): 2233–40, 2245–6. PMID 10221308.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
107. Ernst, E (2004). accessdate=2007-10-01 "Ethical problems arising in evidence based complementary and alternative medicine". J Med Ethics. 30 (2): 156–159. PMID 15082809. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing pipe in: |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
108. Zicam Marketers Sued – transcription of a court document on Homeowatch.org
109. Online Lawyer Source: Zicam Settlement
110. Paying through the Nose, Sandra G. Boodman, Washington Post, Tuesday, January 31, 2006; Page HE01
111. Course description: Introduction to Medical Homeopathy, New York Medical College
112. ^ "Legal Status of Traditional Medicine and Complementary/Alternative Medicine: A Worldwide Review" (PDF). World Health Organization. World Health Organization. 2001. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
113. Gesundheitssystem: Was bringt das neue Gesetz? (in German)
114. Bundesratsentscheid über die Leistungen für Alternativmedizin: Information about Homeopathy in Switzerland by Vera Kaufmann, BHSc.Hom. (in German)
115. Leary, B, Lorentzon M & Bosanquet, A, 1998, It Wont Do Any Harm: Practice & People At The London Homeopathic Hospital, 1889–1923, in Juette, Risse & Woodward, 1998 Juette, R, G Risse & J Woodward , 1998, Culture, Knowledge And Healing: Historical Perspectives On Homeopathy In Europe And North America, Sheffield Univ. Press, UK, p.253
116. Leary, et al, 1998, 254
117. Sharma, Ursula, 1992, Complementary Medicine Today, Practitioners And Patients, Routledge, UK, p.185
118. "PHOTOTHÈQUE HOMÉOPATHIQUE". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
119. "The Royal Archives are based in the Round Tower at Windsor Castle". British Homeopathic Association. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
120. Ross S, Simpson CR, McLay JS (2006). "Homoeopathic and herbal prescribing in general practice in Scotland". British journal of clinical pharmacology. 62 (6): 647–652, discussion 645–646. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2006.02702.x. PMID 16796701.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
121. MacLennan AH, Wilson DH, Taylor AW (1996). "Prevalence and cost of alternative medicine in Australia". Lancet. 347 (9001): 569–573. PMID 8596318.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
122. Spigelblatt L, Laîné-Ammara G, Pless IB, Guyver A (1994). "The use of alternative medicine by children". Pediatrics. 94 (6 Pt 1): 811–4. PMID 7970994.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
123. Nigenda G, Cifuentes E, Hill W (2004). "Knowledge and practice of traditional medicine in Mexico: a survey of healthcare practitioners". International journal of occupational and environmental health: official journal of the International Commission on Occupational Health. 10 (4): 416–420. PMID 15702756.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
124. Trends in use of complementary and alternative medicine by US adults: 1997–2002, Davis, R. B., Phillips, R. S., Eisenberg, D. M., Tindle, H. A, Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 2005 (Vol. 11) (No. 1) 42-49
125. Tindle HA, Davis RB, Phillips RS, Eisenberg DM. Trends in use of complementary and alternative medicine by US adults: 1997–2002. Altern Ther Health Med. 2005 Jan-Feb;11(1):42-9.
126. Questions and Answers About Homeopathy NCCAM, National Institutes of Health
127. Frederick Karst, Homeopathy In Illinois, Caduceus, 4:2, 1988, pp.1-33; p.5
128. Charles S Cameron, Homeopathy in Retrospect, Trans. Stud. Coll. Phys. Philadelp., 27, 1959, 28-33; p.30
129. Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL; et al. (1998). "Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990-1997: results of a follow-up national survey". JAMA. 280 (18): 1569–1575. PMID 9820257. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
130. Sec. 400.400 Conditions Under Which Homeopathic Drugs May be Marketed (CPG 7132.15) Downloaded 26 April 2007.
131. Meeting between FDA Officials and Homeopathic Pharmacists (1985). Memorandum, February 12, 1985
132. Compliance Policy Guide (CPG 7132.15). Conditions Under Which Homeopathic Drugs May be Marketed. Revised March 1995
133. Report on Mercury Compounds in DrugsMERCURY COMPOUNDS IN DRUGS AND FOOD FDA/Center for Drug Evaluation and Research Last Updated: August 09, 2001
134. Internet Health and Fraud Site, US Food and Drug AdministrationUS FDA Internet Site, 2007
135. Bhatia, Manish. "Homeopathy in India". Retrieved 2007-07-24.
136. Kishore J (1973). "About entry of homoeopathy into India". Bulletin of the Institute of Medicine (Hyderabad). 3: 76–78. PMID 11609675.
137. Dr. Raj Kumar Manchanda & Dr. Mukul Kulashreshtha, Cost Effectiveness and Efficacy of Homeopathy in Primary Health Care Units of Government of Delhi- A study
138. Arokiasamy, P. "World Health Survey, 2003" (PDF). International Institute for Population Sciences. Retrieved 2007-09-07. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
139. "Homeopathy in Malaysia". Whole Health Now Homeopathy. Retrieved 2007-09-25.

• Alternative medical systems
• Alternative medicine
• Homeopathy
• Pseudoscience
• Obsolete medical theories
• Fraud