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'''Orthomolecular psychiatry''' is a branch of ] whose proponents claim that dietary supplements and other treatments can be effective in treating ]. '''Orthomolecular psychiatry''' is a branch of ] whose proponents claim that dietary supplements and other treatments can be effective in treating ]. The practice has very little support among mainstream ]s and has been called ] by its critics.<ref name = QW>{{cite web | url = http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ortho.html | title = Orthomolecular Therapy | last = Barrett M.D.| first = Stephen | authorlink = Stephen Barrett | publisher = ] | date = 2000-07-12 | accessdate = 2008-01-02 }}</ref>

⚫ Mainstream medical experts agree that some nutritional and dietary supplements have value in treating mental illness, such as the use of ]s with ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stoll AL, Locke CA, Marangell LB, Severus WE |title=Omega-3 fatty acids and bipolar disorder: a review |journal=Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids |volume=60 |issue=5-6 |pages=329–37 |year=1999 |pmid=10471117 |doi=}}</ref> The earliest assertions of proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry were rejected in 1973 by a panel of the ],<ref name="Pauling">{{cite journal |author=Pauling L, Wyatt RJ, Klein DF, Lipton MA |title=On the orthomolecular environment of the mind: orthomolecular theory |journal=The American journal of psychiatry |volume=131 |issue=11 |pages=1251-67 |year=1974 |pmid=4608217 |doi=}}</ref> which instead used its own broader defined, different methodolgies which included many patients who were subsequently recognized in conventional psychiatry to have had different psychiatric conditions.<ref name="Beersheva"/> Orthomolecular psychiatry subsequently found scant support among, and endured many accusations of quackery by, mainstream psychiatrists.


== History == == History ==


The origins of orthomolecular psychiatry can be traced to as early as 1927.<ref>Reiter PJ: Behandlung von Dementia Praecox mit metallsalzen. Mangan. Z. Neur., 108:464-480, 1927 As quoted in Carl C. Pfeiffer, Ph.D., M.D. and Scott LaMola, B.S. Zinc and Manganese in the Schizophrenias, Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1983</ref> Orthomolecular psychiatry ''per se'' is, however, generally accepted to have begun in the 1950s with the work of ] and Humphry Osmond in Canada. Later proponents include ], ],<ref></ref> and ].<ref>Pauling, Linus. ''Science'', New Series 160, no. 3825. (April 19, 1968): 265-271.</ref> The origins of orthomolecular psychiatry can be traced to as early as 1927.<ref>Reiter PJ: Behandlung von Dementia Praecox mit metallsalzen. Mangan. Z. Neur., 108:464-480, 1927 As quoted in Carl C. Pfeiffer, Ph.D., M.D. and Scott LaMola, B.S. Zinc and Manganese in the Schizophrenias, Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1983</ref> Orthomolecular psychiatry ''per se'' is, however, generally accepted to have begun in the 1950s with the work of ] and Humphry Osmond in Canada. Later proponents include ], ],<ref></ref> and ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pauling L |title=Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease |journal=Science |volume=160 |issue=825 |pages=265–71 |year=1968 |pmid=5641253 |doi=| url = http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/J/Q/_/mmbbjq.pdf }}</ref>


⚫ Mainstream research has produced evidence that there is some value in the limited use of nutritional and dietary supplements to treat specific mental illnesses, such as the use of ]s with ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stoll AL, Locke CA, Marangell LB, Severus WE |title=Omega-3 fatty acids and bipolar disorder: a review |journal=Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids |volume=60 |issue=5-6 |pages=329–37 |year=1999 |pmid=10471117 |doi=}}</ref> The earliest assertions of proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry were rejected in 1973 by a panel of the ],<ref name="Pauling">{{cite journal |author=Pauling L, Wyatt RJ, Klein DF, Lipton MA |title=On the orthomolecular environment of the mind: orthomolecular theory |journal=The American journal of psychiatry |volume=131 |issue=11 |pages=1251-67 |year=1974 |pmid=4608217 |doi=}}</ref> which instead used its own broader defined, different methodolgies which included many patients who were subsequently recognized in conventional psychiatry to have had different psychiatric conditions.<ref name="Beersheva">{{cite web | title = Treatment of Acute Schizophrenia With Vitamin Therapy | url = http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00140166;jsessionid=B752ABAB3127A0E34C6EEFF5F0D3ABCE?order=46 | source = Beersheva Mental Health Center | year = 2005}}</ref>
⚫ == Orthomolecular psychiatry: diagnoses, treatments, and scope ==


⚫ == Diagnoses, treatments, and scope ==
Proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry posit the existence of various diagnoses that they assert account for the etiology of some psychiatric syndromes. These include ], histadelia (high histamine and basophiles), histapenia (low histamine with high copper), ], ], ] in the presence of normal thyroid values and ] intoxication, as well as other rarer conditions.<ref name = Edelman>{{cite book |author=Eva Edelman |title=Natural Healing for Schizophrenia: And Other Common Mental Disorders |publisher=Borage Books |location= |year= |pages= |isbn=0-9650976-7-6 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> Specific therapies commonly employed include individual biochemical workup, dietary measures, ], identifying ], ], and other pharmacologic nutrients.<ref name = Edelman/> Proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry posit the existence of various diagnoses that they assert account for the etiology of some psychiatric syndromes. These include ], histadelia (high histamine and basophiles), histapenia (low histamine with high copper), ], ], ] in the presence of normal thyroid values and ] intoxication, as well as other rarer conditions.<ref name = Edelman>{{cite book |author=Eva Edelman |title=Natural Healing for Schizophrenia: And Other Common Mental Disorders |publisher=Borage Books |location= |year= |pages= |isbn=0-9650976-7-6 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> Specific therapies commonly employed include individual biochemical workup, dietary measures, ], identifying ], ], and other pharmacologic nutrients.<ref name = Edelman/>


Hoffer and Osmond developed and used the "HOD test" as well as biochemical research to identify and monitor schizophrenia patients' progress, much different methods than the testing and patient selection used by the ]. The use of the ] to evaluate patients is also being explored.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ness-foundation.org.uk/Niacin-Abnormalities.htm | title = Niacin Abnormalities | publisher = The Ness Foundation}}; {{dlw| url = http://www.ness-foundation.org.uk/Niacin-Abnormalities.html | date = 20050309011253}}</ref> Many orthomolecular physicians still prescribe ]s for ] patients, initially. However, the long-term avoidance of antipsychotics, which are notorious for side-effects such as ], and a return to health is the main goal . The orthomolecular practice of weaning off conventional neuroleptic drugs follows Dr. Carl Pfeiffer's dictum known as "Pfeiffer's Law" that states, "For every drug that benefits a patient, there is a natural substance that can achieve the same effect".<ref>''Doctor's Guide to Natural Medicine'', Paul Barney, M.D., Woodland Publishing, March 1998, ISBN 1885670842</ref> Hoffer and Osmond developed and used the "HOD test" as well as biochemical research to identify and monitor schizophrenia patients' progress, much different methods than the testing and patient selection used by the ]. The use of the ] to evaluate patients is also being explored.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ness-foundation.org.uk/Niacin-Abnormalities.htm | title = Niacin Abnormalities | publisher = The Ness Foundation}}; {{dlw| url = http://www.ness-foundation.org.uk/Niacin-Abnormalities.html | date = 20050309011253}}</ref> Many orthomolecular physicians still prescribe ]s for ] patients, initially. However, the long-term avoidance of antipsychotics, which are notorious for side-effects such as ], and a return to health is the main goal.


These and other methods have been claimed to treat ],<ref name = Warren>{{cite book |author=Warren, Tom |title=Beating Alzheimer's: a step towards unlocking the mysteries of brain diseases |publisher=Avery Pub. Group |location=Wayne, N.J |year=1991 |pages= |isbn=0-89529-488-5 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> ],<ref name = Warren/> ],<ref>{{cite journal| url = http://orthomolecular.org/library/jom/1999/abstracts/1999-v14n01-p028.shtml | title = The adverse effects of manganese deficiency on reproduction and health: A literature review | first = Tuula | last = Tuormaa | journal = J Orthomolecular Med | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | year = 1996 | accessdate = 2007-12-18}}</ref> ]<ref name = Eaton>{{cite journal |pmid = 16423158 |first = A.E. |last = Kalaydjian |coauthors = Eaton W., Cascella N. & Fasano A. | year = 2006 |title = The gluten connection: the association between schizophrenia and celiac disease |journal = Acta Psychiatr Scand |volume = 113| issue = 2 | pages = 82-90}}</ref> and ].<ref name = Edelman/> These and other methods have been claimed to treat ],<ref name = Warren>{{cite book |author=Warren, Tom |title=Beating Alzheimer's: a step towards unlocking the mysteries of brain diseases |publisher=Avery Pub. Group |location=Wayne, N.J |year=1991 |pages= |isbn=0-89529-488-5 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> ],<ref name = Warren/> ],<ref>{{cite journal| url = http://orthomolecular.org/library/jom/1999/abstracts/1999-v14n01-p028.shtml | title = The adverse effects of manganese deficiency on reproduction and health: A literature review | first = Tuula | last = Tuormaa | journal = J Orthomolecular Med | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | year = 1996 | accessdate = 2007-12-18}}</ref> ]<ref name = Eaton>{{cite journal |pmid = 16423158 |first = A.E. |last = Kalaydjian |coauthors = Eaton W., Cascella N. & Fasano A. | year = 2006 |title = The gluten connection: the association between schizophrenia and celiac disease |journal = Acta Psychiatr Scand |volume = 113| issue = 2 | pages = 82-90}}</ref> and ].<ref name = Edelman/>


== Criticisms == == Criticisms ==
⚫ Orthomolecular psychiatry is controversial, with scant support among the mainstream medical community. Critics have noted that the claims of proponents are considered unsubstantiated by conventional psychiatry. Authoritative bodies such as the National Institute of Mental Health<ref name = QW/> and American Academy of Pediatrics<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/5/707 | title = Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation in Down's Syndrome | first = Forrest C. | last = Bennett | accessdate = 2007-02-13}}</ref> have criticized orthomolecular treatments as ineffective and potentially toxic.


A 1973 task force of the American Psychiatric Association that investigated orthomolecular claims concluded that there was little credibility to megavitamin therapy, part of which was due to the refusal of proponents to test their ideas experimentally and report results in the usual scientific fora, ultimately labelling the approach "deplorable".<ref name = QW/>
⚫ As of 2005, orthomolecular psychiatry remains controversial, with scant support among the mainstream medical community. Critics have noted that the claims of proponents are considered unsubstantiated by conventional psychiatry. Authoritative bodies such as the National Institute of Mental Health{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and American Academy of Pediatrics<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/5/707 | title = Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation in Down's Syndrome | first = Forrest C. | last = Bennett | accessdate = 2007-02-13}}</ref> have criticized orthomolecular treatments as ineffective and potentially toxic.

A 1973 task force of the American Psychiatric Association charged with investigating orthomolecular claims, but instead focused on niacin monotherapeutically<ref name="Pauling"/> (the earliest version of treatment, ca. 1952) for a different kind of patient population, concluded:
<blockquote>This review and critique has carefully examined the literature produced by megavitamin proponents and by those who have attempted to replicate their basic and clinical work. It concludes in this regard that the credibility of the megavitamin proponents is low. Their credibility is further diminished by a consistent refusal over the past decade to perform controlled experiments and to report their new results in a scientifically acceptable fashion.

Under these circumstances this Task Force considers the massive publicity which they promulgate via radio, the lay press and popular books, using catch phrases which are really misnomers like "megavitamin therapy" and "orthomolecular treatment," to be deplorable.<ref> URL accessed February 12, 2007</ref></blockquote>

According to a Beersheva Mental Health Center study begun in 2005 and ongoing as of 2007,

<blockquote>Controlled studies using the orthomolecular approach have been few. Those that were done were performed in chronic schizophrenia or in populations that included bipolar and schizoaffective patients. Both of these diagnostic groups are not today considered to benefit from the orthomolecular approach. Moreover, some negative studies of high-dose niacin were done in patients who were not otherwise given general counseling for good diet.";<ref name="Beersheva">{{cite web | title = Treatment of Acute Schizophrenia With Vitamin Therapy | url = http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00140166;jsessionid=B752ABAB3127A0E34C6EEFF5F0D3ABCE?order=46 | source = Beersheva Mental Health Center | year = 2005}}</ref> compared with a basic, modern orthomolecular regimen.</blockquote>


A study of the effectiveness of orthomolecular medicine began in 2005, attempting to adequately address the failings of past studies by using an appropriate treatment group and intervention.<ref name="Beersheva"/>
=== Rebuttals ===


Proponents consider the 1973 APA task force report error laden with sweeping, scientifically unfounded conclusions,<ref name="Pauling"/> highly politicized, and that its studies failed to use similar methods, materials and subjects as the original work.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.iahf.com/orthomolecular/reply_to_apa_tfr_7.pdf | title = Megavitamin Therapy In Reply To Task Force Report on Megavitamin and Orthomolecular Therapy in Psychiatry | source = Canadian Schizophrenia Foundation | year = 1976}}</ref> The APA report's criticism alleges inadequate controlled trials because ] quit running additional blinded tests that he had come to view as unethical for his patients, especially since the results of his previous double blinded tests went unheeded.<ref>{{cite book | first = Abram | last = Hoffer | title = Adventures in Psychiatry: The Scientific Memoirs of Dr. Abram Hoffer | publisher = KOS Publishing | location = Toronto | year = 2005}} </ref> The APA's assertion is made despite Hoffer's claim to have run the first double blind controlled test in psychiatry, on megavitamin therapies, with a total four double blinded tests, up to 19 years before the APA task force report, as well as being supported by two independent double blinded tests Proponents consider the 1973 APA task force report error laden with sweeping, scientifically unfounded conclusions,<ref name="Pauling"/> highly politicized, and that its studies failed to use similar methods, materials and subjects as the original work.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.iahf.com/orthomolecular/reply_to_apa_tfr_7.pdf | title = Megavitamin Therapy In Reply To Task Force Report on Megavitamin and Orthomolecular Therapy in Psychiatry | source = Canadian Schizophrenia Foundation | year = 1976}}</ref> The APA report's criticism alleges inadequate controlled trials because ] quit running additional blinded tests that he had come to view as unethical for his patients, especially since the results of his previous double blinded tests went unheeded.<ref>{{cite book | first = Abram | last = Hoffer | title = Adventures in Psychiatry: The Scientific Memoirs of Dr. Abram Hoffer | publisher = KOS Publishing | location = Toronto | year = 2005}} </ref> The APA's assertion is made despite Hoffer's claim to have run the first double blind controlled test in psychiatry, on megavitamin therapies, with a total four double blinded tests, up to 19 years before the APA task force report, as well as being supported by two independent double blinded tests
<ref name = witten>{{cite journal |author=Wittenborn JR, Weber ES, Brown M |title=Niacin in the long-term treatment of schizophrenia |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=308-15 |year=1973 |pmid=4569673 |doi=}}</ref> and an extensive biochemical research program.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.orthomolecular.org/library/jom/1999/pdf/1999-v14n01-p049.pdf | first = A | last = Hoffers | coauthors = Osmond, H. | title = The adrenochrome hypothesis | journal = Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | year = 1999}}</ref> One of the APA report's five authors, psychologist JR Wittenborn, reacting to Hoffer's specific criticisms, later re-analyzed his original double blind study<ref name = witten/> favorably with respect to orthomolecular psychiatry, obtaining the same result as Hoffer,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wittenborn JR |title=A search for responders to niacin supplementation |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=547-52 |year=1974 |pmid=4607587 |doi=}}</ref> and never received NIMH or APA support again.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.doctoryourself.com/hoffer_paradigm.html | first = Abram | last = Hoffer | title = The Vitamin Paradigm Wars, Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients | year = 1996}}</ref> Another of the APA report's authors, then NIMH member ], later resigned from the American Psychiatric Association in total disgust,<ref> Loren R. Mosher, M.D. to Rodrigo Munoz, M.D., President of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), Letter of Resignation from the American Psychiatric Association, 4 December 1998</ref> and referred to the organization as a "drug company patsy."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A63107-2004Jul19.html | last = Bernstein | first = Adam | title = Contrarian Psychiatrist Loren Mosher, 70 (obituary}| publisher = ] | date = 2004-07-20 | accessdate = 2007-12-18}}</ref> <ref name = witten>{{cite journal |author=Wittenborn JR, Weber ES, Brown M |title=Niacin in the long-term treatment of schizophrenia |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=308-15 |year=1973 |pmid=4569673 |doi=}}</ref> and an extensive biochemical research program.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.orthomolecular.org/library/jom/1999/pdf/1999-v14n01-p049.pdf | first = A | last = Hoffers | coauthors = Osmond, H. | title = The adrenochrome hypothesis | journal = Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | year = 1999}}</ref> One of the APA report's five authors, psychologist JR Wittenborn, reacting to Hoffer's specific criticisms, later re-analyzed his original double blind study<ref name = witten/> favorably with respect to orthomolecular psychiatry, obtaining the same result as Hoffer,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wittenborn JR |title=A search for responders to niacin supplementation |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=547-52 |year=1974 |pmid=4607587 |doi=}}</ref> and never received NIMH or APA support again.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.doctoryourself.com/hoffer_paradigm.html | first = Abram | last = Hoffer | title = The Vitamin Paradigm Wars, Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients | year = 1996}}</ref> Another of the APA report's authors, then NIMH member ], later resigned from the American Psychiatric Association in total disgust,<ref> Loren R. Mosher, M.D. to Rodrigo Munoz, M.D., President of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), Letter of Resignation from the American Psychiatric Association, 4 December 1998</ref> and referred to the organization as a "drug company patsy."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A63107-2004Jul19.html | last = Bernstein | first = Adam | title = Contrarian Psychiatrist Loren Mosher, 70 (obituary}| publisher = ] | date = 2004-07-20 | accessdate = 2007-12-18}}</ref>


== Scientific support == == Scientific support ==

Revision as of 19:16, 2 January 2008

Orthomolecular psychiatry is a branch of orthomolecular medicine whose proponents claim that dietary supplements and other treatments can be effective in treating mental illness. The practice has very little support among mainstream psychiatrists and has been called quackery by its critics.

History

The origins of orthomolecular psychiatry can be traced to as early as 1927. Orthomolecular psychiatry per se is, however, generally accepted to have begun in the 1950s with the work of Abram Hoffer and Humphry Osmond in Canada. Later proponents include Carl Pfeiffer, David Horrobin, and Linus Pauling.

Mainstream research has produced evidence that there is some value in the limited use of nutritional and dietary supplements to treat specific mental illnesses, such as the use of omega 3 fatty acids with bipolar disorder. The earliest assertions of proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry were rejected in 1973 by a panel of the American Psychiatric Association, which instead used its own broader defined, different methodolgies which included many patients who were subsequently recognized in conventional psychiatry to have had different psychiatric conditions.

Diagnoses, treatments, and scope

Proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry posit the existence of various diagnoses that they assert account for the etiology of some psychiatric syndromes. These include pyroluria, histadelia (high histamine and basophiles), histapenia (low histamine with high copper), food allergy, hypoglycemia, hypothyroidism in the presence of normal thyroid values and heavy metal intoxication, as well as other rarer conditions. Specific therapies commonly employed include individual biochemical workup, dietary measures, fasting, identifying allergies, megavitamin therapy, and other pharmacologic nutrients.

Hoffer and Osmond developed and used the "HOD test" as well as biochemical research to identify and monitor schizophrenia patients' progress, much different methods than the testing and patient selection used by the American Psychiatric Association. The use of the 'niacin flush' to evaluate patients is also being explored. Many orthomolecular physicians still prescribe antipsychotics for schizophrenic patients, initially. However, the long-term avoidance of antipsychotics, which are notorious for side-effects such as tardive dyskinesia, and a return to health is the main goal.

These and other methods have been claimed to treat Alzheimer's disease, dementia, tardive dyskinesia, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.

Criticisms

Orthomolecular psychiatry is controversial, with scant support among the mainstream medical community. Critics have noted that the claims of proponents are considered unsubstantiated by conventional psychiatry. Authoritative bodies such as the National Institute of Mental Health and American Academy of Pediatrics have criticized orthomolecular treatments as ineffective and potentially toxic.

A 1973 task force of the American Psychiatric Association that investigated orthomolecular claims concluded that there was little credibility to megavitamin therapy, part of which was due to the refusal of proponents to test their ideas experimentally and report results in the usual scientific fora, ultimately labelling the approach "deplorable".

A study of the effectiveness of orthomolecular medicine began in 2005, attempting to adequately address the failings of past studies by using an appropriate treatment group and intervention.

Proponents consider the 1973 APA task force report error laden with sweeping, scientifically unfounded conclusions, highly politicized, and that its studies failed to use similar methods, materials and subjects as the original work. The APA report's criticism alleges inadequate controlled trials because Hoffer quit running additional blinded tests that he had come to view as unethical for his patients, especially since the results of his previous double blinded tests went unheeded. The APA's assertion is made despite Hoffer's claim to have run the first double blind controlled test in psychiatry, on megavitamin therapies, with a total four double blinded tests, up to 19 years before the APA task force report, as well as being supported by two independent double blinded tests and an extensive biochemical research program. One of the APA report's five authors, psychologist JR Wittenborn, reacting to Hoffer's specific criticisms, later re-analyzed his original double blind study favorably with respect to orthomolecular psychiatry, obtaining the same result as Hoffer, and never received NIMH or APA support again. Another of the APA report's authors, then NIMH member Loren Mosher, later resigned from the American Psychiatric Association in total disgust, and referred to the organization as a "drug company patsy."

Scientific support

Orthomolecular psychiatry has not been studied extensively by mainstream science. Despite this, there is some evidence that specific hypotheses of practitioners have merit. A 2006 literature review found support for the removal of gluten from the diet of a subset of schizophrenic patients, a therapy that orthomolecular psychiatry has long recommended when indicated.

Until recently, the scientific consensus was that the only illness causing dementia involving an accumulation of copper to toxic levels was Wilson's disease. Carl Pfeiffer reported that a form of schizophrenia or dementia involved the accumulation of toxic levels of copper without the liver damage associated with copper toxicity in Wilson's disease, but his findings were not adopted by the mainstream medical community. More recently there has been support for the theory that Alzheimer's or one form of the disease, is caused by a toxic buildup of copper in the brain. Similar to Pfeiffer, the main proponent of the theory was initially ridiculed by his colleagues and mainstream medical practitioners.

Notable patients

Abram Hoffer reports that actress Margot Kidder credits orthomolecular psychiatry with helping her overcome bipolar disorder. Harvard-trained pediatrician Mark Vonnegut attributed his recovery from schizophrenia to orthomolecular psychiatry and advocated its adoption by mainstream medicine, but later chose to disavow his statements.

References

  1. ^ Barrett M.D., Stephen (2000-07-12). "Orthomolecular Therapy". Quackwatch.org. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
  2. Reiter PJ: Behandlung von Dementia Praecox mit metallsalzen. Mangan. Z. Neur., 108:464-480, 1927 As quoted in Carl C. Pfeiffer, Ph.D., M.D. and Scott LaMola, B.S. Zinc and Manganese in the Schizophrenias, Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1983
  3. David Horrobin Bibliography
  4. Pauling L (1968). "Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease" (PDF). Science. 160 (825): 265–71. PMID 5641253.
  5. Stoll AL, Locke CA, Marangell LB, Severus WE (1999). "Omega-3 fatty acids and bipolar disorder: a review". Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 60 (5–6): 329–37. PMID 10471117.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Pauling L, Wyatt RJ, Klein DF, Lipton MA (1974). "On the orthomolecular environment of the mind: orthomolecular theory". The American journal of psychiatry. 131 (11): 1251–67. PMID 4608217.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ "Treatment of Acute Schizophrenia With Vitamin Therapy". 2005. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help)
  8. ^ Eva Edelman. Natural Healing for Schizophrenia: And Other Common Mental Disorders. Borage Books. ISBN 0-9650976-7-6.
  9. "Niacin Abnormalities". The Ness Foundation.; Template:Dlw
  10. ^ Warren, Tom (1991). Beating Alzheimer's: a step towards unlocking the mysteries of brain diseases. Wayne, N.J: Avery Pub. Group. ISBN 0-89529-488-5.
  11. Tuormaa, Tuula (1996). "The adverse effects of manganese deficiency on reproduction and health: A literature review". J Orthomolecular Med. 11 (2). Retrieved 2007-12-18.
  12. ^ Kalaydjian, A.E. (2006). "The gluten connection: the association between schizophrenia and celiac disease". Acta Psychiatr Scand. 113 (2): 82–90. PMID 16423158. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. Bennett, Forrest C. "Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation in Down's Syndrome". Retrieved 2007-02-13.
  14. "Megavitamin Therapy In Reply To Task Force Report on Megavitamin and Orthomolecular Therapy in Psychiatry" (PDF). 1976. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help)
  15. Hoffer, Abram (2005). Adventures in Psychiatry: The Scientific Memoirs of Dr. Abram Hoffer. Toronto: KOS Publishing. Review
  16. ^ Wittenborn JR, Weber ES, Brown M (1973). "Niacin in the long-term treatment of schizophrenia". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 28 (3): 308–15. PMID 4569673.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. Hoffers, A (1999). "The adrenochrome hypothesis" (PDF). Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. 14 (1). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. Wittenborn JR (1974). "A search for responders to niacin supplementation". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 31 (4): 547–52. PMID 4607587.
  19. Hoffer, Abram (1996). "The Vitamin Paradigm Wars, Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients".
  20. Loren R. Mosher, M.D. to Rodrigo Munoz, M.D., President of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), Letter of Resignation from the American Psychiatric Association, 4 December 1998
  21. Bernstein, Adam (2004-07-20). "Contrarian Psychiatrist Loren Mosher, 70 (obituary}". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
  22. ^ Pfeiffer, Carl C. Nutrition and Mental Illness: An Orthomolecular Approach to Balancing Body Chemistry. Healing Art Press. ISBN 0-89281-226-5.
  23. Wysocki, Bernard (2003-12-26). "Scientist is winning converts on Alzheimer's". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
  24. Hoffer, Abram (2001). Masks of Madness: Orthomolecular Treatment of Mental Illness. Quarry Press. ISBN 1550822608.

Further reading

  • Hoffer, A. Smart Nutrients: Prevent and Treat Alzheimer's, Enhance Brain Function. Vital Health Pub. ISBN 1-890612-26-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Hoffer, A. Healing Schizophrenia: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments. Ccnm Press. ISBN 1-897025-08-4.
  • Abram Hoffer (2004) Healing Children's Attention & Behavior Disorders: Complementary Nutritional & Psychological Treatments, CCNM Press, ISBN 1-897025-10-6
  • Eva Edelman (2001) Natural Healing for Schizophrenia: And Other Common Mental Disorders, Borage Books; 3rd Rev ed, ISBN 0-9650976-7-6
  • Eric Braverman, Carl Pfeiffer, K. Blum, R. Smayda (2003) The Healing Nutrients Within: Facts, Findings, and New Research on Amino Acids, 3rd ed, Basic Health Publications, ISBN 1-59120-037-7
  • Carl C. Pfeiffer (1988) Nutrition and Mental Illness : An Orthomolecular Approach to Balancing Body Chemistry, Healing Arts Press, ISBN 0-89281-226-5
  • Melvyn R. Werbach (1999) Nutritional Influences on Mental Illness, 2nd edition, Third Line Press, ISBN 0-9618550-8-8

External links

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