Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 14:34, 3 January 2008

The level of support for evolution among scientists, the public and other groups is a topic that frequently arises in the creation-evolution controversy and touches on educational, religious, philosophical, scientific and political issues. The subject is primarily contentious in the United States. However, it is also important in other countries where creationists attempt to force schools and departments of education to treat creationism as a valid alternative to evolution, or portray evolution as a weak or fraught scientific paradigm. Although there is undeniable evidence of evolution and the scientific consensus supporting modern evolutionary synthesis is nearly absolute, some creationists have asserted that there is a significant scientific controversy and disagreement over the validity of evolution.

The Discovery Institute in the United States also claims that because there is a significant lack of public support for evolution, that public schools should, as their campaign states, "Teach the Controversy." Nearly every scientific society, representing hundreds of thousands of scientists, has issued official statements disputing this claim and a petition supporting the teaching of evolution was endorsed by 72 US Nobel Prize winners. Additionally, US courts have ruled in favor of teaching evolution in science classrooms, and against teaching creationism, in numerous cases.

Creationists have made inroads in the political realm in the US and other countries. The most prominent organization behind this movement has been the Discovery Institute, the driving force behind the intelligent design movement. Through its Center for Science and Culture, the Institute conducts a number of related public relations and lobbying campaigns aimed at influencing the public and policy makers in order to force its beliefs into academia, which it claims is dogmatic and hidebound.

Many claims in the creation-evolution controversy rest on whether or not evolution is genuinely disputed by those in scientific circles, and on the acceptance of evolution by the public, as well as religious and educational organizations. Therefore, gauging the level of support and scientific consensus for evolution is of interest in evaluating assertions on all sides. Publications that discuss this include McCollister and Asimov, 1989, Matsumura, 1995, and Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, released by the National Academy of Sciences in 1998.

Scientific support

The vast majority of the scientific community and academia supports evolutionary theory as the only explanation that can fully explain observations in the fields of biology, paleontology, anthropology, and others. One 1987 estimate found that more than 99.85% of almost 500,000 US scientists in the earth and life sciences supported evolution over creation science. An expert in the evolution-creationism controversy, professor and author Brian Alters states that "99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution". A 1991 Gallup poll of Americans found that about 5% of scientists (including those with training outside biology) identified themselves as creationists.

Additionally, the scientific community considers intelligent design, a neo-creationist offshoot, to be unscientific, pseudoscience, or junk science. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that intelligent design "and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life" are not science because they cannot be tested by experiment, do not generate any predictions, and propose no new hypotheses of their own. In September 2005, 38 Nobel laureates issued a statement saying "Intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent." In October 2005, a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers issued a statement saying "intelligent design is not science" and calling on "all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory".

In 1986, an amicus curiae brief asking the US Supreme Court to reject a Louisiana state law requiring the teaching of creationism in the case Edwards v. Aguillard was signed by 72 US Nobel Prize winners, 17 state academies of science and 7 other scientific societies. This was the largest collection of Nobel Prize winners to sign anything up to that point. The amicus curiae brief also clearly described why evolution was science, not religion, and why creationism is not science.

There are many scientific and scholarly organizations from around the world that have issued statements in support of the theory of evolution. The American Association for the Advancement of Science, the world's largest general scientific society with more than 130,000 members and over 262 affiliated societies and academies of science including over 10 million individuals, has made several statements and issued several press releases in support of evolution. The prestigious US National Academy of Sciences that provides science advice to the nation, has published several books supporting evolution and denouncing creationism and intelligent design.

Voting, resolutions and statements of scientists before 1985

One of the earliest resolutions in support of evolution was issued by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1922, and readopted in 1929.

Another early effort to express support for evolution by scientists was organized by Nobel Prize Winner German biologist Hermann J. Muller in 1966. Muller circulated a petition entitled "Is Biological Evolution a Principle of Nature that has been well established by Science?" in May of 1966:

There are no hypotheses, alternative to the principle of evolution with its “tree of life,” that any competent biologist of today takes seriously. Moreover, the principle is so important for an understanding of the world we live in and of ourselves that the public in general, including students taking biology in high school, should be made aware of it, and of the fact that it is firmly established, even as the rotundity of the earth is firmly established.

This manifesto was signed by 177 of the leading American biologists, including Nobel Prize Winner George G. Simpson of Harvard University, Nobel Prize Winner Peter Agre of Duke University, Carl Sagan of Cornell, John Tyler Bonner of Princeton, Nobel Prize Winner George Beadle, President of the University of Chicago, and Donald F. Kennedy of Stanford University, formerly head of the United States Food and Drug Administration.

This was followed by the passing of a resolution by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in the fall of 1972 that stated, in part, "the theory of creation... is neither scientifically grounded nor capable of performing the rules required of science theories". The United States National Academy of Sciences also passed a similar resolution in the fall of 1972. A "A Statement Affirming Evolution as a Principle of Science." was signed by Nobel Prize Winner Linus Pauling, Isaac Asimov, Nobel Prize Winner George G. Simpson, Caltech Biology Professor Norman H. Horowitz, Ernst Mayr, and others, and published in 1977. The governing board of the American Geological Institute issued a statement supporting resolution in November 1981. Shortly thereafter, the AAAS passed another resolution supporting evolution and disparaging efforts to teach creationism in science classes.

Creationist disputes over the scientific support for evolution

Creationists strongly dispute the fact that there is overwhelming support for evolution in the science community. One of the first attempts to provide evidence that there were substantial number of scientists who disagreed with evolution was a pamphlet produced by the Institute for Creation Research in 1971 entitled "21 Scientists Who Believe in Creation" This pamphlet has been reprinted several times. Skeptics have claimed that this list of 21 creation supporters is misleading since it includes 3 people with PhD's in education, 2 in theology, 5 in engineering, 1 in physics, 1 in chemistry, 1 in hydrology, 1 in entomology, 1 in psycholinguistics, 1 in food science technology, 2 in biochemistry, 1 in ecology, 1 in physiology and 1 in geophysics, and therefore only a small minority had qualifications related in any way to evolutionary biology.

Similarly, chemist John F. Ashton edited a book first published in 1999 with essays from 50 scientists describing why they believed in creationism.. Ann Lamont wrote a book describing 21 famous scientists such as Johannes Kepler, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton, Carolus Linnaeus, Leonhard Euler, Michael Faraday, Charles Babbage, James Prescott Joule, Louis Pasteur, Kelvin, James Clerk Maxwell, and Wernher von Braun who she claimed believed in biblical literalism. However, many of these scientists lived before much of the evidence against biblical literalism emerged. Of the previous list, only aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun was alive when evolution was firmly established and the geological evidence against Noah's Ark had clearly emerged. It is also not clear what "believing in the Bible" means, since there is a wide range of beliefs in the Bible, although von Braun did write about his support for creationist ideas on the grounds of design. It should be noted that there is a vast difference between "believing in the bible" and subscribing to biblical literalism. Also, of the scientists listed above, only Linnaeus and Pasteur were trained in and worked in a field relevant to biology.

In continuing attempts to counter the charge that there are no scientists who disagree with the principles of evolution, creationist organizations have gathered lists of hundreds of scientists who disagree with evolution and support creationism. Some prominent creationist organizations that have produced these kinds of lists include the Discovery Institute, the Institute for Creation Research, Answers in Genesis, Creation Ministries International. and Christian Answers. The Institute for Creation Research website includes the following statement:

Today there are thousands of scientists who are creationists and who repudiate any form of evolution in their analysis and use of scientific data. Creationist scientists can now be found in literally every discipline of science and their numbers are increasing rapidly. In the Creation Research Society (2717 Cranbrook Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48104) alone there are over 650 scientist members with either doctor's or master's degrees in some field of natural science. Among the additional 2,000 + sustaining members of the Society, many are also scientists with bachelor's degrees, in addition to numerous social scientists and other highly educated people with postgraduate degrees in their own fields. Evolutionists are finding it increasingly difficult to maintain the fiction that evolution is "science" and creation is "religion." When news media personnel and others make such statements today, they merely reveal their own liberal social philosophies—not their awareness of scientific facts!

Project Steve

The National Center for Science Education has produced a "light-hearted" petition called "Project Steve" in support of evolution. Only scientists named "Steve" or some variation (such as Stephen, Stephanie, and Stefan) are eligible to sign the petition. It is intended to be a "tongue-in-cheek parody" of the lists of alleged "scientists" supposedly supporting creationist principles that creationist organizations produce.

According to the United States Census, about 1.6% of males and 0.4% of females have a first name that would qualify them to sign the petition. Therefore, about 1% of all people in the United States are called Steve or some name that is close to Steve.

Therefore, if one can get N scientists named Steve or something similar to endorse the petition, one might expect that roughly 100xN scientists with all kinds of names would endorse the petition. As of September 20, 2007, 830 scientists named Steve had endorsed the petition, suggesting that if all scientists were allowed to endorse the petition, about 83,000 scientists would have signed. This compares with the Discovery Institute's claim to have over 600 scientists that support intelligent design as of the end of June, 2006. This would indicate a majority of at least 99% of scientists supporting the biological theory of evolution.

Support for evolution by religious bodies

Many creationists act as evangelists and their organizations are registered as tax-free religious organizations. Creationists have claimed that they represent the interests of true Christians, and evolution is only associated with atheism.

However, not all religious organizations find support for evolution incompatible with their religious faith. For example, there are several religious organizations that have issued statements advocating the teaching of evolution in public schools.In addition, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Rowan Williams, issued statements in support of evolution in 2006. The Clergy Letter Project is a signed statement by 11,111 (as of 22 December 2007) American Christian clergy of different denominations rejecting creationism organized in 2004. Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education found, of Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations, at least 77% belong to churches that support evolution education (and that at one point, this figure was as high as 89.6%). These churches include the United Methodist Church, National Baptist Convention, USA, Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Presbyterian Church (USA), National Baptist Convention of America, African Methodist Episcopal Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church, and others. A figure closer to about 71% is presented by the analysis of Walter B. Murfin and David F. Beck.

Michael Shermer argued in Scientific American in October 2006 that evolution supports concepts like family values, avoiding lies, fidelity, moral codes and the rule of law. Shermer also suggests that evolution gives more support to the notion of an omnipotent creator, rather than a tinkerer with limitations based on a human model.

Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church

Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church are compatible according to the Church. On the 12 August 1950, the Roman Catholic Church accepted that the ‘doctrine of evolution’ was a valid scientific inquiry, stated by Pope Pius XII in the encyclical Humani Generis saying “research and discussions… take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution”. In the same encyclical the Magisterium holds that a Catholic can believe in the creation account found in sacred scripture. However, the encyclical rejects what it described as some “fictitious tenets of evolution”. Following this announcement Catholic schools began teaching evolution.

In 1996 Pope John Paul II gave a message to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in which he said “Today, almost half a century after publication of the encyclical, new knowledge has led to the recognition of the theory of evolution as more than a hypothesis.”

Between 2000 and 2002 the International Theological Commission found that “Converging evidence from many studies in the physical and biological sciences furnishes mounting support for some theory of evolution to account for the development and diversification of life on earth, while controversy continues over the pace and mechanisms of evolution.” This statement was published by the Vatican on July 2004 by the authority of Pope Benedict XVI who was actually the President of the Commission while he was a Cardinal.

The Magisterium has not yet made an authoritative statement on intelligent design, and has permitted arguments on both sides of the issue. In 2005, Cardinal Christoph Schönborn of Vienna appeared to endorse intelligent design when he denounced philosophically materialist interpretations of evolution.

In the January 16-17 2006 edition of the official Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano, University of Bologna evolutionary biology Professor Fiorenzo Facchini wrote an article agreeing with the judge's ruling in Kitzmiller v. Dover and stating that intelligent design was unscientific. Jesuit Father George Coyne, former director of the Vatican Observatory, has also denounced intelligent design.

US Religious denominations that dispute evolution

On the other hand, in the U.S., many Protestant denominations promote creationism, preach against evolution from the pulpits, and sponsor lectures and debates on the subject. A list of denominations that explicitly advocate creationism instead of Darwinism or evolution include the Assemblies of God, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, the Free Methodist Church, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod, Pentecostal Churches, Seventh-day Adventist Churches, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, Christian Reformed Church, and the Pentecostal Oneness churches.

Support for evolution in medicine and industry

A common complaint of creationists is that evolution is of no value, has never been used for anything, and will never be of any use. According to many creationists, nothing would be lost by getting rid of evolution, and science and industry might even benefit.

On the other hand, evolution is being put to practical use in medicine, genetics and industry. Corporations such as pharmaceutical companies utilize biological evolution in their development of new products.

Because of the perceived value of evolution in applications, there have been some expressions of support for evolution on the part of corporations. In Kansas, there has been some widespread concern in the corporate and academic communities that a move to weaken the teaching of evolution in schools will hurt the state's ability to recruit the best talent, particularly in the biotech industry. Paul Hanle of the Biotechnology Institute warned that the US risks falling behind in the biotechnology race with other nations if it does not do a better job of teaching evolution. James McCarter of Divergence Incorporated states that the work of 2001 Nobel Prize winner Leland Hartwell which has substantial implications for combating cancer relied heavily the use of evolutionary knowledge and predictions. McCarter points out that 47 of the last 50 Nobel Prizes in medicine or physiology also depended on the use of evolutionary theory.

A review by Jerry A. Coyne of The Evolving World: Evolution in Everyday Life, a book by David Mindell, suggests that some of this enthusiasm might be excessive

To some extent these excesses are not Mindell’s fault, for, if truth be told, evolution hasn’t yielded many practical or commercial benefits. Yes, bacteria evolve drug resistance, and yes, we must take countermeasures, but beyond that there is not much to say. Evolution cannot help us predict what new vaccines to manufacture because microbes evolve unpredictably. But hasn’t evolution helped guide animal and plant breeding? Not very much. Most improvement in crop plants and animals occurred long before we knew anything about evolution, and came about by people following the genetic principle of ‘like begets like’. Even now, as its practitioners admit, the field of quantitative genetics has been of little value in helping improve varieties. Future advances will almost certainly come from transgenics, which is not based on evolution at all.

The organization "Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity" maintains a list of medical doctors and similar professionals who disagree that evolution can account for the diversity of life on earth. As of May 22, 2007, there were 224 Americans and 28 others from other countries that had signed a statement disputing "Darwinism".

Other support for evolution

There are also many educational organizations that have issued statements in support of the theory of evolution.

Repeatedly, creationists and intelligent design advocates have lost suits in US courts. Here is a list of important court cases in which creationists have suffered setbacks:

• 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas, United States Supreme Court
• 1981 Segraves v. State of California, Supreme Court of California
• 1982 McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, U.S. Federal Court
• 1987 Edwards v. Aguillard, United States Supreme Court
• 1990 Webster v. New Lenox School District, Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals
• 1994 Peloza v. Capistrano Unified School District, Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals
• 1997 Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Board of Education, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana
• 2000 Rodney LeVake v Independent School District 656, et al., District Court for the Third Judicial District of the State of Minnesota
• 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, US Federal Court
• 2006 Hurst v. Newman US District Court Eastern District of California

Public support

Creationists often claim that public support of creationism is a sign of its validity as a scientific theory. In some countries, creationist beliefs (or a lack of support for evolutionary theory) are relatively widespread, even garnering a majority of public opinion. A study published in Science compared attitudes about evolution in the United States, 32 European countries (including Turkey) and Japan. The only country where acceptance of evolution was lower than in the United States was Turkey (25%). Public acceptance of evolution was most widespread (at over 80% of the population) in Iceland, Denmark and Sweden. (See the chart)

United Kingdom

A 2006 UK poll on the "origin and development of life" asked participants to choose between three different explanations for the origin of life: 22% chose (Young Earth) creationism, 17% opted for intelligent design, 48% selected evolution theory (with a divine role explicitly excluded) and the rest did not know. However, the poll lacked nuanced survey techniques and equivocated on origin definitions, forcing participants to choose between only these options (which notably excluded theistic evolution). Hence its results are not necessarily an accurate survey of the views of the UK public.

United States

The US has one of the highest levels of public belief in biblical or other religious accounts of the origins of life on earth among industrialized countries.

According to a 2007 Gallup poll, about 43% of American believe that "God created human beings pretty much in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years or so." This is only slightly less than the 46% reported in a 2006 Gallup poll. Only 14% believed that "humans being have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, but God had no part in this process." Belief in creationism is inversely correlated to education; only 22% of those with post-graduate degrees believe in strict creationism. A 2000 poll for People for the American Way found 70% of the American public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God.

Edward Larson and Larry Witham in 1998 published the results of a survey of the members of the US National Academy of Science showing that 93% of the respondents did not believe in a personal God.

A 2005 Pew Research Center poll found that 70% of evangelical Christians felt that living organisms have not changed since their creation, but only 31% of Catholics and 32% of mainline Protestants shared this opinion. A 2005 Harris Poll estimated that 63% of liberals and 37% of conservatives agreed that humans and other primates have a common ancestry.

Evolution, creationism and scientific literacy

It has been suggested that this article be merged with Scientific literacy. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2007.

A 1997 study found that fewer than 20% of Americans possessed basic scientific literacy and a People for the American Way poll found that less than half (48%) of those polled chose the correct definition of evolution from a list. In 2006, New Scientist reported that almost 2/3 of Americans believe they share less than half their genes with "monkeys", when in fact the figure is between 95–99% depending on the primate and comparison method.

Steve Sailer has pointed out that it is not clear how firmly public beliefs in creationism are held. Most creationist claims require a literal reading of Genesis and a belief in biblical inerrancy, while a 2006 study by the Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion found only a minority of those polled believed in the literal truth in the Bible.

Trends

The level of assent that evolution garners has changed with time. The trends in acceptance of evolution can be estimated.

Early impact of Darwin's theory

The level of support for evolution in different communities has varied with time. Darwin's theory had convinced almost every naturalist within 20 years of its publication in 1858, and was making serious inroads with the public and the more liberal clergy. It had reached such extremes, that by 1880, one American religious weekly publication estimated that "perhaps a quarter, perhaps a half of the educated ministers in our leading Evangelical denominations" felt "that the story of the creation and fall of man, told in Genesis, is no more the record of actual occurrences than is the parable of the Prodigal Son."

By the late 1800s, many of the most conservative Christians accepted an ancient earth, and life on earth before Eden. Victorian Era Creationists were more akin to people who subscribe to theistic evolution today. Even fervent anti-evolutionist Scopes Trial prosecutor William Jennings Bryan interpreted the "days" of Genesis as ages of the earth, and acknowledged that biochemical evolution took place, drawing the line only at the story of Adam and Eve's creation. Prominent pre-World War II creationist Harry Rimmer allowed an Old Earth by slipping millions of years into putative gaps in the Genesis account, and claimed that the Noachian Flood was only a local phenomenon.

In the decades of the 1900s, George Macready Price and a tiny group of Seventh-day Adventist followers were the among the very few believers in a Young Earth and a worldwide flood, which Price championed in his "new catastrophism" theories. It was not until the publication of John C. Whitcomb, Jr., and Henry M. Morris’s book Genesis Flood in 1961 that Price's idea was revived. In the last few decades, many creationists have adopted Price's beliefs, becoming progressively more strict biblical literalists.

Recent public beliefs

In a 1991 Gallup poll, 47% of the US population, and 25% of college graduates agreed with the statement, "God created man pretty much in his present form at one time within the last 10,000 years."

Fourteen years later, in 2005, Gallup found that 53% of Americans expressed the belief that "God created human beings in their present form exactly the way the Bible describes it." About 2/3 (65.5%) of those surveyed thought that creationism was definitely or probably true. In 2005 a Newsweek poll discovered that 80 percent of the American public thought that "God created the universe," and the Pew Research Center reported that "nearly two-thirds of Americans say that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in public schools." Ronald Numbers commented on that with "Most surprising of all was the discovery that large numbers of high-school biology teachers — from 30% in Illinois and 38% in Ohio to a whopping 69% in Kentucky — supported the teaching of creationism."

The National Center for Science Education reports that from 1985 to 2005, the number of Americans unsure about evolution increased from 7% to 21%, while the number rejecting evolution declined from 48% to 39%. Jon Miller of Michigan State University has found in his polls that the number of Americans who accept evolution has declined from 45% to 40% from 1985 to 2005.

In light of these somewhat contradictory results, it is difficult to know for sure what is happening to public opinion on evolution in the US. It does not appear that either side is making unequivocal progress. It does appear that uncertainty about the issue is increasing, however.

Anecdotal evidence is that creationism is becoming more of an issue in the UK as well. One report in 2006 was that UK students are increasingly arriving ill-prepared to participate in medical studies or other advanced education.

Recent scientific trends

The level of support for creationism among relevant scientists is minimal. Only 700 out of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists gave credence to creationism in 1987, representing about 0.158% of relevant scientists. In 2007 the Discovery Institute reported that about 600 scientists signed their A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism list, up from 100 in 2001. The actual statement is a relatively mild one that expresses skepticism about the absoluteness of 'Darwinism' (and is in line with the falsifiability required of scientific theories) to explain all features of life, and does not in any way represent an absolute denial or rejection of evolution.

The United States National Science Foundation statistics on US yearly science graduates demonstrate that from 1987 to 2001, the number of biological science graduates increased by 59% while the number of geological science graduates decreased by 20.5%. However, the number of geology graduates in 2001 was only 5.4% of the number of graduates in the biological sciences, while it was 10.7% of the number of biological science graduates in 1987. The Science Resources Statistics Division of the National Science Foundation estimated that in 1999, there were 955,300 biological scientists in the US (about 1/3 of who hold graduate degrees). There were also 152,800 earth scientists in the US as well.

Therefore, the 600 Darwin Dissenters represent about 0.054% of the estimated 1,108,100 biological and geological scientists in the US in 1999. In addition, a large fraction of the Darwin Dissenters have specialties unrelated to research on evolution; of the dissenters, three-quarters are not biologists. Therefore, the roughly 150 biologist Darwin Dissenters represent about 0.0157% of the US biologists that existed in 1999. As of 2006, the list was expanded to include non-US scientists, overestimating the number of US scientists that do not accept evolution. Despite the increase in absolute number of scientists willing to sign the dissent form, proportionately the figures indicates the support from scientists for creationism and intelligent design is steadily decreasing, despite an increase in public support.

Argumentum ad populum

Both sides of the creationism-evolution controversy have put substantial amounts of effort into producing lists of supporters, signed statements or collections of resolutions, an example of attempting to garner support through the logical fallacy of argumentum ad populum. Ultimately these efforts are irrelevant, as truth is not determined through popular belief, and on scientific matters the use of opinion polls is fatuous. As Carl Sagan pointed out, at least in theory scientists are expected to change their mind based on evidence, even if in practice this does not always happen.

See also

• History of creationism
• List of scientific societies rejecting intelligent design‎

Footnotes

1. Delgado, Cynthia (2006-07-28). "Finding evolution in medicine" (hmtl). NIH Record. 58 (15). Retrieved 2007-10-22.
2. ^ Ruling, Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83
3. ^ Morris, Henry (n.d.). "The ICR Scientists". Institute for Creation Research. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
4. Denton, Michael (1986). Evolution: a theory in crisis. Bethesda, Md: Adler & Adler. ISBN 0917561058.
5. Schafersman, Steven (2003-09-05). "Texas Citizens for Science Responds to Latest Discovery Institute Challenge" (html). Discovery Institute. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
6. ^ Amicus Curiae brief in Edwards v. Aguillard, 85-1513 (United States Supreme Court 1986-08-18)., available at "Edwards v. Aguillard: Amicus Curiae Brief of 72 Nobel Laureates" (html). From Talk.origins. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
7. Noah, Timothy (2000-10-31). "George W. Bush, The Last Relativist". Retrieved 2007-10-23.
8. Pyke, Nicholas (2004-06-13). "Revealed: Tony Blair's link to schools that take the Creation literally". The Independent. Error in Webarchive template: Empty url.; full article at Ohanian, Susan. "Outrages". Retrieved 2007-10-23.
9. Meinert, Peer. "Wir drehen die Uhr um 1000 Jahre zurück ("We put the clock back a 1000 years")" (html) (in German). Retrieved 2007-10-23.
10. "Serbia reverses Darwin suspension" (stm). BBC News. 2004-09-09. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
11. "And finally..." Warsaw Business Journal. 2006-12-18. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
12. Gunnink, Frans (2005-06-07). "Creation commotion in Dutch Parliament". Retrieved 2007-10-23. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Enserink, Martin (2005-06-03). "Evolution politics: Is Holland becoming the Kansas of Europe?". Science. 308 (5727): 1394. doi:10.1126/science.308.5727.1394b.
13. McCollister, Betty (1989). Voices for evolution. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Science Education. ISBN 0-939873-51-6.
14. Matsumura, Molleen (1995). Voices for evolution (html). Berkeley, CA: National Center for Science Education. ISBN 0-939873-53-2.
15. Teaching about evolution and the nature of science. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. 1998. ISBN 0-309-06364-7.; available on-line at National Academy of Sciences (1998). "Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science (ebook)". Washington DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
16. Myers, PZ (2006-06-18). "Ann Coulter: No evidence for evolution?". Pharyngula. scienceblogs.com. Retrieved 2006-11-18.
17. The National Science Teachers Association's position statement on the teaching of evolution.
18. IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution Joint statement issued by the national science academies of 67 countries, including the United Kingdom's Royal Society (PDF file)
19. From the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the world's largest general scientific society: 2006 Statement on the Teaching of Evolution (PDF file), AAAS Denounces Anti-Evolution Laws
20. ^ Fact, Fancy, and Myth on Human Evolution, Alan J. Almquist, John E. Cronin, Current Anthropology, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jun., 1988), pp. 520-522
21. ^ As reported by Newsweek: "By one count there are some 700 scientists (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who give credence to creation-science, the general theory that complex life forms did not evolve but appeared 'abruptly'."Martz & McDaniel 1987, p. 23 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMartzMcDaniel1987 (help)
22. ^ Finding the Evolution in Medicine, Cynthia Delgado, NIH Record, July 28, 2006.
23. Public beliefs about evolution and creation, Robinson, B. A. 1995.
24. Many scientists see God's hand in evolution, Witham, Larry, Reports of the National Center for Science Education 17(6): 33, 1997
25. See: 1) List of scientific societies rejecting intelligent design 2) Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83. 3) The Discovery Institute's A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism petition begun in 2001 has been signed by "over 600 scientists" as of August 20, 2006. A four day A Scientific Support For Darwinism petition gained 7733 signatories from scientists opposing ID. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and firmly rejects ID. More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes. List of statements from scientific professional organizations on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
26. National Science Teachers Association, a professional association of 55,000 science teachers and administrators in a 2005 press release: "We stand with the nation's leading scientific organizations and scientists, including Dr. John Marburger, the president's top science advisor, in stating that intelligent design is not science.…It is simply not fair to present pseudoscience to students in the science classroom." National Science Teachers Association Disappointed About Intelligent Design Comments Made by President Bush National Science Teachers Association Press Release August 3 2005
27. Defending science education against intelligent design: a call to action Journal of Clinical Investigation 116:1134-1138 American Society for Clinical Investigation, 2006.
28. "Biologists aren’t alarmed by intelligent design’s arrival in Dover and elsewhere because they have all sworn allegiance to atheistic materialism; they’re alarmed because intelligent design is junk science." H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005.Devolution—Why intelligent design isn't. Also, Robert T. Pennock Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism.
29. Junk science Mark Bergin. World Magazine, Vol. 21, No. 8 February 25 2006.
30. National Academy of Sciences, 1999 Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition
31. The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity Nobel Laureates Initiative. Intelligent design cannot be tested as a scientific theory "because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent." Nobel Laureates Initiative (PDF file)
32. Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales. 20 October 2005. Intelligent Design is not Science - Scientists and teachers speak out
33. US Supreme Court Case No. 85-1513, October Term, 1986, August 18, 1986
34. List of numerous US scientific societies that support evolution and their statements about evolution
35. List of 68 international scientific societies on the Interacademy Panel (IAP) that endorse a resolution supporting evolution and a multibillion year old earth, June 2006.
36. National Science Board letter in support of evolution 1999
37. Royal Society statement on evolution, creationism and intelligent design, 11 Apr 2006.
38. From the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the world's largest general scientific society: 2006 Statement on the Teaching of Evolution (PDF file), AAAS Denounces Anti-Evolution Laws
39. Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1999.
40. Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science (1998), National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1998.
41. AAAS Resolution: Present Scientific Status of the Theory of Evolution, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Adopted by the AAAS Council, December 26, 1922. AAAS Executive Committee readopts this resolution on April 21, 1929.
42. The Imminent Demise of Evolution: The Longest Running Falsehood in Creationism, G. R. Morton, Copyright 2002 G.R. Morton
43. Bales, James D., Forty-Two Years on the Firing Line, Lambert, Shreveport, LA, p.71-72, no date.
44. ^ The Day the Scientists Voted, Bert Thompson, Apologetics Press: Sensible Science, 2001, originally published in Reason & Revelation, 2(3):9-11, March 1982.
45. ^ American Biology Teacher, January 1973.
46. A Statement Affirming Evolution as a Principle of Science, The Humanist, January/February, 1977, p. 4-6.
47. AAPG Explorer, January, 1982.
48. "Creation-Science" Law Is Struck Down, Raloff, J., Science News, 121:20, January 9, 1982.
49. Some Real Scientists Reject Evolution: Do any scientists with Ph.D. degrees reject the theory of evolution? Yes, they do!, Do-While Jones, Disclosure Newsletter, July, 2001.
50. "21 Scientists Who Believe in Creation, 2nd edition", Creation-Life Publishers, 1971.
51. "Scientific" Creationism Examined, Paul Tobin, The Rejection of Pascal's Wager: A Skeptic's Guide to Christianity
52. An Engineer Looks at the Creationist Movement, John W. Patterson, Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 89(2):55-58, 1982.
53. , John F. Ashton, Master Books, January 1, 2001, ISBN-10: 0890513414
54. 21 great scientists who believed the Bible, Ann Lamont, Creation Science Foundation, 1995. ISBN 0949906212
55. A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism, a list of scientists who dispute evolution on the Discovery Institute's website
56. It should be noted that not all scientists who signed necessarily are staunch creationists. For example, Stanley N. Salthe, a visiting scientist at Binghamton University, State University of New York, who signed but describes himself as an atheist, said that when he endorsed a petition he had no idea what the Discovery Institute was. Salthe stated, “I signed it in irritation.” (Few Biologists but Many Evangelicals Sign Anti-Evolution Petition, Panda's Thumb, February 21, 2006)
57. List of Creation Scientists , a list of biological and physical scientists that support creationism on the Institute for Creation Research website.
58. Creation scientists and other biographies of interest: Some modern scientists who have accepted the biblical account of creation, a list of scientists that support creationism on the Answers in Genesis website.
59. Creation scientists and other specialists of interest, a list of scientists who support creationism on Creation Ministries International's website. It should be noted that Creation Ministries International is the international arm of Answers in Genesis and not an independent organization.
60. Creationists holding DOCTORATES IN SCIENCE, Who's who in Creation/Evolution (list of 94)
61. ^ National Center for Science Education "Project Steve"
62. List of living scientists who accept the biblical account of creation from Answers in Genesis
63. Dissent From Darwin “Goes Global” as Over 600 Scientists From Around the World Express Their Doubts About Darwin’s Theory: Scientific Dissent From Darwinism Continues to Grow, Staff, Discovery Institute, June 20, 2006.
64. It should be noted that not all scientists who signed necessarily are staunch creationists. For example, Stanley N. Salthe, a visiting scientist at Binghamton University, State University of New York, who signed but describes himself as an atheist, said that when he endorsed a petition he had no idea what the Discovery Institute was. Salte stated, “I signed it in irritation.” (Few Biologists but Many Evangelicals Sign Anti-Evolution Petition, Panda's Thumb, February 21, 2006)
65. For a discussion about some controversy about this, see Kent Hovind.
66. Princeton theologian Charles Hodge, in his book Systematic Theology, Charles Hodge, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co, 1975, vol. 2, p. 15, argues that "First, it shocks the common sense of unsophisticated men to be told that the whale and the humming-bird, man and the mosquito, are derived from the same source... the system is thoroughly atheistic, and therefore cannot possibly stand."
67. Presupposing Naturalism: Atheism, Agnosticism and Theistic Evolution?, Rev. Curtis L. Brickley, Jr., Darwin, Design and Democracy V: Science Converges on Design - from Cosmology to Paleontology to Biology, September 24-25, 2004, Woodward Hall, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico states that "Theistic evolution fails traditional theistic religion by not allowing for the continued intervention of a creative cause or power. Theistic evolution can get you knowledge "of God" only through faith by denying natural revelation. But without natural revelation, there can be no rational basis for belief in a God who actually reveals Himself through nature. By embracing Naturalism, and its rejection of the supernatural, theistic evolution denies a rational basis for belief in God and a basis for our faith in the resurrection of Jesus Christ."
68. Evolution and Christianity are opposites, p. 36 of Evolution and Society, Volume 2 of Scientific Facts Against Evolution-Origin of the Universe: 3 Volume Encyclopedia states, of evolution and Christianity, "there can be no reconciliation between the two. One view stands for fighting, warfare against the supposed weaker ones, and atheism; the other is for peace, self-sacrifice for the good of others, and belief and trust in the Creator God...Even evolutionists and atheists have declared that their creeds are totally different than those of Christianity." Also in the article Evolution and the churches on pages 39-41 of the same volume, "In spite of clear-cut statements by evolutionists that "evolution IS atheism," many denominations today accept one form or another of evolutionary theory."
69. Defending the teaching of evolution in public education, Statements from Religious Organizations
70. Archbishop of Canterbury backs evolution: Well, he is a Primate, Chris Williams, The Register, Tuesday 21 March 2006
71. Matsumura 1998, p. 9 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMatsumura1998 (help) notes that, "Table 1 demonstrates that Americans in the 12 largest Christian denominations, 89.6% belong to churches that support evolution education! Indeed, many of the statements in Voices insist quite strongly that evolution must be included in science education and "creation science" must be excluded. Even if we subtract the Southern Baptist Convention, which has changed its view of evolution since McLean v Arkansas and might take a different position now, the percentage those in denominations supporting evolution is still a substantial 77%. Furthermore, many other Christian and non-Christian denominations, including the United Church of Christ and the National Sikh Center, have shown some degree of support for evolution education (as defined by inclusion in 'Voices' or the "Joint Statement")." Matsumura produced her table from a June, 1998 article titled Believers: Dynamic Dozen put out by Religion News Services which in turn cites the 1998 Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches. Matsurmura's calculations include the SBC based on a brief they filed in McLean v. Arkansas, where the SBC took a position it has since changed, according to Matsurmura. See also NCSE 2002 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNCSE2002 (help).
72. Christianity, Evolution Not in Conflict, John Richard Schrock, Wichita Eagle May 17, 2005 page 17A
73. Matsumura 1998, p. 9 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMatsumura1998 (help)
74. The Bible: Is it a True and Accurate Account of Creation? (Part 2): The Position of Major Christian Denominations on Creation and Inerrancy, Walter B. Murfin, David F. Beck, 13 April 1998, hosted on Coalition for Excellence in Science and Math Education website
75. ^ Darwin on the Right: Why Christians and conservatives should accept evolution, Michael Shermer, Scientific American, October 2006.
76. Pope John Paul II, Speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, October 23, 1996
77. “Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God”, International Theological Commission.
78. Tom Heneghan. "Catholics and Evolution: Interview with Cardinal Christoph Schönborn," BeliefNet, Jan. 5, 2006
79. "Intelligent design" criticized in Vatican newspaper, NCSE article, January 20, 2006
80. In "Design" vs. Darwinism, Darwin Wins Point in Rome, Ian Fisher and Cornelia Dean, New York Times, January 19, 2006.
81. Intelligent Design belittles God, Vatican director says, Mark Lombard, 1/30/2006, Catholic Online
82. GCAG 1977 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGCAG1977 (help), General Council of the Assemblies of Godofficial assertion of creationism
83. Evangelical Presbyterian Church position that Bible is "infallible"
84. Barry 2001, p. 60-61 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBarry2001 (help)
85. Official Seventh-day Adventist belief statement advocating creationism
86. Prof. Michael J. Ghedotti, "Evolutionary Biology at Regis, a Jesuit Catholic School.
87. Lindsey, George (1985-10-01). "Evolution - Useful or Useless?" (asp). Impact. #148. Institute for Creation Research. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
88. Wieland, Carl (1999-09-01). "Evolution and practical science" (asp). Creation. 20 (4): 4. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
89. Ham, Ken (1998-09-01). "French creation interview with French scientist Dr André Eggen" (asp). Creation. 20 (4): 17–19. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
90. Williams, George; Nesse, Randolph M. (1996). Why we get sick: the new science of Darwinian medicine. New York: Vintage Books. p. 304. ISBN 0679746749.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
91. ^ Isaak, Mark (ed.) (2005-10-04). "Index to Creationist claims: Claim CA215" (html). Retrieved 2007-10-22. {{cite web}}: |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help)
92. ^ Mindell, David A. (2006). The evolving world: evolution in everyday life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674021916.
93. Gertzen, Jason (2005-10-08). "Do Scientists See Kansas, Missouri As 'Anti-Science'?". Retrieved 2007-10-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help)
94. Waging War on Evolution, Paul A. Hanle, Washington Post, Sunday, October 1, 2006; Page B04
95. McCarter, James (nd.). "Evolution is a Winner - for Breakthroughs and Prizes" (asp). Retrieved 2007-10-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help); originally published in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 2005-10-09.
96. Coyne, J.A. (2006). "Selling darwin" (PDF). Nature. 442 (7106): 983–4. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
97. List of educational organizations that support evolution and their statements about evolution
98. Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science (1998) Appendix A, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1998.
99. Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97. (1968)
100. Segraves v. California, No. 278978 Sacramento Superior Court (1981)
101. McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, 529 F. Supp. 1255, 50 (1982) U.S. Law Week 2412
102. Edwards v. Aguillard, 482, U.S. 578, 55 (1987) U.S. Law Week 4860, S. CT. 2573, 96 L. Ed. 2d510
103. Webster v. New Lenox School District #122, 917 F.2d 1004 (7th. Cir., 1990)
104. Peloza v. Capistrano Unified School District, 37 F.3d 517 (9th Cir., 1994)
105. Freiler v Tangipahoa Board of Education, No. 94-3577 (E.D. La. Aug. 8, 1997)
106. Order Granting Defendants' Motion for Summary Judgment and Memorandum, Court File Nr. CX-99-793, District Court for the Third Judicial District of the State of Minnesota
107. Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District No. 04-2688 (M.D. Pa. Dec. 20, 2005)
108. Hurst v. Newman court documents
109. No scientific issue is ever decided by such argumentum ad populum (Introduction to Logic, I.M. Copi, Macmillan, New York, 1978). The only thing that matters in science is if the data available match the predictions of a given scientific theory. As pointed out by creationist Bert Thompson, "Truth never is determined by popular opinion or majority vote." (The Day the Scientists Voted, Bert Thompson, Apologetics Press: Sensible Science)
110. ^ "Public Acceptance of Evolution". Science. 313 (5788): 765–766. 11 August 2006. doi:10.1126/science.1126746. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
111. Britons unconvinced on evolution
112. BBC Survey On The Origins Of Life
113. Public beliefs about evolution and creation, Robinson, B. A. 1995-2006.
114. Third of Americans Say Evidence Has Supported Darwin's Evolution Theory Almost half of Americans believe God created humans 10,000 years ago Frank Newport Result of 2004 Gallup poll showing about 45% of the US public believe in the biblical creation account, and only 1/3 believe in Darwinian theory.
115. ^ See Majority of Republicans Doubt Theory of Evolution.
116. ^ Harper, Jennifer (2006-06-09). "Americans Still Hold Faith In Divine Creation". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help)Error in Webarchive template: Empty url.
117. ^ "Evolution and Creationism in Public Education". People for the American Way Poll. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
118. Leading Scientists Still Reject God, Edward J. Larson and Larry Witham, Nature, July 23, 1998
119. ^ 2005 Pew Research Center poll
120. ^ Newport, Frank (2007-06-11). "Majority of Republicans doubt theory of evolution". Gallup. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
121. Nearly Two-thirds of U.S. Adults Believe Human Beings Were Created by God, The Harris Poll® #52, July 6, 2005.
122. Miller, J.D. (1997). Public Perceptions of Science and Technology: A Comparative Study of the European Union, the United States, Japan, and Canada. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
123. ^ Why doesn't America believe in evolution?, Jeff Hecht, New Scientist, 20 August 2006
124. Sailer, Steve (1999-11-20). "A Miracle Happens Here:" Darwin's Enemies on the Right - Part I of a Two Part Series" (html). National Post. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
125. "American Piety in the 21st Century" (PDF). Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion. 2006-09-01. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
126. ^ The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, expanded edition, Ronald L. Numbers, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 2006 ISBN-10: 0-674-02339-0
127. Science, vol 313, p 765
128. Academics fight rise of creationism at universities: More students believe Darwin got it wrong, Royal Society challenges "insidious problem", Duncan Campbell, The Guardian, Tuesday February 21, 2006.
129. Staff, Discovery Institute (2007-03-08). "Ranks of Scientists Doubting Darwin's Theory on the Rise". Discovery Institute. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
130. Evans, Skip (2001-11-29). "Doubting Darwinism through Creative License". National Center for Science Education. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
131. "NSF statistics on science graduates 1966-2001" (pdf). Ntional Science Foundation.
132. "1999 SESTAT (Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data) Table C-1" (pdf). National Science Foundation/Science Resources Statistics Division.
133. Chang, Kenneth (2006-03-21 language = english). "Few Biologists But Many Evangelicals Sign Anti-Evolution Petition" (php). The New York Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing pipe in: |date= (help); text available without registering at "Skeptical News" (html).
134. Crowther, Robert (2006-06-21). "Dissent From Darwinism 'Goes Global' as Over 600 Scientists Around the World Express Their Doubts About Darwinian Evolution" (html). Retrieved 2007-10-30.
135. Newall, Paul (2005). "A Guide to Fallacies; Argumentum ad populum". The Galilean Library. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
136. Gross, Paul F.; Barbara Carroll Forrest (2004). Creationism's Trojan horse: the wedge of intelligent design. Oxford : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515742-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link); page 184.
137. Sagan, Carl. "Quote from 1987 CSICOP keynote address". About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-13.

References

• Template:Harvard reference
• Template:Harvard reference Retrieved on 2007-02-07
• Template:Harvard reference Retrieved on 2007-02-08

• Articles to be merged from August 2007
• Creationism
• Creationist objections to evolution
• Controversies
• Religion and science
• Religious controversies