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Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 052179269X, </ref> Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 052179269X, </ref>


The First Partition occurred after the ] in Europe shifted, with Russian victories against the Ottomans in the ] strengthening Russia so that Austria became alarmed and threatened to enter the war against Russia.<ref name="Brit">Poland, Partitions of. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 28, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9060581</ref> ] of Prussia, wanting to avoid an escalation of conflict, trying to protect the Ottomans (which could be advantageously utilized in the The First Partition occurred after the ] in Europe shifted, with Russian victories against the Ottomans in the ] strengthening Russia so that Austria became endangered by a new was with Russia.<ref name="Brit">Poland, Partitions of. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 28, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9060581</ref> ] of Prussia, wanting to avoid an escalation of conflict, trying to protect the Ottomans (which could be advantageously utilized in the event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria) and trying to maximize Prussia's gains, succeeded in reducing the tension of Austro-Russian relations by shifting the direction of Russia's expansion from the Turkish provinces to Poland.<ref name="Brit"/> Although Russia has seen the weakened Poland as its own ],<ref name="Luk"/> Poland has been also devastated by a civil war (the ]),<ref name="Brit"/> Russian supported leader, king ] of Poland, has been seen as both weak and too independent minded, and eventually, the Russian court has decided that the usefulness of Poland as a protectorate has diminished.<ref name="Brit2">Poland. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 5, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-28200 . Section: History > The Commonwealth > Reforms, agony, and partitions > The First Partition</ref> Under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex Polish northern province of ], in light of the possible Austrian-Ottoman alliance<ref name="Corwin">], ''The Political History of Poland'', 1917, p. 310-315 ()</ref> and with token objections from Austria<ref name="Brit2"/> (which would have preferred to receive former Ottoman territories in the ] instead), the three powers have agreed on the First Partition of Poland. The Russians have withdrawn from ], which appeased the Austrians.<ref name="Corwin"/>
event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria) and trying to maximize Prussia's gains, succeeded in reducing the tension of Austro-Russian relations by shifting the direction of Russia's expansion from the Turkish provinces to Poland.<ref name="Brit"/> Although Russia has seen the weakened Poland as its own ],<ref name="Luk"/> Poland has been also devastated by a civil war (the ]),<ref name="Brit"/> Russian supported leader, king ] of Poland, has been seen as both weak and too independent minded, and eventually, the Russian court has decided that the usefulness of Poland as a protectorate has diminished.<ref name="Brit2">Poland. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 5, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-28200 . Section: History > The Commonwealth > Reforms, agony, and partitions > The First Partition</ref> Under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex Polish northern province of ], in light of the possible Austrian-Ottoman alliance<ref name="Corwin">], ''The Political History of Poland'', 1917, p. 310-315 ()</ref> and with token objections from Austria<ref name="Brit2"/> (which would have preferred to receive former Ottoman territories in the ] instead), the three powers have agreed on the First Partition of Poland. The Russians have withdrawn from ], which appeased the Austrians.<ref name="Corwin"/>


==Partition begins== ==Partition begins==

Revision as of 17:43, 5 May 2008

Template:Disputed title

First Partition redirects here. For other meanings, see: First Partition of Luxembourg, First Partition Treaty.
After the First Partition in 1772
Royal cake or The Cake of Kings (le gâteau des rois), a 1773 French allegory by Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune for the First Partition of Poland. It shows the rulers of the three countries that participated in the partition tearing a map of Poland apart. The outer figures demanding their share are Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia. The inner figure on the right is the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II, who appears ashamed of his action (although in reality he was more of an advocate of the partition, and it was his mother, Maria Theresa, who was critical of the partition). On his left is the beleaguered Polish king, Stanisław Poniatowski, who is experiencing difficulty keeping his crown on his head. Above the scene the angel of peace trumpets the news that civilized eighteenth-century sovereigns have accomplished their mission while avoiding war. The drawing gained notoriety in contemporary Europe, with bans on its distribution in several European countries.

First Partition of Poland (or Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) took place in 1772. It was the first of the three partitions that ended the existence of Polish and Lithuanian independence in the end of the 18th century. The partitions was carried out by the Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. The Partition was ratified by the Polish parliament (Sejm) in 1773 (see the Partition Sejm).

Background

In the late 17th century and early 18th century the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been reduced from the status of the major European power to that of a Russian protectorate (or a vassal, or a satellite state, with Russian tsar effectively choosing Polish-Lithuanian monarchs and deciding the outcome of much of Poland's internal politics; see for example the Repnin Sejm).

The First Partition occurred after the balance of power in Europe shifted, with Russian victories against the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) strengthening Russia so that Austria became endangered by a new was with Russia. Frederick II the Great of Prussia, wanting to avoid an escalation of conflict, trying to protect the Ottomans (which could be advantageously utilized in the event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria) and trying to maximize Prussia's gains, succeeded in reducing the tension of Austro-Russian relations by shifting the direction of Russia's expansion from the Turkish provinces to Poland. Although Russia has seen the weakened Poland as its own protectorate, Poland has been also devastated by a civil war (the Bar Confederation), Russian supported leader, king Stanisław Poniatowski of Poland, has been seen as both weak and too independent minded, and eventually, the Russian court has decided that the usefulness of Poland as a protectorate has diminished. Under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex Polish northern province of Royal Prussia, in light of the possible Austrian-Ottoman alliance and with token objections from Austria (which would have preferred to receive former Ottoman territories in the Balkans instead), the three powers have agreed on the First Partition of Poland. The Russians have withdrawn from Moldavia, which appeased the Austrians.

Partition begins

Already in the years 1770-1771, both Austria and Prussia have taken over some border territories of the Commonwealth (Austria took Spiš region, and Prussia, some border regions in Pomerania). On February 19, 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna. A previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in St. Petersburg on February 6, 1772. Early in August the Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. On August 5, 1772, the occupation manifesto was issued; much to the consternation of a country too exhausted by the endeavors of the Confederation of Bar to offer successful resistance.

The regiments of the Bar Confederation, whose executive board had been forced to leave Austria (which previously supported them) after that country joined the Prusso-Russian alliance, did not lay down their arms. Every fortress in their command held out as long as possible. Famous was the defence of Tyniec, which lasted until the end of March 1773, and also that of Częstochowa commanded by Kazimierz Pułaski. Kraków fell on April 28th, captured by the Russian general Suvorov who exiled the garrison to Siberia. Despite that, the Bar Conferation has been defeated, its members either emigrating, integrating into the Polish society or arrested by the partitioners, and either executed or imprisoned.

Division of territories

The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772. It was a great success for Frederick II of Prussia: Prussia's shares might have been the smallest, but it was also significantly developed and strategically important. Prussia took most of the Polish Royal Prussia that stood between its possessions in Kingdom of Prussia and Margraviate of Brandenburg. Prussia acquired Ermland (Warmia), Royal Prussia (which would be known as West Prussia) without the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) (which in 1773 became a new province called West Prussia), northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District), and parts of Kuyavia (excluding the city of Thorn ). Frederick II making token gestures for the welfare of his new Polish subjects, importing large numbers of Catholic schoolteachers (especially Jesuits whose order was suppressed at about that time) and making it mandatory for Prussian crown princes to learn Polish; in fact the suppression of Polish culture and the Germanisation of Poles during Partitions was just beginning. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly cut off Poland from the sea, and gained control over 80% of the Commonwealth's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous custom duties, Prussia accelerated the inevitable collapse of the Commonwealth.

Despite token criticism of the partition from Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz considered Austrian share an ample compensation: despite Austria being the least interested in the partition, it received the largest share of the spoils, as far as population and revenue were concerned. To Austria fell Zator and Auschwitz (Oświęcim), part of Little Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomierz (with the rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka) and the whole of Galicia, less the City of Kraków.

Catherine of Russia was also satisfied with the outcome. Russia received the largest but least-important area economically, in the northeast. By this "diplomatic document" Russia came into possession of the Commonwealth territories east of the line formed roughly by the Dvina, Drut, and Dnieper rivers - that section of Livonia which had still remained in Commonwealth control, and of Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl.

By this partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30% of its territory, amounting at that time to about 484,000 square miles (1,250,000 km), with a population of four million people (close to half of the country population before the partitions).

Aftermath

"Rejtan - The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282 x 487 cm, Royal Castle in Warsaw.

After having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King Stanisław and the Sejm approve their action. The King appealed to the nations of Western Europe for help and tarried with the convocation of the Sejm. The European powers reacted to the partition with utmost indifference, only a few voices - like that of Edmund Burke - were raised in objection. When no help was forthcoming and the armies of the combined nations occupied Warsaw to compel by force of arms the calling of the assembly, no alternative could be chosen save passive submission to their will. Those of the senators who advised against this step were arrested and exiled to Siberia by the representatives of Catherine. The local land assemblies (Sejmiks) refused to elect Deputies to the Sejm, and after great difficulties less than half of the regular number of representatives came to attend the session led by Marshal of the Sejm, Adam Poniński (one of many Polish nobles bribed by the Russians, and following their orders). This sejm became known as the Partition Sejm. In order to prevent the disruption of the Sejm via liberum veto and the defeat of the purpose of the invaders he undertook to turn the regular Sejm into a Sejm of a Confederacy, where majority rule prevailed. In spite of the dramatic efforts of Tadeusz Rejtan, Samuel Korsak and Stanisław Bohuszewicz to prevent it, the deed was accomplished with the aid of Michał Radziwiłł and the Bishops Andrzej Młodziejowski, Ignacy Jakub Massalski, and Antoni Kazimierz Ostrowski (primate of Poland), who occupied high positions in the Senate of Poland. The so-called Partition Sejm elected a committee of thirty to deal with the various matters presented. On September 18, 1773, the Committee formally signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the occupied territories.

References

  1. ^ Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0521559170, Google Print, p.84
  2. Hamish M. Scott, The Emergence of the Eastern Powers, 1756-1775, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 052179269X, Gooble Print, p.181-182
  3. ^ Poland, Partitions of. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 28, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9060581
  4. ^ Poland. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 5, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-28200 . Section: History > The Commonwealth > Reforms, agony, and partitions > The First Partition
  5. ^ Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin, The Political History of Poland, 1917, p. 310-315 (Google Print - public domain - full text online)
  6. Frederick II of Prussia wrote about the participation of the (catholic) empress Maria Theresa in the first division of Poland in a letter: "The Empress Catherine and I are simple robbers. I just would like to know how the empress calmed down her father confessor? She cried, when she took; the more she cried, the more she took!?" Various refs
  7. Sharon Korman, The right of conquest: the acquisition of territory by force in international law and practice, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0198280076, Google Print, p.74

Further reading

  • Herbert H. Kaplan, The First Partition of Poland, Ams Pr Inc (June 1972), ISBN 0404036368
  • Tadeusz Cegielski, Łukasz Kądziela, Rozbiory Polski 1772-1793-1795, Warszawa 1990
  • Władysław Konopczyński Dzieje Polski nowożytnej, t. 2, Warszawa 1986
  • Tomasz Paluszyński, Czy Rosja uczestniczyła w pierwszym rozbiorze Polski czyli co zaborcy zabrali Polsce w trzech rozbiorach. Nowe określenie obszarów rozbiorowych Polski w kontekście analizy przynależności i tożsamości państwowej Księstw Inflanckiego i Kurlandzkiego, prawnopaństwowego stosunku Polski i Litwy oraz podmiotowości Rzeczypospolitej, Poznań 2006.
  • S. Salmonowicz, Fryderyk Wielki, Wrocław 2006
  • Maria Wawrykowa, Dzieje Niemiec 1648-1789, Warszawa 1976

External links

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