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] ]s. Painting by ], provided by the ]]] ] ]s. Painting by ], provided by the ]]]


⚫ The ] was a ] where the ] ruled the country.<ref name="SovietConst"> </ref> All key positions in the institutions of the state were occupied by members of the Communist Party. The state proclaimed its adherence to ] ideology that restricts rights of citizens on the ]. The entire population was mobilized in support of the state ] and policies. Independent political activities were not tolerated, including the involvement of people with free ]s, private ]s, non-sanctioned ] or opposition ]. The regime maintained itself in ] by means of ], ] disseminated through the state-controlled ], ], restriction of ], the use of ], and widespread use of ] tactics, such as political purges and persecution of specific groups of people.
The '''Human rights in the Soviet Union''' refers to adaptation of the ] in the ]. <ref>[Human Rights in the Soviet Union By Albert Szymanski; ISBN 0862320194 </ref>


⚫ The ] was a ] where the ] ruled the country.<ref name="SovietConst"> </ref> All key positions in the institutions of the state were occupied by members of the Communist Party. The state proclaimed its adherence to ] ideology that restricts rights of citizens on the ]. The entire population was mobilized in support of the state ] and policies. Independent political activities were not tolerated, including the involvement of people with free ]s, private ]s, non-sanctioned ] or opposition ]. The regime maintained itself in ] by means of ], ] disseminated through the state-controlled ], ], restriction of ], the use of ], and widespread use of ] tactics, such as political purges and persecution of specific groups of people.


==Soviet conception of human rights== ==Soviet conception of human rights==
] have been deprived of the basic ] including the ], the rights of ] and ], and ].<ref> ] (2001) ''Communism'' Weidenfled and Nicoloson. ISBN 0-297-64688-5 </ref><ref> ] (1994) ''Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime''. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76184-5., pages 401-403. </ref>. The concept of the "]" was officially rejected by ]. According to Western legal theory, "it is the individual who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted ''against'' the government", whereas Soviet law claimed the opposite.<ref>Lambelet, Doriane. "The Contradiction Between Soviet and American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika and Pragmatism." 7 ''Boston University International Law Journal''. 1989. p. 61-62.</ref> Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but as any action which could threaten the Soviet state. For example, ] could be interpreted as a ] punishable by death. ] was carried out within the terms of Soviet Civil Code.<ref name="regime"> ] ''Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime'', Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995, ISBN 0-394-50242-6, pages 402-403 </ref> According to some Soviet legal scholars, there are "instances in which criminal repression is applied also in the absence of guilt."<ref name="regime"/> According to critics, the Soviet people have been deprived of the basic ], including the rights of ] and ], and ].<ref>] (2001) ''Communism'' Weidenfled and Nicoloson. ISBN 0-297-64688-5</ref> <ref>] (1994) ''Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime''. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76184-5. p401-403. </ref> Moreover, the entire Western concept of the "]" was officially rejected by ]. According to Western legal theory, "it is the individual who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted ''against'' the government", whereas Soviet law claimed the opposite.<ref>Lambelet, Doriane. "The Contradiction Between Soviet and American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika and Pragmatism." 7 ''Boston University International Law Journal''. 1989. p. 61-62.</ref> Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but by its perceived potential consequences, as any action dangerous to society, which threatens the foundations of the Soviet state. For example, ] could be interpreted as a criminal act done for self interest at the expense of others.


] was carried out within the terms of Soviet Civil Code.<ref name="regime"> ] ''Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime'', Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995, ISBN 0-394-50242-6, pages 402-403 </ref> Some Soviet legal scholars thought that there are "instances in which criminal repression is applied also in the absence of guilt."<ref name="regime"/>
⚫ According to ], each individual was guaranteed civil rights, but had to sacrifice them and his/her desires to fulfill the needs of the ]. So, for example, open criticism of the Communist Party could not be allowed because it could hurt the interests of the state, society, and the progress of socialism. The Soviet concept of human rights focused on economic and social rights such as being able to have access to health care, get adequate nutrition, receive education at all levels, and be guaranteed employment.<ref name="SovietConst"/> The Soviets considered these to be the most important rights, which were not guaranteed by Western governments.<ref name=shiman>{{cite book | last = Shiman | first = David | title = Economic and Social Justice: A Human Rights Perspective | publisher = Amnesty International | year= 1999 | url = http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/hreduseries/tb1b/Section1/tb1-2.htm | isbn = 0967533406}}</ref>

⚫ According to Soviet ideology, each individual was guaranteed civil rights, but had to sacrifice them and his/her desires to fulfill the needs of the ].<ref name="SovietConst"/> So, for example, open criticism of the Communist Party could not be allowed because it could hurt the interests of the state, society, and the progress of socialism. The Soviet concept of human rights focused on economic and social rights such as being able to have access to health care, get adequate nutrition, receive education at all levels, and be guaranteed employment.<ref name="SovietConst"/> The Soviets considered these to be the most important rights, which were not guaranteed by Western governments. <ref name=shiman>{{cite book | last = Shiman | first = David | title = Economic and Social Justice: A Human Rights Perspective | publisher = Amnesty International | year= 1999 | url = http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/hreduseries/tb1b/Section1/tb1-2.htm | isbn = 0967533406}}</ref>


], Moving out]] ], Moving out]]
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==Political repression== ==Political repression==
{{main|Soviet political repressions}} {{main|Soviet political repressions}}
The political repressions were practiced by the Soviet ] services ], ] and ].<ref>] '']'' (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. </ref> An extensive network of civilian ] - either volunteers, or those forcibly recruited - was used to collect intelligence for the government and report cases of suspected dissent.<ref name="Informants"> Koehler, John O. Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police. Westview Press. 2000. ISBN 0-8133-3744-5</ref> The political repressions were practiced by the Soviet ] services ], ] and ].<ref>] '']'' (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. </ref> An extensive network of civilian ] - either volunteers, or those forcibly recruited - was used to collect intelligence for the government and report cases of suspected dissent.<ref name="Informants"> Koehler, John O. Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police. Westview Press. 2000. ISBN 0-8133-3744-5</ref>


===Justification of repressions=== ===Justification of repressions===
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===Chronology=== ===Chronology===
The repressions were conducted in several consecutive waves known as ], ], ], ], and others. The repressions were conducted in several consecutive waves known as ], ], ], ], and others.


During ] and ] the entire "]es" have been exterminated, including "rich people", and a significant part of ] and peasantry labeled as ]. The numerous victims of ] were called the ]. The punishment by the state included ]s, ], sending innocent people to ], ], and ]. Usually, all members of a family, including children, were punished as "]". The ] forces conducted ] at numerous occasions. During ] and ] the entire "]es" have been exterminated, including "rich people", and a significant part of ] and peasantry labeled as ]. The numerous victims of ] were called the ]. The punishment by the state included ]s, ], sending innocent people to ], ], and ]. ] if they were seen as being involved with their relative in the supposed crime. The ] forces conducted ] at numerous occasions. {{fact}}


After Stalin's death, the suppression of dissent was dramatically reduced and took new forms. The internal critics of the system were convicted for ] or as ]. Others were labeled as mentally ill, having ] and incarcerated in "]s", i.e. ] used by the Soviet authorities as prisons.<ref name="Psyche"> </ref> A few notable dissidents were sent to internal or external exile, as ], ], and ]. After Stalin's death, the suppression of dissent was dramatically reduced and took new forms. The internal critics of the system were convicted for ] or as ]. Others were labeled as mentally ill, having ] and incarcerated in "]s", i.e. ] used by the Soviet authorities as prisons.<ref name="Psyche"> </ref> A few notable dissidents were sent to internal or external exile, as ], ], and ].


===Suppression of uprisings=== ===Suppression of uprisings===
State repression led to uprisings, which were brutally suppressed by military force, like the ], ], or ]. During Tambov rebellion, ] military forces widely used ] against villages with civilian population and rebels.<ref name="Tambov"> , Publisher: Posev, ], ISBN 5-85824-152-2 </ref> Most prominent citizens of villages were often taken as ] and executed if the resistance fighters did not surrender.<ref>Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). ''The ]: Crimes, Terror, Repression''. ]. ISBN 0-674-07608-7 </ref> State repression led to uprisings, which were brutally suppressed by military force, like the ], ], or ]. During Tambov rebellion in 1921, ] military forces widely used ] against rebels in forests.<ref name="Tambov"> , Publisher: Posev, ], ISBN 5-85824-152-2 </ref> Most prominent citizens of villages were often taken as ] and executed if the resistance fighters did not surrender.<ref>Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). ''The ]: Crimes, Terror, Repression''. ]. ISBN 0-674-07608-7</ref>


===Genocide === ===Genocide accusations===
{{main|Population transfer in the Soviet Union}} {{main|Population transfer in the Soviet Union}}
] Victim, 1933]] ] Victim, 1933]]
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Entire nations have been collectively punished by the Soviet Government Entire nations have been collectively punished by the Soviet Government
for alleged collaboration with the enemy during ]. for alleged collaboration with the enemy during ].
In legal terms, the word "]" may be appropriate because specific ethnic groups were targeted. At least nine of distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including ], ethnic ], ], ], ], ]s, and ], were deported to remote unpopulated areas of ] and ]. The ] in the Soviet Union led to millions of deaths due to the inflicted hardships.<ref name="Conquest">] (1986) ''The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.'' ]. ISBN 0-19-505180-7. </ref> ] and ] were also deported. ] were needed to ] hundreds of thousands of people. In legal terms, the word "]" may be appropriate because specific ethnic groups were targeted. At least nine of distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including ], ethnic ], ], ], ], ]s, and ], were deported to remote unpopulated areas of ] and ]. The ] in the Soviet Union led to millions of deaths due to the inflicted hardships.<ref name="Conquest">] (1986) ''The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine.'' ]. ISBN 0-19-505180-7.</ref> ] and ] were also deported. ] were needed to ] hundreds of thousands of people.


===Deaths from man-created famines=== ===Deaths from artificial famines===
{{main|Holodomor}} {{main|Holodomor}}
According to some historians, "the systematic use of famine as a weapon" was a "particular feature of many Communist regimes."<ref name="Black"/> The deaths of 5 to 7 million people during the ], including the ] at the Ukraine was caused by confiscating all food from peasants and blocking the migration of starving population by the ].<ref name="Conquest"/> The overall number of ]s who died in 1930&ndash;1937 from ] and ]s during ] (including in ] and ]) was at least 14.5 million.<ref name="Conquest"/> Five million of people died earlier during ].<ref name="Black"/> According to some historians, "the systematic use of famine as a weapon" was a "particular feature of many Communist regimes" <ref name="Black"/>. The deaths of 5 to 7 millions of people during the ], including the ] in the Ukraine was, according to some historians, caused by intentionally confiscating food from peasants and blocking the migration of starving population by the ]. <ref name="Conquest"/>. The overall number of ]s who died in 1930&ndash;1937 from ] and ]s during ] (including in ] and ]) was at least 14.5 million, according to historian Robert Conquest.<ref name="Conquest"/>

More recent estimates, based on actual archival data, indicate that 2 to 3.5 million died in Ukraine. Historians R. Davies and S. Wheatcroft estimate that, overall, 5.5 to 6.5 million Soviet people died due to famine in the 1930's.<ref name = years_of_hunger> {{cite book | last = Davies | first = R. W. | coauthors = Wheatcroft, S. G. | title = The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931-1933 (The Industrialization of Soviet Russia) | publisher = Macmillan | date = 2004 | pages = 400-1 | isbn = 0333311078}}</ref> According to them, the famine was an unintentional result of erroneous state policies in implementing collectivization combined with natural causes.<ref>Davies, R. & Wheatcroft, S., 440-1</ref>


===Loss of life=== ===Loss of life===
According to the ], 66.7 million people were killed in the Soviet Union by state persecution from October 1917 through 1959 - under Lenin, Stalin, and Khrushev.<ref name=Albats"> ] and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. ''The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future''], 1994. ISBN 0-374-18104-7, page 107. </ref> However the exact number of victims may never be known and remains a matter of debates among historians. The result depends on the period of time and the criteria and methods used for the estimates. For example, the number of victims under ] vary from 8 to 61 million.<ref name="Ponton"> Ponton, G. (1994) ''The Soviet Era.''</ref><ref name="Tsaplin"> Tsaplin, V.V. (1989) ''Statistika zherty naseleniya v 30e gody.''</ref><ref name="NoveStalin"> Nove, Alec. ''Victims of Stalinism: How Many?'', in ''Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives'' (edited by ] and Roberta T. Manning), ], 1993. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.</ref><ref name="Black"> Bibliography: Courtois et al. The Black Book of Communism </ref><ref name="Davies"> Davies, Norman. ''Europe: A History'', Harper Perennial, 1998. ISBN 0-06-097468-0.</ref><ref name="RummelStalin"> Bibliography: Rummel.</ref> The number of people who died under Joseph Stalin's regime, including the famines, in the Soviet Union has been estimated as between 3.5 and 8 million by G. Ponton,<ref name="Ponton"> Ponton, G. (1994) ''The Soviet Era.''</ref> 6.6 million by V. V. Tsaplin,<ref name="Tsaplin"> Tsaplin, V.V. (1989) ''Statistika zherty naseleniya v 30e gody.''</ref> 9.5 million by ],<ref name="NoveStalin"> Nove, Alec. ''Victims of Stalinism: How Many?'', in ''Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives'' (edited by ] and Roberta T. Manning), ], 1993. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.</ref> 20 million by ],<ref name="Black"> Bibliography: Courtois et al. The Black Book of Communism</ref> 50 million by ],<ref name="Davies"> Davies, Norman. ''Europe: A History'', Harper Perennial, 1998. ISBN 0-06-097468-0.</ref> and 61 million by ].<ref name="RummelStalin"> Bibliography: Rummel.</ref> The numbers of victims are inconsistent because they are determined using different criteria and methods and counted during different periods of time. Most recent publications are probably more reliable than estimates made during the ], since after the ], researchers gained access to Soviet archives.


==Freedom of expression, literature, and science== ==Freedom of expression, literature, and science==
{{main|Suppressed research in the Soviet Union}} {{main|Suppressed research in the Soviet Union}}
{{main|Socialist Realism}} {{main|Socialist Realism}}
⚫ ] was pervasive and strictly enforced.<ref name="FreeSpeech"> </ref> This gave rise to ], a clandestine copying and distribution of government-suppressed literature.


According to Soviet Criminal Code, Article 70, agitation or propaganda carried on for the purpose of weakening Soviet authority, circulating materials or literature that defamed the Soviet State and social system were punishable by imprisonment for a term of 2-5 years and for a second offense, punishable for a term of 3-10 years. <ref name="BDDSU"></ref><br /> According to Soviet Criminal Code, Article 70, agitation or propaganda carried on for the purpose of weakening Soviet authority, circulating materials or literature that defamed the Soviet State and social system were punishable by imprisonment for a term of 2-5 years and for a second offense, punishable for a term of 3-10 years.<ref name="BDDSU"></ref>
⚫ ] was pervasive and strictly enforced.<ref name="FreeSpeech"> </ref> This gave rise to ], a clandestine copying and distribution of government-suppressed literature.


], ], ], and ] were placed under a strict ideological scrutiny, since they were supposed to serve the interests of the victorious ]. ] is an example of such teleologically-oriented art that promoted ] and ]. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with ]. ], ], ], and ] were placed under a strict ideological scrutiny, since they were supposed to serve the interests of the victorious ]. ] is an example of such teleologically-oriented art that promoted ] and ]. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with ].
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==Right to vote== ==Right to vote==
{{main|Soviet democracy}} {{main|Soviet democracy}}
According to ], the ] was a true democracy, where ] called "soviets" represented the will of the ]. In particular, the ] guaranteed direct ] with the ]. However all candidates had been selected by Communist party organizations, at least before the June 1987 elections. Historian ] described this system as "a set of phantom institutions and arrangements which put a human face on the hideous realities: ] adopted in ] and guaranteeing human rights, elections in which there was only one candidate, and in which 99 percent voted; a parliament at which no hand was ever raised in opposition or abstention."<ref name="reflections"> ] ''Reflections on a Ravaged Century'' (2000) ISBN 0-393-04818-7, page 97 </ref> According to ], the ] was a true democracy, where ] called "soviets" represented the will of the ]. In particular, the ] guaranteed direct ] with the ]. However all candidates had been selected by Communist party organizations, at least before the June 1987 elections. Historian ] described this system as "a set of phantom institutions and arrangements which put a human face on the hideous realities: ] adopted in ] and guaranteeing human rights, elections in which there was only one candidate, and in which 99 percent voted; a parliament at which no hand was ever raised in opposition or abstention."<ref name="reflections"> ] ''Reflections on a Ravaged Century'' (2000) ISBN 0-393-04818-7, page 97</ref>


==Property rights== ==Property rights==
] was allowed, with certain limitations. All ] belonged to the state. Unauthorized possession of foreign ] was forbidden and prosecuted as ]. ] was allowed, with certain limitations. All ] belonged to the state and society.<ref name="SovietConst"/> Unauthorized possession of foreign ] was forbidden and prosecuted as ].


==Freedoms of assembly and association== ==Freedoms of assembly and association==
Freedoms of ] and ] did not exist. Workers were not allowed to organize free ]s. ] were organized and controlled by the state.<ref name="Unions"> </ref> All political youth organizations, such as ] and ] served to enforce the policies of the Communist Party. Freedoms of ] and ] did not exist.{{fact}} Workers were not allowed to organize free ]s. ] were organized and controlled by the state.<ref name="Unions"> </ref> All political youth organizations, such as ] and ] served to enforce the policies of the Communist Party.

According to Soviet criminal code participation in an anti-Soviet organization was punished in accordance with Article 64 -treason punishable up to ] <ref name="BDDSU"/>


==Freedom of religion== ==Freedom of religion==
{{main|Religion in the Soviet Union}} {{main|Religion in the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet Union was an ]. The stated goal was control, suppression, and, ultimately, the elimination of religious beliefs. Atheism was propagated through schools, communist organizations, and the media. The ] was created. All religious movements were either prosecuted or controlled by the state and ]. The Soviet government promoted atheism. The stated goal was control, suppression, and, ultimately, the elimination of religious beliefs, which were seen as backward and disuniting. Atheism was propagated through schools, communist organizations, and the media. Movements, such as the ], were created. All religious movements were either prosecuted or controlled by the state and ]. Nonetheless many still did practice religion, especially in the Asian republics.

By the Soviet Criminal Code violations of the separation of Church and state and school were punishable with imprisonment up to 1 year for first offense and up to 3 years for persons previously sentenced.<ref name="BDDSU"/>


==Freedom of movement== ==Freedom of movement==
{{main|Passport system in the Soviet Union}} {{main|Passport system in the Soviet Union}}
Emigration and any travel abroad were not allowed without an explicit permission from the government. People who were not allowed to leave the country are known as ]. Emigration and any travel abroad were not allowed without an explicit permission from the government. People who were not allowed to leave the country are known as ].
According to the Soviet Criminal Code, Article 64. flight abroad or refusal to return from abroad among other offenses was ] that was punishable by imprisonment for a term of 10-15 years with confiscation of property or by death with confiscation of property. <ref name="BDDSU"/>
⚫ ] restricted migration of citizens within the country through "]" (residential permit/registration system) and use of ]s. For a long period of the Soviet history peasants did not have ]s and could not move into towns without permission. Many former inmates received "]" and were allowed to live only at ]. Travel to ] and to the regions near USSR state borders was strongly restricted. Illegal exit abroad was punishable by imprisonment for a term of 1-3 years. <ref name="BDDSU"/>


⚫ ] restricted migration of citizens within the country through "]" (residential permit/registration system) and use of ]s. For a long period of the Soviet history peasants did not have ]s and could not move into towns without permission. Many former inmates received "]" and were allowed to live only at ]. Travel to ] and to the regions near USSR state borders was strongly restricted.
⚫ ==Human rights organizations and activists in USSR==

⚫ ==Human rights organizations and activists==
{{expand}} {{expand}}

*] was founded in May 1969. The organization petitioned on behalf of the victims of Soviet government repressions, was dissolved after the arrest and trial of its leading member P.I. Jakir.<br /> *] was founded in May 1969. The organization petitioned on behalf of the victims of Soviet government repressions, was dissolved after the arrest and trial of its leading member P.I. Jakir.


*In November 1970 the ] was founded by ] and his colleagues to publicize Soviet violations of human rights. *In November 1970 the ] was founded by ] and his colleagues to publicize Soviet violations of human rights.


*USSR's section of ] was founded on October 6 1973 by 11 Moscow intellectuals and was registered in September 1974 by the Amnesty international Secretariat in London. *USSR's section of ] was founded on October 6, 1973 by 11 Moscow intellectuals and was registered in September of 1974 by the Amnesty international Secretariat in London.


*The ] was founded in 1976 to monitor the Soviet Union's compliance with the ] of 1975 that included clauses calling for the recognition of universal human rights. *The ] was founded in 1976 to monitor the Soviet Union's compliance with the ] of 1975 that included clauses calling for the recognition of universal human rights.

Revision as of 23:55, 6 August 2008

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File:NKVD Dungeon.jpg
A prisoner about to be shot by NKVD executioners. Painting by Nikolai Getman, provided by the Jamestown Foundation

The Soviet Union was a single-party state where the Communist Party ruled the country. All key positions in the institutions of the state were occupied by members of the Communist Party. The state proclaimed its adherence to Marxism-Leninism ideology that restricts rights of citizens on the private property. The entire population was mobilized in support of the state ideology and policies. Independent political activities were not tolerated, including the involvement of people with free labour unions, private corporations, non-sanctioned churches or opposition political parties. The regime maintained itself in political power by means of secret police, propaganda disseminated through the state-controlled mass media, personality cult, restriction of free discussion and criticism, the use of mass surveillance, and widespread use of terror tactics, such as political purges and persecution of specific groups of people.


Soviet conception of human rights

According to critics, the Soviet people have been deprived of the basic civil liberties, including the rights of assembly and association, and guarantees of property. Moreover, the entire Western concept of the "rule of law" was officially rejected by Soviet justice. According to Western legal theory, "it is the individual who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted against the government", whereas Soviet law claimed the opposite. Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but by its perceived potential consequences, as any action dangerous to society, which threatens the foundations of the Soviet state. For example, a desire to make a profit could be interpreted as a criminal act done for self interest at the expense of others.

The liquidation and deportation of millions peasants in 1928-31 was carried out within the terms of Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars thought that there are "instances in which criminal repression is applied also in the absence of guilt."

According to Soviet ideology, each individual was guaranteed civil rights, but had to sacrifice them and his/her desires to fulfill the needs of the collective. So, for example, open criticism of the Communist Party could not be allowed because it could hurt the interests of the state, society, and the progress of socialism. The Soviet concept of human rights focused on economic and social rights such as being able to have access to health care, get adequate nutrition, receive education at all levels, and be guaranteed employment. The Soviets considered these to be the most important rights, which were not guaranteed by Western governments.

File:Moving Out.jpg
Nikolai Getman, Moving out

Political repression

Main article: Soviet political repressions

The political repressions were practiced by the Soviet secret police services Cheka, OGPU and NKVD. An extensive network of civilian informants - either volunteers, or those forcibly recruited - was used to collect intelligence for the government and report cases of suspected dissent.

Justification of repressions

Soviet political repression was a de facto and de jure system of prosecution of people who were or perceived to be enemies of the Soviet system. Its theoretical basis were the theory of Marxism about the class struggle. The term "repression", "terror", and other strong words were official working terms, since the dictatorship of the proletariat was supposed to suppress the resistance of other social classes which Marxism considered antagonistic to the class of proletariat. The legal basis of the repression was formalized into the Article 58 in the code of RSFSR and similar articles for other Soviet republics. Aggravation of class struggle under socialism was proclaimed during the Stalinist terror.

File:Kersnovskaya Lucky Car.jpg
Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya Birth in a prison car for Bessarabian deportees

Chronology

The repressions were conducted in several consecutive waves known as Red Terror, Dekulakization, Great Purge, Doctor's Plot, and others.

During Red Terror and collectivization the entire "ruling classes" have been exterminated, including "rich people", and a significant part of intelligentsia and peasantry labeled as kulaks. The numerous victims of extrajudicial punishment were called the enemies of the people. The punishment by the state included summary executions, torture, sending innocent people to Gulag, involuntary settlement, and stripping of citizen's rights. Wives and family members were also punished if they were seen as being involved with their relative in the supposed crime. The secret police forces conducted massacres of prisoners at numerous occasions.

After Stalin's death, the suppression of dissent was dramatically reduced and took new forms. The internal critics of the system were convicted for anti-Soviet agitation or as "social parasites". Others were labeled as mentally ill, having sluggishly progressing schizophrenia and incarcerated in "Psikhushkas", i.e. mental hospitals used by the Soviet authorities as prisons. A few notable dissidents were sent to internal or external exile, as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vladimir Bukovsky, and Andrei Sakharov.

Suppression of uprisings

State repression led to uprisings, which were brutally suppressed by military force, like the Tambov rebellion, Kronstadt rebellion, or Vorkuta Uprising. During Tambov rebellion in 1921, Bolshevik military forces widely used chemical weapons against rebels in forests. Most prominent citizens of villages were often taken as hostages and executed if the resistance fighters did not surrender.

Genocide accusations

Main article: Population transfer in the Soviet Union
Ukrainian Famine Victim, 1933

Entire nations have been collectively punished by the Soviet Government for alleged collaboration with the enemy during World War II. In legal terms, the word "genocide" may be appropriate because specific ethnic groups were targeted. At least nine of distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including ethnic Germans, ethnic Greeks, ethnic Poles, Crimean Tatars, Balkars, Chechens, and Kalmyks, were deported to remote unpopulated areas of Siberia and Kazakhstan. The ethnicity-targeted population transfers in the Soviet Union led to millions of deaths due to the inflicted hardships. Koreans and Romanians were also deported. Mass operations of the NKVD were needed to deport hundreds of thousands of people.

Deaths from artificial famines

Main article: Holodomor

According to some historians, "the systematic use of famine as a weapon" was a "particular feature of many Communist regimes" . The deaths of 5 to 7 millions of people during the Soviet famine of 1932-1933, including the Holodomor in the Ukraine was, according to some historians, caused by intentionally confiscating food from peasants and blocking the migration of starving population by the Soviet government. . The overall number of peasants who died in 1930–1937 from hunger and repressions during collectivisation (including in Kavkaz and Kazakhstan) was at least 14.5 million, according to historian Robert Conquest.

More recent estimates, based on actual archival data, indicate that 2 to 3.5 million died in Ukraine. Historians R. Davies and S. Wheatcroft estimate that, overall, 5.5 to 6.5 million Soviet people died due to famine in the 1930's. According to them, the famine was an unintentional result of erroneous state policies in implementing collectivization combined with natural causes.

Loss of life

The number of people who died under Joseph Stalin's regime, including the famines, in the Soviet Union has been estimated as between 3.5 and 8 million by G. Ponton, 6.6 million by V. V. Tsaplin, 9.5 million by Alec Nove, 20 million by The Black Book of Communism, 50 million by Norman Davies, and 61 million by R. J. Rummel. The numbers of victims are inconsistent because they are determined using different criteria and methods and counted during different periods of time. Most recent publications are probably more reliable than estimates made during the Cold War, since after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, researchers gained access to Soviet archives.

Freedom of expression, literature, and science

Main article: Suppressed research in the Soviet Union Main article: Socialist Realism

Censorship in the Soviet Union was pervasive and strictly enforced. This gave rise to Samizdat, a clandestine copying and distribution of government-suppressed literature.

According to Soviet Criminal Code, Article 70, agitation or propaganda carried on for the purpose of weakening Soviet authority, circulating materials or literature that defamed the Soviet State and social system were punishable by imprisonment for a term of 2-5 years and for a second offense, punishable for a term of 3-10 years.

Art, literature, education, and science were placed under a strict ideological scrutiny, since they were supposed to serve the interests of the victorious proletariat. Socialist realism is an example of such teleologically-oriented art that promoted socialism and communism. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with historical materialism.

All natural sciences have to be founded on the philosophical base of dialectical materialism. Many scientific disciplines, such as genetics, cybernetics, and comparative linguistics, were suppressed in the Soviet Union, condemned as "bourgeois pseudoscience", and replaced by real pseudoscience, such as Lysenkoism. Many prominent scientists were declared to be "wrecklers" or enemy of the people and imprisoned. Some scientists worked as prisoners in "Sharashkas", i.e. research and development laboratories within the Gulag labor camp system.

Every large enterprise or institution of the Soviet Union had First Department run by KGB people responsible for secrecy and political security of the workplace.

Right to vote

Main article: Soviet democracy

According to communist ideologists, the Soviet political system was a true democracy, where workers' councils called "soviets" represented the will of the working class. In particular, the Soviet Constitution of 1936 guaranteed direct universal suffrage with the secret ballot. However all candidates had been selected by Communist party organizations, at least before the June 1987 elections. Historian Robert Conquest described this system as "a set of phantom institutions and arrangements which put a human face on the hideous realities: a model constitution adopted in a worst period of terror and guaranteeing human rights, elections in which there was only one candidate, and in which 99 percent voted; a parliament at which no hand was ever raised in opposition or abstention."

Property rights

Personal property was allowed, with certain limitations. All real property belonged to the state and society. Unauthorized possession of foreign currency was forbidden and prosecuted as criminal offense.

Freedoms of assembly and association

Freedoms of assembly and association did not exist. Workers were not allowed to organize free trade unions. All existing trade unions were organized and controlled by the state. All political youth organizations, such as Pioneer movement and Komsomol served to enforce the policies of the Communist Party.

Freedom of religion

Main article: Religion in the Soviet Union

The Soviet government promoted atheism. The stated goal was control, suppression, and, ultimately, the elimination of religious beliefs, which were seen as backward and disuniting. Atheism was propagated through schools, communist organizations, and the media. Movements, such as the Society of the Godless, were created. All religious movements were either prosecuted or controlled by the state and KGB. Nonetheless many still did practice religion, especially in the Asian republics.

Freedom of movement

Main article: Passport system in the Soviet Union

Emigration and any travel abroad were not allowed without an explicit permission from the government. People who were not allowed to leave the country are known as "refuseniks".

Passport system in the Soviet Union restricted migration of citizens within the country through "propiska" (residential permit/registration system) and use of internal passports. For a long period of the Soviet history peasants did not have internal passports and could not move into towns without permission. Many former inmates received "wolf ticket" and were allowed to live only at 101 km away from city borders. Travel to closed cities and to the regions near USSR state borders was strongly restricted.

Human rights organizations and activists

  • USSR's section of Amnesty International was founded on October 6, 1973 by 11 Moscow intellectuals and was registered in September of 1974 by the Amnesty international Secretariat in London.
  • The Moscow Helsinki Group was founded in 1976 to monitor the Soviet Union's compliance with the Helsinki Final Act of 1975 that included clauses calling for the recognition of universal human rights.

References

  1. ^ 1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union.
  2. Richard Pipes (2001) Communism Weidenfled and Nicoloson. ISBN 0-297-64688-5
  3. Richard Pipes (1994) Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76184-5. p401-403.
  4. Lambelet, Doriane. "The Contradiction Between Soviet and American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika and Pragmatism." 7 Boston University International Law Journal. 1989. p. 61-62.
  5. ^ Richard Pipes Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime, Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995, ISBN 0-394-50242-6, pages 402-403
  6. Shiman, David (1999). Economic and Social Justice: A Human Rights Perspective. Amnesty International. ISBN 0967533406.
  7. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko Beria (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. Russian text online
  8. Koehler, John O. Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police. Westview Press. 2000. ISBN 0-8133-3744-5
  9. The Soviet Case: Prelude to a Global Consensus on Psychiatry and Human Rights. Human Rights Watch. 2005
  10. B.V.Sennikov. Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia, Publisher: Posev, 2004, ISBN 5-85824-152-2 Full text in Russian
  11. Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7
  12. ^ Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505180-7.
  13. ^ Bibliography: Courtois et al. The Black Book of Communism
  14. Davies, R. W. (2004). The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931-1933 (The Industrialization of Soviet Russia). Macmillan. pp. 400–1. ISBN 0333311078. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. Davies, R. & Wheatcroft, S., 440-1
  16. Ponton, G. (1994) The Soviet Era.
  17. Tsaplin, V.V. (1989) Statistika zherty naseleniya v 30e gody.
  18. Nove, Alec. Victims of Stalinism: How Many?, in Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (edited by J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning), Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.
  19. Davies, Norman. Europe: A History, Harper Perennial, 1998. ISBN 0-06-097468-0.
  20. Bibliography: Rummel.
  21. A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former). Chapter 9 - Mass Media and the Arts. The Library of Congress. Country Studies
  22. Biographical Dictionary of Dissidents in the Soviet Union, 1956-1975 By S. P. de Boer, E. J. Driessen, H. L. Verhaar; ISBN 9024725380; p. 652
  23. Robert Conquest Reflections on a Ravaged Century (2000) ISBN 0-393-04818-7, page 97
  24. A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former). Chapter 5. Trade Unions. The Library of Congress. Country Studies. 2005.

Bibliography

  • Applebaum, Anne (2003) Gulag: A History. Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1
  • Conquest, Robert (1991) The Great Terror: A Reassessment. Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-507132-8.
  • Conquest, Robert (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505180-7.
  • Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7.
  • Khlevniuk, Oleg & Kozlov, Vladimir (2004) The History of the Gulag : From Collectivization to the Great Terror (Annals of Communism Series) Yale University Pres. ISBN 0-300-09284-9.
  • Pipes, Richard (2001) Communism Weidenfled and Nicoloson. ISBN 0-297-64688-5
  • Pipes, Richard (1994) Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76184-5.
  • Rummel, R.J. (1996) Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-887-3.
  • Yakovlev, Alexander (2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10322-0.

External links

See also

For other articles on the topic see:

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