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Kristallnacht (IPA: [kr,ɪst.aɫ.n'ɒxt]; literally "Crystal night") or the Night of Broken Glass, was a pogrom in Nazi Germany on November 9–10, 1938. On a single night, 92 Jews were murdered and 25,000–30,000 were arrested and deported to concentration camps. It is often called Novemberpogrom or Reichspogromnacht in German.

The Nazis coordinated an attack on Jewish people and their property in Germany and German-controlled lands as a part of Führer Adolf Hitler's anti-Semitic policy.

On November 7, 1938, Herschel Grynszpan, a 17-year old German Jew enraged by his family's expulsion from Germany, walked into the German Embassy in Paris and fired five shots at a junior diplomat, Ernst vom Rath. Two days later, the diplomat died and Germany was in the grip of skillfully orchestrated anti-Jewish violence. In the early hours of November 10, coordinated destruction broke out in cities, towns and villages throughout the Third Reich.

The consequences of this violence were disastrous for the Jews of the Third Reich. In a single night, Kristallnacht saw the destruction of more than 200 synagogues and the ransacking of thousands of Jewish businesses and homes. It marked the beginning of the systematic eradication of a people who could trace their ancestry in Germany to Ancient Rome and served as a prelude to the Holocaust that was to follow.

Context

By the end of the 1920s, most German Jews had been assimilated. They served in the German army and contributed to every field of German science, business and culture. The Nazis were elected to power on January 30 1933, although Hitler did not gain absolute power until the Enabling act was passed on March 23, after the Reichstag fire. By 1938, Jews had been almost completely excluded from German social and political life. Many sought asylum abroad, and thousands did manage to leave, but as Chaim Weizmann wrote in 1936, "The world seemed to be divided into two parts — those places where the Jews could not live and those where they could not enter."

Many German Jewish refugees left for Britain as Refugees from Nazism and later fought for Britain against Germany where they were known as the King's most loyal enemy aliens. Some of these refugees came to Britain as part of the Kindertransport programme.

Historian Eric Johnson notes that in the year before Kristallnacht, the Germans “had entered a new radical phase in anti-Semitic activity.” Although controversial, some historians believe that the Nazi government had been contemplating a planned outbreak of violence against the Jews for some time and were waiting for an appropriate provocation; there is evidence of this planning that dates back to 1937. The Zionist leadership in Palestine wrote in February 1938 “a very reliable private source – one which can be traced back to the highest echelons of the SS leadership, that there is an intention to carry out a genuine and dramatic pogrom in Germany on a large scale in the near future.”

Timeline of events

Kristallnacht was the result of more than five years of discrimination and persecution. From its inception in Germany, Hitler's regime moved quickly to introduce anti-Jewish policy. The roughly 500,000 Jews in Germany, who accounted for only 0.76% of the overall population, were singled out by the Nazi propaganda machine as the enemy within who were responsible for Germany's defeat in 1918 and her subsequent economic difficulties.

During 1933, the German government enacted 42 laws restricting the rights of German Jews to earn a living, to enjoy full citizenship and to educate themselves. The most severe of these laws, the law "for the reconstruction of the civil service", forbade Jews to work in any branch of the civil service. The pressure against the Jews continued unabated. Historian Jesse Irwin and many others believe that the pogrom was the start of the Holocaust. During 1934, a further 19 discriminatory laws were introduced. During 1935, the government enacted a further 29 anti-Jewish laws. The Nuremberg Laws "for the protection of German blood and honour" were signed personally by Hitler. These laws prohibited Jews from being citizens of the Reich and forbade marriage between "those of German or related blood" and Jews, Roma (Gypsies), blacks, or their offspring.

In an attempt to provide help to those affected by these laws, an international conference was held on July 6, 1938 on the shores of Lake Geneva. The conference hoped to address the issue of Jewish and Gypsy immigration to other countries. When the conference was held, more than 250,000 Jews had fled Germany and Austria, which had been annexed by Germany in March 1938. However, more than 300,000 German and Austrian Jews were seeking shelter from the oppression. As the number of Jews and Gypsies wanting to leave grew, the restrictions against them also grew with many countries tightening their rules for admission.

More than 75,000 German and Austrian arrived in Britain in the 1930’s as Refugees from Nazism. Later one in seven of the German and Austrian refugees who came to Britain between 1933 and 1939 volunteered for, and enlisted in, the British Forces; a surprisingly high percentage. They took the unprecedented step of swearing allegiance to King George VI even though, with a few exceptions, they did not receive British nationality until after the second world war.

Expulsion of Jews from Germany

On October 18, 1938, on Hitler's orders, more than 12,000 Jews were expelled from Germany. They were Polish-born Jews who had been living in Germany legally for many years. They were ordered to leave their homes in a single night, and were only allowed one suitcase per person to store their belongings. As the Jews were taken away, all of their remaining possessions were seized as booty by both the Nazi authorities and by their neighbors.

The deportees were taken from their homes to the nearest railway stations, where they were put on trains to the Polish border. Four thousand were granted entry into Poland; however, the remaining 8,000 were forced to stay at the border. There, in harsh conditions, they waited for the Polish government to allow them into the country. Hundreds more, one British newspaper told its readers, "are reported to be lying about, penniless and deserted, in little villages along the frontier near where they had been driven out by the Gestapo and left."

Vom Rath shooting

One expelled couple, who had been living in Hanover for more than 27 years, had a seventeen-year-old son, Herschel Grynszpan, living in Paris. From the border his sister Berta sent him a postcard describing their expulsion: "No one told us what was up, but we realised this was going to be the end." Her final appeal: "We haven't a penny. Could you send us something…?"

Grynszpan received his sister's short message on November 3. The next day he read a graphic account of the deportations in a Paris Yiddish newspaper. On the morning of Sunday, November 6, he bought a pistol, loaded it with five bullets, and on the following day went to the German embassy where, "in the name of 12,000 persecuted Jews," he shot Ernst vom Rath, fatally wounding him.

Initial response

On November 8, the first collective punitive measures were announced. All Jewish newspapers and magazines were to cease publication immediately. This ban cut off Jews from their leadership, whose task was to advise and guide them, particularly about emigration. It was a measure, one British newspaper explained, "intended to disrupt the Jewish community and rob it of the last frail ties which hold it together." There were at the time three German Jewish newspapers with a national circulation, four cultural papers, several sports papers, and several dozen community bulletins, of which the one in Berlin had a circulation of 40,000.

Also on November 8 it was announced that Jewish children could no longer attend "Aryan" state elementary schools, something that had hitherto been allowed where there were not sufficient Jewish elementary schools. At the same time all Jewish cultural activities were suspended "indefinitely."

From the Germans

The reaction of non-Jewish Germans to Kristallnacht was varied. Martin Gilbert believes that “many non-Jews resented the round up”, his opinion being supported by German witness Dr. Arthur Flehinger who recalls seeing “people crying while watching from behind their curtains”. Some even went as far as to help Jews, but the majority merely sat inside watching in horror, feeling helpless to do anything. Other non-Jewish Germans took part in the violence, as it was not just Stormtroopers rioting. Evidence of this can be established in that riots broke out on the night of November 7 and continued in some places after the pogrom was called to a halt; thus it may be surmised that these successive actions were not those of the Nazis. Also, several sources mention women and children as participating in the riots, and these were clearly not Stormtroopers but ordinary citizens. The number of German citizens involved in the riots is impossible to know, as many Stormtroopers were wearing civilian clothes and were thus indistinguishable.

According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Martin Luther's writings shortly after the Kristallnacht; Sasse "applauded the burning of the synagogues" and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On November 10, 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest anti-Semite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews." Diarmaid MacCulloch argued that Luther's 1543 pamphlet On the Jews and Their Lies was a "blueprint" for the Kristallnacht.

In an article released for publication on the evening of November 11, Goebbels ascribed the events of Kristallnacht to the "healthy instincts" of the German people. He went on to explain: "The German people are anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."

Eyewitness accounts show the general response. Reports of the destruction are the main focus of the article.

"They ripped up the belongings, the books, knocked over furniture, shouted obscenities,"

The scholarly response in that article is very much the same:

"Houses of worship burned down, vandalized, in every community in the country where people either participate or watch,"

There are reports of "destroying...family heirlooms" and many other acts of vandalism.

Response from the global community

The Kristallnacht pogram sparked international outrage. It discredited pro-Nazi movements in Europe and North America, leading to eventual decline of their support. Many newspapers condemned Kristallnacht, with some comparing it to the murderous pogroms incited by Imperial Russia in the 1880s. The United States recalled its ambassador (but did not break off diplomatic relations) while other governments severed diplomatic relations with Germany in protest.

As such, Kristallnacht also marked a turning point in relations between Nazi Germany and the rest of the world. The brutality of the program and the Nazi government's deliberate policy of encouraging the violence once it had begun, laid bare the repressive nature and widespread anti-Semitism entrenched in Germany, and turned world opinion sharply against the Nazi regime, with some politicians even calling for war.

Kristallnacht as a turning point

Kristallnacht changed the nature of persecution from economic, political, and social to the physical with beatings, incarceration, and murder; the event is often referred to as the beginning of the Holocaust. In the words of historian Max Rein in 1988, "Kristallnacht came…and everything was changed."

While November 1938 predated overt articulation of "the Final Solution," it nonetheless foreshadowed the genocide to come. Around the time of Kristallnacht, the Schutzstaffel newspaper "Das Schwarze Korps" called for a "destruction by swords and flames." At a conference on the day after the pogrom, Hermann Göring said: "The Jewish problem will reach its solution if, in any time soon, we will be drawn into war beyond our border—then it is obvious that we will have to manage a final account with the Jews."

Specifically, the Nazis managed to achieve in Kristallnacht all the theoretical targets they set for themselves: confiscation of Jewish belongings to provide finances for the military buildup to war, separation and isolation of the Jews, and most importantly, the move from the anti-Semitic policy of discrimination to one of physical damage, which began that night and continued until the end of World War II.

The event nonetheless showed the public attitude was not solidly behind the perpetrators. Many Germans at the time found the pogroms troubling, as they equated them with the days of the SA street rule and lawlessness. The British Embassy at Berlin and British Consular offices throughout Germany received many protests and expressions of disquiet from members of the German public about the anti-Jewish actions of the time. The widespread cooperation of ordinary people and the desired severity of atrocities occurred primarily in Vienna and less so in Germany.

Etymology

The incident was originally referred to as die Kristallnacht (literally "crystal night" or the "night of the broken glass"), alluding to the enormous number of shop windows (mostly at Jewish-owned stores) that were broken that night.

The prefix Reichs- (imperial) was later added (Reichskristallnacht) as a pun on the Nazis' propensity to add this prefix to various terms and titles like Reichsführer-SS (Himmler) or Reichsmarschall (Göring). This was also done in other contexts to ridicule and criticize aspects of the Nazi dictatorship (e.g. Reichswasserleiche - "National Drowned Body" for actress Kristina Söderbaum, who frequently played tragic heroines in her husband Veit Harlan's anti-Semitic melodramas, two of whom committed suicide by drowning.)

Other names

• Reichskristallnacht IPA: [ˈʁaɪç.kr,ɪst.aɫ.n'ɒxt], meaning Imperial crystal night
• Pogromnacht (Russian:погромно́чь) IPA: [grɐˈmʲitʲ.n'ɒxt], meaning night of havoc and destruction
• Reichspogromnacht (Russian:Рейхпогромно́чь) IPA: [ˈʁaɪç.grɐˈmʲitʲ.n'ɒxt], meaning Imperial night of havoc and destruction
• Novemberpogrome, (Russian:Ноябрьно́чь), meaning November night of havoc and destruction
• Crystal Night, literal English translation
• Night of glass, the meaning of the phrase

Modern response

Many decades later, association with the Kristallnacht anniversary was cited as the main reason against choosing November 9 ("Schicksalstag"), the day the Berlin Wall came down in 1989, as the new German national holiday; a different day was chosen (October 3, 1990, German reunification).

Avant-garde guitarist Gary Lucas's 1988 composition "Verklärte Kristallnacht", which juxtaposes the Israeli national anthem, "Hatikvah," with phrases from "Deutschland Über Alles" amid wild electronic shrieks and noise, is intended to be a sonic representation of the horrors of Kristallnacht. It was premiered at the 1988 Berlin Jazz Festival and received rave reviews. (The title is a reference to Arnold Schoenberg's 1899 work "Verklärte Nacht" that presaged his pioneering work on atonal music; Schoenberg was an Austrian Jew exiled by the Nazis).

The German power metal band Masterplan's debut album, Masterplan (2003), features an anti-Nazism song entitled "Crystal Night" as the fourth track.

The popular German band BAP published a song titled Kristallnaach in their Cologne dialect, dealing with the emotions of the Kristallnacht.

Recent archeological finds

A dumping ground for the destroyed remains of Jewish property plundered during Kristallnacht has been found in Brandenburg, north of Berlin by Yaron Svoray, an investigative journalist.

The site, which is the size of four football pitches, contains an extensive array of personal and ceremonial items looted during orchestrated nationwide riots against Jewish property and places of worship on the night of November 9 1938. It is believed the goods were brought by rail to the outskirts of the village and dumped on designated land. Among the items found were glass bottles engraved with the Star of David, Mezuzahs, painted window sills, and the armrests of chairs found in synagogues, in addition to an ornamental swastika.

See also

• Anti-Semitism
• Évian Conference
• History of the Jews in Germany
• History of the Jews in Austria
• Holocaust
• Israel's Department Store
• Judaism
• Nazism
• Racial policy of Nazi Germany
• World War II
• Refugees from Nazism Germans who fought for Britain in the second world war
• The king's most loyal enemy aliens

References

1. "Kristallnacht -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
2. "November 9/10 1938 - Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass". www.historyplace.com. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
3. "Kristallnacht: Definition and Much More from Answers.com". Answers.com. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
4. "Kristallnacht -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
5. ^ "Kristallnacht". The Hutchinson Encyclopedia 1998 edition. Hutchinson Encyclopedias. Vol. 1998 (18 (1998) ed.). England: Helicon Publishing. 1998. p. 1199. ISBN 1-85833-951-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
6. ^ Gilbert, Martin (2006). Kristallnacht: Prelude to destruction. Hammersmith, London: Harper Collins. p. 23. ISBN 13 978-0-00-719240-3. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
7. Trueman, Chris. "Nazi Germany - dictatorship". Retrieved 2008-03-12.
8. "Hitler's Enabling Act". Retrieved 2008-03-12.
9. "The Holocaust". Retrieved 2008-03-12.
10. Manchester Guardian, May 23, 1936, cited in A.J. Sherman, Island Refuge, Britain and the Refugees from the Third Reich, 1933–1939, (London, Elek Books Ltd, 1973), p.112, also in The Evian Conference — Hitler's Green Light for Genocide by Annette Shaw
11. Johnson, Eric. The Nazi Terror – Gestapo, Jews and Ordinary Germans. United States: Basic Books, 1999, pg 117.
12. Friedländer, Saul. Nazi Germany and The Jews – Volume 1 – The Years of Persecution 1933-1939. London: Phoenix, 1997, pg 270
13. Goerg Landauer to Martin Rosenbluth, 8 February 1938 cited in Friedländer, loc.cit.:] :)
14. Refugee Scholars:Conversations with Tess Simpson. Leeds. 1992. p. 31. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Unknown parameter |Last= ignored (|last= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
15. "Expelled Jews' Dark Outlook". Newspaper article. The Times. 1 November, 1938. Retrieved 2008-03-12. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
16. ^ German State Archives, Potsdam, quoted in Rita Thalmann and Emmanuel Feinermann, Crystal night, 9-10 November 1938, pages 33, 42
17. Nazis Planning Revenge on Jews, News Chronicle, 9 November, 1938
18. Gilbert, op. cit., pg 70
19. Dr. Arthur Flehinger, “Flames of Fury”, Jewish Chronicle, 9 November 1979, page 27 cited in Gilbert, loc. cit.
20. Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Büttner (ed), Die Deutchschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p. 265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997).
21. Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490-1700. New York: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666-667.
22. Daily Telegraph, November 12, 1938. Cited in Gilbert, Martin. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.
23. ^ "Kristallnacht Remembered". www.kold.com. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
24. Krefeld, Stadt (1988). Ehemalige Krefelder Juden berichten uber ihre Erlebnisse in der sogenannten Reichskristallnacht. Krefelder Juden in Amerika. Vol. 3. Cited in Johnson, Eric. Krefeld Stadt Archiv: Basic Books. p. 117.
25. "Kristallnacht - Terminology". www.spiritus-temporis.com. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
26. "The World at War: Herman Goering". www.euronet.nl. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
27. "Kristina Söderbaum - Biography". IMDb. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
28. "Gary Lucas: Action guitarist by Seth Rogovoy". www.berkshireweb.com. Retrieved 2008-05-20. A knowing reference to Arnold Schoenberg's "Verklarte Nacht," the piece ironically juxtaposed the Israeli national anthem, "Hatikvah," with phrases from "Deutschland Uber Alles," amid wild electronic shrieks and noise. The next day the papers ran a picture of Lucas with the triumphant headline, "It is Lucas!"
29. "BAP Songtexte (German)". Retrieved 2008-05-16.
30. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/oct/22/secondworldwar-germany

Further reading

Books in English

• Browning, Christopher R. (2003). Collected memories: Holocaust history and postwar testimony. George L. Mosse Series in Modern European Cultural and Intellectual History. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-18984-8.

• Friedlander, Saul (1998). Nazi Germany and the Jews : Volume 1: The Years of Persecution 1933-1939. New York, NY: Perennial. ISBN 0-06-092878-6.

• Gilbert, Martin (1986). The Holocaust: the Jewish tragedy. London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-216305-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

• Johnson, Eric J. (1999). Nazi terror: the Gestapo, Jews, and ordinary Germans. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-04906-0.

• Mosse, George L. (1978). Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism. New York: Howard Fertig. ISBN 0-86527-941-1.
  • Mosse, George L. (2000). Confronting history: a memoir. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-16580-9.
  • Mosse, George L. (2003). Nazi culture: intellectual, cultural and social life in the Third Reich. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-19304-7.
  • Mosse, George L. (1999). The Crisis of German Ideology : Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich. New York: Howard Fertig. ISBN 0-86527-426-6.

• Schwab, Gerald (1990). The day the Holocaust began: the odyssey of Herschel Grynszpan. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-93576-0.

• Shirer, William L. (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-72868-7.

• Yahil, Leni (1990). The Holocaust: the fate of European Jewry, 1932-1945. Oxford : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504523-8.

• Dawidowicz, Lucy (1991 (Re-issue)). The War Against the Jews: 1933-1945. UK: Bantam. ISBN 978-0553345322. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)

Books in German

• Hans-Dieter Arntz. "Reichskristallnacht". Der Novemberpogrom 1938 auf dem Lande - Gerichtsakten und Zeugenaussagen am Beispiel der Eifel und Voreifel, Helios-Verlag, Aachen 2008, ISBN 978-3-938208-69-4

• Doscher, Hans-Jurgen (1988). Reichskristallnacht: Die Novemberpogrome 1938 (in German). Ullstein. ISBN 978-3-550-07495-0.

• Kaul, Friedrich Karl (1965). Der Fall des Herschel Grynszpan (in German). Berlin: Akademie-Verl. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) ISBN Unknown. ASIN B0014NJ88M. Available at Oxford Journals (PDF)

• Lauber, Heinz (1981). Judenpogrom: "Reichskristallnacht" November 1938 in Grossdeutschland : Daten, Fakten, Dokumente, Quellentexte, Thesen und Bewertungen (Aktuelles Taschenbuch) (in German). Bleicher. ISBN 3-88350-005-4.

• Pätzold, Kurt & Runge, Irene (1988). Kristallnacht: Zum Pogrom 1938 (Geschichte) (in German). Köln: Pahl-Rugenstein. ISBN 3-7609-1233-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

• Pehle, Walter H. (1988). Der Judenpogrom 1938: Von der "Reichskristallnacht" zum Volkermord (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag. ISBN 3-596-24386-6.

• Schultheis, Herbert (1985). Die Reichskristallnacht in Deutschland nach Augenzeugenberichten (Bad Neustadter Beitrage zur Geschichte und Heimatkunde Frankens) (in German). Bad Neustadt a. d. Saale: Rotter Druck und Verlag. ISBN 3-9800482-3-3.

Online resources

• Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. Hitler 'led henchmen' in Kristallnacht riots, Daily Telegraph, Oct. 21, 2008
• Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. Hitler gave the order, Haaretz, Oct. 31, 2008

• Template:Fr - La nuit de cristal
• Template:Fr le témoignage de Shmuel Grynszpan au procès Eichmann
• Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. The night of broken glasses
• Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. The Grynszpan's testimony at the Eichmann trial

• Rabbi Eliahu Ellis & Rabbi Shmuel Silinsky. "Kristallnacht". Holocaust studies. Aish.com. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• "Germany commemorates Nazi era 'Kristallnacht'". CNN.com. 1998-11-09. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• "November 9/10 1938 – Kristallnacht, The Night of Broken Glass". World War 2 in Europe. The History Place. 1996. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• "What Was Kristallnacht?". THHP Short Essays. The Holocaust History Project. 2003-11-28. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• "Kristallnacht "Night of Crystal" - "Night of Broken Glass"". Holocaust Prelude. Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team. 2006–2007. Retrieved 2008-05-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)

• Frieda Miller, Vancouver Holocaust Education Center (2008-02-25). "Kristallnacht". From Aryanization to Cultural Loss: The Destruction of the Jewish Fashion Industry in Germany and Austria. Center for Holocaust & Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• "Sitting at Nuremberg, Germany 29th July to 8th August 1946". The Trial of German Major War Criminals Volume 20. The Nizkor Project. 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• Allida Black, June Hopkins; et al. (2003). "The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers - Kristallnacht". Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt; Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site, Hyde Park, New York. US National Park Service archive (nps.gov). Retrieved 2008-05-20. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

• "Kristallnacht: A Nationwide Pogrom, November 9-10, 1938". Holocaust Encyclopedia. US Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• "Kristallnacht: The November 1938 Pogroms". Online exhibitions, special topics. US Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2008-05-20.

• Yad Vashem (2004). "Kristallnacht". Yad Vashem’s Photo Archives. The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved 2008-05-21.

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