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| ===Allegations of discrimination === | ===Allegations of discrimination === | ||
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| ], in it's 2006 report, claimed that Russian-speaking linguistic minority living in Estonia often find themselves de facto excluded from the labour market and educational system. The report says that the current policies fail to constitute a coherent framework within which these rights can be guaranteed for such persons. Amnesty International cites as evidence the high unemployment rate — 12.9% in 2005 — among people belonging to Russian-speaking linguistic minority, in contrast to only 5.3% among ethnic Estonians during the same period.<ref></ref> However, ] says the Amnesty International report is "a bad piece of work" which is both ahistorical and unbalanced, and criticized the organization's use of limited resources as bizarre when there are real human rights abuses in Belarus and Russia.<ref>Baltic Business News: </ref> | ], in it's 2006 report, claimed that Russian-speaking linguistic minority living in Estonia often find themselves de facto excluded from the labour market and educational system. The report says that the current policies fail to constitute a coherent framework within which these rights can be guaranteed for such persons. Amnesty International cites as evidence the high unemployment rate — 12.9% in 2005 — among people belonging to Russian-speaking linguistic minority, in contrast to only 5.3% among ethnic Estonians during the same period.<ref></ref> However, ] says the Amnesty International report is "a bad piece of work" which is both ahistorical and unbalanced, and criticized the organization's use of limited resources as bizarre when there are real human rights abuses in Belarus and Russia.<ref>Baltic Business News: </ref> | ||
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| The ] has also examined Estonia's treatment of its Russophone minority. In its conclusion, the centre notes that while all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking population can be observed and praises the efforts made thus far in amendments to laws on education, language and the status of non-citizens, there nevertheless remains the issue of the large number of such non-citizens.<ref>European Centre for Minority Issues: by Peter van Elsuwege]</ref> As of October 30, 2008, 116,677, or 8%, of Estonia's population remain non-citizens, dropping from 30% in the 1990s.<ref name=20083010EE></ref> | The ] has also examined Estonia's treatment of its Russophone minority. In its conclusion, the centre notes that while all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking population can be observed and praises the efforts made thus far in amendments to laws on education, language and the status of non-citizens, there nevertheless remains the issue of the large number of such non-citizens.<ref>European Centre for Minority Issues: by Peter van Elsuwege]</ref> As of October 30, 2008, 116,677, or 8%, of Estonia's population remain non-citizens, dropping from 30% in the 1990s.<ref name=20083010EE></ref> | ||
| ⚫ | A number of Russian and Estonian experts and lawyers clam that there exists a job, salary and housing discrimination on account of Estonian-language requirements. Russian government officials and parliamentarians echo these charges in a variety of forums. Such claims have become more frequent during times of political disagreements between Russia and these countries and waned when the disagreements have been resolved.<ref></ref><ref>] ] ]: </ref><ref name='lawass'>"Law Assembly": </ref><ref>] ], ]: </ref><ref> by ], a long-time ] of ] and later ], printed in ]</ref> Both the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (]) mission in Estonia and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities have declared that they cannot find a pattern of human rights violations or abuses in Estonia. <ref></ref> | ||
| The think-tank ], sponsored by the ], published an article in 2005 alleging Latvia and Estonia employ a "sophisticated and extensive policy regime of discrimination" against their respective ] populations<ref></ref>; however, ] also published a responding article disputing those allegations as simplistic, particularly the conclusion that "in the absence of an end to discrimination and a state commitment to integration," Russophones will "seek justice through violence, or will exit by out-migration", given that the majority of Russophones were already citizens<ref></ref>. Development and Transition also published a counterpoint article disputing those allegations as simplistic, particularly the conclusion that "in the absence of an end to discrimination and a state commitment to integration," Russophones will "seek justice through violence, or will exit by out-migration"{{mdash}}questionable, given that the majority of Russophones were already citizens<ref>http://www.developmentandtransition.net/index.cfm?module=ActiveWeb&page=WebPage&DocumentID=587</ref>. | The think-tank ], sponsored by the ], published an article in 2005 alleging Latvia and Estonia employ a "sophisticated and extensive policy regime of discrimination" against their respective ] populations<ref></ref>; however, ] also published a responding article disputing those allegations as simplistic, particularly the conclusion that "in the absence of an end to discrimination and a state commitment to integration," Russophones will "seek justice through violence, or will exit by out-migration", given that the majority of Russophones were already citizens<ref></ref>. Development and Transition also published a counterpoint article disputing those allegations as simplistic, particularly the conclusion that "in the absence of an end to discrimination and a state commitment to integration," Russophones will "seek justice through violence, or will exit by out-migration"{{mdash}}questionable, given that the majority of Russophones were already citizens<ref>http://www.developmentandtransition.net/index.cfm?module=ActiveWeb&page=WebPage&DocumentID=587</ref>. | ||
Revision as of 07:10, 2 June 2009
Ethnic group| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
| Tallinn, Ida-Viru County |
The beginning of continuous Russian settlement in what is now Estonia dates back to the late 17th century when several thousand Russian Old Believers, escaping religious persecution in Russia, settled in areas then a part of the Swedish empire near the western coast of Lake Peipus.
After Estonia regained independence in 1991 the Russians who had arrived to the country during the Soviet era were regarded as immigrants who'd need to apply for Estonian citizenship. Between 1992 and 2007 about 147.000 people acquired Estonian citizenship bringing down the proportion of stateless residents from 32% to about 8 percent.
First contacts and settlements
The Estonian name for Russians vene, venelane derives from an old Germanic loan veneð referring to the Wends, speakers of a Slavic language who lived on the southern coast of Baltic sea.
Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kievan Rus successfully raided Tartu in 1030, burning down the Estonian stronghold. The Russian foothold Yuryev built on its ashes survived until 1061, when Kievan Rus were driven out by Estonians, making most Early East Slavic settlements at the time in Estonia intermittent only and not continuous.
Outside of south-east Estonia archeologists unearthed a mediaeval Russian settlement in Kuremäe (Ida-Viru County). Russian Orthodox community in the area built a church in the 16th century and later Pühtitsa Convent was created on its site. Russian cultural influence had its mark on Estonian language, with a number of words such as "turg" (trade) and "rist" (cross) adopted from East Slavic.
The Estonian Crusade started in the Baltics by the Teutonic knights was resisted by all the natives of the region Slavs as well as Estonians.. In 1217 allied Russian-Estonian army defended fort Otepää from German knights. Russian prince Vyachko died in 1224 with all his druzhina defending fortress Tharbatu (modern Tartu) together with his Estonian allies against Livonian Order led by Albert of Riga. Russians were gradually driven out of Estonia.
The conquest of what is now Estonia and Latvia by Denmark and the German crusaders in the beginning of the 13th century greatly reduced Slavic and Orthodox Christian influence in the region. Russian Orthodox Saint Isidore of Tartu was drowned in 1472 in the ice holes of the Emajõgi river for his refusal to adopt Roman Catholicism together with 72 Orthodox Christians. . Nonetheless, Orthodox churches and small communities of Russian merchants and craftsmen came into being in the towns of medieval Livonia (i.e., Estonia and Latvia) as did close trade links with Russian Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk principalities. In 1481, Ivan III of Russia laid siege to the castle Viljandi and briefly captured several other towns in eastern Livonia in response to a Livonian attack on north-west Russia. Between 1558 and 1582, Ivan the Terrible captured much of mainland Estonia, in the midst of the Livonian War, but eventually the Russians were driven out by Polish and Swedish armies. Tsar Alexis I of Russia once again captured towns in eastern Livonia, including Tartu and Vasknarva in modern Estonia between 1656 and 1661, but had to yield his Livonian and Ingrian conquests to Sweden. In the late 17th century several thousand Russian Old Believers, escaping religious persecution in Russia, settled in areas of Estonia (then controlled by Sweden) near the western coast of Lake Peipus.
Second wave of settlement
The second period of influx of Russians followed the Imperial Russian conquest of the northern Baltic region, including Estonia, from Sweden in 1700–1721. Under Russian rule, power in the region remained primarily in the hands of the Baltic German nobility, but a limited number of administrative jobs was gradually taken over by Russians, who settled in Reval (Tallinn) and other major towns. However, a relatively larger number of ethnic Russian workers settled in Tallinn and Narva during the period of rapid industrial development in the end of 19th century and the beginning of 20th century. After the First World War, the share of ethnic Russians in the population of independent Estonia was about 10%, of which about half were indigenous Russians living in the areas in and around Pechory and Izborsk which were added to Estonian territory according to the 1920 Estonian-Soviet Peace Treaty of Tartu, but were transferred to the Russian SFSR by the Soviet authorities in 1945.
Third influx
In 1939 ethnic Russians comprised 8% of the population. Most of the present-day Russians in Estonia are migrants from the Soviet era and their descendants. Following the terms of the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1940. Soviet authorities carried out repressions against many prominent ethnic Russians activists in Estonia and Russian White emigres. Many Russians in Estonia were arrested and executed by different Soviet War Tribunals in 1940-1941. After Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, the three countries quickly fell under German control. Many Russians, especially Communist party members who had arrived in the area with the initial annexation, retreated to Russia; those who fell into German hands were treated harshly, many were executed.
After the war, Stalin initiated population transfer in the Soviet Union. Various Soviet ethnic groups that were relocated to Baltic states were mostly working class who settled in major urban areas, as well as military personnel stationed in the region in significant numbers due to the border location of the Baltic States within the Soviet Union. Many military retirees chose to stay in the region, which featured higher living standards compared to other parts of Soviet Union. By the 1980s, ethnic Russians made up a third of the population in Estonia.
During the Singing Revolution a large fraction of Russian-speaking Soviet immigrants who were organised in Intermovement actively opposed Estonia regaining its independence.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
One of the most notable Russians who has lived in Estonia has been Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. After the KGB had confiscated some of his materials in Moscow, during 1965-1967 the preparatory drafts of The Gulag Archipelago were turned into finished typescript while hiding in an Estonian farmhouse near Tartu. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn had shared a cell in the KGB Lubyanka Prison with Arnold Susi, a lawyer and former minister of Education of Estonia. Solzhenitsyn completed The Gulag Archipelago at the Susi's family home. After completion the original Solzhenitsyn's handwritten script was kept hidden from KGB in Estonia until 1998 by Arnold Susi's daughter Heli Susi.
Recent situation
In Estonia, most Russians live in Tallinn and the major northeastern cities of Narva and Kohtla-Järve. The rural areas are populated almost entirely by ethnic Estonians, except for some areas in eastern Estonia near Lake Peipus which have a long history of settlement by Russians, including the Old Believers' communities.
Citizenship
After regaining independence in 1991 the restored Republic of Estonia recognised citizenship of everybody who was a citizen prior to the Soviet occupation of 1940 or descended from such a citizen (including the long-term Russian settlers from earlier influxes, such as those around Mustvee near Lake Peipus), but did not grant any new citizenships automatically. This affected people who had arrived in the country after 1940, the majority of whom were ethnic Russians. Knowledge of Estonian language and history were set as conditions for naturalization. The government offers free preparation courses for the examination on the Constitution and the Citizenship Act and reimburses up to EEK 6,000 (approximately 380 euros) for language studies.
Under Estonian law, residents without citizenship may not vote in elections of Riigikogu (the national parliament) or European Parliament elections, but are eligible to vote in local (municipal) elections.
Language requirements
The perceived difficulty of the initial language tests necessary for naturalisation became a point of international contention, as the government of Russian Federation and a number of human rights organizations objected on the grounds that they made it hard for many Russians who had not learned Estonian to gain Estonian citizenship in the short term. As a result, the tests were somewhat altered and the number of stateless persons has steadily decreased. According to Estonian officials, in 1992, 32% of residents lacked any form of citizenship. In July 2007, the Population Registry of the Estonian Ministry of the Interior reported that 8.5% of Estonia's residents have undefined citizenship and 7.8% have foreign citizenship.
Alternatives
Russia being a successor state to the Soviet Union, all former USSR citizens qualified for natural-born citizenship of Russian Federation, available upon mere request, as provided by the law “On the RSFSR Citizenship” in force up to end of 2000.
Allegations of discrimination
Amnesty International, in it's 2006 report, claimed that Russian-speaking linguistic minority living in Estonia often find themselves de facto excluded from the labour market and educational system. The report says that the current policies fail to constitute a coherent framework within which these rights can be guaranteed for such persons. Amnesty International cites as evidence the high unemployment rate — 12.9% in 2005 — among people belonging to Russian-speaking linguistic minority, in contrast to only 5.3% among ethnic Estonians during the same period. However, The Economist says the Amnesty International report is "a bad piece of work" which is both ahistorical and unbalanced, and criticized the organization's use of limited resources as bizarre when there are real human rights abuses in Belarus and Russia.
According to veteran German author, journalist and Russia-correspondent Gabriele Krone-Schmalz, there is deep disapproval of everything Russian in Estonia. She contends that the alleged level of discrimination regarding ethnic Russians in Estonia would have posed a barrier to acceptance into the EU; however, Western media gave the matter very little attention. However the European Commission conducted close monitoring of these countries compliance with the acquis in regard to minority rights prior to accession to the EU, the Commission concluded that there is no evidence that these minorities are subject to discrimination.
The European Centre for Minority Issues has also examined Estonia's treatment of its Russophone minority. In its conclusion, the centre notes that while all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking population can be observed and praises the efforts made thus far in amendments to laws on education, language and the status of non-citizens, there nevertheless remains the issue of the large number of such non-citizens. As of October 30, 2008, 116,677, or 8%, of Estonia's population remain non-citizens, dropping from 30% in the 1990s.
A number of Russian and Estonian experts and lawyers clam that there exists a job, salary and housing discrimination on account of Estonian-language requirements. Russian government officials and parliamentarians echo these charges in a variety of forums. Such claims have become more frequent during times of political disagreements between Russia and these countries and waned when the disagreements have been resolved. Both the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) mission in Estonia and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities have declared that they cannot find a pattern of human rights violations or abuses in Estonia.
The think-tank Development and Transition, sponsored by the United Nations, published an article in 2005 alleging Latvia and Estonia employ a "sophisticated and extensive policy regime of discrimination" against their respective Russophone populations; however, Development and Transition also published a responding article disputing those allegations as simplistic, particularly the conclusion that "in the absence of an end to discrimination and a state commitment to integration," Russophones will "seek justice through violence, or will exit by out-migration", given that the majority of Russophones were already citizens. Development and Transition also published a counterpoint article disputing those allegations as simplistic, particularly the conclusion that "in the absence of an end to discrimination and a state commitment to integration," Russophones will "seek justice through violence, or will exit by out-migration"—questionable, given that the majority of Russophones were already citizens.
Notable Russians from Estonia
Noteworthy modern Russians who at some point lived in Estonia include:
- Alexy II, born in Tallinn Estonia, mother ethnic Russian born in Tallinn, father Baltic-German descent born in St. Petersburg.
- Sergei Dovlatov lived in Tallinn.
- Anna Levandi (née Kondrashova) competitive figure skater, silver medal at the 1984 World Figure Skating Championships, and a four-time European bronze medalist
- Valery Karpin, former football player of Russian national football team, was born in Narva. Since 2003 he holds Estonian citizenship.
- Nikolai Stepulov, silver medal in Men's Boxing, lightweight class in the 1936 Summer Olympics.
- Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn lived and worked on The Gulag Archipelago in Estonia 1965-1967.
- Igor Severyanin (Igor Lotaryov), poet; lived, married, died and was buried in Estonia.
- Mikhail Veller, writer, lives in Tallinn.
- Tatiana Bleicher, writer, lives in Tallinn.
See also
References
- Frucht, Richard (2005). Eastern Europe. ABC-CLIO. p. 65. ISBN 1576078000.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Puddington, Arch (2007). "Estonia". Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Published by Rowman & Littlefield. p. 248. ISBN 0742558975.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Campbell, Lyle (2004). Historical Linguistics. MIT Press. p. 418. ISBN 0262532670.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Bojtár, Endre (1999). Foreword to the Past. Central European University Press. p. 88. ISBN 963911642.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: length (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - A short overview of the history of Tartu
- Miljan, Toivo. Historical Dictionary of Estonia
- Pühtitsa (Pyhtitsa) Dormition Convent
- Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974
- Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974
- Chronology of 13th century
- Historical background of Orthodoxy in Estonia
- http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity.
- Rosenfeld, Alla (2001). Art of the Baltics: The Struggle for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets, 1945-1991. Rutgers University Press. pp. 55, pp.134. ISBN 9780813530420.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (1997). Invisible Allies. Basic Books. pp. 46–64 The Estonians. ISBN 9781887178426.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Citizenship Act of Estonia (English translation)
- ^ Government to develop activities to decrease the number of non-citizens
- Estonia: Citizenship
- The Policy of Immigration and Naturalization in Russia: Present State and Prospects, by Sergei Gradirovsky et al.
- Estonia Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end
- Baltic Business News: Estonia is right and Amnesty is wrong - The Economist
- Krone-Schmalz, Gabriele (2008). "Zweierlei Maß". Was passiert in Russland? (in German) (4 ed.). München: F.A. Herbig. pp. 45–48. ISBN 9783776625257.
- Agenda 2000. For a stronger and wider Union (Vol. I). The Challenge of Enlargement (Part. II), COM (97) 2000 final, p45
- European Centre for Minority Issues: Russian-speaking minorities in Estonia and Latvia: problems of integration at the threshold of the European Union by Peter van Elsuwege]
- Russia and the Baltic States: Not a Case of "Flawed" History
- Postimees 25 July 2007: Naši suvelaagrit «ehib» Hitleri vuntsidega Paeti kujutav plakat
- "Law Assembly": The policy of discrimination of the national minorities in Latvia and Estonia
- Postimees July 30, 2007: Venemaa süüdistas Eestit taas natsismi toetamises
- Russia and the Baltic States: Not a Case of "Flawed" History by Mikhail Demurin, a long-time diplomat of USSR and later Russian Federation, printed in Russia in Global Affairs
- Discrimination against the Russophone Minority in Estonia and Latvia
- Rejoinder to James Hughes
- http://www.developmentandtransition.net/index.cfm?module=ActiveWeb&page=WebPage&DocumentID=587
External links
- The Russian Diaspora in Latvia and Estonia: Predicting Language Outcomes
- Amnesty International report on Estonia, 2007.
- Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end - Amnesty International report on Estonia, 7 December 2006.
- An excess of conscience - Estonia is right and Amnesty is wrong - The Economist, editorial by Edward Lucas, condemning Amnesty International, December 14, 2006
- Vetik, Raivo (1993). Ethnic conflict and accommodation in post-communist Estonia. Journal of Peace Research 30.3, 271-280.
- Andersen, Erik André (1997). The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989-1995. Europe-Asia Studies 49.2, 303-316.
- Park, Andrus (1994). Ethnicity and Independence: The Case of Estonia in Comparative Perspective. Europe-Asia Studies 46.1, 69-87.
- Vares, Peeter and Olga Zhurayi (1998). Estonia and Russia, Estonians and Russians: A Dialogue. 2nd ed. Tallinn: Olof Palme International Center.
- Lauristin, Marju & Mati Heidmets (eds.) The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 2002.
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| Related topics: Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet states and White émigré. | |||||||||||