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This article describes the history of the Eastern European nation of Belarus and the Belarusian people.

Early history

The history of Belarus, or, more correctly of the Belarusian ethnicity, begins with the migration and expansion of the Slavic peoples throughout Eastern Europe between the 6th and 8th centuries Anno Domini. East Slavs settled on the territory within present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, assimilating local Baltic (Belarus), Ugro-Finnic (Russia) and steppe nomads (Ukraine) already living there, early ethnic integrations that contributed to the gradual differentiation of the three East Slavic nations. These East Slavs were pagan, animistic, agrarian people whose economy included trade in agricultural produce, game, furs, honey, beeswax and amber.

The modern Belarusian ethnos was probably formed on the basis of the three Slavic tribes - Kryvians, Drehovians, Radzimians and some Baltic tribes.

During the 9th and 10th century, Scandinavian Vikings established trade posts on the way from Scandinavia to the Byzantine Empire. The network of lakes and rivers crossing East Slav territory provided a lucrative trade route between the two civilizations. In the course of trade, they gradually took sovereignty over tribes of East Slavs, at least to the point required by improvements in trade.

The Rus' rulers on few occasions invaded the Byzantine Empire, but eventually they became their ally against the Bulgars. The condition underlying this alliance was to open the country for Christianization and acculturation from the Byzantine Empire.

The common cultural bond of Eastern Orthodox Christianity and written Church Slavonic (a literary and liturgical Slavic language developed by 8th century missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius) fostered the emergence of a new geopolitical entity, Rus' -- a loose-knit network of principalities, established along preexisting trade routes, with major centers in Novgorod (currently Russia), Polatsk and Kiev (Kyiv, Ukraine) — which claimed a sometimes precarious preeminence among them.

First Belarusian states

Between the 9th and 12th century, the principality of Polatsk (northern Belarus) emerged as the dominant center of power on Belarusian territory, with a lesser role played by the principality of Turau in the south.

It repeatedly asserted its sovereignty in relation to other centers of Rus', becoming a political capital, the episcopal see of a bishopric and the controller of vassal territories among Balts in the west. The city's Cathedral of the Holy Wisdom (1044-1066), though completely rebuilt over the years, remains a symbol of this independent-mindedness, rivaling churches of the same name in Novgorod and Kiev, referring to the original Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (and hence to claims of imperial prestige, authority and sovereignty). Cultural achievements of the Polatsk period include the work of the nun Euphrosyne of Polatsk (1120-1173), who built monasteries, transcribed books, promoted literacy and sponsored art (including local artisan Lazarus Bohsha's famous "Cross of Euphrosyne," a national symbol and treasure stolen during World War II), and the prolific, original Church Slavonic sermons and writings of Bishop Cyril of Turau (1130-1182).

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania

In the 13th century, the fragile unity of Rus' disintegrated due to nomadic incursions from Asia, which climaxed with the Mongol Horde's sacking of Kiev (1240), leaving a geopolitical vacuum in the region. The East Slavs splintered into a number of independent and competing principalities. Due to military alliances, dynastic marriages and previous assimilation, the Belarusian principalities were conquered by the expanding Lithuanians, beginning with the rule of King Mindouh (1240-1263). From the 13th to 15th century, Baltic, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands were consolidated into the multi-ethnic Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rus' and Samogitia, with its capital in Navahradak (in western Belarus) and later in Vilnia.

The Lithuanians' smaller numbers and lack of written language or Christian culture in this medieval state gave the Belarusians and Ukrainians a major and important role in shaping Lithuanian political, religious and cultural life, and further assimilation between the Slavs and Balts occurred. Owing to the predominance of East Slavs and Eastern Orthodox faithful among the state's population, Ruthenian became the official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rus' and Samogitia, used for its official chancery, legal, diplomatic and judicial needs until 1696, when it was eventually replaced by Polish.

This period of political breakdown and reorganization also saw the rise of written local vernaculars in place of the literary and liturgical Church Slavonic language, a further stage in the evolving differentiation between the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages.

After 1385, Belarus became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Union of Kowno. Several Lithuanian monarchs - the last being Svitrigailo in 1432-1436 - championed interests of the Eastern Orthodox Ruthenian majority, while most monarchs and magnates increasingly came to reflect opinions of the Roman Catholic Lithuanian minority. Escalating discrimination of dissidents contributed to the eventual breakup of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Lublin Union of 1569 constituted the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and a vital cultural entity. While Ukraine became subject to the Polish Crown, Belarus was still regarded as part of Lithuania.

During the period of Polish domination (1569-1795), numerous Polish nobles settled in Belarus and the Belarusian magnates came to be thoroughly polonized. For instance, Adam Mickiewicz, although born in present-day Belarus into a Belarusian family, regarded himself as a Lithuanian and wrote in Polish. Similar trends affected lower classes of society: Belarusian was relegated to secondary positions; Eastern Orthodox peasantry was converted to Roman Catholicism.

Continuing polonization of Belarusian nobility led to violent clashes, including the rebellions of Belarusian people against their Polish overlords in Mogilyov (1606-10), Vitebsk (1623), and Polotsk (1633). Belarusian peasants fled from Polish serfdom and Jesuit priests to the so-called wild fields, where they became known as Cossacks. In 1595, the Cossack insurgents under Severyn Nalivaiko took the towns of Slutsk and Mogilyov and executed Polish magistrates there.

Despite severe repressions, vibrant Belarusian culture flourished in the Orthodox communities of major Belarusian cities. A leading representative of the renaissance Belarusian culture was Francysk Skaryna, the first to print books in Ruthenian language (1517).

After Belarusian peasantry volunteered to take part in the anti-Polish movement led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, deputations from several Belarusian towns arrived to Moscow, asking the tsar for interference on their part. The Treaty of Andrusovo, however, left Belarus under Polish yoke. During the Deluge, the country degraded into an economical backwater, with many areas becoming seriously depopulated. After Orthodox communities were disbanded by Polish administration, the use of Belarusian language was increasingly discouraged or suppressed.

By the 18th century the rapacity of Polish nobles plunged the country into anarchy, making the once powerful empire vulnerable to foreign influence. Eventually Poland was partitioned by its neighbors, while Belarusians reunited with their Orthodox East Slavic brethren.

Russian Empire

Under tsarist administration, the territory of Belarus was divided into the governorates of Minsk, Vitebsk, Mogilyov, and Hrodno. Following the French emperor Napoleon I's defeat of Prussia, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was again set up under French tutelage. Belarusian peasants, however, fiercely resisted the renewed Polish ascendancy. They were active in guerilla movement against Napoleon's occupation and did their best to annihilate the remains of the Grande_Armée when it crossed the Berezina River in November 1812.

Although under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed in attempt to "de-polonise" the population which included the return of the population to Orthodoxy, the 19th century was signified by the rise of the modern Belarusian nation and self-confidence. Belarusian economy was booming, particularly after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. During World War I, western provinces of Belarus were occupied by the German army.

After Russian Revolution

The Belarus National Republic

During World War I, when Belarus was occupied by Germans according to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Belarus National Republic was pronounced on March 25, 1918.

When the Red Army entered Minsk on January 5, 1919, the Rada (Council) of the BNR went into exile. As of 2004, Ivonka Survilla is the current chairperson of the Rada.

During the World War II the Nazis attempted to establish a puppet Belarusian government with symbolics of BNR.

LBSSR

For a brief period within 1919, between the German and Polish occupations, there existed a joint Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, informally known as Litbel. In December 1918 the Germans left the land, and on January 2, 1919 the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was declared, which was joined with the Lithuanian SSR into the BLSSR in February 1919, which existed until August 1919 (the onset of the Polish-Soviet War). In 1920, the lands of Belarus were divided between Poland and Byelorussian (Belarusian) Soviet Socialist Republic.

Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus

Within the USSR, the name of the country was Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. It was declared on January 1, 1919 in Smalensk.

The frontiers between Poland, which had established a shaky independent government following World War I, and the former Tsarist empire, were rendered chaotic by the repercussions of the Russian revolutions and civil war. Poland's Józef Pilsudski envisioned a new federation (Miedzymorze), forming a Polish-led East European bloc to form a bulwark against Russia and Germany, while the RSFSR attempted to carry the revolution westward. When Pilsudski carried out a military thrust into Ukraine in 1920, he was met by a Red Army offensive that drove into Polish territory almost to Warsaw. However, Pilsudski halted the Soviet advance at the battle of Warsaw and resumed the offensive. The "Peace of Riga" signed in early 1921 that split the territory of Belarus between Poland and the USSR. (see also: Polish-Soviet War)

Until 1939 the territory of Belarus was divided into East Belarus (The Belarusian SSR) and West Belarus (Nowogrodek (Navaharodak), Bialystok (Bielastok), Polesia and Wilno (Vilnia) voivodships of the Second Polish Republic). Initially, the national culture and language had a significant boost of revival in the Soviet Belarus. This was tragically ended during the Great Purges, when almost all prominent Belarusian national intelligentsia were murdered. West Belarus was undergoing a strong policy of polonization by the Polish nationalist government. Around 300 thousands of Poles were settled in Belarus, Belarusian language was prohibited for official use and education.

Belarus in World War II

When the Soviet Union invaded Poland on September 17 1939, following the terms of the Molotov-Ribentropp Pact's secret protocol, much of what had been eastern Poland was annexed to the BSSR. Eighteen months later, Germany and its Axis allies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Belarus suffered particularly heavily during the fighting and the German occupation, as well as from the results of a slash-and-burn policy pursued by retreating Soviet troops. Following bloody encirclement battles, all of present-day Belarus was occupied by the Germans by the end of August 1941.

The Germans imposed a brutal racist regime, burning down some 9,000 Belarusian villages, deporting some 380,000 people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of thousands of civilians more. Almost the whole, previously very numerous, jewish population of Belarus was killed. Since the early days of the occupation, a powerful and increasingly well-coordinated partisan movement emerged. Hiding in the woods and swamps, the partisans inflicted heavy damage to German supply lines and communications, disrupting railway tracks, bridges, telegraph wires, attacking supply depots, fuel dumps and transports and ambushing German occupation soldiers. It should be noted that not all anti-German partisans were pro-Soviet. In the greatest partisan sabotage action of the entire Second World War, the so-called Asipovichy diversion of July 30, 1943, four German trains with supplies and Tiger tanks were destroyed. To fight partisan activity, the Germans had to withdraw considerable forces behind their front line. On June 22, 1944, the huge Soviet offensive Operation Bagration was launched, finally regaining all of Belarus by the end of August. Hundred thounsands of Poles were expelled after 1944.

In total, Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population in the Second World War. For the defence against the Germans, and the tenacity during the German occupation, the capital Minsk was awarded the title Hero City after the War. The fortress of Brest was awarded the title Hero-Fortress.

BSSR from 1945 to 1990

After the end of War, in 1945 Belarus became one of the founding members of the United Nations Organisation.

During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded the BSSR's economy, with control always exerted exclusively from Moscow. During this time, Belarus became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR. Huge industrial objects like the BelAZ, MAZ, and the Minsk Tractor Plant were built in the country. The increase in jobs resulted in a huge immigrant population of Russians in Belarus.

On April 26, 1986 the Chernobyl accident occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine. It is regarded as the worst nuclear accident in the history of nuclear power. It produced a plume of radioactive debris that drifted over parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Scandinavia. Large areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of roughly 200,000 people. About 60 percent of radioactive fallout landed in Belarus.

Republic of Belarus

On 27 July 1990, Belarus declared its national sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet Union. The BSSR was formally renamed the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Around that time, Stanislav Shushkevich became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine met on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha, to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

In 1994, the first presidential elections were held, Alexander Lukashenka was elected president of Belarus. During his presidency, Lukashenka halted economic reform, and re-established an authoritarian government reminiscent of the Soviet era. In 1996, Lukashenka disbanded parliament, and strengthening his control over the judiciary. In 2001, he was re-elected as president in elections condemned as undemocratic by Western observers. Belarus is currently considered to be Europe's last dictatorship.

Symbols from earlier history

The Chase/Pahonya CoA of Belarus in 1918 and 1991-1995

The images show the white-red-white flag (бел-чырвона-белы сцяг) and The Chase (Паго́ня, Pahonya) coat of arms. These historical symbols were adopted as the symbols of the Belarus National Republic and as the official national symbols of the Republic of Belarus from the time it got its independence in July 1991 and until the Referendum of 1995. The coat of arms is similar to that of Lithuania (Vytis).

See also

• List of Belarusian rulers
• Soviet Union
• Collapse of the Soviet Union
• Commonwealth of Independent States
• History of Europe
• History of present-day nations and states
• Dzierzynszczyzna
• Kryvian

External links

• Belarus National Republic - the Belarusian Government in exile
• Stary Hetman - Belarusian history forums
• Belarus, by CIA World Factbook, 2000
• Belarus, by United States Department of State
• Belarusian diaspora
• Rulers.org — Belarus List of rulers for Belarus

• History of Europe
• History of Belarus