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Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is the name of a set of techniques originally proposed (1973) by Richard Bandler and John Grinder to describe the relationship between mind (neuro) and language (linguistic, both verbal and non-verbal) and how their interaction can be organised (programming) to affect an individual's mind, body and behavior. It is formally described by the original developers as "the study of the structure of subjective experience" (Dilts et al 1980), and is predicated upon the assumption that all behaviors have a practically determinable structure . Individuals considered to be highly successful in a field can be "modeled", or studied with the aim of separating out the various key factors which make them more capable than others. Proponents state that modeling allows the creation of techniques for changing habitual thoughts and behaviors so that others can also emulate effective skills.

A fundamental notion is that human perception and thinking can be formally notated in terms of the five senses (Grinder & Bandler 1979; Dilts et al 1980 p.17; Bandler 1997). The basic tenets include the map-territory relation, the observation of non-verbal behavior such as the subtle movements of the eyes, or body postures, and use of sensory-based language. Some techniques include behaviour change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas through techniques such as reframing (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994) and questioning methods such as the "meta-modeling" which can be used to explore personal limits of belief as expressed in language.

The various techniques have been applied to a number of fields such as sales, psychotherapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, business management, relationships & seduction, occult, and spiritual. This is both through the use of existing patterns, and through modeling "high performers" in various fields.

NLP has been criticized (see criticism section) because reviews of research by scientists such as Heap (1988), Sharpley (1987), Lilienfeld (2003), and (Singer and Lalich 1999) respectively have stated that Neuro-linguistic programming is scientifically unsupported and largely ineffective. Scientists such as Eisner (2000), Lilienfeld et al (2003), Helisch (2004), Williams (2000), and Drenth (2003) also state that the methodology is pseudoscience. Authors such as Salerno (2005) also state NLP is pseudoscience, and have criticized its promotion as self-help, and psychologists such as Singer (1999) and management experts such as Hardiman (1994) have criticized certain quasi-spiritual and unethical uses within management and human resources development. Scientists such as Eisner (2000) and Lilienfeld (2003) have raised concern over the promotion within psychological associations due to NLP's dubious and pseudoscientific characteristics.

Overview

NLP is most widely known as a self-help and communication methodology. NLP is promoted through advertising, sale of books, internal courses within organizations, and seminars. NLP books are widespread in the popular psychology and self development sections of bookshops, and NLP is advertised in various media including the Internet and infomercials. NLP-derived approaches are very often incorporated within other fields and may not in fact be labelled as NLP when taught.

Foundational Assumptions

Distinct from its formal presuppositions, NLP incorporates a variety of foundational assumptions that precede the presuppositions. These are:

1. There is a mind-body (and some also include spirituality) connection (Grinder and DeLozier, 1986, pp.xx,xxi; Grinder and Bostic St Clair, 2002, ch.3; ibid p.222).
2. The mind is broadly composed of a conscious and a subconcious (or unconscious) component (Bandler & John Grinder, 1975b, pp.12-13,137,179-99).
3. A person's experience of the world is processed and organised in terms of the five senses (Grinder & Bandler 1975b p.6; Dilts et al, 1980, p.17).
4. Physiology, sensory representation ("submodality") and emotion comprise internal state (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1303).
5. Behavior is the result of systematically ordered sequences of sensory representations ("strategies") (Bandler & Grinder, 1979 p.30; Dilts et al, 1980, p.6).
6. All behavior occurs in the context of internal state (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1300).
7. Internal state mediates experience and influences or determines behavior (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1300).
8. Internal state and strategy -- hence behavior -- have a discernable and communicable structure (Dilts et al, 1980, Ch.3; Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1303-6).
9. People exhibit their internal state in their language (verbal and non-verbal) (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, pp.75-77).
10. Since behavior and its substrates -- internal state and strategy -- can be codified, a persons's skill can be reproduced in another person (Dilts et al, 1980, p.14).
11. Behavior is learned (Dilts et al, 1980, p.4).
12. Humans do not have direct knowledge of the (external) world, rather, they have a mental representation of the world -- that is irreducibly different from the world -- upon which they operate and produce behavior (Bandler & Grinder, 1975, p.3-4; Bandler & Grinder, 1975a, pp.7-13; Bandler & Grinder, 1975b, pp.7-8,180-1; Dilts et al, 1980, pp.3-4).

Stated Attitude to Theory

Many NLP proponents state that NLP is not theory-oriented, and Bandler states that he does not "do theory" (Singer & Lalich, 1996). Instead, the stated goals of NLP are to model effective patterns "in the field", to learn what someone is actually doing in practice (internally and externally) that works, and how they do it, rather than deriving behaviors from a theory or obtaining their motivations for doing them. "Neuro-Linguistic Programming...makes no commitment to theory, but rather has the status of a model -- a set of procedures whose usefulness not truthfulness is to be the measure of its worth...I choose the term model deliberately and contrast it with the term theory. A model is simply a description of how something works without any commitment regarding why it might be that way." (Dilts et al, 1980, Forward)

However, after modeling, many NLP proponents relate their models to existing theories, or develop new theories based upon them. Some NLP practitioners claim that NLP shares its intellectual antecedents with the Cognitive Sciences. Robert Dilts asserts that NLP "is theoretically rooted in the principles of neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics, and communication theory" (Dilts et al 1980).

Goals

The NLP practitioner attempts to discern how a client/subject or themselves perceive and internally organize issues related to identity, life, personal beliefs, and life goal issues. NLP practitioners claim to often help clients or themselves to replace false or negative perceptions, with positive, life affirming beliefs. Grinder describes NLP as "an accelerated learning approach for modeling human excellence" (Grinder, 2003).

The NLP practitioner's goal may include changing a state of mind or their own or somebody else's beliefs and self concept. NLP processes have also been applied to replace previous beliefs which encumber an individual. NLP has been applied to therapy, coaching, self development, hypnotherapy, sports performance, business, and the New Age. NLP has also been applied to LGATs or large group awareness training seminars (taught by NLP promoters such as Anthony Robbins), seduction workshops, and other more fringe practices such as shamanism, and psychic development.

In principle, NLP is a "client-oriented" methodology, in that the client's perception is treated with respect, and (unless grossly unreasonable) the client's developing view of a problem or situation is the major criteria to guide NLP intervention. In business or conflict resolution NLP usually advocates a win-win philosophy. The term "ecology" (borrowed in the sense of "how disparate things co-exist in balance") is used to signify the careful checking needed to ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial nature of goals sought, any secondary gains affected, and so on. Because NLP practitioners feel that the techniques can be powerful and manipulative if used unethically, teaching or using NLP without careful regard to ecology is considered unacceptable or inappropriate by most professional trainers.

Views on cognitive understanding

Unusually, NLP maintains that while understanding is often useful, it is sometimes not necessary for a person to understand themselves, provided the person helping them does and can help them reach a useful end-point. Several common explanations are given for this:

• Conscious understanding is often used not to self-help, but as a basis for reinforcing problematic beliefs and self-images, and for self-sabotage.
• "Understanding" is not as desirable as "change", nor is it always essential for it. (In the same way that "understanding" was usually not needed for dysfunctional patterns to become established, NLP does not see it as essential for beneficial patterns either)
• More behavior and mental habits are mediated by the unconscious mind than the conscious so this is where the work usually has to be. (Under this view, "understanding" is a placebo given to placate and distract the conscious mind whilst the "real work" is done by the client's unconscious mind)

John Seymour, an NLP trainer and author, often states that "understanding is the booby prize", in the sense that to understand and not benefit is not the aim of NLP nor is it helpful, whereas to change but not understand fully how it has happened is beneficial. Accordingly some aspects of NLP are very cognitive, such as metamodel and timeline, whilst others such as the Milton model and ideomotor communication (Milton H. Erickson: Advanced Techniques of Hypnosis and Therapy, J Haley 1967 p.21,451; Patterns I 1976) are intended to work only with the subconscious (or "unconscious") mind.

Examples of common NLP techniques

Note: This list is of necessity incomplete. This is in part because NLP makes little distinction between information gathering, and change techniques. This is because information gathering done well can effect change, and "change techniques" done well, even if they fail can provide additional information.

• Cognitive exploration techniques (exploring a "problem space"):
  • Metamodel: a linguistic tool used to recover missing or altered information from dialog. Also used to draw awareness to mental patterns whereby certain aspects of a situation are modified unconsciously resulting in a "skewed" conscious perspective.
  • Perceptual positions: considering a situation from different perspectives, including those of others involved.
  • Timeline: considering a situation from past/present/future perspectives.
  • Neurological levels: exploring what type of objective a behavior is meeting. A behavior or mental process that arised due to environmental pressure may have different considerations than one due to self-image or spiritual beliefs.
  • Reframing: putting a behavior into a different contextual frame, to bring out new perspectives
  • Well formed outcomes: A goal that fails to meet some basic criteria (ie is not "well formed") will be more likely to remain vague, self-defeating, or unreachable.
• Unconscious mind techniques:
  • Milton model: a means of using vague language to entice unconscious involvement and consideration in a non-directive manner.
  • Conscious confusion and distraction: techniques to distract and depotentate the conscious mind in order to avoid conscious mind interference with work at a more unconscious behavioral level.
  • Ideomotor communication: using body language signals as an alternative to bypass conscious communication
  • Spatial and verbal marking: subtlely mixing signals in with words, that the unconscious mind will note as communications, but which the conscious mind usually will not.
  • Post-hypnotic suggestion
  • Therapeutic metaphor
• "Change techniques" (specific techniques intended to effect a change):
  • Swish: a basic "quick-fix" technique for habits such as nail biting, where no secondary gain is involved.
  • Six step reframe: more complex reframe structure to explore secondary gain and "multiple part" scenarios.
  • V/K dissociation: separation of a stimulus (such as flashback memory or sight of a phobia object) from traumatic feelings (PTSD or phobic reaction). This is the NLP "phobia cure" technique.
• Other:
  • Rapport: NLP considers quality of communication paramount, and so there are many techniques suggested for obtaining and maintaining good quality rapport. Matching (including cross-matching) and mirroring are basic rapport techniques but used alone or without subtlety are often perceived as crude "mimicking".
  • Observation: Every kind of behavior and pattern which is observable or subjectively reported is considered valid material. Thus - skin color changes, linguistic patterns, eye movements, body language, emotions, internal feelings and sensations, observable cognitive strategies, etc
  • Submodalities: The exact micro-detail of how one perceives, known as submodalities, is said to have a profound immediate impact upon ones perception.
  • Anchoring: linking an emotional or behavioral response to some situational cue. (A simple use might be linking the feeling of "confidence" to "entering an exam room", as a way to assist with "exam nerves")

NLP Modeling

NLP modeling is a method proposed for duplicating somebody's competences. It is considered by some practitioners to be at the heart of NLP. It can be thought of as the process of discovering relevant distinctions within these experiential components, as well as sequencing of these components aimed to achieve a specific result, and NLP proponents claim that it is used to discover and codify patterns of excellence as demonstrated consistently by top performers in any field. It has also been applied to clinical conditions, such as schizophrenia and notable dead people of whom we have only writings, such as Jesus of Nazareth. NLP models are widely used as the basis for learning, training or operations, in clinical, management, educational and other settings.

An NLP "modeling project" involves spending time studying and observing in depth, and imitating and practicing many different observable aspects of the subject's physiology, language, and behaviors (ie, the modeler acts "as if" they are doing what the expert is doing, in a safe environment). This continues until the modeler can replicate these patterns with some consistency and precision. Once this has been achieved, it is proposed that the modeler then refines the target skills, building a learnable/transferable model, and tests it by seeing if it can be taught. An example of a simple model is given in the eye accessing cues diagram of this article.

Most NLP proponents do not state that anyone can be Einstein. Rather they claim that know-how can be separated from the person, documented and transferred experientially, and that the ability to perform the skills can be transferred subject to the modelers own limits, which can change, and improves with practice.

John Grinder & Carmen Bostic-St Clair (2002) argue for a distinction between NLP and NLP: "he required distinction is the same as the distinction between physics and engineering, or medical research and clinical practice, or chemistry and pharmacology". However, this proposed distinction does not have wide acceptance within the NLP community .

Some modelers also discuss with the model their thoughts, feelings, beliefs - this is often not considered to be true NLP modeling, and has been labeled Analytic modeling (Grinder & Dilts, 2005). It has been strongly argued that modeling from writings is unverifiable (both within and outside NLP)

Engrams

Engrams are a theoretical neurological mechanism considered by some scientists to be the means by which memory traces are stored in the brain. The concept is used by some NLP theorists to explain how NLP works (Drenth, 2003)(Levelt, 1995). (Note: Dianetics uses the term but in a different way). Engrams are proposed to give a patterned response which has been stabilised at the level of unconscious competence and involve beneficial automatic activities as well as pernicious ones like addictive behaviour (Sinclair, 1992)(Derks & Goldblatt, 1985). The engram has been used to explain the NLP anchoring process that underlies patterns such as the "Swish" pattern. Sinclair (1992) theorises that NLP processes can be explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams . Other methods involve programming and reprogramming habits and mental associations, which some practioners consider to be individual engrams (Sinclair, 1992; Overdurf & Silverthorn, 1995; Drenth, 2003). Alternative (theoretically predicated) explanations of anchoring include: that it is a form of Pavlovian conditioning and that it is a means of "consciously creating the placebo effect" (Rex & Carolyn Sikes). O'Connor and McDermot (1996) state that NLP works through reframing and belief change methods.

Brain lateralization

Some NLP proponents teach (brain) hemispheric differences (also termed brain lateralization). The core concepts of eye accessing cues and representational systems are proposed to be related to the left (analytical) and right (creative) brain hemispheric differences: a popular representation of how the brain works. Bandler & Grinder (Patterns 1977 pp.10,87) present that Milton H. Erickson used the asymmetry between dominant/non-dominant hemispheres functions such as visualisation, language, and contralateral side of the body for hypnotic purposes. Robert Dilts proposes that the eyes move in various directions according to the kind of mental representations (visual/auditory/ kinesthetic) and that these representations also correspond to the brain's hemispheres. It is also claimed that various other physical cues correspond to the hemispheres of the brain, and these can be used to model individuals and to determine how they think.

History of NLP

Background

The study of Neuro-linguistic programming began in 1973 at Kresge College, University of California, Santa Cruz when Richard Bandler, then a fourth year undergraduate student with interests in Gestalt therapy, invited John Grinder, then an Assistant Professor of linguistics to visit his Gestalt therapy group.

One of the earliest influences on NLP were General Semantics (Alfred Korzybski) as a new perspective for looking at the world which included a kind of mental hygiene. This was a departure from the Aristotelian concepts of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind that NLP includes.

General semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s, self-help organizations such as EST, Dianetics, and Scientology had become financially successful, receiving attention and promotion from human potential thinkers such as Fritz Perls who had a great interest in the engram concept, and during this period, promoted and operated a Dianetics clinic (Clarkson and Mackewn 1993). Hubbard's methodology provide raw material for Frederick Perls' Gestalt therapy (Joyce 1989). The Esalen human potential seminars in California began to attract people, such as the aforementioned Fritz Perls, as well as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, and Milton Erickson.

Between 1973-1979, under the mentorship of Gregory Bateson (the author of Steps to an Ecology of Mind), Grinder & Bandler collaborated to model:

• Fritz Perls (Gestalt Therapy)
• Virginia Satir (Family therapy)
• Milton Erickson (developer of a form of hypnotherapy later called Ericksonian hypnosis)

(source Andreas & Faulkner, 1994)

Two other people were later modeled:

• Frank Farrelly (creator of Provocative therapy, a lesser known 4th model for NLP).
• Moshe Feldenkrais (creator of Feldenkrais method, Bandler & Grinder modeled Feldenkrais, some says this is the NLP for the body).

These individuals were considered by Grinder and Bandler to be highly competent in their fields, and the patterns of therapy detected became the basis of NLP applications, along with influences from Korzybski and Bateson (who coined the NLP expressions "The map is not the territory", and "the difference that makes the difference", respectively). Grinder and Bandler analyzed the speaking patterns, voice tones, word selection, gesticulations, postures, and eye movements of these individuals and related this information to the internal thinking process of each participant.

The practice of neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first although it eventually attracted business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall, 1994). As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into a book, Frogs into Princes. This became a popular NLP book; demand for seminars increased, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991). NLP is increasingly promoted in combination with New Age developments (see the Applications-Spirituality section).

Recent Developments

Since the mid 1990s NLP has become more widespread, and following the example of Richard Bandler (who attempted legal action to claim the bulk of the field as his own personal intellectual and commercial property because he could not resolve the dispute through the use of NLP (Salerno 2005). The dispute between Bandler and Grinder over trademarks and copyright was resolved in court of California in 2000 who deemed NLP a generic term (Salerno 2005)(Appendix, Grinder & Bostic, 2001). NLP has undergone some changes in the following directions:

1. Individual trainers have often introduced or idiosyncratically developed their own methods, concepts and labels, branding them under the "NLP" name (Carroll 2003)
2. Much is now largely targeted for niche markets (particularly commercialized, cut down or self-help usage), and these often involve disagreements within the NLP world, and may be more controversial or esoteric, sometimes charismatically or evangelistically taught, often made into proprietary and customized packagings (Eisner 2000).
3. Further to this, NLP methodologies, have increasingly been used to model more controversial phenomenae, such as psychic power, magick, physical body changes and other reported states and abilities, and other "dubious activities" (Loma 2001). Often the results are marketed as a shortcut way to achieve these oneself, using NLP's "brand" for credibility.
4. Some of the original developers, noteably Richard Bandler and the stage hypnotist Paul McKenna, have encouraged these trends and the resulting fragmentation and move towards "pop NLP" has discredited the subject in the eyes of many people.
5. As time has passed, even trainers who teach basic NLP have often been drawn (or perhaps come under competitive pressure) to focus their trainings "on something", be it business use, medical use, or personal self-help use. This has also led to modern NLP to be seen not as the "toolbox", but as yet another new age fad (Carroll 2003).

Fundamentals

Principles and Presuppositions

The principles and presuppositions of NLP are sometimes described as Batesonian cybernetic or operational epistemology (Grinder & Bandler, 1975a; Dilts et al 1980; Dilts 1983; Grinder & Deloizer 1986; Grinder & Bostic 2001; Tosey & Mathison 2003; Malloy et al 2005). NLP studies the way people take in information, how people describe it to themselves with their senses, filter it with their beliefs and values, and act on the result. NLP calls some of these principles "presuppositions". A presupposition (linguistic term) is a background belief and is treated by the NLP practitioner "as if" (1911; The Philosophy of 'As If', Hans Vaihinger; Grinder & Bandler 1975a) it is true when working with a subject, with the intent to increase the effectiveness of change work.

1. Presupposition can mean, a statement that one treats as true for the purpose of discussion, thus "Suppose money was no object, would you still want that?". This is a form of As-if, used with the intent to increase the client's ability to explore their options and feelings free from previous limiting preconceptions.
2. It can also be used in the context of a Metamodel (Grinder & Bandler 1975a) pattern, in which an assumption about the world is made in a sentence. These could be manipulative "Have you stopped beating your wife?" (the question implies, but does not state explicitly, "You have at some time beaten your wife, the only question is whether you have stopped or not"), or beneficial "When you get off drugs what will you do next?" .

According to Jane Revell, a British NLP trainer, the presuppositions of NLP are not a philosophy or a credo or a set of rules and regulations. Rather, they are assumptions upon which individuals base future actions and plan for meaningful learning experiences.

Two fundamental presuppositions in NLP are: (Dilts et al, 1980)

• The map is not the territory. "NLP epistemology" follows Alfred Korzybski (1933) and Gregory Bateson's (1972, 1979) postulations that there is no such thing as " objective experience". The subjective nature of our experience never fully captures the objective world. It is assumed that each of us creates a representation of the world in which we live - that is, we create a map or model which we use to generate our behavior. Our representation or map of the world determines to a large degree what our experience of the world will be, how we will perceive the world, what choices we will see available to us as we live in the world (Bandler and Grinder 1975 I). Thus, the view of NLP assumes that individual people in fact do not in general have access to absolute knowledge of reality, but in fact only have access to a set of beliefs built up over time, about reality. Bateson and Koryzbski considered this a necessary distinction; our beliefs, values and perceptions (the "map") are distorted representions of reality (the "territory").
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and their environment are systemic (Bateson 1979). Our bodies, our societies, and our planet form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other. This assumes that looking from different vantage points may result in quite different and yet equally valid descriptions and emphasis of what is important in the system. (Example: the description of a business problem and what is seen as relevant will be quite different depending if you ask the CEO, a worker on strike, or a client). So it is considered important to gather a lot of information from multiple viewpoints to gain a fully appreciation of the complexities involved before intervening, and the same principle is believed true even when working with one individual person.

These presuppositions are considered groundbreaking by NLP proponents because of a contradiction with the modern scientific Aristotelian view that reality can be objectively measured (Grinder & Bandler 1979; Grinder & Delozier 1986; Thaler Singer 1999).

The other most commonly related presuppositions are:

• Behind every behavior is a positive intention. Whatever a person does, they have some positive intent (Grinder & Bandler 1979) they're attempting to fulfill (of which the person may not be aware). It assumes that the current behaviour exhibited by a person represents the best choice available to them at the time. Generating alternative behaviours while considering the positive intent (a method sometimes used in NLP reframing) is thought by NLP proponents to be a useful way of helping people to change unwanted or undesirable behaviours (Reframing, Grinder & Bandler, 1981.

• There is no failure, only feedback. If you think you have failed, consider instead what you have learned and how you might do it better next time (do not dwell unnecessarily on the failure). This is a principle of feedback loops, borrowed from information theory (see Asbby, Cybernetics). This truism is considered groundbreaking by NLP (Thaler Singer 1999).

• We already have all the resources we need to succeed. An NLP practitioner can act as if this is true, and practitioners say that a subject is more likely to successfully change. Christina Hall has argued that people's resources consist of sensory representation systems and the organisation of these representations.

• Multiple descriptions are better than one. This makes use of the perspective of self, another involved individual, and a detached third person in that situation. By moving between perceptual positions it is asserted that one can develop new choice of responses (Bateson 1979; Bostic & Grinder, 2002 p.247).

Other more specific presuppositions can also be adopted for change in NLP. For example it has been claimed that the presuppositions of Jesus of Nazareth (eg. Sleight of Mouth: The Magic of Conversational Belief Change, Robert Dilts, 1999) have been identified using NLP modeling . This means, a set of beliefs and a structure that a person could explore, to gain a deeper understanding of Jesus's inner world.

The B.A.G.E.L. Model

The B.A.G.E.L. Model specifies the five elements (in mnemonic form) that purportedly comprise the behavioral cues that indicate an individual's internal processes. The B.A.G.E.L. Model is predicated on the notion that internal processes are subjectively represented in sensory terms: visual, auditory, or kinesthetic (with a less likely extra olfactory and gustatory).

1. Body posture (eg. leaning back, head upwards and shallow breathing indicates visual representation)
2. Accessing cues (eg. fluctuating voice tone and tempo indicates auditory representation)
3. Gestures (eg. gesturing below the neck indicates kinesthetic representation)
4. Eye movements (See Eye accessing cues and the representational systems below)
5. Language patterns (specifically sensory based, eg. "I see!", "Sounds right!" or "I feel that...")

(Dilts et al, 1980; Dilts, 1998).

Eye accessing cues and the representational systems

A core NLP training exercise involves learning to calibrate eye movements patterns with internal representations (Grinder & Bandler 1979 p.24) see chart:

• Up - Visual recall/construct
• Horizontal - Auditory recall/construct
• Down/right - Kinesthetic internal processing
• Down/left - Auditory internal dialogue (or natural language).

Next to eye movements patterns, an NLP practitioner may learn to detect and respond to sensory predicates (eg. that rings true, indicates auditory processing) of a speaker at some point in time. The posture of gestures of a speaker may also indicate visual, auditory or kinesthetic respectively (Dilts 1980; O'Connor and McDermot, 1996). It is further claimed that matching predicates can build rapport with individuals.

Some authors (Bradbury, 1997) use internal Verbal/Auditory/Kinesthetic strategies in order to categorize people within a thinking strategies or learning styles framework. Unfortunately this theory is also suffers from lack of support from scientific studies. Some early NLP trainings also classified people into "Preferred Representation Systems" (PRS) - such that a person may be predominately visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic. In the 1980s, "strategies" were modeled, and NLP teaches that people use different sequences of representation systems in different contexts as part of their experience, and these sequences can be detected (Dilts et al 1980).

NLP models of experience sometimes also give a theory connecting representation systems with brain hemispheric science of left and right brain dominance for certain skills, such as logic and mathematics for engram traces in the left hemisphere, and creativity and imagination for engram traces in the right hemisphere (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a; O'Connor & McDermott, 1996). Some NLP proponents, such as Bandler and Grinder (1975b), Dilts (1998) and Lewis (1985) use left/right brain hemispheric differences to explain how the mind works in relation to eye accessing cues and representational systems.

Meta-model and Milton Model

The meta-model is a set of thirteen language patterns developed from Virginia Satir and Fritz Perls, as a transformational syntax (Grinder & Bandler 1975a) and is primarily designed as an information gathering tool, and is also used to challenge distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a Ch3). In transformational grammar, the sentence as spoken is called "surface structure", and it is seen as a transformation of the "deep structure" (John Lyons, 1970) - this theory of language was later abandoned. In NLP's meta-model, by questioning what someone says (ie. a sentence's surface structure) for deletions, generalizations and distortions, practitioners aim to explore the beliefs behind the sentence which are not stated (i.e. the deep structure). The meta-model can be reduced to the asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to clarify unspecified syntactic elements.

Example 1: Distortions - Presuppositions

• Speaker: I'm afraid my son is turning out to be as lazy as my husband
• Challenge: Is your husband lazy?
• Basis: Implied unconfirmed assumption that husband is lazy.

Example 2: Generalizations - Lack of Referential Index (never, nobody, everybody, all, ...)

• Speaker: Nobody pays attention to anything I say.
• Challenge: Who specifically doesn't pay attention to you?
• Basis: Speaker may be ignoring evidence or generalizing "some" to "all".

Example 3: Deletions - Comparatives and Superlatives (best, worst, ...)

• Speaker: I'm not feeling so good.
• Challenged: Compared to what, specifically?
• Basis: Often people state a comparison to quite unreasonable grounds - some ideal or some person who hypothetically would be different - and then feel bad about "not being good enough". There is no way to know if the basis of comparison is a reasonable one unless it is identified.

The reverse set of the meta-model is the Milton-model; a collection of "artfully" vague language patterns elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson. It is said that the use of non-specific language patterns can allow the client to make their own meaning for what is being said.

Together the meta model and the milton model form the basis for the all other NLP models.

Other Models

NLP proponents also did research in beliefs, meta programs, the T.O.T.E. model, etc. For more information, see the NLP concepts and methods category.

NLP Applications

Mental health and disability organizations

Although several aspects of NLP have been found to be largely ineffective (Singer and Lalich 1996), NLP is used, or suggested as an approach, by a some mental health bodies, including The National Phobics Society of Great Britain , MIND (PDF), Utah State University Student Health and Wellness Center , The British Stammering Association , the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Health Science Center School of Medicine (for autism) , and Advocates for Survivors of Child Abuse .

Psychotherapy

NLP developers modeled the first NLP applications after techniques used in family therapy, hypnosis, gestalt therapy and provocative therapy. Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been working to reform this training in line with European therapy standards.

There are claimed to be various patterns (eg, the NLP fast phobia cure) which often help with specific goals. Most of the basic NLP techniques can be self applied, though working with a practitioner is said to be beneficial especially for less basic change work. Qualified NLP practitioners claim to be able to do more complex NLP change work (Eisner 2000).

Hypnotherapy

One of the first comprehensive models produced within NLP (Bandler & Grinder 1976,1977) was that of Milton H. Erickson, the so-called "father of hypnotherapy". Ericksonian hypnotherapy, a permissive rather than directive style of trance utilization, is based largely upon the work of NLP founders in modelling Erickson's self-taught methodology.

Self Help and Inspirational Seminars

NLP methods and models are often applied by personal and business coaches, whether for individuals and teams. Many people learn NLP processes as a means of personal development, and do not themselves formally coach or counsel others.

NLP is sometimes incorporated within large group methods of dissemination, similar to Landmark Forum and and EST seminars. Some of these seminars involve day long, or several day periods of large group awareness activities including the introduction of well known guest speakers and promotion of New Age products. When NLP became a generic term, Anthony Robbins of infomercial fame, who's first book Unlimited power was primarily based on NLP (Unlimited power 1986 p.30), sought to trademark his own personalized style of NLP (NAC). Robbins continues "to use many of the NLP and Ericksonian techniques that began career with" (Awaken the Giant Within, T Robbins 1991 p.113). Robbins promotes NLP as a "systemic approach for change" through his seminars , and other products. Robbins' style and approach has been criticised by for example, Ron Rhodes of the Spiritual Counterfeits Project SCP Journal 1998.

Coaching and other HR applications

With the raise in populatity of topics such as emotional intelligence and coaching since 1996, many NLP trainers and consultants are now applying NLP techniques in HR application areas.

NLP is used within some educational bodies, in staff training and coaching, and courses in NLP count as Continuing professional Education by (for example) the Wisconsin Psychological Association PDF, the continuing professional education group organization "athealth.com" , and Santa Barbara City College Continuing Education in Psychology and Communication , California State University (Business and Management) . It is also widely used for staff training in the British National Health Service. The editor of Journal of the Imagination in Language Learning and Teaching(2001), states that NLP is used widely and has been "quite inflential" as a basis for teaching English as a second language.

Energy and Spirituality

There is disagreement within the NLP community about the ideas of energy and spirituality. Some proponents such as Dilts include a spirit or vision category (Dilts & Delozier 2000), others (such as Tad James) include fuzzy concepts of energy in their training (James and Shephard, 2001). These views are disputed by John Grinder who opposes Dilts' neurological level model (Grinder & Bostic 2001), Grinder (1986) also strongly opposes discussion of energy in NLP (Grinder & Delozier 1986), stating that " was quite intolerant of the fuzzy kind of thinking characteristic of the uncritical importation into discussions of mind of the physical phenomenon of energy." Most NLP agree that the aim of NLP training is to develop sensory acuity (Turtles 1986 p.168) and calibration skills to detect minimal cues (Patterns 1977) and state shifts. Sensory acuity first entered NLP practitioner training via the work of Milton H. Erickson who had exceptional skills in this area (Patterns 1977). Skeptical debunkers (Carroll 2003; Derren Brown) claim that calibration of state (Grinder & Bandler 1979; Grinder & Bostic 2001 ch.2), ESP, and sensory acuity can all be explained by cold reading, as states Robert Caroll of Skeptics dictionary (2003), "At the same time, much of what NLP is teaching is how to do cold reading. This is valuable, but an art not a science, and should be used with caution."

According to Bandler and Grinder (1975a, 1979), collateral energy (Bateson 1972, Bateson 1979, Grinder & Delozier, 1986) can be liberated from maladaptive patterns (1979) including phobia reduction process (Visual-Kinesthetic Synaesthesia Dissociation (VKD)) (Figley, 1987), interventions may involve reframing, and recall of past pleasurable experiences and/or fantasy (1979 pp.115-117,174 ) so that a clients time and energy can be spent elsewhere. Collateral energy is distinct from physical kind or "santa cruzian" (Turtles 1986) or psychic "new age" energy; collateral energy is derived from metabolism.

This disagreement is further confused by Bandler who often uses shamanistic anecdotes in his seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999) and Grinder who refers to "first attention/second attention" and "stop the world states", terms originating from Carlos Castenada's Don Juan Matus (Grinder & Delozier, 1987). Bandler says that shaman, witch doctors, priests and philosophers alike -- all use metaphor (Therapeutic Metaphors, Gordon 1978), and according to Derks & Hollander (1998) some NLP proponents believe that every (succesful) healer must make use of principles that are similar to those used by witch doctors and shaman. Some proponents state that NLP is amoral, and other says that it is compatiable with any religion or spiritual context (O'Connor and McDermot, 1996).

Criticisms

Sanghera (Financial Times, London UK, 2005) reports that NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions. NLP has been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups, on various grounds. These include inconsistency, ethical questions, cult-like characteristics, promotion of unwarranted claims, and ineffectiveness. Scientists and researchers such as Heap (1991) associates NLP with gullibility, naivety of thinking, and sheer fraudulence. Tye (1994) characterises NLP as a form of "psycho shamanism".

Scientific Testing

NLP has been empirically tested over many years, and it has been found to be largely ineffective (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). In 1984, the US National Committee, asked in to judge the various techniques of NLP using available research, showed that NLP was scientifically unsupported (Heap 1988).

In relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error (Bertelsen, 1987), and instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors (Druckman and Swets 1988).

A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) stated that Sharpley's review of NLP (1984) contained methodological errors. However, Sharpley (1987) refuted this and provided further experimental evidence to demonstrate that NLP is ineffective and in error in both method and model.

Druckman and Swets (1988) noted that "None of the studies testing aspects of NLP has used NLP-certified Trainers as counselors, therapists or eye movement monitors; thus studies that fail to support NLP are subject to the criticism that, if properly trained people had been used, the results would have been more positive. Ignoring where the burden of proof lies, that fact remains that the experimental evidence fails to provide support for NLP."

The 1988 US National Committee (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts) report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique" (Druckman & Swets, 1988). In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work" (Squires 1988). NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness (Heap 1989).

The proposed relationship between eye movement direction and preferred representational system does not stand up to scientific scrutiny (Von Bergen et al 1997) based on controlled studies of NLP hypotheses.

The conjecture that a person has a preferred representational system (PRS) which is observed in the choice of words has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews (Heap 1988)(Platt, 2001). The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support (Heap, 1988; Platt, 2001).

Thus, objective empirical studies (Bertelsen, 1987, Bleimeister, 1988; Heap, 1988) and review papers (Platt, 2001) have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analyses have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment, and the reiterated statement is that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP's claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy (Thaler Singer and Lalich 1996; Drenth 2003; Lilienfeld et al 2003; Eisner 2000).

NLP has not attained sufficient scientific support, and as such it is considered inappropriate for thorough clinical studies (Eisner 2000). Due to general disillusionment with NLP, its mention in psychotherapy journals and books is becoming increasingly rare (Efran and Lukens 1990).

There are scientific explanations for why people perceive some of the questionable aspects of NLP to work sometimes. This can be due to the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment, distortion of fact through beliefs change misrepresenting the value in the treatment, and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures (Beyerstein, 1997).

Psychologists such as Robert Carroll of the Skeptics Dictionary (2003) have stated that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model, and the claim that the NLP models (eg. Meta-model) can be learned and applied universally (Bandler & Grinder 1975a); Carrol states that this kind of claim is over-simplistic and will be no substitute for hard earned expertise. According to the founders, the foundation of NLP is based on discrete analysis of individuals (eg. Milton H. Erickson) and that statisical methods "rarely present a description language" (p.47 Patterns II). According to Carroll (2003) without verification through statistical/psychological methods the techniques developed from patterns may have nothing to do with the patterns or their source models.

The Linguistic View of NLP

So much of Neuro-linguistic Programming is built on untested hypotheses and is supported by totally inadequate data. For example, it is claimed that the Meta-model "yields a fuller representation fo the client's model - the linguistic Deep structure from which the client's initial verbal expressions or Surface Structutres, were derived."(Structure I p.44). This is based on Transformation Grammar and Chomsky's concept of surface structure/deep structure. Grinder claims that Surface/Deep Structure distinction is still useful in NLP (Grinder & Bostic St Clair, 2002) dispite being replaced by E-language and I-language in more recent linguistic theory.

NLP developers have introduced terms and ideas of their own that are not part of the accepted body of linguistics. Nominalization is a grammatical transformation and according to Bandler and Grinder, nominalizations constitute linguistic distortions and deletions, but there is no evidence of any kind of this being the case (Levelt 1995). Most other Neuro-linguistic Programming concepts (eg the NLP concept of ambiguity) have the same problems. Books on linguistics do not mention Neuro-linguistic Programming at all.

The psycholinguist scientific view is that "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming. NLP developers are not interested in the question as to how neurological processes take place, or in serious research" (Levelt, 1995).

Claims to science

NLP associates itself with science in order to raise its own prestige (Beyerstein, 1991). Bordlein (2001) suggests that NLP indulges in scientific namedropping in order to promote itself as a science. Grinder claims that NLP is both an art and a science (Grinder, 2003) and many NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators "scientists" and to use such terms as "science" to promote their ideas, "technology", and "hi-tech psychology" in order to sell NLP (Singer & Lalich, 1996). Grinder more recently has been promoting the epistemological side of NLP in contrast with its methodological and technological aspects.

Pseudoscience

NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development (Levelt, 1995; Williams et al, 2000; Lilienfeld et al, 2003; Drenth, 2003; Bordlein 2001), who each also put it in the same mould as EST and Dianetics, also considered pseudoscience. Additionally, The National Council Against Health Fraud (Loma 2001) state that NLP is a "dubious therapy". This is in part due to the fact that the reviews of research on NLP have not supported either the assumptions of NLP or the efficacy (Singer & Lalich, 1996), but the NLP community continues to claim their assumptions and methods are powerful, relying only on testimonials and anecdotal evidence to support their claims.

NLP proponents are considered similar to proponents of Dianetics, Landmark Forum, and EST (Singer and Lalich 1996). Historically, NLP has drawn from the same sources of inspiration as these other subjects, including the Dianetics proponent, Fritz Perls, claims to rapid cures and treatment of traumas, the use of popular myths such as unlimited potential, left/right brain simplicities, and past life regression, and NLP and Dianetics use similar marketing/recruitment models (Sala et al 1999).

In addition to scientists, human resource and management researchers also state that NLP is theoretically pseudoscientific, it's principle associations are erroneous, it is practically ineffective, and therefore inappropriate for use in human resources and management training (Von Bergen et al 1997).

Pseudoscience is prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of de-validated claims (Winn and Wiggins, 2001).

The characteristics of pseudoscience have been identified in NLP promotion. The characteristics of pseudoscience are (Lilienfeld et al, 2003) :

• The use of obscurantist language and psycho-babble (eg meta programs, parapragmatics, sub-modalities etc)
• The absence of connectivity (Levelt, 1995)
• Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence (Krugman et al 1999)
• An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses designed to immunize claims from falsification (Singer 1999)
• Emphasis on confirmation rather refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)
• Absence of boundary conditions
• The mantra of holism (Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors(Eisner 2000)
• Evasion of peer review (If claims were true, why were they not properly documented and presented to the scientific community? (Eisner 2000)
• Reversed burden of proof (away from those making claim (NLP promoters), and towards those testing the claim (Scientists)).

Pseudoscientific arguments tend to contain several or all of these factors, as can be seen in this example that shows ad hoc hypotheses and holistic argument as an attempt to explain away the negative findings, and an emphasis on confirmation and reversed burden of proof etc. A personal opinion of NLP by hypnotherapist D. Morgan states that the methods of NLP are "devious, indirect, and dubious" (Morgan 1993).

NLP proponents claim that NLP is eclectic, open frame, and focused on what an individual practitioner feels "works". As such, it tends to be increasingly considered as pseudoscience (Drenth 2003; Lilienfeld et al 2003). It is still taught using the claims to holism and eclecticism designed to immunize it from verifiable efficacy (Lilienfeld et al 2003). "New age" or "commercialized" NLP is increasingly targeted for saleability, and may be characterized as a blend of classic NLP, application specific training, possibly including personal theories and/or pseudoscience of the creator's choosing. The divorce of Tony Robbins despite his commercial promotion of "Perfect Marriage" counseling has also led to a great deal of disenchantment from his own followers (Salerno 2005).

Scientific knowledge indicates that simplistic left/right brain hemispheric differences are oversimplified and mythical popular psychology (Sala et al, 1999; Drenth, 2003). NLP is based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades (Eisner 2000).

Extraordinary Claims

Numerous extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters. Proponents such as Anthony Robbins has stated that "it's not uncommon for the turnaround on a phobia such as heights or spiders to be under 10 minutes" and that you can "make someone fall in love with you in 5 minutes" (Griffin & Goldsmith, 1985, p. 41). Anthony Robbins has also claimed that through neurolinguistic programming, clinicians can "cure people of tumors and long-standing psychological problems", and that NLP also has allowed him to "make a woman have an orgasm without touching her," and even "bring a person who was brain-dead back to life" (Leikind & McCarthy, 1991).

Also, Bandler has claimed that he taught a novice woman martial artist how to beat an experienced martial artist by slowing down her perception of time (Bandler 1993. p105). Bandler and Grinder also claim that it is possible to develop photographic memory through the use of NLP (Eisner 2000). These type of exaggerated claims are quite common within the literature of NLP and other literature from the human potential movement, and is also criticised for going against advertising standards.

Grinder & Delozier (1987) attempt to underpin NLP epistemology with great minds such as Einstein, Hume and Kant stating that NLP attempts to "map sense impressions to concepts". Einsteinian thought supports Hume's dictum: "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", though NLP promoters have failed to provide normal scientific evidence for efficacy or validity.

Unethical use

Ethical concerns of manipulation using NLP processes has been raised, many processes can be used with or without consideration for the subject. NLP processes are intended for change work, and when used as a set of techniques directed towards specific goals, can become mechanistic ("this is how to do that") and can be used to manipulate ("this is how to make someone do something").

Book titles include "The Unfair Advantage in Sales" and "The Science and Technology of Getting What You Want". Similar concerns have been raised over NLP patterns being used in "speed seduction" (see Ross Jeffries and David DeAngelo) and 'optional' concern for the person being 'seduced'. The main concern is that the promotional push of NLP is seen as encouraging people to find more ways to manipulate individuals against their will.

NLP is often applied to therapy and coaching fields - and these fields usually require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines). The principle of Ecology in NLP covers many ethical considerations - this includes exploring a subject's wishes, and ensuring that any changes do not have a negative effect on a subject's long term wellbeing. However, ecology is not intended to cover all medical (or therapy or coaching) ethical considerations, and few NLP trainings teach specific codes of ethics for the fields a student might apply NLP to (such as teaching confidentiality in the clinical field).

In addition, "Ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands" (Beyerstein 1997). NLP, in addition to other pseudoscientific therapies, is criticised for encouraging the belief in non existant maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal idividuals, in order to promote NLP's ineffective therapies (Salerno 2005).

Dubious applications

According to Singer & Lalich, (1996), NLP has been found to be largely ineffective, and the general behavior of NLP advocates is one of wishful thinking and passing the buck which is characteristic of quick fix schemes.

NLP is often criticised as being a dubious new age therapy. This is often as a result of practitioners attempting to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support. NLP is sometimes associated with questionable pseudoscientific therapies such as EMDR, EFT and other "power therapies" . Also, some people who sell psychic services such as remote viewing or remote seduction, sometimes promote this by relating these services with NLP. Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of these dubious therapies even within their own psychotherapy associations (Eisner 2000)(Lilienfeld et al 2003).

NLP's new age background often leads to it being sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic such as those by (by Richard Bandler) or Huna (by Tad James). Bandler often used anecdotes and metaphors about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999) and teaches workshops in practical shamanism.

As with other pseudoscientific subjects, human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training. There is a general view that NLP is dubious and is not to be taken seriously in a business context (Hardiman 1994; Summers 1996). Within management training there have also been complaints towards NLP concerning undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion (Singer 1995). Hardiman (1994) states that NLP is highly problematic when applied to human resource management due to it's lack of effectiveness and the fact that it is ethically dubious.

Dubious treatments such as hypnotic breast enhancement and penis enlargement often claim to use NLP processes to produce this effect. If such miraculous effects had actually been achieved, then why have they not been properly documented by the people making these claims, and presented to the scientific community? (Eisner 2000).

Dr Barrett, the organizer of Quackwatch, describes NLP as a therapy to avoid.

NLP certification in general still does not require any professional qualifications. It has been said that exaggerated claims about NLP tend to be generated by such NLP practitioners (Eisner 2000).

NLP is described along with feldenkrais by Children in Therapy as "pseudoscientific" "unvalidated and probably useless, ie quackery" when used to support attachment therapy (note: "several state licensing boards have deemed as grossly negligent").

Cult characteristics

NLP has been associated with modern day cults (Tippet, 1994; Langone, 1993; Singer 2003; Eisner, 2000). It appears on some lists of cults (Howell, 2001) and has been monitored by the Cult Awareness Network (Shupe & Darnell, 2000). To clarify writing about NLP in conjunction with cults, Barrett (2003) says that NLP is not an organisation, but as a philosophy has some characteristics of a religion (p 431). Some NLP processes are seen as an intrinsic part of modern ritual mind control tactics (Crabtree, 2002), NLP processes are used within mild and agressive cults. The cult awareness organisation Watchman Fellowship classifies NLP as a New Age Movement and says working with the unconscious is both unethical and unbiblical, other christian ministers advocate the use of NLP (eg. use of sensory-based language ) in church services.

NLP processes can influence belief systems and be used in social control contexts (see also "unethical use of NLP"). Some cults use these in combination with the occult and pseudoscience to claim modern day miracles and induce dependence and compliance on the part of the cult's victims. Hypnotic techniques are used by cults to induce dependence, and to further provide conditioning to induce compliance within the cult (Langone, 1993). NLP processes can be used to reduce resistance, in combination with the usual high social pressure, threats, and authority control used within cults or similar social situations - to make the victim passive and controllable (see mind control). It is said that NLP is attractive to cult leaders due to its strong marketing push towards "the unfair advantage" (Langone, 1993).

Some NLP training programs used in the business sector have received complaints for being coercive. There were some complaints of undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs and intense confrontational psychological techniques, tantamount to a forced religious conversion (Singer 1995).

Several cult awareness organizations and scientists such as Eisner (2000) state that NLP is a cult. Some state that NLP procedures are used within mild and agressive cults. The methods and promotion of NLP have been considered to be unethical by scientists such as Beyerstein (2001), Singer (1999) and Carroll (2003).

Buzzwords and trademarks

NLP's existing patterns, processes and jargon are modified and rebranded for promotional purposes. Motivational speaker Anthony Robbins, for example, uses NLP technology under the banner "neuroassociative conditioning" and has used unconventional methods such as firewalking to for promotional purposes (). NLP has created its own technical vocabulary, and some terms are used with a different definition than was originally the case in areas such as applied psychology and linguistics. But in some cases, NLP trainers have created obvious "buzz-words" which are not as much descriptive, as marketing-led.

Many trainers and authors still use the generic term NLP (eg: Robert Dilts, Steve Andreas), though in response to Bandler's legal attempt in the 1990s to gain the use of the term "NLP" as personal property, several others were legally advised to train under a different name while still referring to NLP as the basis for this:

• John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
• Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associaive Conditioning)
• Michael Hall teaches Neuro Semantics
• Tad James teaches Advanced Neuro Dynamics & Time Line Therapy
• Richard Bandler himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (Design Human Engineering)
• Margo Anand promotes a form of NLP called SkyDancing Tantra

"NLP has been marketed to the general public using a broad brush approach to solutions" (Carroll, 2003), and adopts conveniently broad and simple terms, popular psychology, and pseudoscience and myths about the brain to promote its claims (Drenth, 2003). NLP lacks a coherent theory that would explain its terminology and mechanisms of action; it uses anecdotal stories and testimonials as "evidence", while lacks empirical support. NLP is said to have many characteristics of other pseudosciences: scientific-sounding jargon, reliance on anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated claims of rapid cures, absence of a sound theoretical basis, and over-promotion for financial gains (Krugman et al 1985).

Notes

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References

See Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography for a fuller list of Books and articles not directly referenced on this page.

Criticism

• Derks and Hollander (1998) Systemic Voodoo. ISBN 1907388896
• Robert Todd Carroll, Robert T. Carroll (2003) The Skeptic's Dictionary Publisher: Wiley; The Skeptic's Dictionary: neuro-linguistic programming (NLP).
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• Salerno, S (2005); Sham : How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless. Crown Publishers ISBN 1400054095
• Sanghera, S (Aug 26, 2005). "Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
• Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr (Eds.) (2003) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press, New York. ISBN 1-57230-282-1,.

Scientific review of NLP

• Bördlein, Christoph (2001). Das "Neurolinguistische Programmieren" (NLP) - Hochwirksame Techniken oder haltlose Behauptungen? Schulheft, 103 , 117-129.
• Drenth, J.D. (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science. Studia Psychologica, 2003, 45, 5-13
• . ISBN 0309037921 http://www.nap.edu/books/0309037921/html. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Pages= ignored (|pages= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help) Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
• Ekman The Observer. CRIME UNCOVERED: YOUVE GOT THE LOOK: WOULD YOU LIE TO ME? London (UK): Apr 27, 2003. pg. 58
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• Beyerstein. B.L. (1997) Why Bogus Therapies Seem to Work. Skeptical Inquirer magazine. September/October 1997
• Beyerstein, B. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70-79.
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  Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.
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• Heap, M. (1989) Neurolinguistic programming: What is the evidence? In D Waxman D. Pederson. I, Wilkie, and P Mellett(Eds) Hypnosis: The fourth european congress at Oxford (pp 118-124) London. Whurr Publishers.
• Williams, W F. general editor.(2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience

Publisher Facts On File New York.

• Helisch. M (2004) Veranstaltung:- Gesellschaftliche Funktion, Entwicklung und Sozialisation von Emotionen Seitenzahl: 39 Issue: 1
• Raso. J. (1994) "Alternative" Healthcare: A Comprehensive Guide. Prometheus Books. ISBN: 0879758910
• Tye, M. J. C. T. (1994). Neurolinguistic programming: Magic or myth? Journal of Accelerative Learning & Teaching, 19, 309-342.
• Winn, C.M , and Wiggins,A.W (2001) QUANTUM LEAPS..in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.

Learning Theory

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Psychology theory

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• Derks, L. & Goldblatt, R.,(1985) The Feedforward Conception of Consciousness: A Bridge between Therapeutic Practice and Experimental Psychology. The William James Foundation, Amsterdam.

Human Resources

• Hardiman (1994) NLP background and issues. Industrial relations review and report No 560 May
• Summers, L. (1996) Training & Development. Alexandria: Jan 1996. Vol. 50, Iss. 1; pg. 30, 2 pgs
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Enneagrams

• Valentino, A (1999) Personality Selling : Using NLP and the Enneagram to Understand People and How They Are Influenced Vantage Point Publishing ISBN: 0966773233

Cults (New Religious Movements)

• . 1844030407 http://print.google.com/print%3Fq%3D%2522The%2BNew%2BBelievers%2522&sig=B6hmczaVX4QJcqHn82X0410uWjA. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• Barrett, D. (1997) Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions: A World Survey and Sourcebook. Pub Blandford.
• Christopher, P. (2004) New Religions: A Guide : New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. Oxford University Press ISBN: 0195220420
• Howell, Tom (2001). Cults and Small Religions. Retrieved August 29, 2005.
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• Tippet, Gary (3 Apr 1994). "Inside the cults of mind control". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help) Retrieved 28 Aug 2005
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  See Margaret Singer and Excerpts from 'Cults in Our Midst' Retrieved 25 Aug 2005

Brain theory

• Schacter.D (1997) Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. Publisher: Basic Books; ISBN 0465075525

NLP application

• Bradbury, A (1997) NLP for business success. Kogan Page.
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NLP literature

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• Dilts, R. (1998) Modeling With NLP Meta Publications ISBN: 0916990419
• . ISBN -. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• . ISBN 1555520227. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  See
• . ISBN 1555520227. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• . ISBN 0831400498 http://www.nlpwhisperingthewind.com/. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• Heap.M. Dryden.W. (1991) Hypnotherapy : a handbook .Publisher Open University Press, 1991.
• . ISBN 0722531958. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• . ISBN 0-9717223-0-7. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• Hall, M (2001) The Spirit of NLP. Crown House Publishing ISBN: 1899836047
• Overdurf, J, Silverthorn, J (1995) Training Trances: Multi-Level Communication in Therapy and Training Metamorphous Press; 3rd edition ISBN: 1555520693
• James T, Shephard. D, (2001) Presenting Magically: Transforming Your Stage Presence with NLP Crown House Publishing ISBN: 1899836527
• . ISBN 0709947798. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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• Sinclair. J. (1992) An ABC of NLP. Publisher: Self-published (ASPEN) ISBN: 0951366017
• Squires. S. (1988) The Pentagon's Twilight Zone. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. : Apr 17, 1988
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Psychotherapy

• Gallo, F, (2001) Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Norton and Company publishers.
• Gallo, F, (1998) Energy Psychology Norton and Company publishers.
• Eisner, D. A. (2000). The death of psychotherapy: From Freud to alien abductions. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Epistemology/Modeling/Formal Systems

• . ISBN 08314-0044-7. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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• . ISBN 1555520537. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• . ISBN 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• . ISBN 0226039056. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• . ISBN 0525166902. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• Science and Sanity An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics, Alfred Korzybski, Preface by Robert P. Pula, Institute of General Semantics, 1994 (first published 1933), hardcover, 5th edition, ISBN 0937298018
• Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.

Unsorted

• Brothers B.J. (1992) Spirituality and couples : heart and soul in the therapy process New York : Haworth Press.
• . ISBN 0803984537 http://print.google.com/print?hl=en&id=dzB8lFoyH8sC&dq=Perls%2BKey%2BFigures%2Bin%2BCounselling. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

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• Crabtree, Vexen (2002). Ritual Mind Control Tactics. Retrieved August 28, 2005.
  See about Vexen Crabtree Retrieved 28 Aug 2005
• Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy / New York : W.W. Norton
• . ISBN 0-916990-04-4. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• Griffin, N., & Goldsmith, L. (1985, March). The charismatic kid: Tony Robbins, 25, gets rich peddling a hot self-help program. Life, 8, 41-46.
• . ISBN 1899836225. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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• Joyce, T, (1989) Gnosis no 12, Hubbards Ladder. Pub Chichester.
• Lakin, D. (2000) The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP! (Paperback) Lakin Associates ISBN: 0967916208
• Leikind, B. J., & McCarthy, W. J. (1991). An investigation of firewalking. In K. Frazier (Ed.)., The hundredth monkey and other paradigms of the paranormal (pp.182-193). Buffalo, NY
• Levelt W. (1995) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguistisch Programmeren! Intermediair 17 Nov pp113
• Loma.L. (2001) National Council Against Health Fraud. : Jul/Aug 2001 News Vol.24, Iss. 4; pg. 1, 1 pgs
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  See Dylan Morgan bio Retrieved 25 Aug 2005 Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.
• Novopashin. A. (2004) "Totalitarian Sects and the Democratic State. "International Conference in Novosibirsk: 9-11 November 2004
• . ISBN Aquarian Press1855383446. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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• Template:Journal reference (ISSN: 1464-0538)
• Sala, S.D, editor (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain. Wiley.
• Seitz, V A., Cohn, W A. (1992) Using the Psychology of Influence in Job Interviews. Business Forum. Los Angeles: Summer 1992.Vol.17, Iss. 3; pg. 14, 4 pgs

See also

• List of NLP topics
• NLP map
• Philosophy
• Empiricism
• Epistemology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Communication
• General Semantics
• Hypnosis
• Humanistic psychology
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Linguistics
• Logical Positivism
• Personal development
• Persuasion
• Transformational-Generative Grammar
• Syntax
• Subjective character of experience
• Philosophy of perception
• Map-territory relation
• Neuropsychology
• Cognitive neuropsychology

Developers

• Richard Bandler*
• John Grinder*
• Robert Dilts
• Leslie Cameron-Bandler
• Judith DeLozier
• Stephen Gilligan
• David A. Gordon

(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.

Intellectual Antecedents

• Noam Chomsky
• Gregory Bateson
• Milton H. Erickson
• Alan Turing
• George A. Miller
• Bertrand Russell
• George Lakoff
• William Ross Ashby
• Ronald Langacker
• Jay Haley
• Frank Farrelly
• Moshe Feldenkrais

External links

• Official Website of John Grinder; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Richard Bandler; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Robert Dilts
• nlpuniversitypress.com, Robert Dilt's reference encyclopedia of NLP
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming Research Database
• Article addressing the scientific criticism on NLP research
• Reviews of NLP training and trainers
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP
• Criticism from Skeptic's Dictionary
• The NLP World Community Awards (Leslie Cameron-Bandler) (describes itself as "honoring and rewarding people who have used NLP to make significant contributions to peace, environent and education")
• A free online magazine devoted to NLP methods and hypnosis

• NLP
• NLP concepts and methods
• Human communication
• Psychotherapy