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The Illyrians (Greek Ἰλλυριοί; Latin Illyrii or Illyri) were a group of tribes who inhabated the Western Balkans during classical antiquity. The territory the tribes covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding roughly to the area stretching from southern Pannonia to central Albania.

These tribes, or at least a number of tribes considered "Illyrians proper", are assumed to have been united by a common Illyrian language, of which only small fragments are attested enough to classify it as a branch of Indo-European.

Illyrians were last mentioned in 7th century, during the Slavic migration to the Balkans. The northern tribes were slavicised in the course of the Middle Ages.

Mythological foundation

In Greek mythology, Illyrius was the son of Cadmus and Harmonia who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people. Also Illyrius had six sons Encheleus, Autarieus, Dardanus, Maedus, Taulas and Perrhabeus also daughters Partho Daortho, Dassaro and others. From these sprang Taulantii, Parthini, Dardani, Enchelaeae, Autariates, Dassaretae and the Daors. Autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sons Scordiscus and Triballus.

Identity and distribution

The name of Illyrians as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbours may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. The term Illyrioi may originally have designated only a single people that came to be widely known to the Greeks due to proximity. Indeed, such a people known as the Illyrioi have occupied a small and well-defined part of the south Adriatic coast, around Skadar Lake astride the modern frontier between Albania and Montenegro. The name may then have expanded and come to be applied to ethnically different peoples such as the Liburni, Delmatae, Iapodes, or the Pannonii.

Pliny, in his work Natural History, applies a stricter usage of the term Illyrii, when speaking of Illyrii proprie dicti ("Illyrians properly so-called") among the native communities in the south of Roman Dalmatia. A passage within Appian's Illyrike (stating that the Illyrians lived beyond Macedonia and Thrace, from Chaonia and Thesprotia to the Danube River) is also representative of the broader usage of the term.

Languages

Little more can be said of the languages of Illyria than that they were Indo-European. It is not clear whether Illyrian languages belonged centum or satem group.

If Messapian is considered an Illyrian dialect, the vast majority of our knowledge of Illyrian is based on Messapian. The non-Messapic testimonies of Illyrian are too fragmentary to be certain whether Messapian should be considered part of Illyrian proper, but it is widely thought that Messapian was in some way related to Illyrian Messapian (also known as Messapic) is an extinct Indo-European language of South-eastern Italy, once spoken in Messapia (modern Salento). It was spoken by the three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Daunii and the Peucetii.

The Illyrian languages have been thought connected to Venetic language but this view was abandoned later. Other scholars linked it with the adjacent Thracian language supposing an intermediate convergence area or dialect continuum, but also this view is not generally supported.

All these languages were likely extinct by the 6th century, though the Albanian language may represent a remote descendant of Illyrian dialects that survived in remote areas of the Balkans during the Middle Ages. This would have happened along the boundary of Latin and Greek linguistic influence (the Jireček Line). Not enough is known of the ancient language to either prove or disprove this hypothesis (see Origin of Albanians).

Origins and ethnogenesis

The ethnogenesis of the Illyrians remains a problem for modern prehistorians. Among those who take the meaningfulness of the terms people or tribe for granted, the consensus of the primordialists (those who take ethnicity for a basic organizing principle since ancient times) is that the ethnic ancestors of the Illyrians, labelled Proto-Illyrians, branched off from the main linguistic Proto-Indo-European trunk before the Iron Age. Current theories of Illyrian origin are based on ancient remnants of material culture found in the area, but archaeological remains alone have so far proven insufficient for a definite answer to the question of the Illyrian ethnogenesis.

When the Proto-Illyrians became a distinct group remains unclear. The process may have begun as early as the Eneolithic (the latest phase of the Stone Age). It is hypothesized that in the Eneolithic period invading Indo-European groups mingled with indigenous pre-Indo-European groups, resulting in the formation of the principal tribal groups, based upon their uses of the Paleo-Balkan languages (Illyrians, Thracians, and others). Many Illyrian tribes are not considered Illyrian anymore but Venetic.

A supposed prehistoric Illyrian invasion of the Balkans, which involves a great movement of Illyrian tribes from the lowlands of central Europe (modern Hungary), towards southeastern Europe and the Balkan peninsula. The Illyrian invasion is estimated to have occurred around the 13th century BC. The numerous Thracian names in Illyria have led many scholars to believe that the region was originally inhabited by Thracians, who were either displaced or submitted to the Illyrian invaders. The Illyrians were most likely in turn pushed eastwards by Celtic or Germanic tribes from the northwest. According to this theory, the Illyrian invasion most likely caused the Thracian expansion to the east, the movement of the Greeks to the south and the Phrygian migration from Thrace into central Asia Minor. The last event may have created the conditions for the Achaean Greeks to colonize the coast of Asia Minor and the Dorians to start their invasion.

An autochthonous model, assuming an Illyrian ethnogenesis in the Balkans, was proposed by A. Benać and B. Čović, archaeologists from Sarajevo, which hypothesize that during the Bronze Age there took place a progressive Illyrianization of peoples dwelling in the lands between the Adriatic and the Sava river. Alexander Stipčević says that the most convincing model of Illyrian ethnogenesis was that of autochthony, excluding the Liburnians

Archaeology

In the western Balkans, there are few remains to connect with the bronze-using Proto-Illyrians in Albania, Montenegro, Kosovo, Croatia, western Serbia, and eastern Bosnia. Moreover, with the notable exception of Pod near Bugojno in the upper valley of the Vrbas River, nothing is known of their settlements. Some hill settlements have been identified in western Serbia, but the main evidence comes from cemeteries, consisting usually of a small number of burial mounds (tumuli). In eastern Bosnia in the cemeteries of Belotić and Bela Crkva, the rites of exhumation and cremation are attested, with skeletons in stone cists and cremations in urns. Metal implements appear here side-by-side with stone implements. Most of the remains belong to the fully developed Middle Bronze Age.

During the 7th century BC, when bronze was replaced by iron, the Illyrians became an ethnic group with a distinct culture and art form, and only jewelry and art objects were still made out of bronze. Different Illyrian tribes appeared, under the influence of the Halstat cultures from the north, and they organized their regional centers. The cult of the dead played an important role in the lives of the Illyrians, which is seen in their carefully made burials and burial ceremonies, as well as the richness of the burial sites. In the northern parts of the Balkans, there existed a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the southern parts, the dead were buried in large stone, or earth tumuli (natively called gromile) that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 meters wide and 5 meters high. The Japodian tribe (found from Istria in Croatia to Bihać in Bosnia) have had an affinity for decoration with heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze fibulas, as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze. Small sculptures out of jade in form of archaic Ionian plastic are also characteristically Japodian. Numerous monumental sculptures are preserved, as well as walls of citadel Nezakcij near Pula, one of numerous Istrian cities from Iron Age.

History

Illyria appears in Greco-Roman historiography from the 4th century BC. The Roman Republic subdued the Illyrians during the 2nd century BC. An Illyrian revolt was crushed under Augustus, resulting in the division of Illyria in the provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south.

Under the Byzantine Empire, there was again a prefecture of Illyricum, which in the 7th century was overrun by the Slavic incursions and ultimately absorbed into the emerging Slavic states, the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serb Archonty and the Croat Duchy. And later on, from the 10th century, into parts of the early Bosnian Kingdom

Illyrian kingdoms

The Illyrians formed several kingdoms in the central Balkans, and the first known Illyrian king was Bardyllis. Illyrian kingdoms were often at war with ancient Macedonia, and the Illyrian pirates were also a significant danger to neighbouring peoples. At the delta of Neretva, there was a strong Hellenistic influence on the Illyrian tribe of Daors. Their capital was Daorson located in Ošanići near Stolac in Herzegovina, which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded by megalithic, 5 meter high stonewalls (large as those of Mycenae in Greece), composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronze coins and sculptures. The Illyrians even conquered Greek colonies on the Dalmatian islands. Queen Teuta of Issa (today the Vis (island)) was famous for having waged wars against the Romans

Illyrian Wars

In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC Rome overran the Illyrian settlements and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe for Italian commerce. There were three campaigns, the first against Teuta the second against Demetrius of Pharos and the third against Gentius. The initial campaign in 229 BC marks the first time that the Roman Navy crossed the Adriatic Sea to launch an invasion.

Roman rule

The province of Illyricum was established in 167 BC. It stretched from the Drilon River in modern Albania to Istria (Croatia) in the west and the Sava River (Croatia) in the north. Its capital was located at Salonae near modern Split in Croatia. After a revolt of Pannonians and Dalmatians was crushed in AD 9, the province of Illyricum was dissolved, and its lands were divided between the new provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south.

The Illyrians were granted civil rights by the Constitutio Antoniniana issued in 212. Moreover, Rome recruited Illyrian soldiers to guard its borders from barbarian tribes. Their squads grew in number to such an extent that the Illyrian military began to play an important part in Roman political life, even ascending the imperial throne at certain points. In the course of over a century, seven Illyrian-born emperors ruled in succession. In 297 CE, Emperor Diocletian, carried out administrative reforms in the Roman Empire by constituting prefectures, dioceses and provinces. In conformity with this reorganisation, the territory was additionally divided. The southern part of Dalmatia was cut off and became the province of Praevalitana, with Shkodra (Shkodër) as its administrative centre. Other provinces entailed Epirus Nova, with Dyrrachium as its capital, and Epirus Vetus, with its central city at Nikopolis. The latter two were part of the Macedonian diocese. The dioceses Pannonia, Noricum, Moesia Superior and Macedonia with the rest of Greece were constituent parts of the prefecture of Illyricum, which comprised part of the Balkans from 318 to 379 AD. Liburnia was also one of the provincia Dalmatiarum located north from the river Krka including Skradin. However, Liburnia had sometimes possessed a status of being in a separate administrative-territorial unit. Analysis of the archaeological material from antiquity has shown that the process of Romanization was selective. Urban centres, both coastal and inland, were almost totally Romanised. Although the Illyrians were subject to a strong process of aculturisation, they continued to speak their own native language, respect their own gods, preserve their traditions and adhere to their own socio-political tribal organization, which was only in some necessities adapted to Roman administration and political structures.

Religion

The Illyrian town of Rhizon (Risan, Montenegro) had its own protector called Medauras, depicted as carrying a lance and riding on horseback. Human sacrifice also played a role in the lives of the Illyrians.

Arrian records the chieftain Cleitus the Illyrian as sacrificing three boys, three girls and three rams just before his battle with Alexander the Great. The most common type of burial among the Iron Age Illyrians was tumulus or mound burial. The kin of the first tumuli was buried around that, and the higher the status of those in these burials the higher the mound. Archaeology has found many artifacts placed within these tumuli such as weapons, ornaments, garments and clay vessels. Illyrians believed these items were necessary for a dead person's journey into the afterlife.

The apostle Paul said of himself that he had preached the gospel "from Jerusalem all the way around to Illyricum" , but the region is not mentioned again in the Bible.

Legacy

Middle Ages

The Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in the Miracula Sancti Demetri during the 7th century. With the disintegration of the Roman Empire, Gothic and Hunnic tribes raided the Balkan peninsula, making many Illyrians seek refuge in the highlands. With the arrival of the Slavs in the 6th century, most Illyrians were Slavicized. A few of the Romanised Illyrians from the Adriatic coast did manage to preserve their blended culture. Many fled to the mountains, surviving as shepherds, and kept speaking their Romance language. They are referred to as Morlachs. Others took refuge inside the defended cities of the coast, where they kept Roman culture alive for many centuries, but were also eventually assimilated by the expanding Slavic population of the mainland.

The first historical mention of the Albanians appears in an account of the resistance by a Byzantine emperor, Alexius I Comnenus, to an offensive by the Vatican-backed Normans from southern Italy into the Albanian-populated lands in 1081. The earliest reference to a Lingua Albanesca is from a 1285 document of Ragusa and the earliest accepted document in the Albanian language is from the 15th century. The origins of the Albanians are not definitely known, but a certain amount of Illyrian-Albanian continuity is generally assumed to be plausible.

Early Modern usage

During the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the term "Illyrian" was used to describe Croats living within the territories of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Austria, Hungary and Serbia (and in other countries abroad). However, on the territory of Venetian Albania (possessions of the Republic of Venice on the territory of Montenegro) and further southward, that term has been used to designate Albanians.

The term Illyrians was utilized in late medieval texts such as in Mazaris' Journey to Hades (a work written by Byzantine author Mazaris between January 1414 and October 1415). In Mazaris' case, the term was used to designate "Albanians" (i.e. Arvanites).

The term was revived again during the Habsburg Monarchy, but it was designated towards South Slavs. This association was based on the opinion that the South Slavs were descendants of Slavicized Illyrians.

In Nationalism

When Napoleon conquered part of the South Slavic lands in the beginning of the 19th century, these areas were named after ancient Illyrian provinces. Under the influence of Romantic nationalism, a self-identified "Illyrian movement" (Template:Lang-hr) in the form of a Croatian national revival, opened a literary and journalistic campaign that was initiated by a group of young Croatian intellectuals during the years of 1835-1849. This movement, under the banner of Illlyrism, aimed to create a Croatian national establishment under Austro-Hungarian rule, through linguistic and ethnic unity among South Slavs. It was repressed by the Habsburg authorities after the failed Revolutions of 1848.

The possible continuity between the Illyrian populations of the Western Bakans in antiquity and the Albanians has also played a significant role as a national myth in Albanian nationalism from the 19th century until the present day. For example, Ibrahim Rugova, the first president of UN-administered Kosovo introduced the "flag of Dardania" on October 29, 2000, Dardania being the name for a Thraco-Illyrian region roughly coterminous with modern Kosovo.

See also

• List of Illyrian tribes
• List of Illyrians
• Adriatic Veneti
• Liburnians
• Illyria
• Prehistoric Balkans
• Prehistoric Bosnia
• Prehistoric Croatia
• Prehistoric Serbia
• Illyrian warfare
• Illyrian gods
• Illyrian languages

Notes

1. The Illyrians page 236 by John Wilkes
2. Wilkes, p. 92. "This names 'Illyrians properly so-called' (Illyrii proprie dicti) among the native communities in Roman Dalmatia (NH 3.144). Evidently these were the first people of this area to become known to the Greeks, causing their name to be applied to other peoples with similar language and customs.
3. Apollodorus, III, 61.
4. Wilkes page 92
5. Wilkes, p. 183. "We may begin with the Venetic peoples, Veneti, Carni, Histri and Liburni, whose language set them apart from the rest of the Illyrians."
6. Wilkes, p. 81. "In Roman Pannonia the Latobici and Varciani who dwelt east of the Venetic Catari in the upper Sava valley were Celtic but the Colapiani of the Colapis (Kulpa) valley were Illyrians..."
7. By implication, a broader usage was current when Pliny wrote his work.
8. Appian, Illyrike, 1. The Greeks call those people Illyrian who dwell beyond Macedonia and Thrace, from Chaonia and Thesprotia to the river Danube.
9. Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture By J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1997 ISBN 1884964982, 9781884964985
10. Indo-European language and culture: an introduction By Benjamin W. Fortson Edition: 5, illustrated Published by Wiley-Blackwell, 2004 ISBN 1405103167, 9781405103169
11. Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, 1966) pp. 6ff, coined the term to separate these thinkers from those who view ethnicity as a situational construct, the product of history, rather than a cause, influenced by a variety of political, economic, and cultural factors. The issue of ethnicity remains intractable even millennia later (see Walter Pohl, "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies" Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings, ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13-24. On-line text).
12. Wilkes, p. 81. "Naming Illyrians 81 simple equation, once widely entertained, that the population of the pre-Celtic Hallstatt Iron Age in and north of the eastern Alps were Illyrian-speakers, a refinement of earlier 'pan-Illyrian' theories now discarded."
13. Wilkes, p. 33.
14. Wilkes, p. 183. "We may begin with the Venetic peoples, Veneti, Carni, Histri and Liburni, whose language set them apart from the rest of the Illyrians."
15. Wilkes, p. 81. "In Roman Pannonia the Latobici and Varciani who dwelt east of the Venetic Catari in the upper Sava valley were Celtic but the Colapiani of the Colapis (Kulpa) valley were Illyrians."
16. Stipčević, Alexander. "Iliri" (2nd edition). Zagreb, 1989 (also published in Italian as "Gli Illiri").
17. Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, p. 120, ISBN 0631198075.,Page 158,"... ' Illyrian success continued when command passed to Agron's widow Teuta, who granted individual ships a licence to universal plunder. In 231 ac the fleet and army attacked Ells and Messenia ..."
18. A History of Rome to A.D. 565 – page 111 by Arthur Edward Romilly Boak, William Gurnee Sinnigen,"The island of Pharos and some adjacent territory in Illyria were given to a Greek adventurer, Demetrius of Pharos"
19. Gruen, 359.
20. A. Stipčević. Iliri. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1974, p. 70.
21. Wilkes, J.J. (1992). The Illyrians. p. 247. ISBN 0631198075. "... the short cloak streaming out behind. The Illyrian town Rhizon (Risinium) on the Gulf of Kotor had its protective deity Medaurus, ..."
22. Wilkes, J.J. (1992). The Illyrians. p. 123. ISBN 0631198075."The Macedonians arrived before Glaucias and the Taulantii but the Illyrians, having sacrificed three boys, three girls and three black rams, made as if to attack"
23. Romans 15.19
24. The compilation Miracula Sancti Demetri contains the legendary acta of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki.
25. Pashko Gjonaij. The Ancient Illyrians. 2001.
26. ^ 1911 Encyclopedia - Illyria
27. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Albania".: The origins of the Albanian people are not definitely known, but data drawn from history and from linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological studies have led to the conclusion that Albanians are the direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians.
28. "Hrvatska revija", br. 2/2007.
29. Mazaris, p. 76-79.
30. Elinor Murray Despalatovic. Ljudevit Gaj and the Illyrian Movement. New York: East European Quarterly, 1975.
31. "Kosovo (Province, Serbia) - Dardania (flag of uncertain status)". Flags of the World. 2008-02-23. Retrieved 2008-08-14.

References

• Arthur John Evans. Antiquarian researches in Illyricum, I-IV, Archaeologia. Westminster: Nichols & sons, 1883-1885. Communicated to the Society of Antiquaries of London. (The Internet Archive, full access)
• Arthur John Evans. Illyrian Letters. Longmans, Green, and Co., 1878. (Google Books, full access) See also the 2004 reprint of this book from Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1402150709, ISBN 978-1402150708.
• Benac A. 'Vorillyrier, Protoillyrier und Urillyrier' in: A. Benac(ed.) Symposium sur la delimitation Territoriale et chronologique des Illyriens a l’epoque Prehistorique, Sarajevo 1964, pp. 59–94.
• Cabanes, P. Les Illyriens de Bardylis à Genthios: IVe – IIe siècles avant J. – C. Paris, 1988.
• Crystal, David. The New Penguin Factfinder. Penguin, 2004. ISBN 0141011092
• Kipfer, Barbara Ann. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Springer, 2000. ISBN 0306461587
• Kohl, Philip L. and Fawcett, Clare. Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0521480655
• Kühn, Herbert. Geschichte der Vorgeschichtsforschung. Walter de Gruyter, 1976. ISBN 3110059185
• Mazaris: Mazaris' Journey to Hades: or, Interviews with dead men about certain officials of the imperial court. Greek text with translation, notes, introduction and index. (Seminar Classics 609). Buffalo NY: Dept. of Classics, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1975.
• Srejovic, Dragoslav. Les Illyriens et Thraces, 1997.
• Stipčević, Alexander. Iliri (2nd edition). Zagreb, 1989 (also published in Italian as Gli Illiri).
• West, Martin Litchfield. Ancient Greek Music. Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0198149751
• Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1992. ISBN 0-631-14671-7
• Miranda Vickers. The Albanians. I.B. Tauris, 1999. ISBN 1860645410

External links

• Phallic Cult of the Illyrians

• Ancient peoples
• Illyria
• Indo-European peoples
• Ancient tribes in the Balkans