| Revision as of 21:50, 4 September 2010 editL'ecrivant (talk | contribs)218 edits →The Pont du Gard← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 08:22, 6 September 2010 edit undoL'ecrivant (talk | contribs)218 edits deleted | ||
| (44 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Infobox World Heritage Site | |||
| | WHS = Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct) | |||
| | Image = ] | |||
| | State Party = {{FRA}} | |||
| | Type = Cultural | |||
| | Criteria = i, iii, iv | |||
| | ID = 344 | |||
| | Region = ] | |||
| | Year = 1985 | |||
| | Session = 9th | |||
| | Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/344 | |||
| }} | |||
| The '''Pont du Gard''' is a notable ] ] ] that crosses the ] in southern ]. It is part of a {{convert|50|km|mi}} long aqueduct that runs between ] and ] in the ]. It is located in ] near ], in the ] '']''. The aqueduct was constructed by the Romans in the first century AD and was added to ]'s list of ]s in 1985. It is the highest of all Roman aqueduct bridges and is the best preserved after the ]. Today it is one of France's most popular tourist attractions. | |||
| ==Description== | |||
| ===The Nîmes aqueduct=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Nîmes aqueduct originally carried water from a source at the Fontaine d'Eure near Uzès to a delivery tank or ''castellum divisorum'' in ''Nemausus'', Roman Nîmes. Although the straight-line distance between the two is only about 20 km, the aqueduct takes a winding route measuring around 50 km to avoid the '']'' hills above Nîmes. The ''Garrigues'' are the southernmost foothills of the ]. They are difficult to cross, as they are covered in dense vegetation and indented by deep valleys,<ref name="Bromwich-110">{{cite book|last=Bromwich|first=James|title=Roman Remains of Southern France: A Guide Book|page=110|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=9780415143585}}</ref> and it was impractical for the Romans to attempt to tunnel through the hills. A roundabout course was therefore the only practical way of transporting the water from the spring to the city. | |||
| The Fontaine d'Eure, at {{convert|76|m|ft}} above sea level, is only {{convert|17|m|ft}} higher than the delivery tank or ''castellium'' in Nîmes, but this provided a sufficient gradient to sustain a steady flow of water to the 50,000 inhabitants of the city. The aqueduct's average gradient is only 1 in 3,000. It varies widely along its course, but is as little as 1 in 20,000 in some locations. The Pont du Gard itself descends {{convert|2.5|cm|in}} in {{convert|456|m|ft}}, a gradient of 1 in 18,241.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Michael Jonathan Taunton|title=Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome|page=187|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=9780521792974}}</ref> It is estimated that the aqueduct supplied the city with around {{convert|200,000,000|L|impgal}} of water a day<ref name="Langmead">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of architectural and engineering feats|editor1=Langmead, Donald|editor2=Garnaut, Christine|page=254}}</ref> that took nearly 27 hours to flow from the source to the city.<ref name="Sobin">{{cite book|last=Sobin|first=Gustaf|title=Luminous debris: reflecting on vestige in Provence and Languedoc|page=205|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520222458}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The spring still exists and is the site of a small modern pumping station. It provides water that is pure but high in dissolved ] leached out of the surrounding ]. The carbonates caused significant problems for the maintenance of the aqueduct, as they precipitated out of the water during its journey through the conduit. This led to the flow of the aqueduct progressively becoming reduced by deposited carbonates.<ref name="Bromwich=112">Bromwich, p. 112</ref> Another threat was posed by vegetation penetrating the stone lid of the channel. As well as obstructing the flow of the water, dangling roots would introduce algae and bacteria that would decompose in a process called biolithogenesis, producing concretions within the conduit. It had to be maintained continuously by ''circitores'', maintenance workers responsible for its upkeep, who would crawl along the conduit scrubbing the walls clean and getting rid of any vegetation.<ref>Sobin, p. 217</ref> | |||
| Like most Roman aqueducts, much of it was built underground. It was constructed by digging a trench in which a stone channel was built, enclosed by an arched stone roof and covered with earth. Some sections of the channel are tunnelled through solid rock. In all, {{convert|35|km|mi}} of the aqueduct was constructed below the ground.<ref name="Bromwich-111">Bromwich, p. 111</ref> The remainder had to be carried on the surface, either on a wall or on arched bridges. Some substantial remains of the above-ground works can still be seen today, such as the so-called "Pont Rue" that stretches for hundreds of metres around Vers and still stands up to {{convert|7.5|m|ft}} high.<ref name="Bromwich-112-113">Bromwich, p. 112-113</ref> However, the Pont du Gard is by far the best preserved section of the entire aqueduct. | |||
| ===The Pont du Gard=== | |||
| Built on three levels, the Pont is {{convert|49|m|ft}} high above the river at low water and {{convert|274|m|ft}} long. Its width varies from {{convert|9|m|ft}} at the bottom to {{convert|3|m|ft}} at the top.<ref name="Deming">{{cite book|last=Deming|first=David|title=Science and Technology in World History, Volume 1: The Ancient World and Classical Civilization|page=176|publisher=McFarland|year=2010|isbn=9780786439324}}</ref> The three levels of arches are recessed, with the main piers in line one above another. The span of the arches varies slightly, each being constructed independently to provide flexibility to protect against subsidence. Each level has a differing number of arches:<ref name="Michelin">{{cite book|title=Michelin Green Guide Provence|publisher=Michelin Travel Publications|pages=297-298|year=2008|isbn=9781906261290}}</ref> | |||
| <center> | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| | '''Level''' | |||
| | '''Number of arches''' | |||
| | '''Length of level''' | |||
| | '''Thickness of piers''' | |||
| | '''Height of arches''' | |||
| |- | |||
| | Lower | |||
| | 6 | |||
| | {{convert|142|m|ft}} | |||
| | {{convert|6|m|ft}} | |||
| | {{convert|22|m|ft}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | Middle | |||
| | 11 | |||
| | {{convert|242|m|ft}} | |||
| | {{convert|4|m|ft}} | |||
| | {{convert|20|m|ft}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | Upper | |||
| | 35 (originally 47) | |||
| | {{convert|275|m|ft}} | |||
| | {{convert|3|m|ft}} | |||
| | {{convert|7|m|ft}} | |||
| |} | |||
| </center> | |||
| The first level of the Pont du Gard adjoins a road bridge that was added in the 18th century. The water conduit or ''specus'', which is about {{convert |1.8|m|ft}} high and {{convert|1.2|m|ft}} wide, is carried at the top of the third level. The upper levels of the bridge are slightly curved in the upstream directions, a fact long attributed to the engineers wanting to strengthen it against the flow of water, like a dam wall. However, a microtopographic survey carried out in 1989 showed that the bend is caused by the daily expansion and contraction of stones under the heat of the sun, by about 5 millimetres. Over the centuries, this process has produced the deformation witnessed now.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Fabre, G.|author2=Finches, I.L.|title=L'aqueduc romaine de Nîmes et le Pont du Gard|journal=Pour le Science|year=1989|number=40|pages=412-420}}</ref> | |||
| The Pont du Gard was constructed entirely without the use of mortar or clamps. It contains an estimated 16,000 tons of stone – some of the individual blocks weigh up to 6 tons – that were precisely cut to fit perfectly together by friction alone, eliminating the need for mortar.<ref name="Langmead" /> The masonry was lifted into place by ] with a massive human-powered treadmill providing the power for the winch. A complex scaffold was erected to support the bridge as it was being built. Large blocks were left protruding from the bridge to support the frames and scaffolds used during construction.<ref name="Michelin" /> The builders also left inscriptions on the stonework conveying various messages and instructions. Many blocks were numbered and inscribed with the required locations, such as ''fronte dextra'' or ''fronte sinistra'' (front right or front left), to guide the builders.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gimpel|first=Jean|title=The cathedral builders|page=75|publisher=Pimlico|year=1993|isbn=9780060911584}}</ref> | |||
| <div class="center">{{Image gallery | |||
| |title=Features of the Pont du Gard | |||
| |lines=3 | |||
| |width=200 | |||
| |Pont du gard v1 082005.JPG||Side view of the Pont du Gard, showing the three rows of arches | |||
| |Pont du Gard stonework.jpg||Stonework on the Pont du Gard, showing the protruding blocks that were used to support the scaffolding | |||
| |Aqueduc pont du gard.jpg||Interior of the water conduit of the Pont du Gard | |||
| }}</div> | |||
| Although the exterior of the Pont du Gard is rough and relatively unfinished, the builders took care to ensure that the interior of the water conduit was as smooth as possible so that the flow of water would not be obstructed. The walls of the conduit were constructed from dressed masonry and the floor from concrete. Both were covered with a ] incorporating minute shards of pottery and tile. It was painted with olive oil and covered with ''maltha'', a mixture of ], pork grease and the viscous juice of unripe figs. This produced a surface that was both smooth and durable.<ref>{{cite book|title=Divine domesticity: Augustine of Thagaste to Teresa of Avila|last=O'Rourke Boyle|first=Marjorie|page=105|date=1997|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004106758}}</ref> | |||
| The Pont du Gard's design represents a fairly early stage in the development of Roman aqueducts. Its designer's technique of stacking arches on top of each other is clumsy and expensive, as it necessitates the use of a very large amount of stone. Later aqueducts had a more sophisticated design, making greater use of concrete to reduce their volume and cost of construction. The ] and the ] are of roughly similar length but use far fewer arches. Roman architects were eventually able to do away with "stacking" altogether. The ] in ] and a similar aqueduct near ], ] utilise tall, slender piers, constructed from top to bottom with concrete faced with masonry and brick.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hill|first=Donald Routledge|title=A history of engineering in classical and medieval times|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415152914}}</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| It has long been thought that the Pont du Gard was built by ] son-in-law and aide, ], around the year 19 BC. Newer excavations, however, suggest the construction may have taken place between 40 and 60 A.D.<ref>Fabre, G, Fiches,J.-L., and Paillet, J.-L. 1991. "Interdisciplinary Research on the Aqueduct of Nimes and the Pont du Gard." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 4, 63-88.</ref> | |||
| It is believed to have taken about fifteen years<ref name="pontdugard2">{{Citation | last = | first = | author-link = | last2 = | first2 = | author2-link = | title = Le Pont du Gard remarquable Aqueduc| date = | year = | url = http://www.pontdugard.fr/page.php?langue=FR&m=3_2| accessdate = 2010-06-15}} </ref> to build, employing between 800 and 1,000 workers. | |||
| ===Post Roman=== | |||
| From the fourth century onwards, its maintenance was neglected, and deposits filled up to two thirds of the conduit space. By the ninth century, it became unusable, and the people of the area started using its stones for their own purposes. However, the majority of the Pont du Gard remains impressively intact. | |||
| From the ] to the 18th century, the aqueduct was used as a conventional bridge to facilitate foot traffic across the river, like its much smaller sister, the ]. The pillars of the second level were reduced in width to make more room for the traffic, but this jeopardized the stability of the structure. In 1702 the pillars were restored to their original width in order to safeguard the aqueduct. In 1743, a new bridge was built by a French engineer ] next to the arches of the lower level, so that the road traffic could cross on a purpose-built bridge. The aqueduct was restored in the 18th century, by which time it had become a major tourist site, and was restored again in the reign of ] in the mid-19th century. | |||
| The outstanding quality of the bridge's masonry led to it becoming an obligatory stop for French journeymen masons on their traditional tour around the country (see '']''), many of whom have left their names on the stonework. Markings left by the original builders can also be seen, indicating the positions in which the dressed stones were to be placed: for instance, ''FRS II'' (standing for ''frons sinistra II'', or "front left 2"). This is a tradition that has been partly continued by modern visitors, often looking to make their own markings. | |||
| In May 1940 a French pilot, Séraphin Civera, flew his plane through one of the arches.<ref>http://auriol.free.fr/Perso/civera-seraphin.htm</ref> | |||
| The Pont du Gard was added to ]'s list of ]s in 1985. The description on the list states: "The hydraulic engineers and ... architects who conceived this bridge created a technical as well as artistic masterpiece."<ref name="Langmead" /> | |||
| In 1998 the Pont du Gard was hit by major flooding which caused widespread damage in the area. The road leading up to it and the neighboring facilities were badly damaged, although the aqueduct itself was not seriously harmed. | |||
| The French government sponsored a major redevelopment project in conjunction with local sources, UNESCO and the ] which concluded in 2000, pedestrianising the entire area around the aqueduct and greatly improving the visitor facilities, including establishing a museum on the north bank. The project has been criticized for its cost (€33 million) and for the perceived loss of natural beauty of the surrounding landscape and area. During the redevelopment it was not possible to walk through the conduit at the top of the aqueduct; however guided crossings are now provided by the museum. The redevelopment has ensured that the area around the Pont du Gard is now much quieter due to the removal of vehicle traffic, and the new museum provides a much improved historical context for visitors. | |||
| The Pont du Gard is today one of France's top five tourist attractions, with 1.4 million visitors reported in 2001. The 19th century ] of the ] replicates the Roman architecture of the Pont du Gard. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Commons|Pont du Gard}} | |||
| * | |||
| * {{structurae|id=s0000256|title=Pont du Gard}} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||