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Jehovah's Witnesses are members of an international religious organization who believe themselves to be the restoration of first-century Christianity. Official membership statistics only reflect the number of door-to-door evangelists, which number over 6 million. They are known for their extensive preaching and publishing activities, with The Watchtower and Awake! religious magazines being their most widely known publications.

History

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some time after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a "Great Apostasy", from the original teachings of Jesus in several major points. Influenced by Restorationism, they believe their faith is a continually improving, imperfect restoration of First Century Christianity. An example in The Watchtower states: "It was the 1900-year-old 'faithful and discreet slave,' the old Christian congregation, that was entrusted with this precious Kingdom service ... obedient in its centuries-old commission to be witnesses in the earth ... the matured 'slave' as represented by a remnant now stood ready for new assignments of service." They teach that this new assignment occurred in 1919 in fulfillment of scripture. Jehovah's Witnesses feel that true understanding of the scriptures began to be reassembled by Charles Taze Russell and his associates when they formed a Bible study group in the 1870s in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, and had until then been imperfectly represented since the Great Apostasy by a number of historical Christian groups.

Originally, the "Bible Students" as they were known in Russell's day, focused their evangelizing work on proclaiming that Christ's Second Presence had begun invisibly in 1874. As part of the dawning of the Millennium, Christ was believed to have been enthroned as King in 1878, and the destruction of religious organizations and governments was expected by the year 1914, to be followed by the establishment of a world-wide paradise. Though their interpretation of prophetic dates has changed through the years, eschatology has remained a major focus. Based on their current understanding of Bible chronology, Jehovah's Witnesses have retained the year 1914 but now believe it marked the year for Christ's Second Advent and the beginning of the "End Times." They believe that Armageddon is near, which drives the urgency in their preaching work.

Born into a Presbyterian family, Russell had nearly lost his faith until it was rekindled by contact with some Second Adventists (one of the spiritual heirs of the Millerites). Adventist ministers Jonas Wendell, George Storrs and George Stetson were early influences. In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's understanding of biblical chronology. Russell provided financial backing for Barbour and became co-editor of Barbour's magazine Herald of the Morning. Breaking with Barbour in 1879 over the concept of substitutionary atonement, Russell soon began publishing his own magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. Known as "Pastor Russell", he formed a legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania in 1881 (currently headquatered in New York City); in 1884 it was incorporated with Russell as president. Over several years, many millions of copies of Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence were distributed in several languages to proclaim Christ's presence and the dawn of his Millennium. In addition, his six-volume work, originally entitled Millennial Dawn but later changed to Studies in the Scriptures, established the fundamental doctrines derived from their Bible study. (As a consequence, the Bible Students were sometimes called "Millennial Dawnists".) In 1914 Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in Great Britain.

Russell died in 1916, and in the following year, the movement was divided by schisms due to significant doctrinal changes. Those who rejected the changes in organization and doctrine became known as the Associated Bible Students, referring to themselves as simply "Bible Students" to this day. In 1918, a Bible Student convention was held independently of the Watchtower Society. At the second convention, a few months later, the Pastoral Bible Institute was founded and began publishing The Herald of Christ's Kingdom. The magazine continues to be published today. By 1928, memorial attendance dropped nearly 75% from 1922, from changes put in place by Pastor Russell´s successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, and failed predictions around 1925.

In 1931, while Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (often referred to as "Judge Rutherford"), was president of the Watch Tower Society, those who maintained their association with the Society adopted the name "Jehovah's Witnesses", based on Isaiah 43:10 (NWT) which reads, in part: "'You are my witnesses,' is the utterance of Jehovah..."

Under Rutherford, Jehovah's Witnesses experienced rapid growth. Rutherford was known for bold rhetoric. In his preaching, he coined the phrase "Religion is a snare and a racket," heavily denouncing the Catholic Church and Christendom generally, modern Judaism and national governments. Under his leadership, the Society developed a legal staff (which is utilized to this day), and battled successfully in US and Canadian courts to establish their rights to preach their religion. These legal battles resulted in significant improvements in freedom of speech and religion in the laws of both countries. (See, e.g., Cantwell v. State of Connecticut, Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette.)

Nathan Homer Knorr became president of the Watch Tower Society after Rutherford's death in 1942. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr emphasized ministerial training in the local congregations and also founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead for training missionaries. Knorr's Vice-President Frederick William Franz became the chief theologian for the Witnesses and was credited as being the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Witness membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's leadership.

The leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized in 1975 and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, doctrinal and organizational decisions since 1975 have been made by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Membership

As of August 2005, Jehovah's Witnesses have a practicing membership of more than 6.6 million, according to data reported in the Annual Worldwide Statistics at the Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. The site states: "While other religious groups count their membership by occasional or annual attendance, this figure reflects only those who are actively involved in the public Bible educational work." Jehovah's Witnesses have a custom of counting their membership by 'Lands' rather than by countries, indicating separate statistics for regions administered by other countries, such as Alaska, Hawaii, and Taiwan. A comparison of the 2004 and 2005 statistics indicates a decline in the number of Bible studies, baptisms, Memorial attendance and time spent in the preaching work, but an overall increase in the peak membership of 1.3 percent. Over time, these numbers can be seen to fluctuate slightly, rather than steadily increase from one year to the next. Though these figures provide a wealth of data, they only give a random indication of the movement's state of development. Longitudinal changes over extended periods of time are presented here.

These statistics are based on the number of "active members". To be classed as an active member (or publisher), an individual who has first been approved as a publisher must serve at least one hour per month in the preaching work, or 15 minutes per month for elderly members and those otherwise physically restricted. Figures for time spent per month are reported by each publisher and submitted monthly to the Society. In 2005, these reports indicated a total of nearly 1.3 billion hours.

In the United States, an academic study at CUNY based on a telephone survey (American Religious Identification Survey) was conducted in 2001 and estimated there to be 1.331 million adults in the U.S. who self-identify as Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses report over 1 million active publishers in the United States, but because this includes minors, it is not directly comparable to the ARIS numbers. In 1990, a larger but less detailed telephone survey based study (NSRI) at CUNY reported 1.38 million adults in the U.S. who self-identified as Jehovah's Witnesses. While this might indicate a slow decline in U.S. identification with the group, there was an increase in active U.S. publishers over this period. ARIS notes the survey did not cover non-English speakers and small groups with a high proportion of recent immigrant members were likely undercounted. Announced U.S. Witness convention schedules for 2005 include 75 non-English conventions of 227 total. Most increase in membership each year is due to an influx of non-English speaking individuals, with a rapid increase in foreign-language congregations being established throughout the country.

Jehovah's Witnesses have a small active presence in most countries and are the second or third largest religious group in many countries with a dominant religion. In no country are they a large part of the population, however. Brazil and Mexico are the only countries other than the U.S. where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds 0.5 million. The highest proportion of Witnesses in a country of substantial size is in Zambia, where 1% are active Witness publishers. Growth in most developed countries is slow or negative in recent years but is offset by rapid growth in less developed lands, particularly the former Communist bloc and Latin America.

Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate the Memorial of Christ's death (also known as the Lord's Evening Meal) annually. According to the February 1, 2006 Watchtower, worldwide attendance at the 2005 celebration of the Memorial was 16,383,333, slightly lower than the 2004 attendance of 16,760,607. This figure includes not only publishers, but inactive members, relatives, visitors and interested persons. In the U.S., 2.3 million people were present. In Zambia 570,000 attended, or 1 person for every 20 in the population. Of over 16 million in attendance worldwide, only 8,524 persons partook of the memorial emblems of unleavened bread and wine. These are those who profess to be anointed ones based on their interpretation of Revelation 14:1.

Organizational structure

Jehovah's Witnesses are currently led by a small, ecclesiastical Governing Body. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the role of the Governing Body corresponds to that of those who met in the Council of Jerusalem, guided by Holy Spirit and directed by Jesus. The description of the Council of Jerusalem in the Acts of the Apostles is often used as an example of how God had a "visible organization" in the first century. From this they reason that God therefore has an organization today. This top-down leadership is referred to by the Witnesses as "theocratic".

All members of the Governing Body profess to be "anointed" (see Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses). The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from ten to seventeen. Since April 1975, the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses makes decisions by a two-thirds majority vote; previously a unanimous vote was required. Therefore, no one member makes decisions nor asserts any more spiritual insight than any other member of the Governing Body. The Governing Body (indirectly through the departments of its various legal organizations) directs the operation of the 111 branches spread throughout the world. Each branch has appointed circuit overseers who travel among various local congregations, spending a week with each and giving spiritual encouragement through talks and one-on-one time spent with members in their public ministry. Within each local congregation, appointed elders organize the congregation's public ministry, and the content and schedule of their five weekly meetings, based on publications and precedents set by the Governing Body. They also recommend, via a vote of the elder body, "spiritually mature" baptized male members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders take the lead in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling, whereas the ministerial servants assist elders in a limited administrative capacity, and they (the elders and ministerial servants) and other Witnesses 'in good standing' often perform the majority of operational tasks for congregation meetings.

Witnesses do not consider elders to be clergy, though their service includes pastoral activity that clergy provide in other Christian denominations. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers, and are obligated to provide religious instruction to others. Spiritually mature Witnesses (men and women alike) are exhorted to the counseling of less-mature Witnesses. They may be assigned a newer publisher to assist in ministry, and may be asked to conduct a personal Bible study with another Witness who is spiritually troubled or "weak". Males are encouraged to reach out for 'privileges of service' such as becoming elders. Elders are said to be worthy of "double honor", but are held to a higher standard as overseers than other baptized "publishers", and are subject to additional discipline including removal. An elder may also be removed, or choose to step aside willingly, from his position if members of his household are not in "good standing" or for other, sometimes personal, reasons.

About 8,500 other Jehovah's Witnesses profess to be anointed but they have no formal role in establishment or modification of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses. Unless appointed into one of the various roles described above, they have no position of leadership or authority. Women who profess to be anointed cannot attain any position of earthly authority. However, Witnesses do believe that since 1918 all anointed who have died faithful (including many women) have been resurrected to heaven to serve as 'kings and priests' over other creatures.

Beliefs and doctrines

Like most Christian sects, Jehovah's Witnesses claim reliance on the Bible for their theology and that it forms the basis for their beliefs. Many beliefs and practices are similar to mainstream Christian denominations, yet there are significant differences as well.

Distinctive to Jehovah's Witnesses

• Prominent use of the biblical name of God as translated into native languages, for example: Jehovah in English, Geova in Italian, Yawe in Ateso, Yekoba in Dinka, Iehova in Gaelic etc.
• Jesus was known as the Archangel Michael in his pre-human existence; his birth on earth was accomplished when God transferred Michael's life force from heaven to the womb of the virgin Mary.
• Preaching from "house to house" based on their interpretation of Acts 5:42 (NWT)
• The number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000 (the "anointed") where they will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over Earth.
• Jesus is mediator for only those in the 'new covenant' (the 144,000)
• Teaching authority is only possessed by a 'Governing Body' (currently comprised of 12 men) who have the equivalent of magisterium regarding interpretation of the Bible, who represent the Faithful and Discreet Slave
• The New Testament or Greek Scriptures are directed primarily to the 144,000, though the principles apply to all members.
• The Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed in 607 BC, rather than the historically accepted date of 587/586 BC, based on the belief that 70 years transpired from destruction of Jerusalem to return of captives from Babylon
• The "seven times" of Daniel 4:10-17 are interpreted as a 2,520 year period from 607 BC to 1914 AD, referred to as the "Gentile Times"
• Jesus' invisible enthronement as King of Heaven in 1914 was followed by an inspection period of all Christian Churches, and Jehovah's Witnesses were chosen by Jesus in 1919 as the only true Christian organization (based on Revelation 18:2-5)
• Only Jehovah's Witnesses can correctly be called true Christians
• In 1918 Jesus resurrected those of the 144,000 (the "anointed") who had already died to heavenly life; since 1918, any "anointed" are individually resurrected to heavenly life at the time of their death
• 1914 marked the beginning of the "last days" which are soon to end
• A "Great Crowd" of Jehovah's Witnesses is now living that will survive the coming battle of Armageddon and have the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise
• All other religions are false and under Satan's control and will shortly be destroyed by the United Nations
• After the United Nations destroys all other religions (identified as "Babylon the Great") Jehovah's Witnesses will then come under attack. Armageddon immediately follows

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• The vast majority of citations in Witness publications teach the only hope (but no guarantee) of surviving Armageddon comes through organizational membership and adherence to the scriptural interpretations of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Those "who do not submit to God's rule" as stipulated by the Governing Body face certain destruction at Armageddon. A few citations indicate that the fate of some, such as those incapable of reasoning/mentally ill, is unresolved in scripture, so their providence remains in "God's hands."

• An unknown number of dead people will be resurrected after Armageddon, with the prospect of living forever in an earthly paradise, but those who have already been judged by God will not (such as any killed at Armageddon)
• After Armageddon, Christ will rule for a thousand years, during which the Earth will be transformed into a paradise, while Satan is abyssed and unable to influence mankind; at the end of this time, Satan will be released, and the final judgment will take place during which Satan and all those corrupted by him will be destroyed forever, and evil will never again occur
• Jesus was executed on a single beamed torture stake, not on a two beamed cross
• "Abstaining from blood", most notably characterized by the refusal of whole blood transfusions or any of the primary components of blood (plasma, platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells); taking of any derivatives of blood is left to the conscience; belief that the only proper use of blood can be decided by God only; that sacred use pertained to the washing of sins by Christ's blood as he died on earth. (See also; Jehovah's Witnesses and blood)
• Celebration of the Lord's Supper is held once a year after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar; only those claiming to be of the "remnant" of the 144,000 with the heavenly hope partake of the unleavened bread and wine (those with the earthly hope attend but do not partake)
• Not celebrating common religious or national holidays such as Thanksgiving and Christmas
• Not celebrating birthdays
• Baptized Jehovah's Witnesses who disagree with organizational doctrine are labeled apostate and disfellowshipped
• All Jehovah's Witnesses are expected to shun individuals who are either disfellowshipped, or disassociated (those who leave voluntarily)

Shared by most Christians

• Worship of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
• The Old Testament or Hebrew Scriptures tell the history of the people of Israel as the beneficiaries of God's covenant and recipients of His Law, and prophesy the coming of Jesus Christ
• Jesus died to atone for the sins of humankind
• Salvation is by faith and undeserved kindness (grace) of God which compels the Christian to works; works are evidence of faith and cannot gain salvation
• All are sinners (see: Sin)

Shared by many Christians

• Abortion is murder
• Premarital sexual relations are sinful
• Homosexual acts are sinful
• Jehovah's Witnesses believe that their religion is the only true one
• Rejection of evolution; see Life?How Did It Get Here? By Evolution or by Creation? (1998)
• Women cannot be teachers in the congregation; though female Witnesses do participate in meeting programs they do not serve in a teaching role or one of oversight

Shared by most conservative Christians

• inerrancy of the Bible, with a literal interpretation of the Bible, although believing that Bible writers and characters employed symbology, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism; see A Book for All People (1997)
• Wives should be submissive to their husbands; husbands are to have deep respect and love for their wives; the husband is the head of the family

Shared by some other Christians

• Jesus is a created being and God's first creation, not the uncreated second person of the Trinity; Jesus was used by God to create every other creation (See Arianism)
• The Holy Spirit is God's 'active force', not the uncreated third person of the Trinity
• Prayer to the Father Jehovah only but in the name of the Son, recognizing Jehovah God as the most high.
• God has a visible organization, and it represents the only one true religion
• All governments are under Satan's control and will be destroyed by Christ at Armageddon
• Neutrality in secular politics and refusal to take part in elections
• Belief that the soul is mortal, and that death is a state of non-existence (based on Ezekiel 18:4)
• Hades or Sheol is not a place of fiery torment, but rather the common grave of mankind, in which they are "conscious of nothing"
• The annihilation of the unsaved (cessation of existence) as opposed to damnation of the unsaved (eternal existence in hell)
• Refusal of military service; cf. the Peace churches and Quakers)
• A form of excommunication or anathema called disfellowshipping, is enacted when a member practices serious sins.

Shared by mainstream Protestants

• Rejection of transubstantiation and consubstantiation (of the Eucharist)
• Rejection of veneration of Mary, the saints, or the cross; such is viewed as idolatry and detracting from the worship of God
• Mary was not ever-virgin, but rather bore more children after Jesus

Blood

Jehovah's Witnesses reject whole allogeneic blood transfusions. This is based on their understanding of the biblical admonition to "keep abstaining from blood" (based on Acts 15:28, 29). Prior to 2000, the storage and use of human and animal blood products, and the commercial use of blood products were condemned as unscriptural. (Watchtower 1 February 1997 p.30)

Although Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept transfusions of whole blood, and despite not donating blood (as they believe it must not be stored), they may according to the conscience of the particular individual, accept derivatives of blood, or even whole autologous blood so long as it is part of a "current therapy", such as normovolemic hemodilution, a treatment that processes the individual's own blood in a closed loop that does not interrupt the flow of blood, delivering it immediately back into the person's body. Also left to conscience are procedures where a "quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient."

The Witnesses' Medical Care and Blood policy changed fundamentally in the year 2000 and now accepts derivatives such as Hemopure, which consists of chemically stabilized bovine hemoglobin (derived from cows' blood) and PolyHeme (chemically modified hemoglobin derived from human blood). The Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, PA, provides a detailed list of these specific distinctions. Witnesses interpret the prohibited use of blood to be limited to whole allogeneic blood (or any of its four main components), or stored autologous blood. Transfusion of whole autologous blood that is part of a "current therapy" and/or sufficiently fractionated constituents from donated and stored allogeneic blood are considered a "gray area" not specifically condemned and therefore permissable.

Many Jehovah's Witnesses carry carefully prepared durable power of attorney documents indicating that they will accept all fractions derived from blood. The wording of this option reads, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." (2003 Guide to Our Three Health Care Documents, p. 11) The conscience of some Witnesses still does not permit the use of fractions derived from blood and these will use non-blood alternatives with varying degrees of success.

The refusal of blood transfusions is a significant issue among medical professionals and others concerning Jehovah's Witnesses, especially when it involves minor children and more so in view of the fact that children of Jehovah's Witnesses have died as a consequence. In some countries, laws may impose limitations on physicians on the ability to withhold or withdraw blood transfusions or blood therapy from minors, particularly in life-threatening situations; parents who have prevented children under their care from receiving blood therapy in life-threatening situations may face prosecution. Courts have ordered transfusions for some children, often the very young; in other cases they have respected the declared choice of an under-age minor who is able to defend his or her own beliefs to the court in a manner that reflects a mature understanding and without undue influence from the parents.

Pursuit of medical alternatives to blood transfusion in cases involving Jehovah's Witness patients, including the use of erythropoietin to boost the red blood cell count, has afforded opportunities for medical advancement in the field of bloodless surgery.

A peer-reviewed essay entitled, "Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions, and the Tort of Misrepresentation," found in the Autumn issue of Baylor University's Journal of Church and State, published December 13, 2005, discusses the potential vulnerability of Jehovah's Witnesses' legal corporations to significant claims for compensation because of the religion's possible misrepresentation of the medical risks of blood transfusions.

See also Jehovah's Witnesses: Controversial Issues

Practices

Worship

Jehovah's Witnesses have five meetings per week, which are made up of five program parts (totaling approximately five hours). Meetings are held in local Kingdom Halls and private homes. Larger conventions are held usually three times a year in facilities owned or maintained by the Watchtower Society or rented, such as stadiums or auditoriums. Throughout the week, there are also meetings for "field service" (preaching work) where members meet either in homes, or the Kingdom Hall, to organize and pray prior to engaging in door-to-door or other forms of evangelism. On a daily basis, Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to meditate on spiritual matters, often by aids such as Examining the Scriptures Daily, a booklet with a scripture from the Bible and commentary usually based on a Watchtower article. Before meals, Jehovah's Witnesses commonly say a prayer, either silently when alone or aloud when at a gathering.

Aside from their worship practices, Jehovah's Witnesses are identifiable by things from which they abstain. There is a general avoidance of practices considered to have nationalistic or "false religious" roots. These can be such things as singing the national anthem at sporting events, or not saying "bless you" when someone sneezes. They avoid celebrations of birthdays and holidays. Their only officially mandated celebration is the "Memorial of Christ's Death." Weddings, anniversaries, and memorials at death are also optionally observed. Adhering to these standards of behavior, Jehovah's Witnesses believe themselves to be faithful even in the seemingly small things (see Luke 16:10). The use of distinctive titles in address (such as Father, Pastor, Elder, Reverend, etc. among other groups) is strictly avoided (Matthew 23:6-12). All Witnesses, irrespective of privileges of service, address one another as "Brother" or "Sister", often followed by the first or last name of the individual. There are categories of privileges of service (Pioneer, Elder, Presiding Overseer, and so on) which may be used to refer to an individual in reference to those duties ("John is an elder"), but never as a title or to address him or her ("elder John").

Morality

Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views, such as pre-marital sex and homosexual acts as being violations of God's law. "Modesty" is heavily encouraged in daily dress, especially at spiritual events, where standards of dress are more formal, varying by country and regional custom (In the U.S., Europe, and most of Asia, this typically consists of formal western business attire). In addition, entertainment with sexual, materialistic, spiritualistic or violent subject matter is strongly discouraged. Further, though they are nonconformists in some ways, they seek not to appear to be "counter-cultural." They avoid presenting an image that might appear unkempt or unprofessional according to local culture and societal norms. Therefore, in certain areas, styles or attributes such as beards, long hair or earrings for men, or any dress or grooming for both men and women that is defined by them to appear "rebellious" or "immodest" are seriously discouraged, even outside of spiritual activities. A person violating these standards would risk providing a "bad witness," and would fail to mark him or herself as different from the secular and "false religious" world. This is in keeping with their interpretation of the scriptural admonition at 2 Timothy 2:9,10 (NWT), "Likewise I desire the women to adorn themselves in well-arranged dress, with modesty and soundness of mind, not with styles of hair braiding and gold or pearls or very expensive garb, but in the way that befits women professing to reverence God, namely, through good works." Jehovah's Witnesses consider this admonition to apply, in principle, equally to men and to women.

Construction and Humanitarian Efforts

Jehovah's Witnesses are known in many lands for their building work. International and regional building teams frequently undertake so-called "quick builds," construction of Kingdom Halls over the course of one or two weekends. Larger construction projects, including the building of regional Assembly Halls and Bethel offices, factories, residences, warehouses, and farm facilities, are also carried out almost entirely by volunteer members.

The Witnesses are noted for their racial and ethnic integration. In the United States an academic study (ARIS 2001) by CUNY put the proportion of blacks among adults who self-identified as Witnesses at 37% (the highest proportion among any of the 22 largest religious identifications which make up 90% of the U.S. population). Congregations are generally organized geographically, and members are encouraged to attend the Kingdom Hall in whose territory they reside, resulting in an ethnic mix generally representative of local population. Anecdotal accounts of Witness outreach across racial lines are a common subject matter for the annual Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. A notable example is the account of relief efforts to both Hutu and Tutsi Witnesses and non-Witnesses during the genocide in Rwanda and to Congo refugees. "Since 1994, Jehovah's Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa." This humanitarian aid was not given exclusively to Jehovah's Witnesses. Others also benefited. For instance, the Witnesses distributed medicine and clothing to several primary schools and an orphanage near Goma.

Disfellowshipping (excommunication)

Jehovah's Witnesses are expected to abide by the entire body of beliefs set for them by the Governing Body. Members are expected to shun those who are judged to be unrepentantly disobeying, or those who no longer wish to be a member, known as disfellowshipped or disassociated respectively. Witnesses would minimize contact with relatives who are disfellowshipped or disassociated. Regarding disfellowshipped or disassociated relatives living in the same household, Our Kingdom Ministry instructs: "Thus, it would be left to members of the family to decide on the extent to which the disfellowshipped family member would be included when eating or engaging in other household activities. And yet, they would not want to give brothers with whom they associate the impression that everything is the same as it was before the disfellowshipping occurred."

Witnesses feel that disfellowshipping and shunning can have the beneficial effect of both restoring an errant former member to the religion and "upholding God's holy name". Critics contend that the shunning policy holds some people captive who might otherwise leave the religion and makes no provision for conscientious objectors. Further, that the disfellowshipping process, with few checks and balances, can be used in an arbitrary and punitive manner.

Jehovah's Witnesses and governments

Jehovah's Witnesses exhort their members to obey all the laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate 'God's law'.

At the same time, however, they hold a stance of political neutrality. Examples of this detachment in practice include:

• Refusal to salute the flag, or sing nationalistic songs
• Refusal to serve in the military (including defense, or non-combatant roles)
• Refusal to participate in political processes including democratic ones: voting in government elections, while termed a 'conscience decision' for legal reasons, constitutes an act of disassociation, as does military service.
• Refusal to hold political office

One area in which Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced public policy is civil rights. The Watch Tower Society from the days of Joseph Franklin Rutherford has utilized the court systems of various countries to defend religious freedoms. In addition, they have occasionally organized letter-writing campaigns to protest "persecutions", most famously those addressed to Adolf Hitler during the second world war and certain African nations during the 1970s. (See the publication Defending and Legally Establishing the Good News for examples.)

According to the book Judging Jehovah's Witnesses (Shawn Francis Peters, University Press of Kansas: 2000), the Witnesses have helped to widen the definition of civil liberties in most western societies, hence broadening the rights of millions of people, due to their firm stand and determination. According to the preface to the book State and Salvation (William Kaplan, University of Toronto Press: 1989): "One of the results of the Witnesses' legal battles was the long process of discussion and debate that led to the Charter of Rights, which is now part of the fundamental law of Canada. Other battles in countries around the world have involved the rights to decline military service or martial arts training, to decline to participate in political parties or governmental elections, to exercise free and anonymous speech, to exercise freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, medical self-determination, etc. Witnesses continue to, in their words, 'defend and legally establish the Good News' around the world." See the article Jehovah's Witnesses and governments.

Jehovah's Witnesses endured intense persecution under the Nazi regime from 1933 to 1945, both as a religious group and individually. Unlike Jews, Sinti and Roma ("Gypsies"), persecuted and killed by virtue of their culture, Jehovah's Witnesses had the opportunity to escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs. The courage the vast majority displayed in refusing to do so, in the face of torture, maltreatment in concentration camps, and sometimes execution, won them the respect of many contemporaries. These events are recounted in a documentary entitled Purple Triangles. There is now a second documentry also available conserning this subject.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Opposition to Jehovah's Witnesses

Throughout their history, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have met controversy and opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Many Christian denominations consider the interpretation and doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses to be heresy. In addition, governments of various political persuasions have considered the religion to be a subversive organization, and sometimes even a threat to national security.

Political and religious animosity against them has at times led to mob action and government oppression.

On the milder side, there have been opposition by locals to the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls), and the holding of large conventions. In those circumstances, at times the reason is opposition to the religion, but at other times, they are more mundane, such as concerns about traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)), disputes that have actually been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to be a violation of their religious freedoms.

See also Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Eschatology

Since their formation in the 1870s, leaders of the organization have sought to identify dates for end-time events such as the enthronement of Jesus as King, the return of Jesus Christ, and for the "end of this system of things," culminating in Armageddon. The Witness publication Jehovah's Witnesses--Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, gives an overview of some of the historical development of the Witnesses' eschatology. However, no detailed study by Witness historians has been published. Most information on Jehovah's Witnesses' eschatology has been produced by non-Witnesses citing Watch Tower publications. Responding to the charge of being "false prophets," the Watchtower Society has defended failed predictions, and eschatology changes, as incorrect interpretations of the Bible and views it as evidence that they have been "keeping on the watch" for the "Day of Jehovah."

While their understanding of eschatology has changed over the years, the Watchtower Society has spoken with complete assurance of their interpretation. Regarding the eschatology they held to in the early 1920's, the Watchtower said: "It is on the basis of such and so many correspondences-in accordance with the soundest laws known to science that we affirm that, Scripturally, scientifically, and historically, present-truth chronology is correct beyond a doubt. Its reliability has been abundantly confirmed by the dates and events of 1874, 1914, and 1918. Present-truth chronology is a secure basis on which the consecrated child of God may endeavor to search out things to come." "This chronology is not of man, but of God. Being of divine origin and divinely corroborated, present-truth chronology stands in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct." Most of that eschatology and its accompanying chronology has been discarded (see chart below). The Witnesses still rely on their understanding of Bible chronology for establishing Christ's return for the year 1914. This is held as a cardinal point of doctrine. While they look to modern events as corresponding to Biblical prophecies and feel Armageddon is imminent, they no longer predict a specific year for it.

Early eschatology

The Second Adventists affiliated with Nelson H. Barbour expected a visible and dramatic return of Christ in 1873, and later in 1874. They agreed with other Adventist groups that the "time of the end" (also called the "last days") had started in 1799. Soon after the 1874 disappointment, Barbour accepted the idea that Christ had actually returned to the earth in 1874, but invisibly. 1874 was considered the end of 6,000 years of human history and the beginning of judgment by Christ. Charles Taze Russell and the group that later was known as Bible Students accepted these views from Barbour. Russell taught that while Jesus was invisibly present here on earth, he was made its King in 1878. Rejected by God in 1878 was the "nominal Church" (considered to be "Babylon the Great").Russell also taught that in 1878 Christ resurrected all the "dead in Christ" as spirit beings to be with him here on the earth awaiting a future glorification. (As each of the remainder of the 144,000 would die after 1878, Christ would resurrect them as spirit beings to join those already resurrected.) Together with Christ here on earth, these invisible resurrected spirit beings were engaged in directing a harvest work gathering the remainder of those with the heavenly calling.This harvest would run from 1874-1914, and the culmination of Armageddon would occur in 1914 preceded by the gathering of all the saints (both resurrected and living) to heaven.

From 1925-1933, the Watchtower Society radically changed their beliefs after the failure of these eschatological expectations. In 1925, the Watch Tower explained a major change that Christ had been enthroned as King in heaven in the year 1914 instead of 1878.1874 was retained as the time of Christ's invisible return until the early 1930s.But, Christ's Second Advent was now explained not as a return to the earth but as a "turning of attention" to the earth with Christ remaining in heaven.By 1933, it was clearly taught that Christ had returned invisibly in 1914 and the "last days" had also begun then.A 1927 Watch Tower had transferred the 1878 resurrection date to 1918.However, it was now held these were raised as spirit creatures to heavenly life to be with Christ there.The judgment on Babylon changed from 1878 to 1919 with the publication of the book Light in 1930.These are the current teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses regarding 1914,1918 and 1919. Witnesses no longer consider the dates 1799, 1874 and 1878 to have any eschatological significance. The idea that the "great tribulation" had begun in 1914 and was "cut short" in 1918 to be resumed at Armageddon was dropped in 1969.

1915, 1918, 1920, and 1925 were other years for which predictions were made. The resurrection of Old Testament "princes" including Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was expected by many Bible Students (as Jehovah's Witnesses were then known) in 1925 based on what was published in The Watchtower, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, and The Way to Paradise. In 1929, Joseph Rutherford (the second Watch Tower president) built a luxury villa in California called Beth Sarimto house these ancient biblical "princes" who were expected to be resurrected immediately prior to Armageddon. Rutherford lived in the villa until his death in 1942, and in 1948 the villa was sold. In 1950, the belief that these Old Testament "princes" would be resurrected before Armageddon was dropped.

Starting in 1938, Witnesses were discouraged from marrying and raising children due to the nearness of Armageddon.Young Witnesses were counselled: "It is better and wiser for those of the Lord's 'other sheep' who hope to survive Armageddon and be given the divine mandate to fill the earth with a righteous offspring to defer matters until after the tribulation and destruction of Armageddon is past."In 1951, the Watchtower changed this advice and came out in defense of marriage. College or university education was discouraged for young Witnesses for many years because of the "little time left."Instead, Witness youths were encouraged to devote themselves in full-time ministry. This policy was moderated in 1992but a 2005 Watchtower again discouraged college education.

1975

During the 1960s and early 1970s, many Witnesses were stimulated by articles in their literature and further encouraged by speakers at their assemblies prior to 1975, to believe that Armageddon and Christ's thousand-year millennial reign would begin by 1975. Although the views of Armageddon and Christ's millennium beginning in 1975 were never fully or explicitly supported by the Watch Tower Society, many in the organizations' writing department, as well as several leading Witnesses, Elders, and presiding overseers in the organization, heavily suggested that Christ's millennial reign over earth would begin by 1975. One outstanding example is a lecture by then Vice-President Fred Franz in early 1975 pin-pointing after sundown on September 5, 1975 as the end of 6,000 years and saying all the prophecies "could happen" by then, while admitting that looked improbable. While Witnesses have always been encouraged to increase the preaching work, and avoid secular life goals or careers, this emphasis was especially strong prior to 1975.

Some Witnesses gave up good jobs, college, scholarships, and some imprudently sold their houses in the hopeful expectation that God's Kingdom would literally be established on earth in 1975 after the biblical Armageddon, encouraged by the Watch Tower Society: "Reports are heard of brothers selling their homes and property and planning to finish out the rest of their days in this old system in the pioneer service. Certainly this is a fine way to spend the short time remaining before the wicked world's end.-1 John 2:17." It is worth noting that similar language persists in publications of Jehovah's Witnesses, who still hold that the time remaining in the present system is relatively short, and that having an active share in the preaching work is the best use of a believer's time. Some Jehovah's Witnesses irresponsibly ran up debt believing they would not to have to pay it back, and some unwisely spent their life savings believing that the 1975 date was a certain and unchangeable fact due to the many encouraging Watch Tower articles. In spite of the Watch Tower Society's previous admonition that Witnesses should let nothing cause them to tire and give out, there were many who left the organization (or became inactive) due to the disappointment of Armageddon not coming in 1975, although the majority remained. The large numbers leaving or becoming inactive were seen as baptisms continued at over 100,000 per year (around 200,000 in 1976). However, the organization still continued to lose more members than it gained for several years after 1975, until 1979 when numbers started to recover and increase again.

In 1979, in a lecture entitled "Choosing the Best Way of Life", the Society acknowledged responsibility for the some of the disappointment around 1975. In 1980, in an article based upon that talk, the following statement appeared: "There were statements made then, and thereafter, stressing that this was only a possibility. Unfortunately, however, along with such cautionary information, there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a build up of the expectation already initiated."

Recent changes

In 1995 changes regarding their understanding of the statement "this generation" made by Jesus were published. During the previous four decades, Jehovah's Witnesses had taught that the generation which saw the events of 1914, which would not die before Armageddon came, but were described as those who would "still be alive to see the end of this wicked system"or "those who are living at the given period".

As the generation of 1914 dwindled in numbers, the Governing Body used this for many decades as evidence that the end was "very near and immediately impending." Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz describes how privately the Governing Body discussed alternate interpretations. One suggestion made by Albert Schroeder, Karl Klein and Grant Suiter proposed moving the beginning of the "generation" to the year 1957, to coincide with the year Sputnik was launched. The proposal, however, was not ratified by the rest of the Governing Body. The generation of 1914 doctrine was finally discarded when the youngest had reached 80 years of age. A new interpretation of "this generation" was then published in The Watchtower.

The Witnesses' current teaching regarding the meaning of the term "this generation" is that it "refers to the peoples of earth who see the sign of Christ's presence but fail to mend their ways." Jehovah's Witnesses still believe that Armageddon is imminent. That same article continued, "Does our more precise viewpoint on 'this generation' mean that Armageddon is further away than we had thought? Not at all!"

At the same time, the Watch Tower Society changed the wording of the stated purpose of the Awake! magazine from "the Creator's promise of a peaceful and secure new world before the generation that saw the events of 1914 passes away" to "the Creator's promise of a peaceful and secure new world that is about to replace the present, wicked lawless system of things."

For further discussion of the "end of the world", see Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses#Salvation.

See also

• List of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Faithful and Discreet Slave
• Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses - A brief history of the legal corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Controversial Issues
• Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
• List of Christian denominations
• Religious Rejection of Politics
• Christology
• Holy Spirit

Further reading

Watchtower publications

See: List of Jehovah's Witnesses literature

Jehovah's Witnesses make vigorous efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world in a variety of ways, with particular emphasis on the written word. Their literature is published in 410 languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications. Their publications make extensive use of secular references and quotations from the Bible.

• New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc (a legal entity in the service of Jehovah's Witnesses). This is the Bible translation primarily used by Jehovah's Witnesses.

• Awake!, published in 82 languages, is a general-interest monthly magazine covering many topics from a religious perspective. It has an average circulation of 32.4 million copies per issue.

• The Watchtower, Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom, published in 152 languages, focuses mainly on doctrine. With an average circulation of 27,055,000 copies semimonthly, The Watchtower is the most widely distributed religious magazine in the world, and is available in various editions and media formats.

Both The Watchtower and Awake! are published simultaneously in dozens of languages. In addition to the formats mentioned above, both magazines are available in various audio and electronic formats and some of the articles from these magazines are available online. After the end of each year the issues are collected and re-released in a printed annual edition, commonly referred to as a bound volume. In addition to this, the Watchtower Library computer program contains several decades worth of articles for both magazines and is updated on an annual basis. (Until 2003, this was only done biennially.) It also contains many books, booklets, brochures, and other publications of the Witnesses.

New books, brochures, and other items are released from time to time, major releases being announced at their annual conventions. Additionally, a number of audio cassettes, videocassettes, and DVDs have been produced featuring various aspects of the group's beliefs, practices, organization, and history. Some of these also provide dramas based on various Biblical accounts. Recent years have seen a proliferation of material available on their website.

Three official histories of Jehovah's Witnesses have been published by the Watchtower Society. The first two are out of print. The most recent one is available in many public libraries and on the Watchtower Library CD-ROM.

• Qualifed To Be Ministers, pages 297-345 (1955)
• Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose (1959)
• Jehovah's Witnesses--Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993)

Positive publications

http://www.theocraticlibrary.com/ In Grand Assembly Video Documentary Produced by: Today's Lifestyles Television Year: 1988, Re Issued in 2003. Director: Gregory Juaren Length: 58 minutes Format: VHS In Grand Assembly presents an insightful look at the brotherhood and worldwide gatherings of millions of Jehovah's Witnesses. Why do their stadium gatherings attract so many Bible students? What does their message of God's Kingdom and Divine Justice really mean for listeners? Viewers are invited to learn the answers to these questions and so much more from Jehovah's Witnesses themselves as they proclaim their faith and love for their God as they gather together in grand assembly.

Includes: Informative interviews with convention overseers and Bible drama cast members Spectacular water baptisms and interviews with newly baptized witnesses of Jehovah Missionary interviews - Despite hardships and opposition these brave missionaries fearlessly preach in far away lands The delegates - Interviews from those present that felt the immediate benefits of this powerful Divine Justice District Convention The Director Gregory Juaren received a letter of appreciation from the Watchtower Convention News Service. The producers of this documentary can be located at http://www.ontv18.com/

Jehovah's Witnesses: The New World Society by Marley Cole. This book received a positive review in the August 15, 1955 Watchtower: "Much of the material was gathered by personal interviews with witnesses, some of them being officials of the Society. Frequently in the news is something about the religion of President Eisenhower's parents. This book gives the facts often overlooked or concealed, with documentary proof that they were Jehovah's witnesses for many years." Cole was an active Witness and wrote the book in collaboration with Witness leaders. It was also distributed by the Watchtower Society. 229 pages. Publisher: The Vantage Press, 1955.

Triumphant Kingdom by Marley Cole. Sequel to Jehovah's Witnesses: The New World Society. Cole describes the Witness movement throughout the world and life at their missionary training school. Publisher: Criterion Books. Library of Congress number 57-8262. 1957. 256 pages.

Faith on the March by A. H. Macmillan. PDF Version Macmillan provides a first-person account of the early history of the modern day Jehovah Witnesses from his meeting of Charles Taze Russell in 1900 to the time of the writing of the book (1957). He served with three of the Presidents of Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society: Russell, Rutherford, and Knorr (who wrote the book's introduction). - Publisher: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 57-8528 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1957)

A People For His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Timothy White (pseudonym for Anthony Wills). The author, a life-long Witness, presents an in-depth look at the Bible Student/Jehovah's Witness movement. He explores its doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. Unfortunately, the book is extremely scarce but can be obtained by inter-library loan. 418 pages. Chapters 1-3 online Publisher: The Vantage Press, 1967.

Armed with the Constitution : Jehovah's Witnesses in Alabama and the U.S Supreme Court, 1939-1946 by Merlin Newton. Newton researches the contributions of two Jehovah's Witnesses -- a black man and a white woman -- in expanding the meaning of the First Amendment in 1940s Alabama. She examines two key U.S. Supreme Court decisions, as well as court records, memoirs, letters, and interviews of Jehovah's Witnesses. - Publisher: University Alabama Press; Religion and American Culture Series, Reprint edition (June 28, 2002). Paperback: 240 pages. ISBN 0817312285

Jehovah's Witnesses Defended: An Answer to Scholars and Critics by Greg Stafford. This book examines the beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses and the criticisms levied against them, with the aim of making a more comprehensive discussion available for scholars and Bible students alike. 623 pages. Second Edition, Elihu Books, 2000. Table of Contents online ISBN 0965981487

Neutral publications

Jehovah's Witnesses : Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. A British sociologist, attempts to understand the strict and austere Watch Tower Society and its adherents, Jehovah's Witnesses. This is an academic ethnography that draws upon interviews with both adherents and ex-members. Read selections from: Google Book Search - Publisher: Routledge. ISBN 0415266092 (London, New York 2002)

Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada: Champions of freedom of speech and worship by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of legal activities that led to expansion of religious freedoms in Canada. Referenced in the January 1, 1977 Watchtower, page 11 and the 1979 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 94. - Publisher: Macmillan of Canada. ISBN 0770513409 (Canada, 1976)

Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Google Book Search - Publisher: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802079733 (Canada, 1998)

Critical publications

Crisis of Conscience by Raymond Franz, a former Governing Body member of the Watch Tower Society for nine years. This book gives a detailed account of the authority structure, practices, doctrines and decision-making practices Franz experienced while serving on the Governing Body. Franz gives a personal account of the inner conflict between loyalty to God and one's Christian conscience versus loyalty to a religious organization. Sample chapters online: 1, 9, 10, 11, 12. Publisher: Commentary Press. 420 pages. Hardback ISBN 0914675249. Paperback ISBN 0914675230. 4th edition (June 2002)

In Search of Christian Freedom by Raymond Franz. A follow up to the book Crisis of Conscience, Franz explores many doctrinal and ethical issues, including the nature of Christian freedom. In it he explores various aspects of the Watch Tower's teachings, doctrines, and claims, comparing and contrasting them with Biblical scriptures. 732 pages. Sample chapters online: 1, 9. ISBN 0914675168 Publisher: Commentary Press (October 1991, internally updated in 2002)

The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return by Carl O. Jonsson. A detailed discussion of the cornerstone belief that the Gentile Times began with the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.C. Jonsson considers the origin of this belief and examines several lines of evidence refuting the starting date of 607 B.C. and the methodology for deriving it. ISBN 0914675060 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)

The Sign of the Last Days - When? by Carl O. Jonsson & Wolfgang Herbst. A case against the Jehovah's Witness belief that the 'sign of the Last Days' began in 1914. Accompanied by historical figures for wars, famines, earthquakes and pestilences from past centuries, detailed world disaster statistics, and Biblical references. Sample chapters online: 3, 6. ISBN 0914675095 Publisher: Commentary Press (1 September 1987)

Where is the "Great Crowd" Serving God? by Jon Mitchell. A 32 page booklet by a former secretary to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses that disputes the Jehovah's Witnesses' belief in two classes of salvation, i.e., the "Great Crowd" (earthly) and "The 144,000's" (heavenly). (See Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses: Salvation) He covers the Watchtower's doctrines, and the Greek word Naos in a scriptural discussion explicating his opinion that there is no biblical difference between the two groups' location. Read synopsis online. ISBN 9993518972 Publisher: Commentary Press (1 December 1992)

Jehovah Himself Has Become King by Robert King. Subjects include the doctrines surrounding 1914, child molestation and its mishandling by the Watchtower organization, involvement of the organization with the United Nations, and much more. 552 pages. ISBN 1420882023 Publisher: AuthorHouse (September 2005)

Reasoning From the Scriptures with the Jehovah's Witnesses by Ron Rhodes. 444 pages. Harvest House Publishers, 1993. Written from an Evangelical Christian perpective, this book is designed to aid them in dialogues with Witnesses. Sample chapter online ISBN 1565071069

Refuting Jehovah's Witnesses by Randall Watters. The writer, a former headquarters' staff member, critiques Witness doctrine from a traditional Christian perspective. Rather than discussing organizational subjects, the book is written as an apologetic of the historic Christian faith. 197 pages. Third Edition 1996. Published by Freeminds, Inc., Manhattan Beach, California. Sample chapter online

External links

Official websites of Jehovah's Witnesses

• Official Web Site of Jehovah's Witnesses (Information is available in 264 languages on this site)
• Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses

Positive or neutral resources

• Jehovah's Witnesses World News Forum - Good World News From All Over the World Updated Every Day
• Jehovah's Witnesses United - The site was created so that scholarly information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and the New World Translation could be collected in one location on the web.
• Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources - Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's. The "site is maintained by one of Jehovah's Witnesses who fully supports the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society." Emphasis is on literature not found in the Watchtower Library CD-ROM.
• Glossary of American English Hacker Theocratese Language Jehovah's Witnesses use in everyday life. The Glossary is more than a mere word book. Its extended definitions, commentaries, and anecdotes provide a miniature profile of the state of Witness culture.
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Setting the Record Straight - A Defense of Witness' doctrine and history
• NoBlood.org a forum to investigate, discuss and report the latest techniques in blood conservation and alternatives to blood transfusion.
• In Defense of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures:Index of Pages - This web site has the intention of defending the Bible translation known as The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.
• Jerusalem 607 BCE - A defense of the Witnesses 607 BC date.
• CESNUR, the Center for Studies on New Religions - CESNUR is an international network of associations of scholars working in the field of new religious movements. Its director is the Italian scholar Massimo Introvigne.
• Free Exercise of Religion Repository containing various pages relating to legal briefs on cases specific toward Jehovah's Witnesses.
• West Virginia Board of Education Vs. Barnette et al. - Documentation of 1943 Supreme Court ruling regarding Jehovah's Witnesses' rights in not saluting the flag
• Purple Triangles: A Story of Spiritual Resistance - Thorough essay chornicling the persecution lodged against Jehovah's Witnesses by those opposed to their stand in Nazi Germany circa 1933-1945. This document analyzes the early history of this conflict and the endurance of the Bibelforscher (as Jehovah's Witnesses were known in this land at the time).
• ReligionFacts.com - About Jehovah's Witnesses, including comparison chart with mainstream Protestant Christianity.
• Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance - About Jehovah's Witnesses.
• Beliefnet:Jehovah's Witnesses
• Thank Jehovah's Witnesses for Speech Freedoms short article outlining legal battles of Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States, resulting in greater freedoms for Americans as a whole (dated 30 March 2000)
• Interactive Map of the Worldwide Work Map showing the numbers of Witnesses worldwide.
• TVG Online News collection database along with resources for Jehovah's Witnesses

Critical Resources

• reexamine.org A collection of online Watch Tower Society publications maintained by a current Jehovah's Witness devoted to collecting and preserving interesting and/or significant quotes from Witness source documents and references. This website also contains mirrors of previous websites which are no longer online, such as the website previously found at "quotes.watchtower.ca" (removed Dec/05), but has no connection to the previous website or its webmaster.
• 607: The Shaky Foundation of the 1914-Doctrine An essay discussing the Witnesses' claim that Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 607 BC from both a Biblical and a historical perspective. Their belief that the "last days" started in 1914 is based on their 607 BC date.
• Discussion of Historical Evidence Discussion of the evidence that Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar and the Neo-Babylonians in 587/6 BC, not 607 BC as claimed by the Witnesses, the date they use as the basis for their belief that the "last days" started in 1914.
• Free minds - Detailed discussions about Jehovah's Witnesses' doctrines, history, and claims from a critical perspective.
• Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood A large site that promotes changes to the Watch Tower Society's blood doctrine. Many original Watch Tower Society source documents and references.
• JW Facts A critical evaluation of Witness' doctrine
• Witnesses of Jehovah by Jeremiah Films (1986) from Google Video (58 minutes and 41 seconds)
• Historical Publications Relating to Jehovah's Witnesses Sources & Articles Relating to Watchtower History
• Jehovah's-Witness.com A very large archived message board community discussing Jehovah's Witnesses and their Watch Tower organisation.
• Silent lambs - For those Jehovah's Witnesses who claim they were victims of sexual molestation within their religious organisation. Criticism of the Watch Tower organisation, and its controversial policies of how it deals with child molestation within the organisation.
• The Watch Tower's United Nations Controversy - Discusses the relationship of the Watch Tower Society with the United Nations, believed by JWs to be the "Image of the wild beast" of Revelation"
• Watchtower News A site that lists the most current news items involving Jehovah's Witnesses or the Watch Tower organisation
• Watchtower Information Service Provides information on the Watchtower Society and Jehovah's Witnesses. Everyone can partake in online discussion of the presented articles.
• JW Files-Research on Jehovah's Witnesses A large researched site headed by subject grouping, with many original scans from the Watch Tower Society's literature, and discussing many important doctrinal and ethical issues from a critical perspective.
• Rick A. Ross Institute of New Jersey - Information The Rick A. Ross Institute has gathered about Jehovah's Witnesses
• JWDOM.org - A Large Collection of Articles Related to the Beliefs, History and Practices of the Watchtower & the Jehovah's Witnesses.
• The Jensen Letters Correspondence between a Jehovah's Witness elder and the Watchtower Society seeking answers to critical questions about important aspects of their blood doctrine. The correspondence begins in 1998 and concludes in 2003 with the writer's resignation as an elder.
• e-Watchman.com - A site by a long-time member of the Jehovah's Witnesses that takes a critical look at the prophetic views of the Watchtower Society in light of current events, as well as the organization's mishandling of child molestation and its involvement with the United Nations.
• Time and Prophecy: A Harmony of Time Prophecy with History and Archaeology A detailed look at the archaeological evidence that Jerusalem must have been destroyed in 587/6 BC, in direct contradiction to the Witness claim that it happened in 607 BC, from which they derive that the "last days" started in 1914. Among many other things, it includes a table on page 25 (page 23 if looking at the page numbers on the PDF itself) counting the dated commercial tablets found from just one city (Sippar) for every year of every Neo-Babylonian king, which coincides perfectly with all the other evidence for the date of the destruction (and even with some Watchtower quotes) and also directly contradicts the Witnesses' claim.
• Watchtower Observer Archive An archive of the website formerly at "watchtower.observer.org" which was shut down in Dec. 2004.
• Statistics of Jehovah's Witnesses Graphic Presentation of Jehovah's Witnesses Activities in the World 1988?2004

References

Click on the link to the left of the reference to go the place in the article referenced.

1. "The Awake "Faithful and Discreet Slave", The Watchtower, July 15, 1960, p.436.
2. ‘The Faithful Slave’ Passes the Test!, The Watchtower March 1, 2004, p. 13-18.
3. The Watchtower, January 15, 1892, p. 1355
4. Apocalypse Delayed - The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses James M. Penton 1985.
5. 1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 258
6. The Watchtower, February 1, 2006, p. 27-30. Scans available at 27, 28, 29, 30 accessed January 27, 2006.
7. U.S. Census Bureau (2003). "Section 1: Population," Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003. (Table 79, page 67). Web version available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/03statab/pop.pdf accessed December 4, 2005.
8. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society (December 4). "Statistics: 2004 Report of Jehovah's Witnesses Worldwide". {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help) Note the "memorial partakers" at the bottom of the spreadsheet.
9. Crisis of Conscience Raymond Franz 1983 pp. 45, 85, 163
10. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society (December 4). "Membership and Publishing Statistics". Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
11. Why True Worship Receives God's Blessing, The Watchtower April 15, 1996 p. 17.
12. Jesus?The Ruler "Whose Origin Is From Early Times", The Watchtower, June 15, 1998, p. 22.
13. “Do the Work of an Evangelizer” The Watchtower, March 15, 2004, p. 10-14
14. "Have No Fear, Little Flock", The Watchtower, February 15, 1995 p. 18-22.
15. Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, August 15, 1989, p. 30.
16. Christ Leads His Congregation, The Watchtower, March 15, 2002, p. 13-16.
17. United In Worship of the Only True God; 1983, p. 111
18. The "Cup" That All Nations Must Drink at God?s Hand, The Watchtower, September 15, 1979 p. 21-24.
19. Be Thankful?Jehovah's Messianic Kingdom Rules, The Watchtower, October 15, 1990, p. 15-20.
20. Expanded Activities During Christ's Presence, The Watchtower May 1, 1993 p. 16, 17 paragraphs 4-8
21. Have You Found the Right Religion?, The Watchtower June 1, 1994 p. 8-9.
22. Revelation--It's Grand Climax At Hand!, page 102
23. "In the Last Days" Since When?, The Watchtower October 1, 1980, p. 19.
24. A Great Crowd Rendering Sacred Service, The Watchtower February 1, 1995, p. 14-17.
25. Revelation-Its Grand Climax at Hand! (1988), p. 257
26. Revelation-Its Grand Climax at Hand! (1988), p. 259
27. "Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing", The Watchtower July 1, 1998, p. 19-24.
28. Crushing The Serpent's Head, Revelation - Its Grand Climax At Hand 1988, p. 292.
29. The Cross-Symbol of Christianity?, The Watchtower, November 15, 1992, p.7.
30. Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, June 15, 2004, p. 29-31.
31. Why Observe the Lord's Evening Meal?, The Watchtower, February 15, 2003, p. 12-15.
32. Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, November 15, 1960, p. 704.
33. Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, October 15, 1998, p. 30.
34. Letter from Letter to Circuit and District Overseers, From the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 1980. Scan available at page 1 page 2 accessed January 27, 2006.
35. Our Kingdom Ministry (2002a). Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped, Our Kingdom Ministry October, 2002, p 3-4. Scan available at http://www.jwfiles.com/scans/KM8-2002.htm accessed January 27, 2006.
36. From Our Readers, Awake!, November 8, 1991, p. 30.
37. "We Have Found the Messiah"!, The Watchtower October 1, 1992, p. 10.
38. "Jesus Saves-How?", The Watchtower November 15, 2001. Web version available at http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2001/11/15/article_02.htm accessed January 26, 2006.
39. Keep Your "Hope of Salvation" Bright!, The Watchtower, June 1, 2000, p. 12.
40. Jehovah Cares For You, The Watchtower October 15, 2002, p. 15.
41. Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness, Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life, 1995, p. 118.
42. Young People Ask... What's Wrong With Premarital Sex?, Awake! July 22, 2004, p. 12.
43. Young People Ask... Why Do I Have These Feelings?, Awake! February 8, 1995, p. 15.
44. Reasoning from the Scriptures p. 203.
45. The Bible's Viewpoint The ?Weaker Vessel??An Insult to Women?, Awake! October 8, 1994, p. 19.
46. The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?, Awake! 2004b, July 8, 2004, p. 26.
47. What Do the Scriptures Say About "the Divinity of Christ"?, The Watchtower January 15, 1992 p. 20-23.
48. Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, May 15, 2004, p. 29-31.
49. Whose Prayers Are Answered?, The Watchtower, January 15, 1990, p. 4.
50. Restoration of True Religion Today, The Watchtower, March 1, 1954, p. 153.
51. Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation", The Watchtower June 1, 1996, p. 14-19.
52. "Can You Make the World a Better Place?", The Watchtower October 15, 2001. Web version available at http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2001/10/15/article_01.htm accessed January 26, 2006.
53. "Is There LIFE After Death?", The Watchtower July 15, 2001. Web version available at http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2001/7/15/article_01.htm accessed January 26, 2006.
54. Hell-Eternal Torture or Common Grave? The Watchtower, April 15, 1993, p. 6.
55. Comfort for Those Who Mourn, Awake! May 8, 2002, p. 19.
56. The Memorial-Are You Entitled to Partake? The Watchtower February 15, 1952, p. 101.
57. Is Christendom Truly Christ's Domain? The Watchtower May 1, 1966, p. 277.
58. Jesus' Family-Who Were They? The Watchtower December 15, 2003, p. 3
59. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society (December 4). "Membership and Publishing Statistics". Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help) How Can Blood Save Your Life?. Accessed 4 December 2005.
60. The Watchtower, October 15 2000, p. 31)
61. Question From Readers, The Watchtower, June 15 2000, p. 29-31. Scan available at http://www.jwfiles.com/blood-WT6-15-00.htm accessed January 27, 2006.
62. "Jehovah's Witnesses Instrumental in Heart Surgery Advance," Awake! Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. (January 22). Web version available at http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/1996/1/22/instrumental_in_advance.htm accessed 4 December 2005.
63. "Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil", The Watchtower, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (January 15). Web version available at http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/1998/1/15/, accessed December 4, 2005.
64. Questions From Readers, The Watchtower 1 April, 1986 pp. 30-31.
65. "It might be possible to have almost no contact at all with the relative. Even if there were some family matters requiring contact, this certainly would be kept to a minimum." Disfellowshiping-How to View It, The Watchtower September 15, 1981, p. 26.
66. Discipline That Can Yield Peaceable Fruit, The Watchtower April 15, 1988, p. 26.
67. Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped, p 4. Scan available at http://www.jwfiles.com/scans/KM8-2002.htm accessed January 27, 2006.
68. The Bible?s Viewpoint Why Disfellowshipping Is a Loving Arrangement, Awake! September 8, 1996.
69. In Search Of Christian Freedom Ray Franz, 2002.
70. God and Caesar, The Watchtower May 1, 1996, p. 9
71. "Salvation Belongs to Jehovah", The Watchtower September 15, 2002, p. 21.
72. "Salvation Belongs to Jehovah", The Watchtower November 1, 1990, p. 23.
73. Watchtower 1 November 1999 pp.28-9)
74. Chapter Eighteen "They Are No Part of the World" Worship the Only True God 2002, p. 159
75. {{cite AV media}}: Empty citation (help)
76. The Watchtower, 15 June 1922, p. 187.
77. "This chronology is not of man, but of God. Being of divine origin and divinely corroborated, present-truth chronology stands in a class by itself, absolutely and unqualifiedly correct....", The Watchtower, July 15, 1922.
78. "The indisputable facts, therefore, show that the "time of the end" began in 1799; that the Lord's second presence began in 1874." Watch Tower March 1, 1922
79. "This spuing out, or casting off, of the nominal church as an organization in 1878, we then understood, and still proclaim, to be the date of the commencement of Babylon's fall..."--Zion's Watch Tower, April 1883. Reprints pp. 474-5.
80. Thy Kingdom Come (1890), Volume 3 of Studies in the Scriptures, p. 305-308.
81. A list of direct quotes from Watch Tower articles on their original beliefs on what the year 1914 held for humanity, unaltered, with date references, publication, and page numbers etc. http://www.reexamine.org/quotes/1914.htm accessed January 27, 2006.
82. Documentations of these changes can be found on pages 3-37 of Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses, by Thomas Daniels, available online at: http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/popestleo/Historical%20Idealism%20and%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf accessed February 1, 2006.
83. "A real milestone was reached, therefore, in 1925, when The Watch Tower of March 1 featured the article "Birth of the Nation."...The article set forth evidence that the Messianic Kingdom had been born--established--in 1914, that Christ had then begun to rule on his heavenly throne, and that thereafter Satan had been hurled from heaven down to the vicinity of the earth."--Jehovah's Witnesses--Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, pp. 138-9.
84. The Harp of God (both the 1921 and 1927 editions) affirmed on page 231 that “the Lord’s second presence dates from 1874.” The March 1, 1922 Watch Tower and pages 65-66 of the book Prophecy (published in 1928) reiterated this position. However, by 1930 some vagueness can be seen. For example, the October 15, 1930 Watch Tower, page 308 says the “second advent of the Lord Jesus Christ dates from about A.D. 1875.” The November 1, 1932 Watch Tower, page 325 is even less precise, stating that from “approximately 1875 forward” Christ was preparing the way.
85. "Presence--Literal or Symbolic?" in A People For His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation, by Timothy White, pp. 223-224.
86. "The year 1914, therefore, marks the second coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, the King of glory."--December 1, 1933 Watch Tower, p. 362
87. "In June, 1927, The Watch Tower published the proof from the Scriptures that those who thus died faithful were asleep in death until the coming of the Lord to his temple in 1918." Light, Book One, (1930), p. 78.
88. Light, Book One, p. 333
89. Light, Book One, p. 318-319.
90. September 1, 1969 Watchtower, p. 521.
91. "We consider it an established truth, that the final end of the kingdoms of this world, and the full establishment of the kingdom of God will be accomplished by A.D. 1915. At that time the prayer of the church, ever since her Lord took his departure, - 'Thy kingdom come' - will be answered; and under its wise and just administration, the whole earth will be filled with the glory of the Lord"--The Time is at Hand, 1915 ed., p. 99 (Other editions are changed)
92. "Also in the year 1918, when God destroys the churches and the church members by millions it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of 'Christianity.'"--The Finished Mystery, Volume 7 of Studies in the Scriptures, 1917, p. 485 (Post 1918 editions have changed the text). Scan available at: http://www.jwfiles.com/scans/1917V7p485.htm accessed February 1, 2006.
93. "And the mountains were not found. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. And the mountains were not found. Every kingdom of earth will pass away, be swallowed up in anarchy." The Finished Mystery, 1917 edition, p. 258. (This date is changed in later editions.)
94. "The date 1925 is even more distinctly indicated by the Scriptures than 1914."--September 1, 1922 Watch Tower, p. 262.
95. Online version of the Watch Tower Society's book, Millions Now Living Will Never Die!, published in 1920 by the International Bible Students Association, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A. http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/millions/millions.html accessed January 27, 2006.
96. Written by W.E. Van Amburgh (a Watchtower Society director), published 1924, pp. 215-254. Scans availabe at: http://www1.tip.nl/~t661020/wtp/wtp_nl.htm accesssed February 4, 2006.
97. Scans of Watch Tower publications which refer to Beth Sarim are available at: http://www.davidgladden.com/jw/Docs/BETH%20SARIM.pdf accessed February 5, 2006
98. See March 31, 1930 Time magazine, p. 60. Scan available at http://members.cox.net/tzdaniels/pictures/Time_March_31_1930.jpg Accessed February 1, 2006.
99. Interview with Rutherford about his luxury Californian Villa, from San Diego Sun newspaper, March 1930. http://www.bibletopics.com/biblestudy/89a.htm accessed January 27, 2006.
100. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose (1959), p. 252
101. "If in obedience to the divine command the Jonadabs or great multitude will marry and rear children after Armageddon, would it not be Scripturally proper for them to begin doing so immediately before Armageddon? and should the Jonadabs now be encouraged to marry and rear children? No, is the answer, supported by the Scriptures." November 1, 1938 Watchtower, p. 323. Scan available at: http://www.davidgladden.com/jw/Docs/MARRIAGE.pdf accessed February 6, 2006.
102. 1943 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Daily Texts and Comments for November 7.
103. See the article "In Defense of Marriage" in the April 15, 1951 Watchtower, p. 227.
104. “Many schools now have student counselors who encourage one to pursue higher education after high school, to pursue a career with a future in this system of things. Do not be influenced by them. Do not let them ‘brainwash’ you with the Devil's propaganda to get ahead, to make something of yourself in this world. The world has very little time left! Any ‘future’ this world offers is no future!"--The Watchtower, March 15, 1969, p. 171.
105. "If Christian parents responsibly decide to provide their children with further education after high school, that is their prerogative."--November 1, 1992 Watchtower, pp. 19-20.
106. See article, "Parents--What Future Do You Want For Your Children?" in the October 1, 2005 Watchtower.
107. A comprehensive list of quotes from Watch Tower 1975 articles, unaltered with date references, publication, and page numbers etc. http://www.reexamine.org/quotes/1975.htm
108. Public Address by District Overseer Charles Sunutko in Spring 1967 in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. Available at http://www.reexamine.org/quotes/ServingWithEverlastingLifeInView.htm in transcript and audio formats. Accessed January 27, 2006.
109. Sound clip of unknown talk by Governing Body Member Fred Franz. http://www.freeminds.org/media/fredfranz75an.html. Accessed January 27, 2006.
110. Crisis of Conscience, Raymond Franz p. 249. Scan available at http://users.volja.net/izobcenec4/coc/9.pdf accessed January 27, 2006.
111. Scanned text discouraging higher education from the Watch Tower 22 May 1969, p.15 http://www.jwfiles.com/scans/AW5-22-69p15.htm
112. Scanned text from the Watch Tower Society's Kingdom Ministry monthly publication, article "How Are You Using Your Life?", May 1974, p.3. http://www.jwfiles.com/scans/KM5-1974p3.htm
113. List of quoted Watch Tower 1975 articles, unaltered with date references, publication, and page numbers etc, with some critical commentary. http://www.freeminds.org/history/all1975.htm
114. The Watchtower 15 August 1968, p. 501
115. 1980 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 30
116. In modern times such eagerness, commendable in itself, has led to attempts at setting dates for the desired liberation from the suffering and troubles that are the lot of persons throughout the earth. With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting-in Freedom of the Sons of God, and its comments as to how appropriate it would be for the millennial reign of Christ to parallel the seventh millennium of man’s existence, considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. There were statements made then, and thereafter, stressing that this was only a possibility. Unfortunately, however, along with such cautionary information, there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. - Choosing the Best Way of Life The Watchtower March 15, 1980, p. 17.
117. You Can Live Forever In Paradise On Earth, published 1982, rev. 1989, p154
118. "He shows the beginning of this time and how the troubles increase, and mentions some of the sorrows to fall on the world, during the time of trouble. The length of time is indicated by him when he said, 'Truly I say to you that this generation will by no means pass away until all these things occur.' (Matt. 24:34, NW) The actual meaning of these words is, beyond question, that which takes a 'generation' in the ordinary sense, as at Mark 8:12 and Acts 13:36, or for those who are living at the given period. So it was on 'this generation' that the accumulated judgments were to fall. (Matt. 23:36) This therefore means that from 1914 a generation shall not pass till all is fulfilled, and amidst a great time of trouble. Vision of the 'Time of the End', The Watchtower, July 1951, p. 404
119. Crisis of Conscience, Raymond Franz p. 262. Scan available at http://users.volja.net/izobcenec4/coc/10.pdf accessed January 27, 2006.
120. "Saved From a 'Wicked Generation'", The Watchtower (November 1), pp. 10-15.
121. "A Time To Keep Awake", The Watchtower (November 1). p. 19 par. 12, and p. 20 par. 15.

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