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Goa is a small state on the western coast of India.Even though it is the smallest of all Indian states it has played a very noteworthy role in Indian history.Goa was one of the major trade centers in India,thus it had always been attracting the influential dynasties,seafarers,merchants,traders,monks and missionaries since its earliest known history.Through the passage of time,Goa has undergone a constant flux,transition,change and transformation,which has left an indelible impression on various aspects of cultural development of Goa.

Prehistoric period

Paleolithic and Mesolithic era

Until 1993 ,the existence of Homo sapiens in Goa during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic period was highly debated.The discovery of rock art engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavti,has shed light on prehistory of Goa.The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people.The perennial stream in the vicinity as a source of water which might have served the Stone age man for centuries. An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found. This site was discovered by Dr P.P.Shirodkar.Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin,other sites at Keri,Thane,Anjuna has led to finding of several scrapers,points,bores,cones etc.An hand axe has also been found at usgalimal.Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the river Dudhsagar. Shirodakar carried out a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic and Mesolithic phase ie. 8000-6000 BC. These historical discoveries have proved that well before the advent of agriculture,the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers.

Neolithic period

The archeological evidences in the form of polished stone axe,suggest the settlements of Neolithic man in Goa. These axes have been found in Goa Velha. It is believed that tribes of Austric origin like Kols,Mundaris,Kharvis may have settled Goa during this period,living on huting,fishing and primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC. According to Goan historian Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes.In his work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language.He also elaborates on the deities worshiped by the ancient tribes,their customs,methods of farming and its overall impact on modern day Goan society The Negroids were in an Neolithic stage of primitive culture, and they were food- gatherers rather.Traces of Negroid physical characteristics are found in parts of Goa, at least upto the middle of the first millennium. The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan with the other mentioned tribes formed reportedly the earliest settlers in the territory.Agriculture was not fully developed at this stage,and was just shaping up.The Kols and Mundaris might have been using stone and wood implements as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC.The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.

The Iron age

The Sumerian times-2200 BC

The first written reference to Goa appears to have been in Cuneiform,in Sumerian times when the King Gudea of Lagash called it Gubio.This was around 2200 BC.Sumerians had established trade contacts with Goa.Many Sumerians settled in Goa and along the Konkan coast.Sumerians must have designed the fields of Goa because these follow their measure till date.Unlike 0.46 unit generally prevelant elsewhere in India,it is pointed out that the positioning in Goa agrees with Sumerian 12 cubits to a pole,and 0.495 of a meter to a cubit.Later the seaborne community of Phoenicians became extensive settlers of Goa around 1775 BC. Sumerian are believed to have modified many local customs and introduce their own systems eg.the temple building style,the Devadasi system,the comunidade system.Sumerians also influenced the language,the caste system and the kinship practices to some extent.Severals Cuneiforms have been found in Goa and an Oracle plate dedicated to Inana has been recovered from Savoi Verem

Pre-Mahabharata period

A wave of Kusha or Harappan people a Lothal probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilization which thrived on sea-trade.Some historians also propose a theory of migration of the Bhargava tribe to Goa,from Gujarat.This tribe was called so because of their clan symbol which was an axe.This theory links the Parashurama myth with the history.According to this theory the Bhargava clan is connected to the mighty phrygians in Asia Minor,and Parashurama also known as Bhargavarama was one of their clan leader.These Bhargavas might have started their sea-expedition before the Mahabharata war

The classical period

Mahabharata period

The first literary reference to Goa in the Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata as Gomanta which means the region of cows. This Sanskritized name might have been used by the Bhargavas or the axe bearing tribe,which might have settled Goa.

The age of empires

The Mauryas

The history of the dynasty is almost a blank. The records so far found disclose the names of only three of its Kings, namely Suketavarvan who ruled some time in the fourth or fifth century, Chandravarman in the sixth century and Ajitavarman in the seventh, who ruled from Kumardvipa or modern Kumarjuve, but furnish no clue as to their mutual relationship. The dates are approximate. They are fixed by comparing the style of the Nagari script in which these records are written with the stages in the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly correctly. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their find-spots that at its zenith the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat. coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and half of the North Kanara district.After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in the second century B.C. its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas,the dynasty he founded ruled over the West Coast for well nigh four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara.This dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas.Goa was called as Sunaparant by the Mauryas.

The so called Aryanization or Sanskritization of Goa actually began when Chandragupta Maurya incorporated the West Coast of India in his province of Aparanta, and the impact of Magadhan Prakrit, the official Language of the strongest empire India has ever known, on the local Dravidian spoken in this part of the coast, resulted in the formation of early Konkani, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars.During this era Buddhism was introduces to Goa. Similarly a native goan Purna also known as Punna in Pali went to Sarnath is considered as direct disciple of Buddha who made Buddhism popular in Goa in 5th century BC.

The Shatavahanas

The Satavahanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire, but declared independence with its decline.They ruled Goa through their coastal feudatories,the Chutus of Karwar.This period may be estimated somewhere around 2nd century BC to 100 AD.They had established maritime power and their contacts with Roman empire due to the coastal trade from Sindh to Saurashtra,from Bharuch to Sopara to Goa,where Greek and Roman ships would halt during voyages.The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana empire. With the fall of the Satavahanas,the lucrative seaborne trade also seems to have declined. Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period.Buddha status in Greek style have been found in Goa.(see Pius Melkandathil,Martitime activities of Goa and the Indian ocean.)It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa.

The Bhojas

First as feudatories of the Mauryas and then as an independent empire,the Bhojas ruled Goa for more than 500 years and annexed entire Goa to their Kingdom. The earliest known record of the Bhoja empire from Goa date from the 3rd century BC were found in the town of Shiroda in Goa.According to Puranik tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas,who according to the historians might have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the Mahabharata war..Two Bhoja copperplate grants dating back 3rd century BC were unearthed from Bandora village,written by the king Prithvimallavarman.Many other copperplates have also been recovered from many other places in Goa dating from 3rd century BC to 8th century AD.Ancient Chandrapur or modern Chandor was they capital and they ruled Goa,Belgaum and North Canara from there.

From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan it ca be seen that they used Sanskrit and Prakrit for administration. According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri many Brahmins,and Vaishyas had come with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the North.(see A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara)The Kshatriya Bhojas patronised Buddhism and employed many Buddhist converts of Greek and Persian origin.

Medieval period

Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from 1st century BC to 1500 AD.Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties there was organised judicial or policing system prevalent in those days,except for traditional arrangements done by the absolute rulers ans the local chieftains.Muslim rule may said to have brought a little order than before. An important aspect of Goa history of those days is that Goa was not one kingdom.Several parts of this tiny territory were ruled by several different kingdoms.the boundaries of the kingdom were not clearly marked.the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages,which paid them tributes and owned them allegiance.

This period in Goan history was a period of turmoil.The Goa Shilahara power was waning.The Arab traders started controlling the overseas business and enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas.,in order to control this Kadamba King Guhalladeva I(ruling from Chandor only) established secular,political and economic partnership with them.After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage the kadamba King Shashthadeva II firmly planted his rule in Goa.

The Kadambas of Goa

The Kadambas ruled Goa over 10th to 14th century AD.In the beginning they ruled only Sashti and a small part of Konkan.They ruled from Chandor,over a large part,but the port of Gopakpattana was not a part in the beginning. The Goa Kadambas were the later scions of the main Kadamba dynasty.whose modern descendants still live in Goa.

The port of Goapakapattna

Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa ie,port Gopakpattana and Kapardikadvipa,and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom,and made Gopakpattana as his secondary capital.The next King Jayakeshi I further expanded the Goan kingdom.Sanskrit Jain text Dvayashraya mention the extend of his capital.Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with Zanzibar,Bengal,Gujarat and Sri Lanka(mentioned as Zaguva,Gauda,Gurjara,Simhala in the Sanskrit text).The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing but spiritually cleansing as well.On account of its commercial nature,Gopakapattna possessed a cosmopolitan look.The capital was served by an important highway called as Rajvithi or Rajpath which linked it with Ela,ruins of whose glory can still be seen.For more than 300 years it remained a neucleus of intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade,from Africa to Malaya Goa became a known destination.Later in the 14th century the port was looted by Khilji general Malik Kafur,the headquarters were shifted to Chandor and back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq's attack on Chandor.

Guhalladeva III,Jayakeshi II,Shivachitta Paramadideva,Vinshuchitta II,Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in the 12th century. During the rule of Kadambas,the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith.Goa's religion,culture,trade,arts flourished under the rule of these kings.The pious Kings and their queens built many Shiva temples as they were devote Shaivites.Though their language of administration was Sanskrit and Kannada they also patronized Konkani and Marathi.

Kadambas having ruled Goa for more than 400 glorious years,lost in power to Devagiri Yadavas,further with the Muslim invasions the once magnificent dynasty was lost forever.

Muslim rule

In 1350 CE, Goa was conquered by the Bahmani Sultanate. However in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly 100 years, during which its harbours were important landing places for Arabian horses on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469, however, Goa was reconquered, by the Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga. When this dynasty broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, who made Goa Velha their second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese Viceroys as their official residence.

Portuguese conquest

In 1498, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Calicut. In 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Goa at the behest of the local cheftian Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah, the Muslim king of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force only three months later, on November 25, with a fleet fully renovated. In less than a day they took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6000 of the 9000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either on the fierce battle in the streets or drowned while trying to escape. He gained the support of the Hindu population, although frustrating the initial expectations Thimayya who aspired to gain the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people, as a knowing interpreter of the local customs. He then made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms: the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and local grants to fortify.

In Goa Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest. The new coin, based on the existing local coins, showed a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere (or "espera"), King Manuel's badge, on the other. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued, respectively gold cruzados or manueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and "leais". More mints would follow in Malacca in 1511.

Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island, only abolishing the rite of sati (widow-burning). A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.

Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca (1511) and Hormuz (1515). Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, as distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf, Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy. By mid-16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.

Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east but this was rejected by the king.

The Portuguese set up a base in Goa in their quest to control the spice trade. Merchandise from all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods–Bahrain pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago.

In 1542, St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, and there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon."

In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the headquarters of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation becoming a byword before the end of the 16th century.

Almost all manual labour was done by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.

Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim led first to small skirmishes and finally to the murder of all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the 16 chieftains of each ward (vado) of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort, the chieftains were slain, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers were left without their traditional leaders and the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals and set up the Goa Inquisition. See main article: Cuncolim Revolt.

Decline

The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. With the situation already volatile, Maratha troops entered parts of Bicholim in 1641 and began the minor Bicholim conflict, which ended in peace treaty between the Portuguese and Maratha Empire.

Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. After escaping from Agra Shivaji slowly started gaining the areas which he lost in Treaty of Purendar to Moghuls. In this he conquered most of the area adjoining to Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem, Bicholim, Sattari, Ponda, Sanguem, Quepem, Cancona. Sawantwadi Bonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals. In 1683 Chatrapati Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer entire Goa including the area in then Portuguese Goa. He almost ousted Portugues but to their surprise Mughal army prevented it from capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressurize Protuguese Northern possession at Vasai (or Bassaiem), but could not be won because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.

After Third Battle of Panipat, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire got weakened and Portuguese then defeated Rajas of Sawantwadi and Raja of Sunda to conquer area stretched from Pernem till Cancona. This formed the Novas Conquestas and thus the present day Goa is formed.

In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese Nova Goa), today's Panaji, which became the official seat of government in 1843, effecting a move which had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city.

In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree penned by his prime minister, the Marquês de Pombal, granting the Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and had representation in the Portuguese parliament.

In 1787, there was a rebellion started by some priests against Portuguese rule. It became famous as the Conspiracy of the Pintos. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British between 1812-1815 in the context of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance during the Napoleonic Wars.

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Prehistoric Madrasian culture Soanian, c. 500,000 BCE Neolithic, c. 7600 – c. 1000 BCE Bhirrana 7570 – 6200 BCE Jhusi 7106 BCE Lahuradewa 7000 BCE Mehrgarh 7000 – 2600 BCE South Indian Neolithic 3000 – 1000 BCE
Ancient Indus Valley Civilization, c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE Post Indus Valley Period (Cemetery H Culture), c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE Vedic civilization, c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE Kuru kingdom, c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE Early Vedic period Rise of Śramaṇa movement Later Vedic Period Spread of Jainism – Parshvanatha Spread of Jainism – Mahavira Rise of Buddhism Kingdom of Magadha Brihadratha Dynasty 1700 – 682 BCE Haryanka Dynasty 544 – 413 BCE Shaishunaga Dynasty 413 – 345 BCE Nanda Dynasty, 345 – 322 BCE Mahajanapadas, c. 600 – 345 BCE
Classical Kingdom of Magadha Maurya Dynasty, 322 – 185 BCE Pandya Dynasty, 320 BCE - 280 CE Shunga Dynasty, 185 – 73 BCE Kanva Dynasty, 73 – 28 BCE Sangam period 300 BCE – 400 CE Kushan Dynasty, c. 30 – c. 375 CE Satavahana Dynasty, c. 228 BCE – c. 224 CE Gupta Dynasty, c. 240 – c. 550 CE
Early medieval Pallava dynasty, 275 CE - 897 CE Chalukya Dynasty, 543 – 753 CE Pandya Dynasty, 590 CE - 920 CE Harsha's Dynasty, c. 606 CE – c. 647 CE Karakota Dynasty, c. 724 – c. 760 CE Arab Invasion, c. 738 CE Tripartite Struggle, c. 760 – c. 973 CE Pratihara dynasty Rastrakuta Dynasty Pala Dynasty Chola Dynasty, c. 848 – c. 1251 CE 2nd Chalukya Dynasty, c. 973 – c. 1187 CE
Late medieval Delhi Sultanate, 1206 – 1526 CE Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Pandyan Empire, 1251 – 1618 CE Vijayanagara, 1336 – 1646 CE Bengal Sultanate, 1342 – 1576 CE
Early modern Mughal Dynasty, 1526 – 1540 CE Suri Dynasty, 1538/40 – 1556 CE Mughal Dynasty, 1556 – 1857 CE Bengal Subah, c. 1576 – c. 1757 CE Maratha Empire, c. 1674 – c. 1818 CE Company Raj, c. 1757 – c. 1858 CE Kingdom of Mysore, c. 1760 – c. 1799 CE Sikh Empire, c. 1799 – c. 1849 CE
Modern The Great Rebellion, 1857 – 1858 CE British Raj, 1858 – 1947 CE Independence Movement Independent India, 1947 CE – present Dominion of India, 1947 – 1950 CE Republic of India, 1950 CE – present
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Outline Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC) Madrasian culture Soanian culture Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC) Bhirrana culture (7570–6200 BC) Mehrgarh culture (7000–3300 BC) Edakkal culture (5000–3000 BC) Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC) Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC) Ahar-Banas culture (3000–1500 BC) Pandu culture (1600–750 BC) Malwa culture (1600–1300 BC) Jorwe culture (1400–700 BC) Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC) Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BC)  – Early Harappan culture (3300–2600 BC)  – Mature Harappan culture (2600–1900 BC)  – Late Harappan culture (1900–1300 BC) Vedic Civilisation (2000–500 BC)  – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1600 BC)  – Swat culture (1600–500 BC) Iron Age (1500–200 BC) Vedic Civilisation (1500–500 BC)  – Janapadas (1500–600 BC)  – Black and Red ware culture (1300–1000 BC)  – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)  – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC) Pradyota dynasty (799–684 BC) Haryanka dynasty (684–424 BC) Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC – AD 1600) Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC) Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Ror Dynasty (450 BC – AD 489) Shaishunaga dynasty (424–345 BC) Nanda Empire (380–321 BC) Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC) Maurya Empire (321–184 BC) Seleucid India (312–303 BC) Sangam period (c. 300 BC – c. 300 AD) Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345) Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102) Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279) Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800) Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500) Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224) Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206) Satavahana Empire (230 BC – AD 220) Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC – AD 300) Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 – c. 50 BC) Shunga Empire (185–73 BC) Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – AD 10) Kanva Empire (75–26 BC) Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC – AD 400) Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21 – c. 130) Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 ) Kushan Empire (AD 60–240) Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350) Nagas of Padmavati (210–340) Sasanian Empire (224–651) Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360) Vakataka Empire (c. 250 – c. 500) Kalabhras Empire (c. 250 – c. 600) Gupta Empire (280–550) Kadamba Empire (345–525) Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000) Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100) Vishnukundina Empire (420–624) Maitraka Empire (475–767) Huna Kingdom (475–576) Rai Kingdom (489–632) Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500 – 1026) Chalukya Empire (543–753) Maukhari Empire (c. 550 – c. 700) Harsha Empire (606–647) Tibetan Empire (618–841) Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075) Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Mallabhum kingdom (694–1947) Bhauma-Kara Kingdom (736–916) Pala Empire (750–1174) Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982) Paramara Kingdom (800–1327) Yadava Empire (850–1334) Somavamshi Kingdom (882–1110) Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244) Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189) Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320) Hoysala Empire (1040–1347) Sena Empire (1070–1230) Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434) Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323) Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766) Kalachuris of Tripuri (675–1210) Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184) Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673) Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300) Late medieval period (1206–1526) Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186) Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206) Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)  – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)  – Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)  – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)  – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)  – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526) Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826) Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779) Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448) Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803) Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947) Gajapati Empire (1434–1541) Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842) Deccan sultanates (1490–1596)  – Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)  – Berar sultanate (1490–1574)  – Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)  – Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)  – Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687) Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763) Koch Kingdom (1515–1947) Early modern period (1526–1858) Mughal Empire (1526–1858) Sur Empire (1540–1556) Madurai Kingdom (1529–1736) Thanjavur Kingdom (1532–1673) Bhoi dynasty (1541–1804) Bengal Subah (1576–1757) Marava Kingdom (1600–1750) Sikkim Kingdom (1642–1975) Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948) Maratha Empire (1674–1818) Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799) Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947) Sikh Empire (1799–1849) Colonial states (1510–1961) Portuguese India (1510–1961) Dutch India (1605–1825) Danish India (1620–1869) French India (1759–1954) Company Raj (1757–1858) British Raj (1858–1947)
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After the independence of India

When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal Nehru insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. Portugal, however, refused. France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Pondicherry, see French India), gave them up.

During the tenure of Marquês de Pombal, Act of 1761 was promulgated whereby all Portuguese subjects born in Portuguese India were considered Portuguese citizens, and as such, Goans had the right to elect their representatives to the Portuguese Parliament. The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.

In 1954, unarmed Indians took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice at The Hague. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.

In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, satyagrahis demonstrated against Portugal. At least 22 of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.

Later the same year, the satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese, with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed. In 1955 also Jawaharlal Nehru declared his government would not tolerate Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão and Diu, in an effort to force the Portuguese to leave.

On December 16, 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa. Code named 'Operation Vijay', the move involved sustained land, sea, and air strikes for more than 36 hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on 19 December. A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United Kingdom in the United Nations Security Council, but it was vetoed by the USSR.

Under Indian rule, Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and elected to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was admitted to Indian statehood in 1987.

After annexation by India, the area was under military rule for five months, but the previous civil service was soon restored and the area became a federally administered territory. Goa celebrates its "Liberation Day" on 19 December every year, which is also a state holiday.

Notes

1. Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, Robert G. Bednarik, Indirā Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava Saṅgrahālaya (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. pp. 228 pages (see page 34). ISBN 8120814649, 9788120814646. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
2. ^ Goa (India : State). Directorate of Archives and Archaeology, Goa University (2001). Goa in the Indian sub-continent: seminar papers. Goa: Directorate of Archives and Archaeology, Govt. of Goa,. pp. 211 pages (see page 24).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
3. ^ C. R. Srinivasan, K. V. Ramesh, S. Subramonia Iyer (2004). Śrī puṣpāñjali: recent researches in prehistory, protohistory, art, architecture, numismatics, iconography, and epigraphy : Dr. C.R. Srinivasan commemoration volume, Volume 1. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,. pp. 469 pages (see page4). ISBN 8180900568, 9788180900563. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "axe" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
4. Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo, K. Paddayya, Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute (1985). Recent advances in Indian archaeology: proceedings of the seminar held in Poona in 1983. Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute, 1985. pp. 115 pages (see page 33).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
5. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1 Gazetteer of India Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: District Gazetteer, Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept. Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu,. 1979. pp. Page 57.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
6. ^ Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (, 1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D. Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 53.94, 95). {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
7. Gomes, Olivinho (1987). Village Goa: a study of Goan social structure and change. S. Chand,. pp. 426 pages.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
8. ^ De Souza, Teotonio R. (1989). Essays in Goan history. Concept Publishing Company,. pp. 219 pages (see pages 1 -16). ISBN 817022263X, 9788170222637. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
9. ^ S. C. Bhatt,, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006). Land and people of Indian states and union territories: in 36 volumes. Goa, Volume 7. Gyan Publishing House,. pp. 278 pages (see pages 19.20, 21). ISBN 8178353636, 9788178353630. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
10. Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (, 1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D. Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 100-150). {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
11. Satoskar, Ba.Da (1982). Gomantak:Prakruti ani Sanskruti,khand ek(in Marath). Pune: Sharda publications. pp. Page 20-21.
12. ^ Moraes, Prof. George. "PRE-PORTUGUESE CULTURE OF GOA". Published in the Proceedings of the International Goan Convention. Published in the Proceedings of the International Goan Convention. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
13. Motichandra (1982). Sartavaha(Ancient indian trade routes(Marathi translation by M.K.Pradhi). New Delhi: Sahitya acedemy. pp. pages 144-148. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
14. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1. panajim Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, 1979. 1979. pp. (see page 70).
15. Nayak, K.D (1968). Gomantakachi sanskrutic ghadan(in Marathi). Margao: Gomant Vidya Niketan. pp. Pages 37-42.
16. Larsen, Karin (1998). Faces of Goa: a journey through the history and cultural revolution of Goa and other communities influenced by the Portuguese. Gyan Books,. pp. 507 pages(see 66.67). ISBN 8121205840, 9788121205849. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
17. Satoskar, Ba.Da (1982). Gomantak prakruti ani sanskuti,khand II,in Marathi. Pune: Shubhda pulbishers. p. 106.
18. D. Banerjea (2005). Criminal Justice India Series: Goa, 2002. Allied Publishers,. pp. see page 3. ISBN 817764517X, 9788177645170. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
19. Sakshena, R.N. (2003). Goa: Into the Mainstream. Abhinav Publications,. pp. 156 pages(see page 20-21). ISBN 8170170052, 9788170170051. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
20. S. C. Bhatt,, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006). Land and people of Indian states and union territories: in 36 volumes. Goa, Volume 7. Gyan Publishing House,. pp. 278 pages (see pages 61-65). ISBN 8178353636, 9788178353630. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
21. ^ De Souza, Teotonio R. (1990). Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. Concept Publishing Company,. pp. 312 pages (see pages11-15). ISBN 8170222591, 9788170222590. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
22. Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580, p. 253, Diffie, Winius 253, Diffie, Winius
23. Kerr, Robert (1824)
24. Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry, Charles J. Borges, "Goa-Kanara Portuguese relations, 1498-1763" p. 34-36
25. Teotonio R. De Souza, "Goa Through the Ages: An economic history" p.220-221, Issue 6 of Goa University publication series, ISBN 8170222265
26. "Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque", p.157
27. Sebastião Rodolfo Dalgado, Joseph M. Piel, Glossário luso-asiático, Parte 1, p.382
28. An abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India (London, 1898).
29. Thompson, Mark, Mistrust between states, Oxford University Press, London 1996
30. Asian recorder 1962, p. 4371 harvnb error: no target: as (help)
31. Asian recorder 1962, p. 4440 harvnb error: no target: as (help)
32. Goa and Portugal: history and development By Charles J. Borges, Hannes Stubbe
33. ^ Time

Further reading

• Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimilie edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.

See also

• Goa liberation movement

External links

• Xavier Centre of Historical Research
• The Portuguese Experience - The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu, An administrative history of Goa
• The Portuguese Rule in India
• Christianization of the Velhas Conquistas

• Goa
• History of Goa