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| It is hypothesised that rape is ] to similar behavior in other animals. “Human rape appears not as an aberration but as an alternative gene-promotion strategy that is most likely to be adopted by the 'losers' in the competitive, harem-building struggle. If the means of access to legitimate, consenting sex is not available, then a male may be faced with the choice between force or genetic extinction.” <ref>Wilson, Glenn. The Science of Sex: Glenn Wilson on Rape. The Great Sex Divide, pp. 128-131. http://www.heretical.com/wilson/rape.html</ref> | It is hypothesised that rape is ] to similar behavior in other animals. “Human rape appears not as an aberration but as an alternative gene-promotion strategy that is most likely to be adopted by the 'losers' in the competitive, harem-building struggle. If the means of access to legitimate, consenting sex is not available, then a male may be faced with the choice between force or genetic extinction.” <ref>Wilson, Glenn. The Science of Sex: Glenn Wilson on Rape. The Great Sex Divide, pp. 128-131. http://www.heretical.com/wilson/rape.html</ref> | ||
| Thornhill et al. write that "Rape is viewed as a natural, biological phenomenon that is a product of the human evolutionary heritage". They further state that they "emphasize that by categorizing a behavior as "natural" and "biological" we do not in any way mean to imply that the behavior is justified or even inevitable. Biological means "of or pertaining to life," so the word applies to every human feature and behavior. But to infer from that, as many of our critics assert that we do, that what is biological is somehow right or good, would be to fall into the so-called ]." They make a comparison to "natural disasters as epidemics, floods and tornadoes". This shows that what can be found in nature is not always good and that measures should be and are taken against natural phenomena.<ref>Thornhill, Randy & Palmer, Craig T. Why Men Rape. New York Acadamey of Sciences. JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2000. http://iranscope.ghandchi.com/Anthology/Women/rape.html</ref> | Thornhill et al. write that "Rape is viewed as a natural, biological phenomenon that is a product of the human evolutionary heritage". They further state that they "emphasize that by categorizing a behavior as "natural" and "biological" we do not in any way mean to imply that the behavior is justified or even inevitable. Biological means "of or pertaining to life," so the word applies to every human feature and behavior. But to infer from that, as many of our critics assert that we do, that what is biological is somehow right or good, would be to fall into the so-called ]." They make a comparison to "natural disasters as epidemics, floods and tornadoes". This shows that what can be found in nature is not always good and that measures should be and are taken against natural phenomena. They further argue that a good knowledge of the causes of rape, including evolutionary ones, are necessary in order to develop effective preventive measure.<ref>Thornhill, Randy & Palmer, Craig T. Why Men Rape. New York Acadamey of Sciences. JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2000. http://iranscope.ghandchi.com/Anthology/Women/rape.html</ref> | ||
| == Criticism == | == Criticism == | ||
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Sociobiological theories of rape are theories that explore to what degree, if any, evolutionary adaptations influence the psychology of rapists. Such theories are highly controversial, as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation. Some object to such theories on ethical, religious, political as well as scientific grounds.
A Natural History of Rape
The idea that rape evolved as a genetically advantageous behavioral adaptation was popularised by biologist Randy Thornhill and anthropologist Craig T. Palmer in their book A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion.
Rape as an adaptation among animals
Further information: Animal sexual behaviour § Coercive sex Further information: Sexual conflictIt has long been noted that behavior resembling rape in humans is widespread in other animals, including ducks and geese, bottlenose dolphins and chimpanzees. Indeed in orangutangs, close human relatives, copulations of this nature may account for up to half of all observed matings. Such behaviours, referred to as ‘forced copulations’, involve an animal being approached and sexually penetrated whilst it struggles or attempts to escape. These observations of forced sex among animals are not controversial. What is controversial is the interpretation of these observations and the extension of theories based on them to humans. “Thornhill introduces this theory by describing the sexual behavior of scorpion flies. In which the male may gain sex from the female either by presenting a gift of food during courtship or without a nuptial offering, in which case force is necessary to restrain her.”
It is hypothesised that rape is homologous to similar behavior in other animals. “Human rape appears not as an aberration but as an alternative gene-promotion strategy that is most likely to be adopted by the 'losers' in the competitive, harem-building struggle. If the means of access to legitimate, consenting sex is not available, then a male may be faced with the choice between force or genetic extinction.”
Thornhill et al. write that "Rape is viewed as a natural, biological phenomenon that is a product of the human evolutionary heritage". They further state that they "emphasize that by categorizing a behavior as "natural" and "biological" we do not in any way mean to imply that the behavior is justified or even inevitable. Biological means "of or pertaining to life," so the word applies to every human feature and behavior. But to infer from that, as many of our critics assert that we do, that what is biological is somehow right or good, would be to fall into the so-called naturalistic fallacy." They make a comparison to "natural disasters as epidemics, floods and tornadoes". This shows that what can be found in nature is not always good and that measures should be and are taken against natural phenomena. They further argue that a good knowledge of the causes of rape, including evolutionary ones, are necessary in order to develop effective preventive measure.
Criticism
Evolutionary psychology proponent Edward H. Hagen states in his Evolutionary Psychology FAQ that he believes there is no clear evidence for the hypothesis that rape is adaptive. He believes the adaptivity of rape is possible, but claims there is not enough evidence to be certain one way or the other. However, he encourages such evidence to be obtained: "Whether human males possess psychological adaptations for rape will only be answered by careful studies seeking evidence for such cognitive specializations. To not seek such evidence is like failing to search a suspect for a concealed weapon."
The book Evolution, Gender, and Rape compiles the views of twenty-eight prominent biologists in opposition to sociobiological theories of rape.
See also
- Animal sexual behaviour: coercive sex
- Sexual selection
- Sexy son hypothesis - evolutionary theory regarding female reproductive strategy
References
Life (2009)BBC Season 1 Episode 2: Nawakwa Chameleon.
Forced sex in animals:
- Abele, L. and Gilchrist, S. (1977), "Homosexual rape and sexual selection in Acanthocephalan worms", Science 197: 81-83.
- Barash, D. (1977), "Sociobiology of Rape in Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos): Responses of the Mated Male", Science 197: 788-789.
Theories regarding rape in humans:
- McKibbin, W.F., Shackelford, T.K., Goetz, A.T., & Starratt, V.G. (2008). Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective. Review of General Psychology, 12, 86-97. Full text
- Thornhill, R. and Palmer, C. (2000), A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-20125-9
- Thornhill, R. and Thornhill, N. (1983), "Human Rape: An Evolutionary Analysis", Ethology and Sociobiology 4:137-173.
Responses to these theories:
- Fausto-Sterling, A. "Putting Woman in Her (Evolutionary) Place," in Myths of Gender. Basic Books, (1992). ISBN 0-465-04792-0
- Travis, C. B. (ed.) (2003) Evolution, Gender, and Rape. A Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 454 pp., ISBN 0-262-70090-5.
Other evidence:
- Chavanne, T. J. & Gallup, G. G., Jr. (1998) Variation in risk taking behavior among female college students as a function of the menstrual cycle. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 27-32.
Bandura, Albert. Social Learning Theory. http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html CliffsNotes.com. Gender Stereotypes. 9 Dec 2010 <http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26896.html>. Malamuth, Neil M. & Check, Joseph. Repeated Exposure to Violent and Nonviolent Pornography: Likelihood of Raping Ratings and Laboratory Aggression Against Women. http://www.apa.org/divisions/div46/articles/malamuth.pdf Siegel, Larry J. Criminonlogy. Thomson & Wadswoth.Tenth Edition. 2009. http://books.google.com/books?id=9nH0kSUMwGIC&pg=PA294&lpg=PA294&dq=men+with+psychological+abnormalities+who+rape&source=bl&ots=6gEcLBaRm9&sig=gC6G_tj_bb0wAcgxedGepRorH9Q&hl=en&ei=zTECTafGLIO8lQfskuGBCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Thornhill, Randy & Palmer, Craig T. Why Men Rape. New York Acadamey of Sciences. JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2000. http://iranscope.ghandchi.com/Anthology/Women/rape.htm Webster, Murray & Rashotte, Lisa. Fixed Roles and Situated Actions. Sep2009, Vol. 61 Issue 5/6, p325-337, 13p, 1 Chart
Wilson, Glenn. The Science of Sex: Glenn Wilson on Rape. The Great Sex Divide, pp. 128–131. http://www.heretical.com/wilson/rape.html
References
- Connor, Richard and Vollmer, Nicole (ed. Buss, David). 2005. Sexual Coercion in Dolphin Consortships: A comparison with Chimpanzees, pp 218.
- Akiko Matsumoto-Oda, Miya Hamai, Hitosige Hayaki, Kazuhiko Hosaka, Kevin D. Hunt, Eiiti Kasuya, Kenji Kawanaka, John C. Mitani, Hiroyuki Takasaki and Yukio Takahata. 2007. Estrus Cycle Asynchrony in Wild Female Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii.
- Wrangham, R., & Peterson, D. 1996. Demonic males. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
- Wilson, Glenn. The Science of Sex: Glenn Wilson on Rape. The Great Sex Divide, pp. 128-131. http://www.heretical.com/wilson/rape.html
- Wilson, Glenn. The Science of Sex: Glenn Wilson on Rape. The Great Sex Divide, pp. 128-131. http://www.heretical.com/wilson/rape.html
- Thornhill, Randy & Palmer, Craig T. Why Men Rape. New York Acadamey of Sciences. JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2000. http://iranscope.ghandchi.com/Anthology/Women/rape.html
External links
- The Evolutionary Psychology FAQ entry on rape
- Insult to injury 20 June 2001 New Scientist Print Edition by Matt Walker
- Link between rape and pregnancy 20 June 2001 BBC News.
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