Misplaced Pages

Capture of Jericho: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 03:50, 10 October 2011 editRoslynSKP (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, File movers24,704 edits →References: add sources← Previous edit Revision as of 15:05, 10 October 2011 edit undoMarcusBritish (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users18,077 edits copy-edit / reviewNext edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Userspace draft|source=ArticleWizard|date=September 2011}} <!-- Please leave this line alone! -->
{{Infobox Military Conflict {{Infobox Military Conflict
| conflict = Capture of Jericho | conflict = Capture of Jericho
| image = ] | image = ]
| caption = 21 February 1918 Breakfast meeting of Generals Chaytor Chauvel and Chetwode on the morning of the Capture of Jericho | caption = 21 February 1918 Breakfast meeting of Generals Chaytor Chauvel and Chetwode on the morning of the Capture of Jericho
| partof = the ] | partof = the ]
Line 9: Line 8:
| type = Infantry, Mounted Rifle, Light Horse | type = Infantry, Mounted Rifle, Light Horse
| result = British Empire victory | result = British Empire victory
| combatant1 = {{flag|Australia}}<br />{{flag|Great Britain}} <br />{{flag|New Zealand}} | combatant1 = {{flag|Australia}}<br />{{flag|Great Britain}}<br />{{flag|New Zealand}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Ottoman Empire}} | combatant2 = {{flag|Ottoman Empire}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Great Britain}} ]<br /> {{flagicon|British Empire}} ]<br />{{flagicon|British Empire}} John Shea <br /> {{flagicon |New Zealand}} ] | commander1 = {{flagicon|Great Britain}} ]<br />{{flagicon|British Empire}} ]<br />{{flagicon|British Empire}} John Shea<br />{{flagicon |New Zealand}} ]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|German Empire}} ] <br />{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} ] <br />{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} ] <br />{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} ] | commander2 = {{flagicon|German Empire}} ]<br />{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} ]<br />{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} ]<br />{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} ]
| strength1 = 60th (London) Infantry Division <br /> 53rd Infantry Division (XXth Corps)<br /> 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades (Anzac Mounted Division); 6,800 | strength1 = 60th (London) Infantry Division<br /> 53rd Infantry Division (XXth Corps)<br />1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades (Anzac Mounted Division); 6,800
| strength2 = 26th and 53rd Divisions (XIIIth or XXth Corps); 3,000 | strength2 = 26th and 53rd Divisions (XIIIth or XXth Corps); 3,000
| casualties1 = 510 | casualties1 = 510
Line 21: Line 20:
The '''Capture of Jericho''' occurred between 19–21 February 1918 to the east of ] during the ] of ]. Fighting took place in an area bordered by the ] to ] road in the west and the ] in the east and north of a line from Jerusalem to the ].<ref>Battles Nomenclature Committee 1922 p. 33</ref> Here a ] force attacked ] positions forcing them back to Jericho and across the Jordan River. The '''Capture of Jericho''' occurred between 19–21 February 1918 to the east of ] during the ] of ]. Fighting took place in an area bordered by the ] to ] road in the west and the ] in the east and north of a line from Jerusalem to the ].<ref>Battles Nomenclature Committee 1922 p. 33</ref> Here a ] force attacked ] positions forcing them back to Jericho and across the Jordan River.


By the end of 1917, after the ] from the Gaza - Beersheba line and the ] of Jerusalem, winter rains put an end to campaigning. During this lull the captured territories needed to be consolidated and the lines of communication extensively developed so they could adequately supply the forward troops; now approximately {{convert|150|mi|km}} from their main bases at Moascar and Kantara. By the end of 1917, after the ] from the Gaza–Beersheba line and the ] of Jerusalem, winter rains put an end to campaigning. During this lull the captured territories needed to be consolidated and the lines of communication extensively developed so they could adequately supply the forward troops; now approximately {{convert|150|mi|km}} from their main bases at Moascar and Kantara.


Allenby's strategic plans were initially concerned with his right which could be outflanked by an attack from the east, unlike his left which rested securely on the ]. At the first opportunity his aim was to capture the territory to the east of Jerusalem stretching to the Dead Sea where his right flank could be secured. At the time this territory was garrisoned by Ottoman rearguards entrenched on hill-tops which the British infantry, Australian light horse and New Zealand mounted rifles brigades attacked. They captured Talat ed Dumm on the main ] to ] road and Jericho to complete this first stage of the ] campaign. Allenby's strategic plans were initially concerned with his right which could be outflanked by an attack from the east, unlike his left which rested securely on the ]. At the first opportunity his aim was to capture the territory to the east of Jerusalem stretching to the Dead Sea where his right flank could be secured. At the time this territory was garrisoned by Ottoman rearguards entrenched on hill-tops which the British infantry, Australian light horse and New Zealand mounted rifles brigades attacked. They captured Talat ed Dumm on the main ] to ] road and Jericho to complete this first stage of the ] campaign.


==Background== ==Background==
The advance from ] came to a halt in December with the ] occupying the "Wilderness;" the rough, barren rocky country between Jerusalem and the ].<ref name="Bou185">Bou 2009, p. 185</ref><ref>Powles 1922, pp. 172–3</ref> On 14 December General ] reported to the ] that the rainy season would prevent any further attacks (after ] was secured) for at least two months.<ref>Grainger 2006, p. 218</ref> At this time the ] was paralysed by a breakdown in logistics and Allenby had to send two mounted divisions and the ] south of ]. He wrote: "I can't feed them, with certainty, and even now, a fortnight's heavy rain would bring me near starvation."<ref>Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 quoted in Woodward 2006, p. 160</ref> On 1 January, the ] 5th Mounted Brigade began moving back through the rain and slush followed by the ], beginning the ]'s journey back to ] south of Gaza.<ref>Hamilton 1996, p. 99</ref> The ] did not move back quite so far; the ] and possibly ]s moved back to ] (where ] took 'mud pictures' on 7 January) while the ] bivouaced near ] (]) not far from ].<ref>Powles 1922, p. 171</ref><ref>Hurley, O'Keefe 1986, p. 112</ref> The advance from ] came to a halt in December with the ] occupying the "Wilderness;" the rough, barren rocky country between Jerusalem and the ].<ref name="Bou185">Bou 2009, p. 185</ref><ref>Powles 1922, pp. 172–3</ref> On 14 December General ] reported to the ] that the rainy season would prevent any further attacks (after ] was secured) for at least two months.<ref>Grainger 2006, p. 218</ref> At this time the ] was paralysed by a breakdown in logistics and Allenby had to send two mounted divisions and the ] south of ]. He wrote: "I can't feed them, with certainty, and even now, a fortnight's heavy rain would bring me near starvation."<ref>Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 quoted in Woodward 2006, p. 160</ref> On 1 January, the ] 5th Mounted Brigade began moving back through the rain and slush followed by the ], beginning the ]'s journey back to ] south of Gaza.<ref>Hamilton 1996, p. 99</ref> The ] did not move back quite so far; the ] and possibly ]s moved back to ] (where ] took "mud pictures" on 7 January) while the ] bivouacked near ] (]) not far from ].<ref>Powles 1922, p. 171</ref><ref>Hurley, O'Keefe 1986, p. 112</ref>
]]] ]]]


General ] (a member of the ]) was sent to confer with Allenby regarding the implementation of the ]'s Joint Note No. 12, which included a French qualification that no troops in ] could be redeployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Smuts was still on his way back to ] when the first step was taken to accomplish his suggestion of crossing the ] and capturing the ] when, in February, the front line which stretched from Jaffa to Jerusalem was extended eastwards with the capture of Jericho.<ref>Woodward 2006, pp. 161-2</ref><ref>Wavell 1968, pp. 176–7</ref> General ] (a member of the ]) was sent to confer with Allenby regarding the implementation of the ]'s Joint Note No. 12, which included a French qualification that no troops in ] could be redeployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Smuts was still on his way back to ] when the first step was taken to accomplish his suggestion of crossing the ] and capturing the ] when, in February, the front line which stretched from Jaffa to Jerusalem was extended eastwards with the capture of Jericho.<ref>Woodward 2006, pp. 161–2</ref><ref>Wavell 1968, pp. 176–7</ref>


Allenby wrote on 25 January: "I want to extend my right, to include Jericho and the N. of the ]."<ref>Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 in Hughes 2004, p. 127</ref> This advance would remove any further threat to his right by pushing all the enemy across the Jordan River and securing the Jordan River crossings. It would also prevent raids into the country to the west of the Dead Sea and provide a starting point for operations against the Hedjaz railway.<ref name="Falls303">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 303</ref> Allenby wrote on 25 January: "I want to extend my right, to include Jericho and the N. of the ]."<ref>Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 in Hughes 2004, p. 127</ref> This advance would remove any further threat to his right by pushing all the enemy across the Jordan River and securing the Jordan River crossings. It would also prevent raids into the country to the west of the Dead Sea and provide a starting point for operations against the Hedjaz railway.<ref name="Falls303">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 303</ref>


==Prelude== ==Prelude==
] ]


The eastern side of the Judean Hills fall headlong into the Jordan Valley in a tangle of stony ridges and deep narrow gorges.<ref name="Wavell_177-8">Wavell 1968 pp. 177–8</ref> All the main wadis run from west to east often with precipitous banks making any crossing almost impossible in this steeply descending terrain. Their tributaries join the main wadis from all directions breaking up the ridges into a tumbled mass of hills. Further north at Jebel Kuruntul the mountains end abruptly in a {{convert|1000|ft|m}} cliff.<ref name="Blenkinsop223">Blenkinsop 1925, p. 223</ref> Rocky precipitous heights were cut by deep valleys; in this country most tracks ran along the narrow beds of ravines, where movement forwards was only possible in single file.<ref name="Cutlack103">Cutlack 1941, p. 103</ref> These tracks were passable by infantry and mounted troops in single file only; sometimes the attacking parties had to haul themselves and each other over abrupt cliffs to be in a position to fight at close quarters at the top.<ref name="Cutlack102-3">Cutlack 1941, pp. 102-3</ref> The eastern side of the Judean Hills fall headlong into the Jordan Valley in a tangle of stony ridges and deep narrow gorges.<ref name="Wavell_177–8">Wavell 1968 pp. 177–8</ref> All the main wadis run from west to east often with precipitous banks making any crossing almost impossible in this steeply descending terrain. Their tributaries join the main wadis from all directions breaking up the ridges into a tumbled mass of hills. Further north at Jebel Kuruntul the mountains end abruptly in a {{convert|1000|ft|m}} cliff.<ref name="Blenkinsop223">Blenkinsop 1925, p. 223</ref> Rocky precipitous heights were cut by deep valleys; in this country most tracks ran along the narrow beds of ravines, where movement forwards was only possible in single file.<ref name="Cutlack103">Cutlack 1941, p. 103</ref> These tracks were passable by infantry and mounted troops in single file only; sometimes the attacking parties had to haul themselves and each other over abrupt cliffs to be in a position to fight at close quarters at the top.<ref name="Cutlack102–3">Cutlack 1941, pp. 102–3</ref>


In spring, wild flowers, especially anemones, tulips, poppies and cyclamen, soften the general harshness; these were just beginning to show when the engagement began.<ref name="Falls305">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 305</ref> Also at this time Jericho and the Jordan Valley was pleasantly green where the ground was cultivated and among the trees and scrub on either bank of the Jordan River; this spring idyll gives way from May onwards to an almost uninhabitable dusty, infernally hot and humid environment during the summer.<ref name="Falls306">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 306</ref> In spring, wild flowers, especially anemones, tulips, poppies and cyclamen, soften the general harshness; these were just beginning to show when the engagement began.<ref name="Falls305">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 305</ref> Also at this time Jericho and the Jordan Valley was pleasantly green where the ground was cultivated and among the trees and scrub on either bank of the Jordan River; this spring idyll gives way from May onwards to an almost uninhabitable dusty, infernally hot and humid environment during the summer.<ref name="Falls306">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 306</ref>


===Ottoman force=== ===Ottoman force===
Three Ottoman armies were at this time deployed to defend their front line; from the 8th Army headquartered at Tul Keram and defending the Mediterranean section, to the 7th Army headquartered at Nablus, defending the Judean Hills and then to the 4th Army headquartered at Amman, defending the Transjordan section of the line.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 219</ref><ref>Hughes 1999 p. 73</ref> The Ottoman ]' 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions and some other troops; between 3,000 and 5,000 defended the area on the western edge of the Jordan Valley. They garrisoned a series of hill-tops from Tubk el Kaneiterah, near the Dead Sea through Talat ed Dumm to the Wady Fara where the Ottoman XXth Corps were entrenched at Ras um Deisis and El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim astride the Jericho road.<ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Parts I II pp. 305, 655</ref><ref name="Cutlack102-3"/><ref name="Erickson193">Erickson 2001 p. 193</ref> There was also at least one regiment in the Jordan Valley near the Wadi el Auja.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 204</ref> Three Ottoman armies were at this time deployed to defend their front line; from the 8th Army headquartered at Tul Keram and defending the Mediterranean section, to the 7th Army headquartered at Nablus, defending the Judean Hills and then to the 4th Army headquartered at Amman, defending the Transjordan section of the line.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 219</ref><ref>Hughes 1999 p. 73</ref> The Ottoman ]' 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions and some other troops; between 3,000 and 5,000 defended the area on the western edge of the Jordan Valley. They garrisoned a series of hill-tops from Tubk el Kaneiterah, near the Dead Sea through Talat ed Dumm to the Wady Fara where the Ottoman XXth Corps were entrenched at Ras um Deisis and El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim astride the Jericho road.<ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Parts I II pp. 305, 655</ref><ref name="Cutlack102–3"/><ref name="Erickson193">Erickson 2001 p. 193</ref> There was also at least one regiment in the Jordan Valley near the Wadi el Auja.<ref>Keogh 1955 p. 204</ref>


===Chetwode's force=== ===Chetwode's force===
While the remainder of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force patrolled the front line from the Mediterranean Sea to Jerusalem and garrisoned the captured southern Palestine, the XXth Corps' ] was to make the attack towards Jericho while the 53rd Infantry Division with one brigade of the 74th Infantry Division on the left moved towards the Wady el Auja which flowed eastwards into the Jordan River (not to be confused with the Wadi el Auja which flowed westwards into the Mediterranean Sea, probably from the same watershed). The ] and the ]s of ]' ] (attached) on the right advancing towards Rujm el Bahr on the Dead Sea.<ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II p. 655</ref><ref name="Cutlack102">Cutlack 1941, p. 102</ref><ref>Brief Record of the Advance of the EEF 1919 pp. 37–79</ref><ref group="Note">The 2nd Light Horse Brigade remained on the maritime plain holding a portion of the front line. </ref> While the remainder of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force patrolled the front line from the Mediterranean Sea to Jerusalem and garrisoned the captured southern Palestine, the XXth Corps' ] was to make the attack towards Jericho while the 53rd Infantry Division with one brigade of the 74th Infantry Division on the left moved towards the Wady el Auja which flowed eastwards into the Jordan River (not to be confused with the Wadi el Auja which flowed westwards into the Mediterranean Sea, probably from the same watershed). The ] and the ]s of ]' ] (attached) on the right advancing towards Rujm el Bahr on the Dead Sea.<ref>Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II p. 655</ref><ref name="Cutlack102">Cutlack 1941, p. 102</ref><ref>Brief Record of the Advance of the EEF 1919 pp. 37–79</ref><ref group="Note">The 2nd Light Horse Brigade remained on the maritime plain holding a portion of the front line. </ref>
] ]


The plan was for the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to Mukhmas {{convert|8|mi|km}} north north east of Jerusalem, then advance forward {{convert|6|mi|km}} east through El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim and Ras et Tawil. Their left flank would be covered by the 53rd Infantry Division which was to capture the high ground at Rammun {{convert|3|mi|km}} north of Mukhmas while their right was covered by the Anzac Mounted Division.<ref name="Falls304">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 304</ref> The second stage required the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to a point yet to be decided, in three brigade columns; the right to Jebil Ekteif south of the main Jericho road, the centre to Talat ed Dumm, and the left column moving along the 'Ancient Road' running east from Mukhmas, each with a 60-pounder or 6-inch battery, a ] brigade and a field company of ] attached. They would then make a further advance to the edge of the ridge overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley.<ref name="Falls304"/> The plan was for the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to Mukhmas {{convert|8|mi|km}} north north east of Jerusalem, then advance forward {{convert|6|mi|km}} east through El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim and Ras et Tawil. Their left flank would be covered by the 53rd Infantry Division which was to capture the high ground at Rammun {{convert|3|mi|km}} north of Mukhmas while their right was covered by the Anzac Mounted Division.<ref name="Falls304">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 304</ref> The second stage required the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to a point yet to be decided, in three brigade columns; the right to Jebil Ekteif south of the main Jericho road, the centre to Talat ed Dumm, and the left column moving along the "Ancient Road" running east from Mukhmas, each with a 60-pounder or 6-inch battery, a ] brigade and a field company of ] attached. They would then make a further advance to the edge of the ridge overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley.<ref name="Falls304"/>


By February, logistics had sufficiently developed to be able to support the advance towards Jericho; Allenby ordered Chetwode to capture Jericho as soon as the weather cleared.<ref>Kinloch 2007, p. 249</ref><ref name="Bou185"/> On 14 February preliminary operations were carried out by the 60th (London) Infantry Division to Mukhmas 8 miles (13 km) north north east of Jerusalem, while on their left flank the 53rd Infantry Division captured the village of Deir Diwan.<ref name="Falls306"/> And the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades marched out from Ayun Kara and on 17 and 18 February arrived at ]. While the infantry attacks progressed on 19 February, the two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were to move further east and south in a flanking movement towards Nebi Musa, and to make their way down into the Jordan Valley towards Rujm el Bahr to cut off enemy retreat from Jericho and drive the remaining Ottoman defenders east of the Jordan River.<ref name="Falls304"/><ref name="Downes679-81">Downes 1938 pp. 679-81</ref><ref name="Cutlack102"/> During the advance in single file the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was strung out to about 5 miles (8.0&nbsp;km).<ref>Moore 1921, p. 98</ref> By February, logistics had sufficiently developed to be able to support the advance towards Jericho; Allenby ordered Chetwode to capture Jericho as soon as the weather cleared.<ref>Kinloch 2007, p. 249</ref><ref name="Bou185"/> On 14 February preliminary operations were carried out by the 60th (London) Infantry Division to Mukhmas 8 miles (13 km) north north east of Jerusalem, while on their left flank the 53rd Infantry Division captured the village of Deir Diwan.<ref name="Falls306"/> And the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades marched out from Ayun Kara and on 17 and 18 February arrived at ]. While the infantry attacks progressed on 19 February, the two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were to move further east and south in a flanking movement towards Nebi Musa, and to make their way down into the Jordan Valley towards Rujm el Bahr to cut off enemy retreat from Jericho and drive the remaining Ottoman defenders east of the Jordan River.<ref name="Falls304"/><ref name="Downes679–81">Downes 1938 pp. 679–81</ref><ref name="Cutlack102"/> During the advance in single file the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was strung out to about 5 miles (8.0&nbsp;km).<ref>Moore 1921, p. 98</ref>
] ]


Chetwode and Chauvel watched operations begin from the Mount of Olives more than {{convert|2000|ft|m}} above sea level. By the time the light horse and mounted rifles brigades reached Jericho they were nearly {{convert|1200|ft|m}} below sea level.<ref name="Hill_142">Hill 1978, p. 142</ref> Chetwode and Chauvel watched operations begin from the Mount of Olives more than {{convert|2000|ft|m}} above sea level. By the time the light horse and mounted rifles brigades reached Jericho they were nearly {{convert|1200|ft|m}} below sea level.<ref name="Hill_142">Hill 1978, p. 142</ref>
Line 67: Line 66:


In the centre the 180th Brigade moved along the Jerusalem to Jericho road towards Talat ed Dumm, which was captured after an hour's bombardment by the 10th Heavy Battery and one 6-inch ] of the 383rd Siege Battery. On the left the 181st Brigade was slowed in their advance by small rearguards which showed skills in manoeuvre; the brigade was only able to advance {{convert|2.5|mi|km}} to be about half way between Ras et Tawil and Jebel Qruntul by nightfall with the 231st Brigade (74th Infantry Division forming its reserve.<ref name="Falls307"/> In the centre the 180th Brigade moved along the Jerusalem to Jericho road towards Talat ed Dumm, which was captured after an hour's bombardment by the 10th Heavy Battery and one 6-inch ] of the 383rd Siege Battery. On the left the 181st Brigade was slowed in their advance by small rearguards which showed skills in manoeuvre; the brigade was only able to advance {{convert|2.5|mi|km}} to be about half way between Ras et Tawil and Jebel Qruntul by nightfall with the 231st Brigade (74th Infantry Division forming its reserve.<ref name="Falls307"/>
] ]


Meanwhile the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (with the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment which had returned from the 179th Brigade) led the 1st Light Horse Brigade in their advanced on El Muntar at 03:30.<ref name="Falls308">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 308</ref> The advance guard formed by the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem along an ancient road down the Wadi en Nar to the valley near El Muntar hill followed by their brigade and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. In {{convert|3|mi|km}} they zig-zagged down to the valley floor while Ottoman soldiers on the height of El Muntar {{convert|1250|ft|m}} above watched their approach. It was some hours before the {{convert|8|mi|km}} long column could deploy for the attack.<ref>Powles 1922, pp. 176–7</ref> Meanwhile the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (with the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment which had returned from the 179th Brigade) led the 1st Light Horse Brigade in their advanced on El Muntar at 03:30.<ref name="Falls308">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 308</ref> The advance guard formed by the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem along an ancient road down the Wadi en Nar to the valley near El Muntar hill followed by their brigade and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. In {{convert|3|mi|km}} they zig-zagged down to the valley floor while Ottoman soldiers on the height of El Muntar {{convert|1250|ft|m}} above watched their approach. It was some hours before the {{convert|8|mi|km}} long column could deploy for the attack.<ref>Powles 1922, pp. 176–7</ref>
Line 74: Line 73:
|align=right |align=right
|width=25% |width=25%
|quote=Even in daylight I should not have dreamt of riding this track , and yet the whole brigade passed along it without mishap. At 11.00pm we were at the arranged position, and after tethering out the horses rolled ourselves up in our blankets. The night was bitterly cold, and we missed our ‘bivvies’, orders having been given to travel light, so that every man rode with an absolute minimum weight. We are to leave here at 3.30 am to attack Neby Musa.|source=Frank Hurley the Official Australian War Photographer attached to the 1st Light Horse Brigade<ref>Hurley, O'Keefe 1986 p. 108</ref>}} |quote=Even in daylight I should not have dreamt of riding this track , and yet the whole brigade passed along it without mishap. At 11.00pm we were at the arranged position, and after tethering out the horses rolled ourselves up in our blankets. The night was bitterly cold, and we missed our "bivvies", orders having been given to travel light, so that every man rode with an absolute minimum weight. We are to leave here at 3.30 am to attack Neby Musa.|source=Frank Hurley the Official Australian War Photographer attached to the 1st Light Horse Brigade<ref>Hurley, O'Keefe 1986 p. 108</ref>}}


By 06:00 all the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in the valley and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was attacking Hill 306 while the Canterbury and Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiments attacked Hill 288.<ref name="Powles178">Powles 1922, p. 178</ref> Shortly after 12:00 a mounted advance of an Auckland squadron took Hill 288 and Hill 306 was also soon captured.<ref name="Powles178"/> They attacked Ottoman positions from Tibq el Quneitra to Jebel el Kahmum astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road; these were eventually both occupied soon after 14:00; forcing the Ottoman defenders to fall back to Nebi Musa. But Nebi Musa was strongly held by entrenched Ottoman soldiers supported by artillery which made it impossible to move on; the attack was postponed until the next day.<ref name="Falls308">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 308</ref> Meanwhile, at dusk, the 1st Light Horse Brigade began its descent moving down the Wadi Qumran to the Jordan Valley following a goat track which fell {{convert|1300|ft|m}} in {{convert|2|mi|km}} to get into position to attack Nebi Musa from the rear. This journey was successfully completed by midnight.<ref name="Powles178"/><ref name="Falls308"/> By 06:00 all the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in the valley and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was attacking Hill 306 while the Canterbury and Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiments attacked Hill 288.<ref name="Powles178">Powles 1922, p. 178</ref> Shortly after 12:00 a mounted advance of an Auckland squadron took Hill 288 and Hill 306 was also soon captured.<ref name="Powles178"/> They attacked Ottoman positions from Tibq el Quneitra to Jebel el Kahmum astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road; these were eventually both occupied soon after 14:00; forcing the Ottoman defenders to fall back to Nebi Musa. But Nebi Musa was strongly held by entrenched Ottoman soldiers supported by artillery which made it impossible to move on; the attack was postponed until the next day.<ref name="Falls308">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 308</ref> Meanwhile, at dusk, the 1st Light Horse Brigade began its descent moving down the Wadi Qumran to the Jordan Valley following a goat track which fell {{convert|1300|ft|m}} in {{convert|2|mi|km}} to get into position to attack Nebi Musa from the rear. This journey was successfully completed by midnight.<ref name="Powles178"/><ref name="Falls308"/>
Line 85: Line 84:
Divisional Headquarters Staff set up their report centre about {{convert|1|mi|km}} behind Jericho and when they were sitting down to a morning cup of tea, Chetwode and Chauvel joined them. Chaytor was sitting on the step of his car, when shells fired from the other side of the Jordan River, started to explode; one hitting the front of his car and he only narrowly escaped injury. This gun continued shelling the area at a range of over {{convert|10000|yd|m}}; the British 13-pounders could get no further than {{convert|6000|yd|m}}.<ref name="Powles179"/> Divisional Headquarters Staff set up their report centre about {{convert|1|mi|km}} behind Jericho and when they were sitting down to a morning cup of tea, Chetwode and Chauvel joined them. Chaytor was sitting on the step of his car, when shells fired from the other side of the Jordan River, started to explode; one hitting the front of his car and he only narrowly escaped injury. This gun continued shelling the area at a range of over {{convert|10000|yd|m}}; the British 13-pounders could get no further than {{convert|6000|yd|m}}.<ref name="Powles179"/>


The infantry and mounted units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force suffered 510 casualties during these operations.<ref name="Wavell_177-8"/> The infantry and mounted units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force suffered 510 casualties during these operations.<ref name="Wavell_177–8"/>


===Air support=== ===Air support===
It was considered remarkable that British aircraft were not interrupted by German airmen during these three days of operations; No. 1 Squadron's aircraft completely dominated all enemy aircraft, bombing and machine gunning Ottoman positions, and reporting to headquarters on progress and estimates of Ottoman dispositions and strength. Messages were also dropped on troops in the front line when urgent reports of surprise attacks etc. were required. Considerable Ottoman reinforcements were seen to arrive at Shunet Nimrin on the eastern side of the Jordan River and an aerial raiding formation from No. 1 Squadron bombed troop tents, marquees and a supply dump.<ref name="Falls309"/><ref name="Cutlack102-3"/> It was considered remarkable that British aircraft were not interrupted by German airmen during these three days of operations; No. 1 Squadron's aircraft completely dominated all enemy aircraft, bombing and machine gunning Ottoman positions, and reporting to headquarters on progress and estimates of Ottoman dispositions and strength. Messages were also dropped on troops in the front line when urgent reports of surprise attacks etc. were required. Considerable Ottoman reinforcements were seen to arrive at Shunet Nimrin on the eastern side of the Jordan River and an aerial raiding formation from No. 1 Squadron bombed troop tents, marquees and a supply dump.<ref name="Falls309"/><ref name="Cutlack102–3"/>


==Aftermath== ==Aftermath==
On 22 February the 60th (London) Infantry Division withdrew its main line to Jebel Ekteif - Talat ed Dumm - Ras et Tawil leaving outposts on the cliffs above the Jordan Valley. On the same day the Anzac Mounted Division started their journey back to Richon LeZion via Bethlehem leaving the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment, a subsection of machine guns and an artillery battery (under orders of the 60th (London) Infantry Division's commander Shea) in a strong position just where the road falls into the Jordan Valley.<ref name="Falls309"/><ref>Moore 1921, p. 103</ref><ref>Powles 1922 p. 184</ref> On 22 February the 60th (London) Infantry Division withdrew its main line to Jebel Ekteif&nbsp; Talat ed Dumm&nbsp;– Ras et Tawil leaving outposts on the cliffs above the Jordan Valley. On the same day the Anzac Mounted Division started their journey back to Richon LeZion via Bethlehem leaving the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment, a subsection of machine guns and an artillery battery (under orders of the 60th (London) Infantry Division's commander Shea) in a strong position just where the road falls into the Jordan Valley.<ref name="Falls309"/><ref>Moore 1921, p. 103</ref><ref>Powles 1922 p. 184</ref>


The only Ottoman troops west of the Jordan River were holding a strong bridgehead at Ghoraniyeh on the main Jerusalem to Es Salt road with a smaller detachment, down stream, covering the ford at Makhadet Hijla (the traditional site of Christ's baptism).<ref name="Falls309">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 309</ref> The only Ottoman troops west of the Jordan River were holding a strong bridgehead at Ghoraniyeh on the main Jerusalem to Es Salt road with a smaller detachment, down stream, covering the ford at Makhadet Hijla (the traditional site of Christ's baptism).<ref name="Falls309">Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 309</ref>


The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment carried out patrols of the Jordan River and Valley area under enemy observation, attracting artillery firings from Ottoman field guns.<ref name="Downes679-81"/> These patrols monitored the Ottoman positions at the Ghoraniyeh bridge and the fords at Makhadet Hajlah until 25 February when all Ottoman troops, guns and a pontoon bridge were found to have been removed to the west bank of the river. At the same time Shunet Nimrin was rapidly being entrenched by the Ottoman 7th Army and was soon held in force.<ref name="Cutlack103"/><ref name="Erickson193"/><ref>Powles 1922, p. 183</ref> The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment carried out patrols of the Jordan River and Valley area under enemy observation, attracting artillery firings from Ottoman field guns.<ref name="Downes679–81"/> These patrols monitored the Ottoman positions at the Ghoraniyeh bridge and the fords at Makhadet Hajlah until 25 February when all Ottoman troops, guns and a pontoon bridge were found to have been removed to the west bank of the river. At the same time Shunet Nimrin was rapidly being entrenched by the Ottoman 7th Army and was soon held in force.<ref name="Cutlack103"/><ref name="Erickson193"/><ref>Powles 1922, p. 183</ref>


Ottoman army garrisons continued to hold the Hedjaz railway from ] to ] (although the line was harassed and cut by insurgent Arab units) and Cemal's VIII and XII Corps guarded the ]ine coast with four infantry divisions.<ref>Erickson 2001 p. 174</ref> The ]'s War Minister, ] had lost confidence in the German General ] and on 1 March 1918 replaced him with General ].<ref>Erickson 2007, p. 130</ref> Ottoman army garrisons continued to hold the Hedjaz railway from ] to ] (although the line was harassed and cut by insurgent Arab units) and Cemal's VIII and XII Corps guarded the ]ine coast with four infantry divisions.<ref>Erickson 2001 p. 174</ref> The ]'s War Minister, ] had lost confidence in the German General ] and on 1 March 1918 replaced him with General ].<ref>Erickson 2007, p. 130</ref>


On 6 March the ] gave Allenby leave to advance 'to the maximum extent possible, consistent with the safety of the force under his orders' and he decided to create a third infantry corps – the XXII to be commanded by Barrow with ] as his chief of staff. On 21 March an attempt to ]|cut the Hedjaz railway at Amman]] began; this coincided with the launch of the ] by ] against the ] on the ].<ref>Woodward 2006 p. 162</ref><ref group="Note">Bruce claims that although the occupation of Jericho protected Jerusalem from Ottoman attack from the east, it did not provide the hoped for secure base to mount operations on the Hedjaz railway. </ref> On 6 March the ] gave Allenby leave to advance "to the maximum extent possible, consistent with the safety of the force under his orders" and he decided to create a third infantry corps&nbsp;– the XXII to be commanded by Barrow with ] as his chief of staff. On 21 March an attempt to ]|cut the Hedjaz railway at Amman]] began; this coincided with the launch of the ] by ] against the ] on the ].<ref>Woodward 2006 p. 162</ref><ref group="Note">Bruce claims that although the occupation of Jericho protected Jerusalem from Ottoman attack from the east, it did not provide the hoped for secure base to mount operations on the Hedjaz railway. </ref>


==Notes== ==Notes==
Line 113: Line 112:
* {{cite book|title=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents Veterinary Services|editors=Blenkinsop, L.J. & J.W. Rainey|year=1925|publisher=H.M. Stationers|location= London|oclc=460717714}} * {{cite book|title=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents Veterinary Services|editors=Blenkinsop, L.J. & J.W. Rainey|year=1925|publisher=H.M. Stationers|location= London|oclc=460717714}}
* {{cite book |title=A History of Australia's Mounted Arm |last=Bou |first=Jean |series=Australian Army History |year=2009/2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Port Melbourne |isbn=9780521197083}} * {{cite book |title=A History of Australia's Mounted Arm |last=Bou |first=Jean |series=Australian Army History |year=2009/2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Port Melbourne |isbn=9780521197083}}
* {{cite book |title=The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War |last=Bruce |first=Anthony |year=2002 |publisher=John Murray Ltd |location=London|isbn=978-0-7195-5432-2}} * {{cite book |title=The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War |last=Bruce |first=Anthony |year=2002 |publisher=John Murray Ltd |location=London|isbn=978-0719554322}}
* {{cite web * {{cite web
| url = http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67894 | url = http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67894
Line 127: Line 126:
| author = R. M. Downes | author = R. M. Downes
| series author = A. G. Butler | series author = A. G. Butler
| year = 1938 |edition=2nd | work = Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea of Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914-1918 Part II in Volume 1 | year = 1938 |edition=2nd | work= Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea of Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918 Part II in Volume 1
| publisher = Australian War Memorial | publisher = Australian War Memorial
| location = Canberra}} | location = Canberra}}
* {{cite book |title=Ordered to Die A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War: Forward by General Hüseyiln Kivrikoglu |last=Erickson|first= Edward J.|series= No. 201 Contributions in Military Studies |year=2001| publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport Connecticut|oclc=43481698}} * {{cite book |title=Ordered to Die A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War: Forward by General Hüseyiln Kivrikoglu |last=Erickson|first= Edward J.|series= No. 201 Contributions in Military Studies |year=2001| publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport Connecticut|oclc=43481698}}
* {{cite book |title=Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |series=No. 26 of Cass series: military history and policy|editors=John Gooch and Brian Holden Reid |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-203-96456-9}} * {{cite book |title=Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |series=No. 26 of Cass series: military history and policy|editors=John Gooch and Brian Holden Reid |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0203964569}}
* {{cite book |title=Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War |last=Falls |first=Cyril |series=Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |coauthor=A. F. Becke (maps) |year=1930 |volume=2 Part I |publisher=HM Stationary Office |location=London|oclc=644354483}} * {{cite book |title=Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War |last=Falls |first=Cyril |series=Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |coauthor=A. F. Becke (maps) |year=1930 |volume=2 Part I |publisher=HM Stationary Office |location=London|oclc=644354483}}
* {{cite book |title=Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War |last=Falls |first=Cyril |series=Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |coauthor=A. F. Becke (maps) |year=1930 |volume=2 Part II |publisher=HM Stationary Office |location=London|oclc=256950972}} * {{cite book |title=Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War |last=Falls |first=Cyril |series=Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |coauthor=A. F. Becke (maps) |year=1930 |volume=2 Part II |publisher=HM Stationary Office |location=London|oclc=256950972}}
* {{cite book |title=The Battle for Palestine, 1917 |last=Grainger |first=John D. |year= 2006 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge|isbn=978-1-84383-263-8}} * {{cite book |title=The Battle for Palestine, 1917 |last=Grainger |first=John D. |year= 2006 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge|isbn=978-1843832638}}
* {{cite book |title=Australia in Palestine |editors= Henry S. Gullett, Charles Barnet, Art Editor David Baker |year=1919 |publisher=Angus & Robertson Ltd |location=Sydney | oclc=224023558}} * {{cite book |title=Australia in Palestine |editors= Henry S. Gullett, Charles Barnet, Art Editor David Baker |year=1919 |publisher=Angus & Robertson Ltd |location=Sydney | oclc=224023558}}
* {{cite book |title=Riders of Destiny The 4th Australian Light Horse Field Ambulance 1917–18: An Autobiography and History |last=Hamilton |first=Patrick M. |year= 1996 |publisher=Mostly Unsung Military History |location=Gardenvale, Melbourne|isbn=978-1-876179-01-4}} * {{cite book |title=Riders of Destiny The 4th Australian Light Horse Field Ambulance 1917–18: An Autobiography and History |last=Hamilton |first=Patrick M. |year= 1996 |publisher=Mostly Unsung Military History |location=Gardenvale, Melbourne|isbn=978-1876179014}}
* {{cite book |title=Chauvel of the Light Horse A Biography of General Sir Harry Chauvel, GCMG, KCB |last=Hill |first=A. J. |year=1978 |publisher=Melbourne University Press |location=Melbourne |oclc=5003626}} * {{cite book |title=Chauvel of the Light Horse A Biography of General Sir Harry Chauvel, GCMG, KCB |last=Hill |first=A. J. |year=1978 |publisher=Melbourne University Press |location=Melbourne |oclc=5003626}}
* {{cite book |title=Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East 1917-1919 |editors=John Gooch, Brian Holden Reid |last=Hughes |first=Matthew |year=1999 |series=Military History and Policy | volume=1 |publisher Frank Cass |location=London |oclc=470338901}} * {{cite book |title=Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East 1917–1919 |editors=John Gooch, Brian Holden Reid |last=Hughes |first=Matthew |year=1999 |series=Military History and Policy | volume=1 |publisher Frank Cass |location=London |oclc=470338901}}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Matthew |editor1-last=Hughes |title=Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917&nbsp;– October 1919 |series=Army Records Society|volume=22 |year=2004 |month= |origyear= |publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd |location=Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire|isbn=978-0-7509-3841-9}} * {{cite book |editor1-first=Matthew |editor1-last=Hughes |title=Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917&nbsp;– October 1919 |series=Army Records Society|volume=22 |year=2004 |month= |origyear= |publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd |location=Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire|isbn=978-0750938419}}
* {{cite book|title=Hurley at war: the photography and diaries of Frank Hurley in two world wars |last=Hurley| first=Frank |coauthor=Daniel O'Keefe| year=1986 |publisher=Fairfax Library in association with Daniel O'Keefe |location=Sydney |oclc=16709045}} * {{cite book|title=Hurley at war: the photography and diaries of Frank Hurley in two world wars |last=Hurley| first=Frank |coauthor=Daniel O'Keefe| year=1986 |publisher=Fairfax Library in association with Daniel O'Keefe |location=Sydney |oclc=16709045}}
* {{cite book |title=Suez to Aleppo |last=Keogh |first=E. G. |coauthor=Joan Graham|year=1955 |publisher=Directorate of Military Training by Wilkie & Co. |location=Melbourne|oclc=220029983}} * {{cite book |title=Suez to Aleppo |last=Keogh |first=E. G. |coauthor=Joan Graham|year=1955 |publisher=Directorate of Military Training by Wilkie & Co. |location=Melbourne|oclc=220029983}}
* {{cite book|title=Devils on Horses in the Words of the Anzacs in the Middle East,1916–19 |last=Kinloch |first=Terry |year=2007|publisher=Exisle Publishing|location=Auckland|isbn=978-0-908988-94-5}} * {{cite book|title=Devils on Horses in the Words of the Anzacs in the Middle East,1916–19 |last=Kinloch |first=Terry |year=2007|publisher=Exisle Publishing|location=Auckland|isbn=978-0908988945}}
* {{cite book |title=The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai & Palestine The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders|last=Moore |first=A. Briscoe |year=1920 |publisher=Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd |location=Christchurch|oclc=561949575}} * {{cite book |title=The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai & Palestine The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders|last=Moore |first=A. Briscoe |year=1920 |publisher=Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd |location=Christchurch|oclc=561949575}}
* {{cite book |title=The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine |last=Powles |first=C. Guy |coauthor=A. Wilkie|series=Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War, Volume III|year=1922|publisher=Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd |location=Auckland|oclc=2959465}} * {{cite book |title=The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine |last=Powles |first=C. Guy |coauthor=A. Wilkie|series=Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War, Volume III|year=1922|publisher=Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd |location=Auckland|oclc=2959465}}
* {{cite book |title=The Palestine Campaigns |last=Wavell |first=Field Marshal Earl |editor=E.W. Sheppard |edition=3rd |series=A Short History of the British Army |year=1968|publisher=Constable & Co. |location=London}} * {{cite book |title=The Palestine Campaigns |last=Wavell |first=Field Marshal Earl |editor=E.W. Sheppard |edition=3rd |series=A Short History of the British Army |year=1968|publisher=Constable & Co. |location=London}}
* {{cite book |title=Hell in the Holy Land World War I in the Middle East |last=Woodward |first=David R. |year=2006 |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington |isbn=978-0-8131-2383-7}} * {{cite book |title=Hell in the Holy Land World War I in the Middle East |last=Woodward |first=David R. |year=2006 |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington |isbn=978-0813123837}}
{{refend}} {{refend}}






] ]

Revision as of 15:05, 10 October 2011

Capture of Jericho
Part of the First World War
Group of officers having a cup of tea
21 February 1918 Breakfast meeting of Generals Chaytor Chauvel and Chetwode on the morning of the Capture of Jericho
Date19–21 February 1918
LocationJericho, Jordan Valley
Result British Empire victory
Belligerents
 Australia
 Great Britain
 New Zealand		  Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
United Kingdom Edmund Allenby
British Empire Philip Chetwode
British Empire John Shea
New Zealand Edward Chaytor		 German Empire Otto Liman von Sanders
Ottoman Empire Djemal Pasha
Ottoman Empire Ali Fuad Bey
Ottoman Empire Refet Bey
Strength
60th (London) Infantry Division
53rd Infantry Division (XXth Corps)
1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades (Anzac Mounted Division); 6,800		 26th and 53rd Divisions (XIIIth or XXth Corps); 3,000
Casualties and losses
510 144 prisoners, 8 machine guns
Sinai and Palestine Campaign
Sinai
Southern Palestine
Judean Hills
Transjordan
Northern Palestine
Syria
Arab Revolt

The Capture of Jericho occurred between 19–21 February 1918 to the east of Jerusalem during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War 1. Fighting took place in an area bordered by the Bethlehem to Nablus road in the west and the Jordan River in the east and north of a line from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea. Here a British Empire force attacked Ottoman positions forcing them back to Jericho and across the Jordan River.

By the end of 1917, after the advance from the Gaza–Beersheba line and the capture of Jerusalem, winter rains put an end to campaigning. During this lull the captured territories needed to be consolidated and the lines of communication extensively developed so they could adequately supply the forward troops; now approximately 150 miles (240 km) from their main bases at Moascar and Kantara.

Allenby's strategic plans were initially concerned with his right which could be outflanked by an attack from the east, unlike his left which rested securely on the Mediterranean Sea. At the first opportunity his aim was to capture the territory to the east of Jerusalem stretching to the Dead Sea where his right flank could be secured. At the time this territory was garrisoned by Ottoman rearguards entrenched on hill-tops which the British infantry, Australian light horse and New Zealand mounted rifles brigades attacked. They captured Talat ed Dumm on the main Jerusalem to Jericho road and Jericho to complete this first stage of the Jordan campaign.

Background

The advance from Beersheba came to a halt in December with the Ottoman army occupying the "Wilderness;" the rough, barren rocky country between Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley. On 14 December General Allenby reported to the War Cabinet that the rainy season would prevent any further attacks (after Jerusalem was secured) for at least two months. At this time the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was paralysed by a breakdown in logistics and Allenby had to send two mounted divisions and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade south of Gaza. He wrote: "I can't feed them, with certainty, and even now, a fortnight's heavy rain would bring me near starvation." On 1 January, the Yeomanry 5th Mounted Brigade began moving back through the rain and slush followed by the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance, beginning the Australian Mounted Division's journey back to Deir el Belah south of Gaza. The Anzac Mounted Division did not move back quite so far; the 1st and possibly 2nd Light Horse Brigades moved back to Esdud (where Frank Hurley took "mud pictures" on 7 January) while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade bivouacked near Ayun Kara (Rishon LeZion) not far from Jaffa.

Trenches on the shore of the Dead Sea
Trenches on the shore of the Dead Sea

General Jan Christiaan Smuts (a member of the Imperial War Cabinet) was sent to confer with Allenby regarding the implementation of the War Office's Joint Note No. 12, which included a French qualification that no troops in France could be redeployed to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Smuts was still on his way back to London when the first step was taken to accomplish his suggestion of crossing the Jordan River and capturing the Hedjaz railway when, in February, the front line which stretched from Jaffa to Jerusalem was extended eastwards with the capture of Jericho.

Allenby wrote on 25 January: "I want to extend my right, to include Jericho and the N. of the Dead Sea." This advance would remove any further threat to his right by pushing all the enemy across the Jordan River and securing the Jordan River crossings. It would also prevent raids into the country to the west of the Dead Sea and provide a starting point for operations against the Hedjaz railway.

Prelude

Blue Mountains between Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley
Blue Mountains between Jerusalem and the Jordan Valley

The eastern side of the Judean Hills fall headlong into the Jordan Valley in a tangle of stony ridges and deep narrow gorges. All the main wadis run from west to east often with precipitous banks making any crossing almost impossible in this steeply descending terrain. Their tributaries join the main wadis from all directions breaking up the ridges into a tumbled mass of hills. Further north at Jebel Kuruntul the mountains end abruptly in a 1,000 feet (300 m) cliff. Rocky precipitous heights were cut by deep valleys; in this country most tracks ran along the narrow beds of ravines, where movement forwards was only possible in single file. These tracks were passable by infantry and mounted troops in single file only; sometimes the attacking parties had to haul themselves and each other over abrupt cliffs to be in a position to fight at close quarters at the top.

In spring, wild flowers, especially anemones, tulips, poppies and cyclamen, soften the general harshness; these were just beginning to show when the engagement began. Also at this time Jericho and the Jordan Valley was pleasantly green where the ground was cultivated and among the trees and scrub on either bank of the Jordan River; this spring idyll gives way from May onwards to an almost uninhabitable dusty, infernally hot and humid environment during the summer.

Ottoman force

Three Ottoman armies were at this time deployed to defend their front line; from the 8th Army headquartered at Tul Keram and defending the Mediterranean section, to the 7th Army headquartered at Nablus, defending the Judean Hills and then to the 4th Army headquartered at Amman, defending the Transjordan section of the line. The Ottoman XX Corps' 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions and some other troops; between 3,000 and 5,000 defended the area on the western edge of the Jordan Valley. They garrisoned a series of hill-tops from Tubk el Kaneiterah, near the Dead Sea through Talat ed Dumm to the Wady Fara where the Ottoman XXth Corps were entrenched at Ras um Deisis and El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim astride the Jericho road. There was also at least one regiment in the Jordan Valley near the Wadi el Auja.

Chetwode's force

While the remainder of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force patrolled the front line from the Mediterranean Sea to Jerusalem and garrisoned the captured southern Palestine, the XXth Corps' 60th (London) Infantry Division was to make the attack towards Jericho while the 53rd Infantry Division with one brigade of the 74th Infantry Division on the left moved towards the Wady el Auja which flowed eastwards into the Jordan River (not to be confused with the Wadi el Auja which flowed westwards into the Mediterranean Sea, probably from the same watershed). The 1st Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades of Desert Mounted Corps' Anzac Mounted Division (attached) on the right advancing towards Rujm el Bahr on the Dead Sea.

Falls map shows positions of the infantry from 13 to 21 February 1918 as well as the mounted patrols in the Jordan Valley on 21 February
Falls map shows positions of the infantry from 13 to 21 February 1918 as well as the mounted patrols in the Jordan Valley on 21 February

The plan was for the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to Mukhmas 8 miles (13 km) north north east of Jerusalem, then advance forward 6 miles (9.7 km) east through El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim and Ras et Tawil. Their left flank would be covered by the 53rd Infantry Division which was to capture the high ground at Rammun 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Mukhmas while their right was covered by the Anzac Mounted Division. The second stage required the 60th (London) Infantry Division to advance to a point yet to be decided, in three brigade columns; the right to Jebil Ekteif south of the main Jericho road, the centre to Talat ed Dumm, and the left column moving along the "Ancient Road" running east from Mukhmas, each with a 60-pounder or 6-inch battery, a Field artillery brigade and a field company of Royal Engineers attached. They would then make a further advance to the edge of the ridge overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley.

By February, logistics had sufficiently developed to be able to support the advance towards Jericho; Allenby ordered Chetwode to capture Jericho as soon as the weather cleared. On 14 February preliminary operations were carried out by the 60th (London) Infantry Division to Mukhmas 8 miles (13 km) north north east of Jerusalem, while on their left flank the 53rd Infantry Division captured the village of Deir Diwan. And the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades marched out from Ayun Kara and on 17 and 18 February arrived at Bethlehem. While the infantry attacks progressed on 19 February, the two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division were to move further east and south in a flanking movement towards Nebi Musa, and to make their way down into the Jordan Valley towards Rujm el Bahr to cut off enemy retreat from Jericho and drive the remaining Ottoman defenders east of the Jordan River. During the advance in single file the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was strung out to about 5 miles (8.0 km).

Frank Hurley's photo of 1st Light Horse Brigade zig-zagging down a barren hillside
Frank Hurley's photo of 1st Light Horse Brigade zig-zagging down a barren hillside

Chetwode and Chauvel watched operations begin from the Mount of Olives more than 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level. By the time the light horse and mounted rifles brigades reached Jericho they were nearly 1,200 feet (370 m) below sea level.

Air support

On 3 January two Australian aircraft had discovered boats carrying corn and hay moving from Ghor el Hadit (behind Point Costigan) and Rujm el Bahr at the northern end of the Dead Sea. These were bombed and sprayed with bullets by these aircraft which returned again and again until the boat service stopped.

On 10 January, as part of the preparations for the attack on Jericho, six aircraft dropped 48 bombs on Amman and Kissir (a Hedjaz railway station 6 miles (9.7 km) to the south) resulting in several direct hits on rolling stock, station buildings and troops. Aircraft patrols were then directed to fly over Jericho and Shunet Nimrin on the western and eastern sectors of the Jordan Valley on alternate days. These patrols closely watched all tactical details including the number of tents, camps, the state of supply dumps, conditions of roads and tracks and traffic on the railway.

Battle

19 February

The 60th (London) Infantry Division advanced with the 180th Brigade in the centre, the 181st Brigade on the left and the 179th Brigade with the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment attached, on the right. At Ras et Tawil, the 2/23rd London (181st Brigade) suffered 50 casualties in attacking some 300 entrenched Ottomans, capturing 25 prisoners and two machine guns; the Ottomans abandoning their position soon after. To the north east of El Muntar Iraq Ibrahim, during a further advance by the 2/20th London along a narrow ridge on the south bank of the Wadi Fara, they captured the high ground suffering 66 casualties. Meanwhile on the left flank of the 60th (London) Infantry Division the 160th Brigade (53rd Infantry Division) captured Rammun (where the 2/10 Middlesex had some hard fighting) and the heights to the south. The Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem to the Greek monastery of Mar Saba and onto the El Buqeia plateau where Ottoman forces were entrenched astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road south of Nebi Musa while the remainder of the 1st Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades moved from Bethlehem towards El Muntar.

20 February

The next day the infantry captured their objective of Talat ed Dumm on the main road from Jerusalem to Jericho. During their approach march towards Jebel Ekteif (to the south of Talat ed Dumm), the 2/13th London (179th Brigade, 60th (London) Infantry Division) faced a sheer drop of over 20 feet (6.1 m) and had to proceed across intervening ridges into parallel wadis arriving too late for the attack. Two companies of the 2/16th were ordered to support the attack by the 2/15th on Jebel Ekteif and they captured the advanced trenches by 08:15, three companies then fought their way up into the firing line on the summit of the hill. At 10:00 the British infantry were reported to have captured this dominating position on the Jerusalem to Jericho Road but a strong counterattack drove them off. Jebel Ektief was finally captured at about 12:30 when heavy artillery assisted the desperate infantry.

In the centre the 180th Brigade moved along the Jerusalem to Jericho road towards Talat ed Dumm, which was captured after an hour's bombardment by the 10th Heavy Battery and one 6-inch Howitzer of the 383rd Siege Battery. On the left the 181st Brigade was slowed in their advance by small rearguards which showed skills in manoeuvre; the brigade was only able to advance 2.5 miles (4.0 km) to be about half way between Ras et Tawil and Jebel Qruntul by nightfall with the 231st Brigade (74th Infantry Division forming its reserve.

Advance of the Anzac Mounted DivisionAAdvance of the Anzac Mounted Division – Ottoman positions shown in green

Meanwhile the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (with the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment which had returned from the 179th Brigade) led the 1st Light Horse Brigade in their advanced on El Muntar at 03:30. The advance guard formed by the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment moved from Bethlehem along an ancient road down the Wadi en Nar to the valley near El Muntar hill followed by their brigade and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. In 3 miles (4.8 km) they zig-zagged down to the valley floor while Ottoman soldiers on the height of El Muntar 1,250 feet (380 m) above watched their approach. It was some hours before the 8 miles (13 km) long column could deploy for the attack.

Even in daylight I should not have dreamt of riding this track , and yet the whole brigade passed along it without mishap. At 11.00pm we were at the arranged position, and after tethering out the horses rolled ourselves up in our blankets. The night was bitterly cold, and we missed our "bivvies", orders having been given to travel light, so that every man rode with an absolute minimum weight. We are to leave here at 3.30 am to attack Neby Musa.

Frank Hurley the Official Australian War Photographer attached to the 1st Light Horse Brigade

By 06:00 all the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was in the valley and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was attacking Hill 306 while the Canterbury and Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiments attacked Hill 288. Shortly after 12:00 a mounted advance of an Auckland squadron took Hill 288 and Hill 306 was also soon captured. They attacked Ottoman positions from Tibq el Quneitra to Jebel el Kahmum astride the Mar Saba to Jericho road; these were eventually both occupied soon after 14:00; forcing the Ottoman defenders to fall back to Nebi Musa. But Nebi Musa was strongly held by entrenched Ottoman soldiers supported by artillery which made it impossible to move on; the attack was postponed until the next day. Meanwhile, at dusk, the 1st Light Horse Brigade began its descent moving down the Wadi Qumran to the Jordan Valley following a goat track which fell 1,300 feet (400 m) in 2 miles (3.2 km) to get into position to attack Nebi Musa from the rear. This journey was successfully completed by midnight.

21 February

Under cover of darkness, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade advanced north along a very rough track and by daylight had reached just east of the Neby Musa position. They made a dismounted attack while British infantry attacked Neby Musa from the rear. The Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment occupied Neby Musa at daylight after crossing the gorge on foot to find the surviving Ottoman soldiers had withdrawn with their guns.

When the 1st Light Horse Brigade reached the floor of the Jordan Valley near the Dead Sea, 400 metres (1,300 ft) below sea level it turned north towards Jericho. A single troop of 3rd Light Horse Regiment entered Jericho about 08:00 to find the garrison had withdrawn. The remainder of the brigade advanced up the Jordan Valley as far as the Wady el Auja while the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment (New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) occupied Rujm el Bahr on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Meanwhile the 60th (London) Infantry Division moved to the top of the cliff overlooking Jericho and the Jordan Valley from Neby Musa to Jebel Qruntul (also known as the Mount of Temptation).

Divisional Headquarters Staff set up their report centre about 1 mile (1.6 km) behind Jericho and when they were sitting down to a morning cup of tea, Chetwode and Chauvel joined them. Chaytor was sitting on the step of his car, when shells fired from the other side of the Jordan River, started to explode; one hitting the front of his car and he only narrowly escaped injury. This gun continued shelling the area at a range of over 10,000 yards (9,100 m); the British 13-pounders could get no further than 6,000 yards (5,500 m).

The infantry and mounted units of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force suffered 510 casualties during these operations.

Air support

It was considered remarkable that British aircraft were not interrupted by German airmen during these three days of operations; No. 1 Squadron's aircraft completely dominated all enemy aircraft, bombing and machine gunning Ottoman positions, and reporting to headquarters on progress and estimates of Ottoman dispositions and strength. Messages were also dropped on troops in the front line when urgent reports of surprise attacks etc. were required. Considerable Ottoman reinforcements were seen to arrive at Shunet Nimrin on the eastern side of the Jordan River and an aerial raiding formation from No. 1 Squadron bombed troop tents, marquees and a supply dump.

Aftermath

On 22 February the 60th (London) Infantry Division withdrew its main line to Jebel Ekteif  Talat ed Dumm – Ras et Tawil leaving outposts on the cliffs above the Jordan Valley. On the same day the Anzac Mounted Division started their journey back to Richon LeZion via Bethlehem leaving the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment, a subsection of machine guns and an artillery battery (under orders of the 60th (London) Infantry Division's commander Shea) in a strong position just where the road falls into the Jordan Valley.

The only Ottoman troops west of the Jordan River were holding a strong bridgehead at Ghoraniyeh on the main Jerusalem to Es Salt road with a smaller detachment, down stream, covering the ford at Makhadet Hijla (the traditional site of Christ's baptism).

The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment carried out patrols of the Jordan River and Valley area under enemy observation, attracting artillery firings from Ottoman field guns. These patrols monitored the Ottoman positions at the Ghoraniyeh bridge and the fords at Makhadet Hajlah until 25 February when all Ottoman troops, guns and a pontoon bridge were found to have been removed to the west bank of the river. At the same time Shunet Nimrin was rapidly being entrenched by the Ottoman 7th Army and was soon held in force.

Ottoman army garrisons continued to hold the Hedjaz railway from Deraa to Medina (although the line was harassed and cut by insurgent Arab units) and Cemal's VIII and XII Corps guarded the Levantine coast with four infantry divisions. The Ottoman Empire's War Minister, Enver Pasa had lost confidence in the German General von Falkenhayn and on 1 March 1918 replaced him with General Otto Liman von Sanders.

On 6 March the War Cabinet gave Allenby leave to advance "to the maximum extent possible, consistent with the safety of the force under his orders" and he decided to create a third infantry corps – the XXII to be commanded by Barrow with Wavell as his chief of staff. On 21 March an attempt to First Transjordan attack on Amman (1918)|cut the Hedjaz railway at Amman]] began; this coincided with the launch of the Spring Offensive by Ludendorff against the Allies on the Western Front.

Notes

Footnotes
  1. The 2nd Light Horse Brigade remained on the maritime plain holding a portion of the front line.
  2. Falls states it was captured at 11:25.
  3. Bruce claims that although the occupation of Jericho protected Jerusalem from Ottoman attack from the east, it did not provide the hoped for secure base to mount operations on the Hedjaz railway.
Citations
  1. Battles Nomenclature Committee 1922 p. 33
  2. ^ Bou 2009, p. 185
  3. Powles 1922, pp. 172–3
  4. Grainger 2006, p. 218
  5. Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 quoted in Woodward 2006, p. 160
  6. Hamilton 1996, p. 99
  7. Powles 1922, p. 171
  8. Hurley, O'Keefe 1986, p. 112
  9. Woodward 2006, pp. 161–2
  10. Wavell 1968, pp. 176–7
  11. Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 in Hughes 2004, p. 127
  12. Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 303
  13. ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 177–8
  14. Blenkinsop 1925, p. 223
  15. ^ Cutlack 1941, p. 103
  16. ^ Cutlack 1941, pp. 102–3
  17. Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 305
  18. ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 306
  19. Keogh 1955 p. 219
  20. Hughes 1999 p. 73
  21. Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Parts I II pp. 305, 655
  22. ^ Erickson 2001 p. 193
  23. Keogh 1955 p. 204
  24. Falls 1930 Vol. 2 Part II p. 655
  25. ^ Cutlack 1941, p. 102
  26. Brief Record of the Advance of the EEF 1919 pp. 37–79
  27. ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 304
  28. Kinloch 2007, p. 249
  29. ^ Downes 1938 pp. 679–81
  30. Moore 1921, p. 98
  31. Hill 1978, p. 142
  32. Cutlack 1941 pp. 99–100
  33. Cutlack 1941 p. 100
  34. ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 307
  35. ^ Powles 1922, p. 178
  36. ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 308
  37. Powles 1922, pp. 176–7
  38. Hurley, O'Keefe 1986 p. 108
  39. ^ Moore 1921, p. 101
  40. ^ Powles 1922, p. 179
  41. Powles 1922, p. 182
  42. ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 309
  43. Moore 1921, p. 103
  44. Powles 1922 p. 184
  45. Powles 1922, p. 183
  46. Erickson 2001 p. 174
  47. Erickson 2007, p. 130
  48. Woodward 2006 p. 162

References

  • The Official Names of the Battles and Other Engagements Fought by the Military Forces of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1919, and the Third Afghan War, 1919: Report of the Battles Nomenclature Committee as Approved by The Army Council Presented to Parliament by Command of His Majesty. London: Government Printer. 1922. OCLC 29078007.
  • Allenby, E. H. H. (1919). A Brief Record of the Advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force under the command of General Sir Edmund H.H. Allenby, GCB, GCMG July 1917 to October 1918 compiled from Official Sources (2 ed.). London: H.M. Stationery Office. OCLC 17017063. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • History of the Great War Based on Official Documents Veterinary Services. London: H.M. Stationers. 1925. OCLC 460717714. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  • Bou, Jean (2009/2010). A History of Australia's Mounted Arm. Australian Army History. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521197083. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Bruce, Anthony (2002). The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War. London: John Murray Ltd. ISBN 978-0719554322.
  • F. M. Cutlack (1941). "The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, 1914–1918". Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 Volume VIII (11th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial.
  • R. M. Downes (1938). "The Campaign in Sinai and Palestine". Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea of Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918 Part II in Volume 1 (2nd ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |series author= ignored (help)
  • Erickson, Edward J. (2001). Ordered to Die A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War: Forward by General Hüseyiln Kivrikoglu. No. 201 Contributions in Military Studies. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press. OCLC 43481698.
  • Erickson, Edward J. (2007). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. No. 26 of Cass series: military history and policy. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0203964569. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  • Falls, Cyril (1930). Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. 2 Part I. London: HM Stationary Office. OCLC 644354483. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Falls, Cyril (1930). Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. 2 Part II. London: HM Stationary Office. OCLC 256950972. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Grainger, John D. (2006). The Battle for Palestine, 1917. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1843832638.
  • Australia in Palestine. Sydney: Angus & Robertson Ltd. 1919. OCLC 224023558. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  • Hamilton, Patrick M. (1996). Riders of Destiny The 4th Australian Light Horse Field Ambulance 1917–18: An Autobiography and History. Gardenvale, Melbourne: Mostly Unsung Military History. ISBN 978-1876179014.
  • Hill, A. J. (1978). Chauvel of the Light Horse A Biography of General Sir Harry Chauvel, GCMG, KCB. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. OCLC 5003626.
  • Hughes, Matthew (1999). Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East 1917–1919. Military History and Policy. Vol. 1. London. OCLC 470338901. {{cite book}}: Text "publisher Frank Cass" ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0750938419. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  • Hurley, Frank (1986). Hurley at war: the photography and diaries of Frank Hurley in two world wars. Sydney: Fairfax Library in association with Daniel O'Keefe. OCLC 16709045. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Keogh, E. G. (1955). Suez to Aleppo. Melbourne: Directorate of Military Training by Wilkie & Co. OCLC 220029983. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Kinloch, Terry (2007). Devils on Horses in the Words of the Anzacs in the Middle East,1916–19. Auckland: Exisle Publishing. ISBN 978-0908988945.
  • Moore, A. Briscoe (1920). The Mounted Riflemen in Sinai & Palestine The Story of New Zealand's Crusaders. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd. OCLC 561949575.
  • Powles, C. Guy (1922). The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine. Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War, Volume III. Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd. OCLC 2959465. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Wavell, Field Marshal Earl (1968). E.W. Sheppard (ed.). The Palestine Campaigns. A Short History of the British Army (3rd ed.). London: Constable & Co.
  • Woodward, David R. (2006). Hell in the Holy Land World War I in the Middle East. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0813123837.
Categories: