| Revision as of 09:14, 26 March 2006 editIan Goddard (talk | contribs)163 edits code-syntax corrections← Previous edit | Revision as of 16:09, 26 March 2006 edit undoIan Goddard (talk | contribs)163 edits Historic accuracy - correcting for oversights of official findings - add storm-circulation theory - see talk postNext edit → | ||
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| Within two weeks after the first red rain, on August 6th of 2001 it was reported in the media that scientists at the Center for Earth Science Studies () and the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute () determined that the particles coloring the rainwater were ''not'' from a meteor but were instead some type of ] (). | Within two weeks after the first red rain, on August 6th of 2001 it was reported in the media that scientists at the Center for Earth Science Studies () and the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute () determined that the particles coloring the rainwater were ''not'' from a meteor but were instead some type of ] (). | ||
| Then in November of 2001, commissioned by the ] Department of Science & Technology, the CESS and TBGRI released a report (Sampath ''et al'') |
Then in November of 2001, commissioned by the ] Department of Science & Technology, the CESS and TBGRI released a report (Sampath ''et al'') concluding that Kerala's rains were colored by ] spores, which were successfully grown in medium into algae of the ''Trentepohlia'' genus ( and ). Their final conclusion has been overlooked in western media reports (), but is reported in an online document of the ] (). | ||
| Given the media oversight of the study commissioned by the ], it should be noted that being the first and only official study, Sampath ''et al'' naturally takes the position of ] given that it contains the most comprehensive scientific analyses of the phenomenon to date (being those done at and ). As such, arguments for given causal mechanisms cannot be made ''in absentia'' of the findings of Sampath ''et al''. Thus, alternative theories need to state why they are better than the official findings rather than simply ignoring their existence or defining them as some random theory. | Given the media oversight of the study commissioned by the ], it should be noted that being the first and only official study, Sampath ''et al'' naturally takes the position of ] given that it contains the most comprehensive scientific analyses of the phenomenon to date (being those done at and ). As such, arguments for given causal mechanisms cannot be made ''in absentia'' of the findings of Sampath ''et al''. Thus, alternative theories need to state why they are better than the official findings rather than simply ignoring their existence or defining them as some random theory. | ||
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| }}</ref>. Coloured rain is by no means rare, and can often be explained by the transport of dust from ] regions in ]s, where it mixes with water droplets. One such case occurred in ] in ], when dust was carried from the ] and fell with rain in February of that year. | }}</ref>. Coloured rain is by no means rare, and can often be explained by the transport of dust from ] regions in ]s, where it mixes with water droplets. One such case occurred in ] in ], when dust was carried from the ] and fell with rain in February of that year. | ||
| While the Kerala red rains were found to be caused by ] ] ( and ), Satyanarayana ''et al'' <ref>Satyanarayana M., Veerabuthiran S., Ramakrishna Rao D., Presennakumar B. (2004), ''Colored Rain on the West Coastal Region of India: Was it Due to a Dust Storm?'', Aerosol Science and Technology, v.38, p.24–26</ref> proposed after those early official findings that the rain may have instead been colored by dust from the deserts of ]. They argue that ] observations had detected a cloud of dust in the atmosphere near Kerala in the days preceding the outbreak of the red rain. However, that hypothesis cannot explain certain aspects of the red rain, such as its sudden onset and gradual decline over two months, its localisation to Kerala despite atmospheric conditions that should have seen it occur in neighbouring states as well, and the findings of the red particles as being ''Trentepohlia'' spores, not sand. | |||
| Given the official findings of Sampath ''et al'' () one possibility is that the rain contained algae spores carried by upper atmospheric winds from some distant location. However, Sampath ''et al'' concluded that the spores were most likely of local origin given the local proliferation of the ''Trentepohlia'' algae in question. They therefore called for further research on local-spore-transport models. One such model that has been proposed by a private researcher, who argues that spores that had accumulated during a dry spell before the rains were lofted up by approaching scattered storms and drawn into the storm clouds by way of the warm updraft forward of storms (). That storm-circulation model invokes the anatomy of a self-propagating storm described in R.S. Scorer's as the causal mechanism. | |||
| Another possibility was that the rain contained ], ] spores or ], which can be carried high into the atmosphere; but the appearance of the red particles did not correspond to any known ]. Microbes would be degraded with long storage periods in non-sterile conditions, but this did not occur with the red particles. | |||
| A third theory is that the rain contained mammalian blood, a large flock of ]s having been killed at high altitude, perhaps by a ]. Some bat species in India live in very large communities. However, no bat wings or other remains were found raining from the sky, and no known process would separate the red blood cells from white cells, platelets and other blood components. Red blood cells disrupt rapidly in regular rainwater because of osmosis, but this was not evident with the red particles.<ref name="tmcnet 2006"> — transcript of a ] ] </ref> | A third theory, which has no evidentiary basis, is that the rain contained mammalian blood, a large flock of ]s having been killed at high altitude, perhaps by a ]. Some bat species in India live in very large communities. However, no bat wings or other remains were found raining from the sky, and no known process would separate the red blood cells from white cells, platelets and other blood components. Red blood cells disrupt rapidly in regular rainwater because of osmosis, but this was not evident with the red particles.<ref name="tmcnet 2006"> — transcript of a ] ] </ref> | ||
| ==Less conventional explanation== | ==Less conventional explanation== | ||
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Revision as of 16:09, 26 March 2006
Red rain in Kerala was a phenomenon observed over several weeks, beginning in July 2001, in the southern Indian state of Kerala. Heavy downpours occurred in which the rain was bright red, staining clothes and appearing like blood.
A convincing explanation for the phenomenon has yet to be found. Initially it was suspected that, like many instances of coloured rain, dust transported from elsewhere was responsible; but the distribution of the red rain was patchy whereas a dust layer would be expected to give rise to evenly distributed coloured rainfall. The event became much more notable when scientists at the Mahatma Gandhi University in Kottayam proposed a far more outlandish theory, which was then popularised in many newspapers. The researchers theorise that the dust is in fact composed of organic matter of extraterrestrial origin. If this were to be proven, it would be the first direct evidence in favour of the theory of exogenesis, which posits that life on Earth arrived here from outer space.
The rain
The red rain in Kerala first fell on 25 July 2001, in the districts of Kottayam and Idukki in the southern part of the state. As well as red rain, some reports suggested that other colours of rain were also seen . Many more occurrences of the red rain were reported over the following 10 days, and with diminishing frequency until the end of September.
According to locals, the rain was preceded by a flash of light and thunderclap, and followed by groves of trees shedding shriveled gray "burnt" leaves. Shriveled leaves and the disappearance and sudden formation of wells were also reported around the same time in the area, and are considered related incidents by residents.
The coloration of the rain was due to red particles in suspension in the rain water. When it fell, the red rain was at times as strongly coloured as blood. It typically fell over small areas, no more than a few square kilometres in size, and was sometimes so localised that normal rain could be falling just a few metres away from red rain. Red rainfalls typically lasted less than 20 minutes.
The Official Findings
Within two weeks after the first red rain, on August 6th of 2001 it was reported in the media that scientists at the Center for Earth Science Studies (CESS) and the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) determined that the particles coloring the rainwater were not from a meteor but were instead some type of spore (see).
Then in November of 2001, commissioned by the Government of India's Department of Science & Technology, the CESS and TBGRI released a report (Sampath et al) concluding that Kerala's rains were colored by algae spores, which were successfully grown in medium into algae of the Trentepohlia genus (see and see). Their final conclusion has been overlooked in western media reports (example), but is reported in an online document of the Government of India (see pages 31-2).
Given the media oversight of the study commissioned by the Government of India, it should be noted that being the first and only official study, Sampath et al naturally takes the position of presumption given that it contains the most comprehensive scientific analyses of the phenomenon to date (being those done at CESS and TBGRI). As such, arguments for given causal mechanisms cannot be made in absentia of the findings of Sampath et al. Thus, alternative theories need to state why they are better than the official findings rather than simply ignoring their existence or defining them as some random theory.
Conventional explanations
History records many instances of unusual objects falling with the rain — in 2000, in an example of raining animals, a small tornado in the North Sea sucked up a school of fish a mile off shore, depositing them shortly afterwards on Great Yarmouth in the United Kingdom. Coloured rain is by no means rare, and can often be explained by the transport of dust from desert regions in high pressure areas, where it mixes with water droplets. One such case occurred in England in 1903, when dust was carried from the Sahara and fell with rain in February of that year.
While the Kerala red rains were found to be caused by algae spores (see pages 31-2 and also), Satyanarayana et al proposed after those early official findings that the rain may have instead been colored by dust from the deserts of Arabia. They argue that LIDAR observations had detected a cloud of dust in the atmosphere near Kerala in the days preceding the outbreak of the red rain. However, that hypothesis cannot explain certain aspects of the red rain, such as its sudden onset and gradual decline over two months, its localisation to Kerala despite atmospheric conditions that should have seen it occur in neighbouring states as well, and the findings of the red particles as being Trentepohlia spores, not sand.
Given the official findings of Sampath et al (see) one possibility is that the rain contained algae spores carried by upper atmospheric winds from some distant location. However, Sampath et al concluded that the spores were most likely of local origin given the local proliferation of the Trentepohlia algae in question. They therefore called for further research on local-spore-transport models. One such model that has been proposed by a private researcher, who argues that spores that had accumulated during a dry spell before the rains were lofted up by approaching scattered storms and drawn into the storm clouds by way of the warm updraft forward of storms (see). That storm-circulation model invokes the anatomy of a self-propagating storm described in R.S. Scorer's Environmental Aerodynamics as the causal mechanism.
A third theory, which has no evidentiary basis, is that the rain contained mammalian blood, a large flock of bats having been killed at high altitude, perhaps by a meteor. Some bat species in India live in very large communities. However, no bat wings or other remains were found raining from the sky, and no known process would separate the red blood cells from white cells, platelets and other blood components. Red blood cells disrupt rapidly in regular rainwater because of osmosis, but this was not evident with the red particles.
Less conventional explanation
A more radical explanation for the rains was proposed by Godfrey Louis and A. Santhosh Kumar, two scientists at Mahatma Gandhi University in Kottayam, Kerala. Samples of the rainwater were collected at many locations, allowing the red particles to be collected and analysed, and Louis and Kumar found that the red particles did not look like dust but instead had the appearance of biological cells. Chemical analyses showed that they seemed to consist of organic material, and the scientists proposed that the dust may be microbes of extraterrestrial origin.
Louis and Kumar's analysis found that the red particles were typically 4 to 10 µm across, spherical or oval in shape, and similar in appearance to unicellular organisms. On average, 1 millilitre of rain water was found to contain 9 million red particles, and the weight of particles in each litre of rainwater was about 100 milligrams. Extrapolating these figures to the total amount of red rain estimated to have fallen, Louis and Kumar calculated that a total weight of some 50,000 kilograms of red particles had fallen over Kerala.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis showed that, the particles were composed of mostly carbon and oxygen, with trace amounts of silicon and iron (see table).
| Element | Weight % | Atomic % | Standards |
|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Carbon | 49.53 | 57.83 | CaCO3 |
| Template:Oxygen | 45.42 | 39.82 | Quartz |
| Template:Sodium | 0.69 | 0.42 | Albite |
| Template:Aluminium | 0.41 | 0.21 | Al2O3 |
| Template:Silicon | 2.85 | 1.42 | Quartz |
| Template:Chlorine | 0.12 | 0.05 | KCl |
| Template:Iron | 0.97 | 0.24 | Fe |
A CHN analyzer showed 43.03% carbon, 4.43% hydrogen, and 1.84% nitrogen.
Louis and Kumar performed tests with ethidium bromide to see if any DNA or RNA was present in the red particles, but found none.
Their results were published in the journal Astrophysics and Space Science.
Possible cometary origin
A few hours before the first occurrence of the red rain, a sonic boom was reported by residents of Changanasserry in Kottayam district, accompanied by a flash of light. Louis and Kumar suggest that this was caused by the disintegration of a small comet entering the Earth's atmosphere, and that this comet contained large quantities of the red particles. Observations show that 85% of the red rain fell within 10 days of 25 July, and Louis and Kumar suggest that this is consistent with the settling of red particles released into the upper atmosphere by a cometary break-up. An initial study of the red particles by scientists in Thiruvananthapuram suggested that they could be dust from a comet, but subsequent observations found that the particles did not look like dust under close scrutiny.
Louis and Kumar further suggest that the particles are cells and thus represent evidence of extraterrestrial life. If the particles are biological in nature and did originate in a comet, it would be the first evidence in favour of the theory of panspermia, in which life on Earth is proposed to have been carried here from elsewhere in the universe. Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have been among the proponents of the theory, but it has never found much of a following, being dismissed by most mainstream scientists.
Further tests on the particles are currently being carried out at Sheffield University by Dr Milton Wainwright, who has previous experience researching stratospheric spores. As of March 2006, he believes that they are definitely cells, similar in appearance to spores of a rust fungus. He has not yet identified DNA, but refuses to speculate on whether it is present or not.
References
- ^ Gentleman, Amelia (2006). "Red rain could prove that aliens have landed". Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved March 12.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Ramakrishnan, Venkitesh (2001). "Coloured rain falls on Kerala". BBC. Retrieved March 6.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Radhakrishnan, M. G. (2001). "Scarlets Of Fire". India Today. Retrieved March 6.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - Mystery of the scarlet rains and other tales — Times of India, August 6, 2001
- Now wells form spontaneously in Kerala — Times of India, August 5, 2001 (from the Internet Archive)
- ^ Louis G., Kumar A.S. (2006), The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin, accepted for publication in Astrophysics & Space Science (PDF)
- Lane, Megan (2000). "It's raining fish!". BBC. Retrieved March 6.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - Satyanarayana M., Veerabuthiran S., Ramakrishna Rao D., Presennakumar B. (2004), Colored Rain on the West Coastal Region of India: Was it Due to a Dust Storm?, Aerosol Science and Technology, v.38, p.24–26
- ^ It's raining aliens — transcript of a New Scientist podcast - get podcast here
- Is mysterious 'red rain' first evidence of life in space? — Yorkshire Today
External links
- “Skepticism greets claim of possible alien microbes” in World Science
- “Red rain could prove that aliens have landed” by Amelia Gentleman and Robin McKie in The Observer
- “When aliens rained over India” by Hazel Muir in New Scientist
- “Red rain was fungus, not meteor” by Kamal Gopinath Nair in the Indian Express
- Possible Causal Mechanism of Kerala's Red Rain
Louis and Kumar's papers
- The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its possible extraterrestrial origin
- Cometary panspermia explains the red rain of Kerala
- New biology of red rain extremophiles prove cometary panspermia