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v t e

Men's rights are the entitlements and freedoms claimed by boys and men.

Issues commonly associated with men's rights include, though are not limited to: property rights, reproductive rights, rights regarding marriage and divorce, alleged inequalities in domestic violence laws, and military conscription, inequity in the family court system, a lack of social support services for men, the decline of college enrollment among men versus women, and legislation like the Violence Against Women Act.

Movements

The supporters of men's rights are considered part of the men's movement, and go by the moniker of "men's rights activists," or MRAs. The men's rights movement is concerned with a wide variety of issues, some of which have spawned their own groups or movements. For example, the fathers' rights movement is concerned specifically with divorce and child custody issues.

History

The men's rights movement emerged in the United States during the late 1970s from the antifeminist branch of the men's liberation movement. Early men's rights organizations include Men's Rights, Inc. and Free Men, Inc., both formed in 1977. During the 1980s, several men's rights organizations from different parts of the United States joined to form the National Coalition of Free Men (now the National Coalition for Men).

Structure

Like most social movements, those concerned with men's rights comprise a wide variety of individuals and organisations, both united and divided in various ways on specific issues. Some groups are formally organised or incorporated, while others are casual alliances or the work of a few individuals.

Major men's rights organizations include the National Coalition for Men and the American Coalition for Fathers and Children. The National Coalition for Men has 22 chapters in the United States and chapters in 5 other countries. The American Coalition for Fathers and Children was founded in 1995 by Stuart A. Miller and Dianna Thompson in an effort to provide a forum for discussion of male rights.

Although the vast majority of men's rights leaders and activists are men, there are some women, including those in significant positions within the movement. For example, Sue Price and her husband, Reg Price, are co-directors of the Australian Men's Rights Agency. Naomi Penner was a women's rights activist in the 1960s who later helped to create the National Coalition of Free Men in America in 1981. Christina Hoff Sommers has written two books highlighting a perceived disparity in the feminist movement's level of support for issues that disadvantage women compared to the feminist movement's level of support for issues that disadvantage men.

There are a number of men's rights organizations active in India, many of whom focus around the perceived abuse of anti-dowry laws against men. One such organization is The Save Indian Family Foundation (SIFF) a registered non-profit headquartered in Bangalore, that claims more than 30,000 members. SIFF has stated that they feel that anti-dowry laws have regularly been used in efforts to settle petty disputes in marriage, and have said that their helplines receive calls from many men who say that their wives have used false dowry claims to get them jailed.

Men's rights in social context

Marriage and divorce

Legal and religious tradition dictated that rights to make decisions and take actions that influence both partners have lain with the male.

Divorce

In 2003, a Malaysian court ruled that, under sharia law, a man has the right to divorce his wife via text messaging.

Alimony

In the US, spousal support may be awarded regardless of gender. A legal precedent for gender-blind spousal support in the United States was made in Orr v. Orr, where the Supreme Court invalidated Alabama's statutes by which husbands, but not wives, were required to pay alimony upon divorce. This statute was considered a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The percentage of alimony recipients in the US who were male rose from 2.4% in (1996–2001) to 3.6% in (2002–2006) and is expected to increase as more marriages feature a female primary earner.

Military Conscription

These countries currently require only men for conscription into military service include but may not be limited to; Bermuda, Cyprus, Egypt, Finland, Greece, Mexico, Russia, Singapore, Switzerland, Turkey and Taiwan.

These countries require a longer conscription period for men include but may not be limited to; Chad and Israel.

These countries can enact a draft currently by law including only men include but may not be limited to; Germany, New Zealand, Serbia and United States .

In the United States, the case Rostker v. Goldberg alleged that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than equity. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment in the United States might also have addressed single-gender Selective Service registration, but was never ratified into law.

Refugees

In Australian immigration policy a distinction is regularly made between women and children (often treated erroneously as equivalent to "family groups") and single men. The details are subject to current debate and recently failed legislation (August 2006) in the Australian Parliament. But for example in one recent case, former Minister for Immigration, Senator Amanda Vanstone, determined as follows concerning Papuan asylum seekers: "The single men on the boat would be sent to an immigration detention centre, but families would not be split up and would be housed in facilities in the community".

Paternity leave

In the countries where parental leave is available, is often not distributed equally between parents. This can lead to fathers not being able to spend enough time with their children after birth.

Social security and retirement

Previously, in some countries that award some form of social security or pension, women qualified for benefits earlier in life than men. However, this is currently being phased out.

"Widow Allowance" in Australia is awarded to a woman born before 1 June 1955, with no recent workforce experience and with low income if she becomes widowed, divorced, or separated from a spouse or de facto partner (of either sex). The provision is available to women only; not to men in identical circumstances.

In the United Kingdom, women's earlier qualification for State Pension has ended for anyone born after 1955.

Healthcare

Cancer

Slightly more men are diagnosed with prostate cancer than women are with breast cancer every year. However, spending on research in to breast cancer is significantly higher than prostate cancer, there are fewer available treatments for prostate cancer, government screening programmes are fewer and media coverage of prostate cancer is significantly lower. However, this has to be seen in the context that breast cancer mortality rates are significantly higher, and that screening is more expensive than that for prostate cancer.

Equal treatment and protection under the law

Sentencing disparities

The United States Sentencing Guidelines prohibit the consideration of race, sex, and national origin in sentencing decisions. David Mustard found unexplained race and gender disparities favoring whites and women. Women fared better than men in all specifications, and the gender disparity was usually much larger than the estimated racial disparities. Gender effects are found in both drug and non-drug offenses and greatly exceed the effects of race and ethnicity. Unlike race and ethnic discrimination, the evidence is more consistent that part of this gap is due to different treatment of offenders based on their gender. Sentence lengths for men are typically 25 to 30 percent longer for all types of cases. Additional analyses show that the effects are present every year.

In 2011, California lawmakers, headed by state senator Carol Liu, implemented a policy to release female inmates who are parents, convicted of non-violent, non-sexual and non-child related crimes, which they have deemed “primary caregivers" despite not having custody due to being in jail. However, the USSG prohibits gender in consideration for sentencing departures. Robert Oakes, legislative director for Liu, stated about Liu's goal: “In crafting the bill, her intent was to single out female inmates with children...But that could not be done because of a constitutional ban against gender-based discrimination. So the phrase ‘primary caregiver’ was added to the bill.” The program is currently only being offered to women. It is believed that similar actions will be extended to men at some point in the future, although no date has been set.

Rape laws

Because it is possible to get a conviction for rape without corroborating evidence the issue of false accusations of rape is very serious. The exact prevalence of false allegations is unknown and is likely to vary widely. The topic has been studied in many scholarly investigations but the results have ranged from 1.5% to 90% depending on the methodology. Studies that review the evidence and report those that they can determine are conclusively false tend to find lower numbers while studies that ask the claimants to indicate if they have lied find higher numbers. More than half report a prevalence greater than fifteen percent.

The prevalence of rape has also been of some concern as some belive that the statistics have been inflated and that this promotes a detrimental fear of men. For example the popular statistic that one in four women will be raped in colledge comes from a study where three quarters of those categorized as rape victims did not think they had been raped.

Sentencing for those convicted of making such allegations are often perceived as being too lenient in comparison to the severe penalties imposed upon rapists.

In many jurisdictions, alleged victims of rape are given anonymity while this is not extended to the accused. The British government announced plans to grant anonymity to the accused but withdrew plans after criticism from a women's campaign group.

Reproductive rights

Spousal notification laws

In China the law states that a woman has no overriding priority over her spouse in deciding whether to have a child. Egypt, Guinea-Bissau, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Malawi, Morocco, Nicaragua, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates all legally require that an abortion must be authorized by the woman's husband. However, in some countries, this authorization law can be overridden if there is genuine concern for maternal health.

Adoption

Until Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956), the right to adopt children in India was reserved for Hindu men.

In Oregon an adoption may be granted without the consent of a married woman's husband if it has been determined that her husband at such time was not the father of the child; in this case, consent of the husband (or father) is not required.

The male abortion

The male abortion, sometimes called a "financial abortion", describes a putative father's right to terminate his interests in and obligations to the unborn child. Some pro-life advocates argue that fathers should be given equal power over an abortion decision in order to protect their offspring.

In the US in 2006, Dubay v. Wells argued that in the event of an unplanned pregnancy, the male should have an opportunity to decline all paternity rights and responsibilities. Supporters said that this would allow the woman time to make an informed decision and give men the same reproductive rights as women. In its dismissal of the case, the U.S. Court of Appeals (Sixth Circuit) stated that "the Fourteenth Amendment does not deny to State the power to treat different classes of persons in different ways."

Critics argue that the concept of a "financial abortion" presents a problem in and of itself. Some men and women argue that the availability of abortion should not relieve men of equal financial responsibility to a child they helped conceive. Opponents argue, in a country such as the U.S. where government assistance is often debated, an ongoing discussion over who is responsible for the care of children is needed.

Reproductive rights after divorce

In 2003, a British woman lost her challenge against the 1990 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act which specifically states that both partners must consent to the use of their genetic material. She was attempting to gain access to fertilised embryos, frozen prior to her divorce from her ex-husband who had since withdrawn his consent. However, another British man was forced to pay child support for children conceived artificially after his ex-wife used sperm frozen during their marriage. In this case, the woman had falsely claimed his consent when undergoing the procedure.

Paternity fraud

Male parental rights

In many industrialised nations where divorce is common, father's rights activists hold the belief that men are unfairly discriminated against in family courts when deciding issues of child custody.

Political representation

In the United Kingdom, where there is a Minister for Women, there have been calls for an analogous "Minister for Men". Lord Northbourne, who made the first parliamentary call for such in 2004, told the BBC that "if the government feels they need a minister to address women's issues, it should be the same for men." Northbourne's proposal was presented to the prime minister during prime minister's questions the same year. The proposal was rejected and Northbourne and others argue that such a minister is needed, pointing to a relatively poor standard of health for men, Fathers' rights, male suicide rates, and males under-performing in education compared to females.

Domestic Violence

In many jurisdictions, domestic violence is seen as men assaulting women and female violence is systematically minimized and denied. It has been alledged that evidence that women equal men in rates of violence has been suppressed. Studies that report higher levels of female aggression are less likely to get published. Early advocates for male victims of domestic violence have reported harassment, including bomb threats. This means that support networks for victims of domestic violence are often only available to women and that in mutually absuive situations only the man may face legal consequences. It has also been alleged that dishonest information and tactics by activists contibutes to an unjustifiably negative image of men and misandry. Christina Hoff Sommers writes that "false claims about male domestic violence are ubiquitous and immune to refutation".

Men are less likely to report domestic violence. British men aged 20 to 24 were just as likely to be the victims of domestic violence as women.

See also

• Feminism
• Human rights
• Paternal rights and abortion
• Parental leave
• Sexism
• Women's rights

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Bibliography

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• Cook, Philip (2009). Abused men: the hidden side of domestic violence. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313356711. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Frieze, Irene (2000). "Violence in close relationships—development of a research area: Comment on Archer (2000)". Psychological Bulletin. 126 (5): 681–684.
• Hymowitz, Kay (22 March 2011). "Manhattan Moment: What America really needs is a White House Council on Men and Boys". Washington Examiner. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
• Kelly, Linda (2003). "Disabusing the definition of domestic abuse: How women batter men and the role of the feminist state". Florida State University Law Review. 30: 792–793.
• Mead, Sara (June 2006). The Truth About Boys and Girls (Report). Education Sector. {{cite report}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Motz, Anna (2008). The psychology of female violence: Crimes against the body. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-93091-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Rosenthal, Mark (29 March 2006). "Respecting Accuracy In Domestic Abuse Reporting (radar)". Bulverde Standard. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
• Sommers, Christina Hoff (4 February 2011). "Domestic violence myths help no one". USA Today. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
• Young, Katherine; Nathanson, Paul (2006). Legalizing misandry: from public shame to systemic discrimination against men. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 9780773528628. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

• The Myth of Male Power by Warren Farrell, 1993.
• Flood, Michael: Backlash: Angry men's movements in: Rossi, Staceay E.: The Battle and Backlash rage on. 2004, XLibris Corp., ISBN 1-4134-5934-X, S. 261–287
• Flood, Michael: Men's movements in: XY magazine, vol. 6. 1996
• Emotion, Seduction and Intimacy: Alternative Perspectives on Human Behaviour (Third Edition) by Rory Ridley-Duff, Seattle, OR: Libertary Editions, ISBN 978-1-935961-00-0, http://www.libertary.com/book/emotion-seduction-intimacy

External links

Bibliographic

• The Men's Bibliography, a bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works - primarily from a constructionist perspective
• Boyhood Studies, features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.

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