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The term German Empire commonly refers to Germany, from its foundation as a unified nation-state on January 18 1871, until the abdication of its last Emperor, Wilhelm II, on November 9 1918. Germans, when referring to the Reich in this period under the Kaisers, typically use the term Kaiserreich and this term has often been used by non-German historians.

Sometimes in English, but rarely in German, the name Second Reich is used, based on counting the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation as the first German empire and Nazi Germany as the third. Numbering of the Reichs began in 1923 by Arthur Moeller van Den Bruck (he longed for a third, which he idealized) and was briefly taken up by Nazi propaganda. After the 'Great war' (later known as First World War), Drittes Reich ('Third Empire', often semi-translated as 'Third Reich') became the standard name for Nazi Germany, used by Hitler's regime itself.

It should be noted that Deutsches Reich was the state's official name not only in the period of the Kaisers 1871 to 1918, but also during the Weimar Republic, and in Nazi Germany; thus the next three articles of the History of Germany series also cover the official Deutsches Reich.

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Bismarck's founding of the Empire

Under the disguise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck's authoritarian Realpolitik. Bismarck wanted unification to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated German state. He accomplished this through three military successes:

1. He first allied with Austria in order to defeat Denmark in a short war (the Second war of Schleswig) fought during 1864, thus acquiring Schleswig-Holstein.
2. In 1866, in concert with Italy, he virtually created the Austro-Prussian War and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgrätz, which, in the same year, allowed him to exclude long-time rival Austria when forming the North German Confederation with the states that had supported Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War. The Confederation was the direct precursor to the 1871 Empire.
3. Finally, France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71); the Confederation was transformed into the Empire with the proclamation of Prussian King Wilhelm I as German Emperor at the Palace of Versailles, to the humiliation of the French.

Bismarck himself prepared in broad outline the 1866 North German Constitution, to become the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire with some adjustments. Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the Reichstag, that in contrast to the parliament of Prussia was elected by direct and equal manhood suffrage. However, legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the states, in which Prussia had a large influence. Behind a constitutional façade, Prussia thus exercised predominant influence in both bodies with executive power vested in the Kaiser, who appointed the federal chancellor – Otto von Bismarck. The Chancellor was accountable solely to and served entirely at the discretion of the Emperor. Officially, the Chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (bureaucratic top officials in change of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years 1872-1873 and 1892-1894, the Chancellor was always simultaneously the Prime Minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. The Reichstag had the power to pass, amend or reject bills, but could not initiate legislation. The power of initiating legislation rested with the Chancellor.

While the other states retained their own governments, the military forces of the smaller states were put under Prussian control, while those of the larger states such as the kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony, were coordinated along Prussian principles and would in war times be controlled by the federal government. Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire permitted the development of political parties.

The evolution of the authoritarian German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy and Japan. Similarly to Bismarck, Count Camillo Benso di Cavour in Italy used diplomacy and war to achieve his objectives: he allied with France before attacking Austria, securing the unification of Italy as a kingdom under the Piemontese dynasty (except for Austrian Venice and the Papal States) by 1861. In the interests of Piedmont-Sardinia, Cavour, hostile to the more revolutionary nationalism of liberal republicans such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini, sought the unification of Italy along conservative lines. Similarly, Japan would follow a course of conservative modernization from the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the Meiji Restoration to 1918 along with Cavour's Italy. In fact, Japan issued a commission in 1882 to study various governmental structures throughout the world and were particularly impressed by Bismarck's Germany, issuing a constitution in 1889 that formed a premiership with powers analogous to Bismarck's position as chancellor with a cabinet responsible to the emperor alone. The unification of Germany also meant absorbing the entire Kingdom of Prussia into it. The three provinces of East Prussia ( West Prussia),and Provinz Posen that were before parts of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, were incorporated into the new nation-state. All had large Polish populations, with Poles being majority in Provinz of Posen, the area being the historic birthplace of the Polish state. Another province, Silesia, together with Bohemia and unlike East Prussia, West Prussia and Provinz Posen part of the German Confederation had a considerable Polish minority. Since the Polish population was growing more rapidly, and Germans were migrating from eastern to western Germany in the Ostflucht, eastern provinces gradually became populated by increasing Polish population. To counteract that trend and fearing the national liberation movement of Poles, the government attempted at enforcing the German language and culture by discriminating Poles and other national minorities. One factor in the social anatomy of these governments had been the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, due to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.

List of Constituent States of the Empire

• Kingdoms (“Königreiche”)
  • Bavaria (“Bayern”) - capital Munich
  • Prussia (“Preußen”) - capital Berlin
  • Saxony (“Sachsen”) - capital Dresden
  • Württemberg - capital Stuttgart

• Grand Duchies (“Großherzogtümer”)
  • Baden - capital Karlsruhe
  • Hesse (“Hessen”) - capital Darmstadt
  • Mecklenburg-Schwerin - capital Schwerin
  • Mecklenburg-Strelitz - capital Strelitz
  • Oldenburg - capital Oldenburg
  • Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (“Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach”) - capital Weimar

• Duchies (“Herzogtümer”)
  • Anhalt - capital Dessau
  • Brunswick (“Braunschweig”) - capital Braunschweig
  • Saxe-Altenburg (“Sachsen-Altenburg”) - capital Altenburg
  • Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (“Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha”) - capital Coburg
  • Saxe-Meiningen (“Sachsen-Meiningen”) - capital Meiningen

• Principalities (“Fürstentümer”)
  • Lippe - capital Detmold
  • Reuss-Gera or Reuss Younger Line (“Reuß jüngere Linie”) - capital Gera
  • Reuss-Greiz or Reuss Elder Line (“Reuß ältere Linie”) - capital Greiz
  • Schaumburg-Lippe - capital Bückeburg
  • Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt - capital Rudolstadt
  • Schwarzburg-Sondershausen - capital Sondershausen
  • Waldeck-Pyrmont - capital Arolsen

• Free Cities (“Freie Hansestädte”)
  • Bremen
  • Hamburg
  • Lübeck

• Others:
  • Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine (“Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen”)

Conservative modernization

Bismarck's domestic policies played a great role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the Kaiserreich. Less preoccupied by continental power politics following unification in 1871, Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time.

Not only did German manufacturers capture German markets from British imports, by the 1870s, British manufacturers in the staple industries of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to experience real competition abroad. Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and the United States, allowing them to clearly prevail over the old French and British capitalisms. The German textiles and metal industries, for example, had by the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufacturers in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would be producing heavily for the free trade market of Britain.

After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity and achieving this under the ideology of Prussianism. Catholic conservatism, conceptualized by the reactionary turn of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX and its dogma of Papal Infallibility, and working class radicalism, represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party, in many ways both reacted to concerns of dislocation by very different segments of German society, brought by a rapid shift from an agrarian-based economy to modern industrial capitalism under reactionary tutelage. While out-and-out suppression failed to contain either socialists or Catholics, Bismarck's "carrot and stick" approach significantly mollified opposition from both groups.

One can summarize Bismarck's objectives under three keywords: Kulturkampf, Social reform and national unification.

• Kulturkampf. Following the incorporation of the Catholic states in the south and the former Polish lands in the east, Catholicism, represented by the Catholic Centre Party, was seemingly the principal threat to Bismarck's military-aristocratic Prussian nationalism, because Catholics were perceived as having loyalty to Pope over the state. Southern Catholics, hailing from a much more agrarian base and falling under the ranks of the peasantry, artisans, guildsmen, clergy, and princely aristocracies of the small states more often than their Protestant counterparts in the North, initially had trouble competing with industrial efficiency and the opening of outside trade by the Zollverein.
  After 1878, the struggle against socialism would unite Bismarck with the Catholic Centre Party, bringing an end to the Kulturkampf, which had led to far greater Catholic unrest than existed beforehand and had strengthened rather than weakened Catholicism in Germany.

• Social reform. To contain the working class and to weaken the influence socialist groups, Bismarck's reluctant creation of a remarkably advanced welfare state would give the working class a stake in German nationalism as well. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accidents insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the most advanced in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today.

• National unification. Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with legislation.

The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise.

In 1871, a common Criminal Code (Reichsstrafgesetzbuch) was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established through the Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz, the Zivilprozessordnung and the Strafprozessordnung (court system, civil procedures, and criminal procedures, respectively). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (if they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works of the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900. It speaks volumes for the conceptual quality of these codifications that they all, albeit with many amendments, have been in effect until today.

Carrying out many of the same tasks that would have been brought to fruition with the help of a revolution from below, the ultimate effects of conservative modernization are distinct. With real political power still in the hands of the aristocracy, the government sought to preserve as much of the original social framework as they could, even as the economic base of the landowners rapidly diminished in comparison to industry. Unification was followed by a prolonged period of conservative and even authoritarian government. The leadership had to have at hand or be able to construct a sufficiently powerful bureaucratic apparatus, including the agencies of repression, the military and the police. But in place a strong central government would have to establish strong authority and uniform administrative system, and a more or less uniform law code managed to create a sufficiently powerful military machine to be able to make the wishes of its rulers felt in the arena of international politics.

Militarism

One of the by-products of conservative modernization was militarism. To unite the upper classes—both the military-aristocracy and industrialists—militarism proved necessary to continue modernization without changing socio-political structures. Each of the elites in the ruling coalition of the Empire found some advantages in formal, overseas expansion: mammoth monopolies wanted imperial support to secure overseas investments against competition and domestic political tensions abroad; bureaucrats wanted more occupations; military officers desired promotion; and the traditional but waning landed gentry wanted formal titles. Observing the rise of trade unionism, socialism, and other protest movements during an era of mass society in both Europe and later North America, the elite in particular was able to utilize nationalistic imperialism to co-opt the support of the industrial working class. Riding the sentiments of the late nineteenth century Romantic Age, imperialism inculcated the masses with neo-aristocratic virtues and helped instill broad, nationalist sentiments. Thus, Prussia—heir to the garrison state built up by figures such as Friedrich Wilhelm I and Frederick the Great in the 18th century—managed to create a sufficiently powerful military machine not only capable of challenging rivals on the continent such as Austria and France, but able to make its presence known in the arena of international politics.

German imperialists (of the Alldeutsche Verband), for instance, argued that Britain's world power position gave the British unfair advantages on international markets, thus limiting Germany's economic growth and threatening its security. Many European statesmen and industrialists wanted to accelerate the Scramble for Africa, securing colonies before they strictly needed them. Their reasoning was that markets might soon become glutted, and a nation's economic survival depend on its being able to offload its surplus products elsewhere. In response, British imperialists such as Joseph Chamberlain thus concluded that formal imperialism was necessary for Britain because of the relative decline of its share of the world's export trade and the rise of German, American, and French economic competition.

Economic trends certainly played a major role, explaining why statesmen from Jules Ferry to Francesco Crispi sought new roles for the emerging powers that they led, especially during the Great Depression of 1873, but shifts in the European balance of power are what ultimately facilitated formal overseas expansionism. With the reactionary continental order established by the Congress of Vienna shattered, the allure of imperialism was an option beyond the traditional great powers of France and Britain. The new nation states of Germany and Italy were no longer embroiled in continental concerns and domestic disputes as they were before the Franco-Prussian War.

Thus, Bismarck, once openly uninterested in overseas adventurism, was eventually brought to realize the political value of colonies. The absolutist Central Powers, led by a newly unified, dynamically industrializing Germany, with its expanding navy, doubling in size between the Franco-Prussian War and the Great War, were strategic threats to the markets and security of the more established Allied powers and Russia. German colonial efforts from 1884 brought only a small overseas empire compared to those of Britain and France, although in the Herero Wars it shared with those empires the phenomenon of armed conflict between natives and colonials.

Subsequent German foreign policy initiatives (notably the initiation of a large battle fleet under the naval laws of 1898 and 1900) drove Britain into diplomatic alignment (the Entente) with a Franco-Russian alliance already in the offing at the time of Bismarck's fall.

After Bismarck

The Empire flourished under Bismarck's guidance until the Kaiser's death (March 1888). In this so-called Dreikaiserjahr (Year of Three Emperors), Friedrich III, his son and successor, only lived 99 days, leaving the crown to a young and impetuous Wilhelm II, who forced Bismarck out of office in March 1890.

Within Germany, the opposition Social Democratic Party (SPD) rose to become for a time the strongest socialist party in the world, winning a third of the votes in the January 1912 elections to the Reichstag (imperial parliament). Government nevertheless remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clericals and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour.

The shaky European balance of power broke down when Austria-Hungary, Germany's ally since 1879, declared war on Serbia (July 1914) after the assassination in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austrian throne. Germany supported their one loyal ally's objectives in Serbia and gave them a "blank cheque" to pursue whatever means they found necessary there. Serbia was supported by Russia, which in turn was allied with France. Following Russia's decision for general mobilisation (i.e. against both Austria-Hungary and Germany) Germany declared war on both Russia and France in what it called a preventive strike.

This was the beginning of World War I. Despite early successes, Germany and its allies suffered military defeat in the face of an enemy strengthened after 1917 by the intervention of the United States. The Kaiser Wilhelm II was driven into exile (November 1918) by a revolution led by elements of the opposition SPD and communist groups, who later organised their own abortive bid for power (January 1919).

In June 1919, the Treaty of Versailles formally ended the war. It was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been proclaimed nearly half a century before. Germany lost territories to France, Belgium, and the reinstated nation of Poland, and elsewhere, and was required to pay reparations for its alleged sole responsibility for the war.

Legacy

Bismarck's rule of reactionary co-optation and coercion and his perpetuation of Junker virtues of militarism, hierarchy, and autocracy can be understood best when one considers that the nation was only recently and in some ways tenuously united; that the large and powerful neighbor, France, had for centuries pursued an active policy of keeping "the Germanies" weak and divided; and that Germany had again and again been the field where the power struggles of other European states and kingdoms were played out, with devastating consequences in most German regions. The earliest memories of Bismarck's generation of leaders encompassed the Napoleonic Wars and Prussia's attendant national humiliations. A perceived need not to manifest outward weakness made the adoption of more liberal means of government by these men unlikely, at best.

Intensified by the reign of the far more militaristic Kaiser Wilhelm II, Bismarck's legacy would contribute to the political culture in which Nazism found significant support-bases. This should raise questions over their true roles in history, despite the era of progress and prosperity over which they presided. Under Bismarck, much of this entails his strategies to suppress Catholic and socialist opposition while promoting militaristic Prussianism. As a result, in Germany, as in Japan and Italy, later attempts to extend democracy would succeed in establishing unstable democracies (the Weimar Republic, Japan in the twenties, and Italy from the end of World War I to the 1922 appointment of Mussolini as premier by Victor Emmanuel III). Each of these constitutional democracies could not to cope with the severe problems of the day and the reluctance or inability to bring about fundamental structural changes.

Despite advances in industry and science under the Second Reich, Germany retained a despotic aspect to its character, due to its militaristic inclinations and having achieved its unification by "blood and iron". The armed forces, inculcated in the militarism of the Prussian Junkers – the glorification of war, and supreme and unquestioning loyalty to the state, leader, and hierarchy – remained passionately loyal to the Hohenzollern dynasty. The values of Prussia's repressive "garrison state," grounded in Prussia's repressive system of agriculture since the defeat of the Teutonic Knights, would be carried to a new extreme under the Third Reich.

Prussianism caught on because prosperity satisfied the old support base of the middle class liberals, and the state was solicitous of the material welfare for many eventually won over—including the working class. German education emerged strong in vocational fields as well as propaganda. From the side of the landed aristocracy came the conceptions of inherent superiority in the ruling class and a sensitivity to matters of status, prominent traits well into the twentieth century. Fed by new sources, these conceptions could later be vulgarized and made appealing to the German population as a whole in doctrines of racial superiority. The royal bureaucracy introduced, against considerable aristocratic resistance, the ideal of complete and unreflecting obedience to an institution over and above class and individual.

At the foundation of these currents was centuries of economic, political, and cultural evolution starting with an agricultural system dominated for centuries by repressive means rather than through the market. German peasants were not only under the repressive watch of their landowners, but grounded in village and work structures that favor solidarity, diminishing their revolutionary potential. Thus, in the realm of propaganda, the Junkers established the generally successful Agrarian League in 1894, laying the groundwork for Nazi doctrine. The league sought the support of peasants in non-Junker areas of smaller farms, inculcating them in "führer worship," the idea of a corporative state, militarism, anti-Semitism. They would also make the distinction between "predatory" and "productive" capital, a distinction later used by the Nazis to appeal to anti-capitalist sentiments among the peasantry.

On the other hand the Kaiserreich did guarantee freedom of press, security of property and it managed to establish a system of public welfare based on compulsory insurance, which survived two World Wars and in its core survives still today. There was a modern election system to the federal Parliament, the Reichstag, which represented every adult man by one vote. This enabled the German Socialists and the Catholic Centre Party to play remarkable roles in the empire's political life, although both parties were officially regarded more or less as "foes of the empire". And the time of the Kaiserreich is well remembered in Germany as a period, when academic research and university life flourished as well as arts and literature. Thomas Mann published his novel the Buddenbrocks in 1901. Theodor Mommsen was awarded the Nobel prize for literature a year later for his Roman history. Painters like the groups Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke made a significant contribution to modern art. The AEG turbine building in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 can be regarded as a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism. There is a considerable historical debate over the Sonderweg question, concerning whatever the nature of German politics and society during the Second Reich made Nazi Germany inevitable. Some historians such as Fritz Fischer, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, and Wolfgang Mommsen have argued that during the Second Reich, a reactionaly "pre-modern" aristocratic elite became entrenched in German society and thus doomed the Weimar Republic to failure before it was even born. Other historians such as Gerhard Ritter have argued that it was only World War One and its aftermath that opened the doors to Nazism, and that nothing Bismarck or his successors did made inevitable the events of the Nazi era.

Bismarck's unified Germany also had a significant impact in East Asia. The unification of Germany was considered a model for both the successful modernization of Japan (which modelled much its imperial constitution on the Hohenzollern empire) and the less successful modernization of China at the beginning of the 20th century. The German civil code became the basis of the legal systems of Japan and the Republic of China after the retreat of the latter to Taiwan remains as the basis of the legal system there. In addition, the Prussian military model (mainly army, the British impressed more as a naval power) had also influenced the Chinese and Japanese armies greatly until the Second World War through their employment of German military advisors, instructors and the acquisition of Germany military equipment. The Ottoman army was reorganised prior to World War One under German influence.

References

• Aronson, Theo. The Kaisers. London: Cassell, 1971.
• Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff. The Peculiarities Of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics In Nineteenth-Century Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. ISBN 0198730586.
• Craig, Gordon. Germany: 1866-1945. ISBN 0195027248
• Fischer, Fritz. From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871-1945. (translated and with an introduction by Roger Fletcher) London: Allen & Unwin, 1986. ISBN 0049430432.
• Fischer, Fritz. War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914. (translated from the German by Marian Jackson) New York: Norton, 1975. ISBN 0393054802.
• Ritter, Gerhard. The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany. (translated from the German by Heinz Norden) Coral Gables: University of Miami Press 1969-73.
• Stürmer, Michael. The German Empire, 1870-1918. New York: Random House, 2000. ISBN 0679640908.
• Mommsen, Wolfgang. Imperial Germany 1867-1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian Sate. (translated by Richard Deveson from Der Autoritäre Nationalstaat) London: Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0340645342.
• Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. The German Empire, 1871-1918. (translated from the German by Kim Traynor) Leamington Spa, Warwickshire: Berg Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0907582222.

See also

• Aftermath of World War I
• German colonial empire
• History of Germany
• Holy Roman Empire
• Nazi Germany, so called "Third Reich"
• New Imperialism
• Reich
• States of the German Empire 1871-1918
• Weimar Republic
• Heil dir im Siegerkranz, the national anthem of the German Empire

External links

• Map of the German Empire, 1871
• German Empire: administrative subdivision and municipalities, 1900 to 1910 (German)
• Das Kaiserreich - Deutsches Reich 1871-1918 (German)
• Germany: Heads of State: 1871-1945

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