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'''Kosovo''' (]: ''Kosovë''/''Kosova'', ]: Косово и Метохија/''Kosovo i Metohija'') is a ]-administered province in ]. As for the ] ] (adopted in 1999), Kosovo is defined as an autonomous province within the ] (now Serbia and Montenegro) under UN interim administration. Kosovo is presently run by the transitional ], civil servants from the ] and the ], while the security tasks are taken care of by the ]-led ] (KFOR). The talks on the status of Kosovo started in Vienna, on 20th February ], with the future of the province to be determined by the end of the year. '''Kosovo''' (]: ''Kosovë''/''Kosova'', ]: Косово и Метохија/''Kosovo i Metohija'') is a ]-administered province. By the UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (adopted in 1999), Kosovo is defined as autonomous province within former ] under UN administration. Kosovo is presently run by the ] and the ] and the ], while the security is maintained by the ]-led ]. The talks on the future status of Kosovo have started in Vienna, on February 20, ], with the likelihood of the province becoming an independent country by the end of the year.


== Geography == == Geography ==
] ]
With an area of ] ]s (4,213 ]) and a population of over two million of the eve of the 1999 crisis, Kosovo borders ] to the northwest, ] to the North and East; ] to the south, and ] to the southwest. The largest cities are ]/] the capital, with an estimated 500,000 citizens, and ] in the southwest with 120,000 citizens; five other towns have populations in excess of 50,000. The name ] is used by mostly ] for the western part of the land. ] refer to the area as ''Rrafshi i Dukagjinit''. With an area of ] ]s (4,213 ]) and a population of over two million of the eve of the 1999 crisis, Kosovo borders ] to the northwest, ] to the North and East; ] to the south, and ] to the southwest. The largest cities are ]/] the capital, with an estimated 500,000 citizens, and ] in the southwest with 120,000 citizens; five other towns have populations in excess of 50,000.


== History == == History ==
{{main|History of Kosovo}} {{main|History of Kosovo}}
=== Ancient === === Ancient ===
The region of Kosovo has been inhabited by ] since the ]. In ancient times the area has been known as ] and was settled by a tribe with the same name. The south of Kosovo was ruled by ] since Alexander the Great's reign in the 4th century BC. The ] were of Illyrian or Thracian stock. Illyrians organised resistance against ] and ] for hundreds of years but after the long wars of Illyrian tribes against intruders, the region was later occupied by the ] under Emperor ]. When the Roman Empire split in ]&nbsp;], the area of Kosovo came under the ], the ]. Dardania gave numerous leaders to both Rome and Constantinopole. Justinian the Great was among them. The region of Kosovo has been inhabited by ] since the ]. In ancient times the area has been known as ] and was settled by a tribe with the same name. The south of Kosovo was ruled by ] since Alexander the Great's reign in the 4th century BC. The ] were of Illyrian stock. Illyrians organised resistance against ] and ] for hundreds of years but after the long wars of Illyrian tribes against intruders, the region was later occupied by the ] under Emperor ]. When the Roman Empire split in ]&nbsp;], the area of Kosovo came under the ], the ]. Dardania gave numerous leaders to both Rome and Constantinopole. Justinian the Great was among them.


=== Medieval - The Serbian Kingdom and Empire=== ===Medieval - The Serbian Kingdom and Empire===
], or ] in precise, came to the territories of roughly modern-day Kosovo in the ]-]. They were invited to settle in the area south of ] as farmers by Byzantine emperor ] to protect the area from invading ]. {{citation needed}}. The slavs were ] in several waves between the ] and ] with the last wave taking place between ] and ]. But by then Kosovo proper was ruled by the ] and ] from the 850s until ], while the Serbian named region ] (Dukagjini Valley) became a part of the ]. ] came to the territories of roughly modern-day Kosovo in the ]-]. They were invited to settle in the area south of ] as farmers by Byzantine emperor ] to protect the area from invading ]. {{citation needed}}. The Slavs were ] in several waves between the ] and ] with the last wave taking place between ] and ]. But by then Kosovo proper was ruled by the ] and ] from the 850s until ], while the Dukagjini Valley became a part of the ].


The ] begin the takeover of Kosovo in the ] under a branch of the ] as the ] of ]. In ], Prince Vukan advanced all the way to ], burned it down and raided the neighbouring areas. The ] himself came to ] for negotiations. A peace was concluded, but Vukan broke it and defeated the army of John Comnenus, the Emperor's nephew. His armies stormed Kosovo. Byzantine Emperor Alexius had to come to Ulpiana (today's Lypjan) in ] and negotiate again. Peace was concluded and Vukan gave hostages to the Emperor, including his nephews Uroš and Stefan Vukan. Prince Vukan renewed the warring in ], once again defeating John Comnenus' army, but Vukan's following death put a halt to a total conquest of Kosovo. {{citation needed}}. The ] begin the takeover of Kosovo in the ] under a branch of the ] as the ] of ]. In ], Prince Vukan advanced all the way to ], burned it down and raided the neighbouring areas. The ] himself came to ] for negotiations. A peace was concluded, but Vukan broke it and defeated the army of John Comnenus, the Emperor's nephew. His armies stormed Kosovo. Byzantine Emperor Alexius had to come to Ulpiana (today's Lypjan) in ] and negotiate again. Peace was concluded and Vukan gave hostages to the Emperor, including his nephews Uroš and Stefan Vukan. Prince Vukan renewed the warring in ], once again defeating John Comnenus' army, but Vukan's following death put a halt to a total conquest of Kosovo. {{citation needed}}.
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In ] - ], a ] nobleman from ], ], the founder of the ] asserted to the ]n Grand Princely throne and conquered most of Kosovo in an uprising against the ] ]. He defeated the previous ], his brother, Tihomir's army at ]. Tihomir was drowned in the ] river. Nemanja was eventually defeated and had to return some of his conquests, and vouched to the ] that he would not raise his hand against him. In ], Nemanja embarked on a new offensive with the Hungarians after the death of Manuel I Comnenus. In ] - ], a ] nobleman from ], ], the founder of the ] asserted to the ]n Grand Princely throne and conquered most of Kosovo in an uprising against the ] ]. He defeated the previous ], his brother, Tihomir's army at ]. Tihomir was drowned in the ] river. Nemanja was eventually defeated and had to return some of his conquests, and vouched to the ] that he would not raise his hand against him. In ], Nemanja embarked on a new offensive with the Hungarians after the death of Manuel I Comnenus.


⚫ Kosovo was under Serb Monarchies until the Ottoman conquest in the fourteenth century. The ] invaded the Serbian Realm and met the coalition of South East European nobility on ] ], near ], at Gazi Mestan. The Balkan armies were led by the ] Prince, Lazar. The epic ] followed, in which Prince Lazar himself lost his life. Prince Lazar amassed 70,000 men on the battlefield and the ] had 140,000. Through the cunning of ] (Albanian Millosh Obiliqi), ] ] was murdered and the new Sultan ] had, despite winning the battle, to retreat to consolidate his power. The Ottoman Sultan was buried with one of his sons at Gazi Mestan. Both ] and ] were canonised by the ] for their efforts in the battle. The local House of ] came to prominence as the local lords of Kosovo, under ], with the temporary fall of the ] in ]. Another great battle occurred between the Hungarian troops supported by the Albanian ruler Gjergj Kastrioti ], and ] troops supported by the Brankovićs in ]. Skanderbeg's troops which were going to help John Hunyadi were stopped by the Brankovic's troops, who was more or less a Turkish ]. Hungarian King ] lost the battle after a 2-day fight, but essentially stopped the Ottoman advance northwards. Kosovo then became vassalaged to the ].
Nemanja's son, ], recorded Nemanja's conquests, as Nemanja restored Kosovo from the ], the border of the ] reaching the river of ]. Grand Prince Stephen II finished the inclusion of the Kosovo territories in ], by which time he had conquered ] and ], and moved the border of his realm to the ].


⚫ In ], castles were constructed in ] and ], centres of the Ottoman vassalaged ].
In ], the ] achieved recognition. In ], an autocephalous ] was created, with the ], ] and ] ] on Kosovo. By the end of the ], the centre of the ] was moved to ] from ].


=== The Ottoman Empire ===
In the ], Kosovo becomes the heart of the Serbian political and religious life with the Šar mountain becoming the political center of the Serbian rulers. The main chatteu was that in ]. On an island was ] and on the coast ], and in the mountains was the Castle of ]. The Complexes were used for counciling, crowning of rulers, negotiating and as the rulers' living quarters. After ], the ] broke all the way to ]. ] ] managed to defeat them and then chase them further. He raised the Temple of the ] of Ljeviška in ] around ], which became the seat of the Prizren Episcopric and the magnificent ] in ], the seat of the ] Episcopric. In 1331, Juvenille King Dušan attacked his father, Serbian King Stefan of Dechani at his castle in ]. King Stefan closed in his neighbouring fortress of ], but Dušan captures him and closed him with his second wife Maria Palailogos and their children in ], where the dethroned King died on ] ].
⚫ The ] brought ] with them, particularly in towns, and later also created the ] as one of the ] territorial entities. This brought a great shift, as it brought institutional stability and peaceful coexistence among different ethnic groups and religions. Kosovo was taken by the Austrian forces during the Great War of ] - ] with help of 5,000 Albanians and their leader, a ] ]. The archbishop died of plague during the war, and his grave was later reopened, with his body scattered and given to the dogs by the Ottomans because of his role in the rebellion. In ], the ] ], who previously escaped a certain death, led 37,000 families from Kosovo, to evade ] wrath since Kosovo had just been retaken by the ]. The people that followed him were probably mostly ], but some Orthodox Albanians and others too. 20,000 people abandoned ] alone. Due to the terror from the ], other migrations of Orthodox people from the Kosovo area continued throughout the ]. It is also noted that some ] adopted ] and some even gradually fused with the predominantly Albanianians and adopted their culture and even language.


=== The Rise of Serb Nationalism ===
In ] and ], ] ] started forming the vast ] domain, although, Serbian King ] would finish it in ]. Stefan of Dechani issued that ''Dechani Charter'' in ]. Listing every single citizen in every household under the Church Land's demesne.
In early 19th century the Serbian nationalism was in the rise. The Serbian elite, adopted an expansionist nationalist ideology that was looking with greed at the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. While it was more difficult for Serbs to expand to the North and East, where there were Serbs, Serbia extended south, where the Ottoman Empire was weakening. In 1846, ], written by ] was issued, a document that shaped Serb nationalism. After the Congress of Berlin, the eastern part of the Vilayet of Kosovo fell in the hands of Serbs and all its Albanian population was expelled. Hundreds of villages were ploundered and the city of Nis was left virtualy with no Albanians. The small number of Albanians that were left behind, were forced to become Serbs.


⚫ Refugees from territories conquered in the ]-] Serbo-Turkish war and ]-] Russo-Turkish war inhabited almost every Kosovo and Macedonian town escaping from the Serbian army and population were committing against unarmed civilians. These populations are now known as ']' (which means 'refugee', from Arabic ]) and are the ancestors of many who are still known by their same surnames, ''Muhaxheri''.
] and ] ] founded the vast Monastery of Saint Archaengel near ] in ]-]. King Dušan declared himself as ''Emperor of Serbs and Greeks'' in ], thereby starting the ]. Stefan Dušan received John Cantakuzines in ] in his Castle in ] to discuss a joint War against the Byzantine Emperor. In ], the Serbian ] at Peć was upgraded into a Patriarchate, but not recognized before ].


=== The Rise of Albanian Nationalism ===
After the ] fell into disarray prior to his death in ], feudal anarchy caught up with the country during the reign of Tsar ]. Kosovo became a domain of the ], but Prince Voislav Voinović expanded his demesne further onto Kosovo. The armies of King ] from ] and his allies defeated Voislav's forces in ], putting a halt to his advances. After the Battle of Marica on ] ] in which the Mrnjavčević brothers lost their lives, ] of ] took ] and ] in ]. A part of Kosovo became the demesne of the ].
⚫ Albanians formed the ] in ] in the ]. Hundreds of Albanian leaders from all over Albania gathered and discussed the urgent issues concerning their territories. They successfully opposed any Serbian invasion attempts. Serbia complained to the Western Powers that the promised territories were not being held because the Ottomans were hesitating to do that. Western Powers put pressure to the Ottomans and in 1881, the Ottoman Army started the fighting against Albanians. The Prizren League created a Provisional Government with a President, Prime Minister (Ymer Prizreni) and Ministries of War (Sylejman Vokshi) and Foreign Ministry (Abdyl Frashëri). After three years of war, the Albanians were defeated. Many of the leaders were executed and imprisoned. In ], an ] uprising spread from ] and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan's visit to Kosovo in ] ]. The Aim of the League of Prizren was to unite the four Albanian Vilayets by merging the majority of Albanian inhabitants within the Ottoman Empire into one Albanian State. However at that time Serbs have consisted about ''40%'' of the whole Vilayt of Kosovo's overall population and were opposing the Albanian nationalism along with other Slavs and Turks in Kosovo.


=== Serbian Conquest of 1912 ===
⚫ The ] invaded the Serbian Realm and met the coalition of South East European nobility on ] ], near ], at Gazi Mestan. The ] Army was assisted by various allies. The epic ] followed, in which Prince Lazar himself lost his life. Prince Lazar amassed 70,000 men on the battlefield and the ] had 140,000. Through the cunning of ] ] ] was murdered and the new Sultan ] had, despite winning the battle, to retreat to consolidate his power. The Ottoman Sultan was buried with one of his sons at Gazi Mestan. Both ] and ] were canonised by the ] for their efforts in the battle. The local House of ] came to prominence as the local lords of Kosovo, under ], with the temporary fall of the ] in ]. Another great battle occurred between the Hungarian troops supported by (self-proclaimed King) Gjergj Kastrioti ], and ] troops supported by the Brankovićs in ]. Skanderbeg's troops which were going to help John Hunyadi were stopped by the Brankovic's troops, who was more or less a Turkish ]. Hungarian King ] lost the battle after a 2-day fight, but essentially stopped the Ottoman advance northwards. Kosovo then became vassalaged to the ], until its direct incorporation after the final fall of Serbia in ].
⚫ :''See also:]''
⚫ In ] during the ], most of Kosovo was conquered by ] while region of Dukagjini Valley ] was captured by ]. An exodus of the local Albanian population occured. This is best described by ], who was the reporter for the 'Pravda' newspaper at the time. The Serbian authorities planned a recolonization of Kosovo<ref> ]-] Kosovo saw a large exodus of Serbian army; tens of thousands of soldiers have died of starvation, extreme weather and Albanian reprisals as they were approaching the ] in ] and ]. {{citation needed}}.


⚫ === Kingdom of Yugoslavia and WWII ===
⚫ In ], new castles arise in ] and ], centres of the Ottoman vassalaged ].
⚫ The ]-] period of the ] witnessed a raise of the Serbian population in the region and decline in the non-Serbian. After the ]-] ] which introduced the '']'' nationality unifying all Kosovan ], the Kingdom was invaded by the ]. The greatest part of Kosovo became a part of ]-occupied ], and smaller bits by the ]-] ] and ] ]-occupied ]. Since the Albanians had decided in the ] that Kosovo would remain Albanian. Prior to the surrender of ] in ], the German forces took over direct control of their region. After numerous uprisings of ] ], lead by ] Kosovo was liberated after ] with the help of the Albanian partizans of the Comintern, and became a province of ''Kosovo and Metohija'' of one of the units of the ], ].

=== Ottoman Empire and Albanian national movements ===
⚫ The ] brought ] with them, particularly in towns, and later also created the ] as one of the ] territorial entities. This brought a great shift, as the ] population began to lose its majority when masses of ] and ] (]) moved to Kosovo. {{citation needed}}. During the Islamisation many Churches and Holy ] places were raised to the ground or turned in to ]. The big Monastery of Saint Archangel near ] was teared down at the end of the 16th ] and the material used to build the ] of ], an Islamized ], in Prizren. Kosovo was taken by the Austrian forces during the Great War of ] - ] with help of 5,000 Albanians and their leader, a ] ]. The archbishop died of plague during the war, and his grave was later reopened, with his body scattered and given to the dogs by the Ottomans because of his role in the rebellion. In ], the ] ], who previously escaped a certain death, led 37,000 families from Kosovo, to evade ] wrath since Kosovo had just been retaken by the ]. The people that followed him were probably mostly ], but some Orthodox Albanians and others too. 20,000 Serbs abandoned ] alone. {{citation needed}}. Due to the terror from the ], other migrations of Orthodox people from the Kosovo area continued throughout the ]. It is also noted that some ] adopted ] and some even gradually fused with the predominantly Albanian Moslems and adopted their culture and even language. {{citation needed}}. By the ], ] replaced the ] as the dominating nation of Kosovo.

⚫ Refugees from territories conquered in the ]-] Serbo-Turkish war and ]-] Russo-Turkish war inhabited almost every Kosovo and Macedonian town escaping from the Serbian army and population were committing against unarmed civilians. These populations are now known as ']' (which means 'refugee', from Arabic ]) and are the ancestors of many who are still known by their same surnames, ''Muhaxheri''. It is also estimated that 200,000 to 400,000 ''Serbs'' were cleansed out of the ] between ] and ], especially during the ] in ]. (see ])

⚫ Albanians formed the ] in ] in the ]. Hundreds of Albanian leaders from all over Albania gathered and discussed the urgent issues concerning them. They successfully opposed any Serbian invasion attempts. Serbia complained to the Western Powers that the promised territories were not being held because Ottomans were hesitating to do that. Western Powers put pressure to the Ottomans and in 1881, the Ottoman Army started the fighting against Albanians. The Prizren League created a Provisional Government with a President, Prime Minister (Ymer Prizreni) and Ministries of War (Sylejman Vokshi) and Foreign Ministry (Abdyl Frashëri). After three years of war, the Albanians were defeated. Many of the leaders were executed and imprisoned. In ], an ] uprising spread from ] and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan's visit to Kosovo in ] ]. The Aim of the League of Prizren as to unite the four Albanian Vilayets by merging the majority of Albanian inhabitants within the Ottoman Empire into one Albanian State. However at that time Serbs have consisted about ''40%'' of Kosovo's overall population and were opposing the Albanian nationalism along with other Slavs and Turks in Kosovo.

=== Balkan Wars and World War I ===
⚫ :''See also:]''
⚫ In ] during the ], most of Kosovo was conquered by ] while region of ] or Dukagjini Valley was captured by ]. And exodus of the local Albanian population occured. This is best described by ], who was the reporter for the 'Pravda' newspaper at the time. The Serbian authorities planned a recolonization of Kosovo<ref> ]-] Kosovo saw a large exodus of its ]n population and army; hundreds of thousands soldiers have died of starvation, extreme weather and Albanian reprisals as they were approaching the ] in ] and ]. {{citation needed}}.


⚫ === Kingdom of Yugoslavia, fascist Albania and socialist Yugoslavia ===
⚫ The ]-] period of the ] witnessed a raise of the Serbian population in the region and decline in the non-Serbian. After the ]-] ] which introduced the '']'' nationality unifying all Kosovan ], the Kingdom was invaded by the ]. The greatest part of Kosovo became a part of ]-controlled ], and smaller bits by the ]-] ] and ] ]-occupied ]. Since the Albanians had decided in the ] that Kosovo would remain Albanian, they have started immediately an ethnic cleansing of the non-Albanians in the occupied Kosovo. The infamous ] is known to committed horrible crimes. {{citation needed}}. Tens of thousands of Serbs lost their lives and around 75,000 Serbs fled Kosovo during the war. {{citation needed}}. Hundreds of thousands more would leave in the following decades, following the shift of power in Kosovo. Around 10,000 Serbs died in Albanian extermination camps by the hand of military squadrons like the ]. Prior to the surrender of ] in ], the German forces took over direct control of their region. After numerous uprisings of the ] ] and ], Kosovo was liberated after ] with the help of the ] of the Comintern, and became a province of ''Kosovo and Metohija'' of one of the Republics of the ], ].


=== Kosovo in Socialist Yugoslavia ===
The Province of Kosovo was formed autonomous to protect its regional ] majority within the ] as a member of the ] in ] under the strong dictatorship of the former Partisan leader, ], but with a strictly limited status. Prior to Yugoslavia's name change to the ] and Serbia's to the ] in ], the Autonomous Region of Kosovo gained more inner autonomy. In the ] constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo government received higher powers, including the highest governmental titles - President and Premier and a seat in the Federal Presidency which made it a ''de facto'' Socialist Republic within the SFRJ, but remaining as a Socialist Autonomous Region within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. ] and ] were defined official on the Provincial level marking the two largest linguistic Kosovan groups: ] and ]. In the 1970s, an Albanian nationalist movement pursued full recognition of the Province of Kosovo as another Republic within the Federation, while the most extreme elements aimed for full-scale independence. Tito's arbitrary regime dealt with the situation swiftly, but only giving it a temporary solution. The ethnic balance of Kosovo witnessed unproportional increase as the number of ] tripled gradually rising from almost ''65%'' to over ''80%'' and the number ] barely increasing and dropping in the full share of the total population from some ''25%'' down to ''10%''. The Province of Kosovo was formed autonomous to protect its regional ] majority within the ] as a member of the ] in ] under the leadership of the former Partisan leader, ], but with a strictly limited status. Prior to Yugoslavia's name change to the ] and Serbia's to the ] in ], the Autonomous Region of Kosovo gained more inner autonomy. In the ] constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo government received higher powers, including the highest governmental titles - President and Premier and a seat in the Federal Presidency which made it a ''de facto'' Socialist Republic within the SFRJ, but remaining as a Socialist Autonomous Region within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. ] and ] were defined official on the Provincial level, Albanian as the local language and Serbo-Croatian as the language of the whole country. In the 1970s, an Albanian nationalist movement pursued full recognition of the Province of Kosovo as another Republic within the Federation, while the most extreme elements aimed for full-scale independence. Tito's arbitrary regime dealt with the situation swiftly, but only giving it a temporary solution. The ethnic balance of Kosovo witnessed unproportional increase as the number of ] tripled gradually rising from almost ''65%'' to over ''80%'' and the number ] barely increasing and dropping in the full share of the total population from some ''25%'' down to ''10%''.


In ] the Kosovar Albanian students organized protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia. Those protests were harshly contained by the Yugoslav government. In ], the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) was working on a document, which later would be known as the ]. An unfinished edition was filtered to the press. In the essay, SANU criticised the state of Yugoslavia and made remarks that the only member state contributing at the time to the development of Kosovo and Macedonia (by then, the poorest territories of the Federation) was Serbia. According to SANU, Yugoslavia was suffering of ethnic strives and the disintegration of the Yugoslav economy into separate economic sectors and territories, which was transforming the federal state into a loose confederation<ref>SANU (1986): . GIP Kultura. Belgrade.</ref>. During this time, ]s rise to power started in ]. Milošević used the discontent reflected in the SANU memorandum for his political goals. In ] the Kosovar Albanian students organized protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia. Those protests were harshly contained by the Serbian government. In ], the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) was working on a document, which later would be known as the ]. An unfinished edition was filtered to the press. In the essay, SANU portrayed Serbia as a victim and called for the revival of Serb nationalism. During this time, ]s rise to power started in ]. Milošević used the discontent reflected in the SANU memorandum for his political goals.


=== Unrests in Kosovo === === Unrests in Kosovo ===
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On July 2, ] a so-called Kosovo parliament declared Kosovo an independent country. In September of that year, the parliament, meeting in secrecy in the town of ], adopted the ''Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo''. Two years later, Kosovo organized a referendum which was observed by international organisations but was not recognized internationally. With an 80% turnout, 98% voted for Kosovo to be independent. In January, ] Albanians in ] also voted for autonomy and independence in parts of western Macedonia. In the early nineties, Albanians organized a parallel state system which managed the non-violent resistance movement and organized a parallel system of education and healthcare, among other things. With the events in ] and ] coming to an end, the Serb government started relocating some of the Serbian refugees from Croatia and Bosnia to Kosovo. <!-- started moving all of the refugees?? leave the word "some of the refugees" -->In a number of cases, Albanian families were expelled from their apartments to make space for the refugees{{fact}}. On July 2, ] a so-called Kosovo parliament declared Kosovo an independent country. In September of that year, the parliament, meeting in secrecy in the town of ], adopted the ''Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo''. Two years later, Kosovo organized a referendum which was observed by international organisations but was not recognized internationally. With an 80% turnout, 98% voted for Kosovo to be independent. In January, ] Albanians in ] also voted for autonomy and independence in parts of western Macedonia. In the early nineties, Albanians organized a parallel state system which managed the non-violent resistance movement and organized a parallel system of education and healthcare, among other things. With the events in ] and ] coming to an end, the Serb government started relocating some of the Serbian refugees from Croatia and Bosnia to Kosovo. <!-- started moving all of the refugees?? leave the word "some of the refugees" -->In a number of cases, Albanian families were expelled from their apartments to make space for the refugees{{fact}}.


After the ] Agreement in ], Albanians organized into the ]. Yugoslav forces allegedly committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the Serbian government claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian "terrorists". This triggered a 78-day ] campaign in ]. During the conflict, some 12,000 Kosovars were killed, of whom 9,000-10,000 were ] and 1,000-2,000 others (] and ]) and up to 700,000 Albanians and over 100,000 Serbs expelled. Some 3,000 Albanians are still missing. The number of Serbian soldier, policemen, and civilian deaths is considered to be around 3,000, but it's also disputed to be much more, as 2,800 people of Serb origin are still missing, believed dead. According to OSCE numbers and Kosovar Albanian sources on population size and distribution, an estimated 45.7 percent of the Albanian population and 59.5 percent of the Serb population had fled Kosovo during the bombings (i.e. from 23 March to 9 June 1999). {{fact}}. After the ] Agreement in ], Albanians organized into the ]. Yugoslav forces allegedly committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the Serbian government claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian "terrorists". This triggered a 78-day ] campaign in ]. During the conflict, some 12,000 Kosovars were killed, of whom 9,000-10,000 were ] and 1,000-2,000 others (] and ]) and up to 700,000 Albanians and over 100,000 Serbs expelled. Some 3,000 Albanians are still missing. The number of Serbian soldier, policemen, and civilian deaths is considered to be around 3,000, but it's also disputed to be much more, as 600 people of Serb origin are still missing, believed dead.


''see also: ]''<br> ''see also: ]''<br>


With the arrival of NATO, a large number of Serbs fled the region, estimated at 100,000 by the UNHCR. Around 120,000 remain in Kosovo and oppose any rule by Albanians. Up to 300,000 non-Albanians (mostly ]) fled Kosovo{{citation needed}}. This instils fear within the Albanians and makes them oppose return projects. Some 20,000 came back, mainly rural Serbs, while urban Serbs have largely integrated into Serbia and will not go back to Kosovo regardless of what their status will be. Many Serbs fear to return to their homes since it's proven not to be safe for them, even with ] protection, notably the ], when 900 Serbian houses were burned and other property destroyed while the Serbian populace was With the arrival of NATO, a large number of Serbs fled the region, estimated at 100,000 by the UNHCR. Around 120,000 remain in Kosovo and oppose any rule by Albanians. Some 20,000 came back, mainly rural Serbs, while urban Serbs have largely integrated into Serbia and will not go back to Kosovo regardless of what their status will be. Many Serbs fear to return to their homes since they percieve not to be safe for them, even with ] protection, notably the ], when 900 Serbian houses were burned and other property destroyed while the Serbian populace was closed into enclaves and had to concentrate to the north of Kosovo until today, causing a wave of 3,500 Serbian refugees. Among the numerous religious heritage sites were destroyed by the Albanian youth riotters. In total, 156 Orthodox Churches and Monasteries were damaged during the ]. Many of the Churches and Monasteries were dating back to the ], ] and ] century.
closed into enclaves and had to concentrate to the north of Kosovo until today, causing a wave of 3,500 Serbian refugees. Among the numerous ] World Heritage sites destroyed by the Albanian para-military forces is King ]'s grave, ] ] ] from the ] in ]. In total, 156 Orthodox Churches and Monasteries were destroyed during the ]. Many of the Churches and Monasteries were dating back to the ], ] and ] century.


The Status talks started in February 2006, it is set to end in the course of the year. The security of the minorities, must be provided by Kosovo Albanian governments, but it is disputed if the Kosovo Albanian Institutions can grant these guarantees. The ] still is said that they will not raise any demands for an independent Kosovo. The Status talks started in February 2006, it is set to end in the course of the year. The security of the minorities, will secure Kosovar Albanians they much demanded independence. Independence is the option supported mostly by the US and the UK but it is reported to have the blessing of the ].


== Economy == == Economy ==
]
] declared the ] to be the official currency of the province in ] in the course of implementing a currency reform. This was undertaken to replace the previous widespread use of the ], which had become the ''de facto'' currency even before the 1999 war. However, the ] remains an official currency, used principally in the ]; it is only used sporadically outside of them. Most trade is conducted using the euro; Kosovo's administration uses the euro exclusively, and all commercial banks use the euro as the primary currency. Of other international currencies, the ] and ] are the most widespread. ] declared the ] to be the official currency of the province in ] in the course of implementing a currency reform. This was undertaken to replace the previous widespread use of the ], which had become the ''de facto'' currency even before the 1999 war. However, the ] remains an official currency, used principally in the ]; it is only used sporadically outside of them. Most trade is conducted using the euro; Kosovo's administration uses the euro exclusively, and all commercial banks use the euro as the primary currency. Of other international currencies, the ] and ] are the most widespread.


== Demographics == == Demographics ==
Ethnic Albanians comprise almost 90% of the population of the province. In the aftermath of the conflict some one thousand non-Albanians, particularly ] and ] either followed Serb soldiers as they withdrew, were forcibly expelled by the Albanian majority or fled the province to escape perceived threats of revenge by Albanians. The non-Albanian population of Kosovo has continued to fall since the arrival of NATO and the UN as a result of violence, perceived intimidation, and economic hardship. Many still live in communal camps in ] or ] cared for by international relief agencies. However, there have been many attempts by Kosovo's government to resettle non-Albanians in the region which have largely been successful, including the resettlement of well over one thousand Serbians and Roma from 2004 - 2005. The Kosovo government has been widely praised for paying for the rebuilding of Serb houses in the aftermath of the 2004 riots. This has been marked as the first case of reparations in the history of the Balkans.


According to the 2000 Living Standard Measurement Survey of the Statistical Office of Kosovo, Kosovo's total population is estimated between 1,8 and 2,0 million in the following ethnic proportions: According to the 2000 Living Standard Measurement Survey of the Statistical Office of Kosovo, Kosovo's total population is estimated between 1,8 and 2,0 million in the following ethnic proportions:

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Kosovo

Official languages Albanian, Serbian (in alphabetical order)
Capital Prishtinë/Priština
President of Kosovo Fatmir Sejdiu
Prime Minister of Kosovo Agim Çeku
Area
 – Total

 – % water
 10,912 km²
 4,213 sq. mi
 n/a
Population
 – Total (2003)
 – Density
 2.1 million (est.)
 220/km² (approx)
 570/sq. mi
Ethnic groups
(2003) 		Albanians: 88%
Serbs: 7%
Others: 5%
Time zone UTC +1
Currency Euro and Serbian dinar (the latter is exclusively in Serbian populated regions.)

Kosovo (Albanian: Kosovë/Kosova, Serbian: Косово и Метохија/Kosovo i Metohija) is a UN-administered province. By the UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (adopted in 1999), Kosovo is defined as autonomous province within former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia under UN administration. Kosovo is presently run by the Provisional Institutions of Selfgovernment and the UN and the EU, while the security is maintained by the NATO-led KFOR. The talks on the future status of Kosovo have started in Vienna, on February 20, 2006, with the likelihood of the province becoming an independent country by the end of the year.

Geography

Physical map of Kosovo

With an area of 10,912 square kilometres (4,213 sq. mi) and a population of over two million of the eve of the 1999 crisis, Kosovo borders Montenegro to the northwest, Serbia to the North and East; Macedonia to the south, and Albania to the southwest. The largest cities are Prishtinë/Pristina the capital, with an estimated 500,000 citizens, and Prizren in the southwest with 120,000 citizens; five other towns have populations in excess of 50,000.

History

Main article: History of Kosovo

Ancient

The region of Kosovo has been inhabited by Illyrian tribes since the Bronze Age. In ancient times the area has been known as Dardania and was settled by a tribe with the same name. The south of Kosovo was ruled by Macedonia since Alexander the Great's reign in the 4th century BC. The Dardani were of Illyrian stock. Illyrians organised resistance against Greeks and Romans for hundreds of years but after the long wars of Illyrian tribes against intruders, the region was later occupied by the Roman Empire under Emperor Augustus. When the Roman Empire split in A.D. 395, the area of Kosovo came under the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire. Dardania gave numerous leaders to both Rome and Constantinopole. Justinian the Great was among them.

Medieval - The Serbian Kingdom and Empire

Slavs came to the territories of roughly modern-day Kosovo in the 6th-7th century. They were invited to settle in the area south of Danube as farmers by Byzantine emperor Heraclius to protect the area from invading Avars. . The Slavs were Christianized in several waves between the 7th and 9th century with the last wave taking place between 867 and 874. But by then Kosovo proper was ruled by the Bulgarians and Byzantines from the 850s until 1014, while the Dukagjini Valley became a part of the Principality of Rascia.

The Serbs begin the takeover of Kosovo in the 11th century under a branch of the House of Voislav as the Grand Princes of Rascia. In 1093, Prince Vukan advanced all the way to Lipljan, burned it down and raided the neighbouring areas. The Byzantine Emperor himself came to Zvečan for negotiations. A peace was concluded, but Vukan broke it and defeated the army of John Comnenus, the Emperor's nephew. His armies stormed Kosovo. Byzantine Emperor Alexius had to come to Ulpiana (today's Lypjan) in 1094 and negotiate again. Peace was concluded and Vukan gave hostages to the Emperor, including his nephews Uroš and Stefan Vukan. Prince Vukan renewed the warring in 1106, once again defeating John Comnenus' army, but Vukan's following death put a halt to a total conquest of Kosovo. .

In 1166 - 1168, a Serbian nobleman from Zeta, Stefan Nemanja, the founder of the House of Nemanja asserted to the Rascian Grand Princely throne and conquered most of Kosovo in an uprising against the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus. He defeated the previous Grand Prince, his brother, Tihomir's army at Pantino. Tihomir was drowned in the Sitnica river. Nemanja was eventually defeated and had to return some of his conquests, and vouched to the Byzantine Emperor that he would not raise his hand against him. In 1183, Nemanja embarked on a new offensive with the Hungarians after the death of Manuel I Comnenus.

Kosovo was under Serb Monarchies until the Ottoman conquest in the fourteenth century. The Ottomans invaded the Serbian Realm and met the coalition of South East European nobility on 28 June 1389, near Prishtina, at Gazi Mestan. The Balkan armies were led by the Serbian Prince, Lazar. The epic Battle of Kosovo followed, in which Prince Lazar himself lost his life. Prince Lazar amassed 70,000 men on the battlefield and the Ottomans had 140,000. Through the cunning of Miloš Obilić (Albanian Millosh Obiliqi), Sultan Murad was murdered and the new Sultan Beyazid had, despite winning the battle, to retreat to consolidate his power. The Ottoman Sultan was buried with one of his sons at Gazi Mestan. Both Prince Lazar and Miloš Obilić were canonised by the Serbian Ortodox Church for their efforts in the battle. The local House of Branković came to prominence as the local lords of Kosovo, under Vuk Branković, with the temporary fall of the Serbian Despotate in 1439. Another great battle occurred between the Hungarian troops supported by the Albanian ruler Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, and Ottoman troops supported by the Brankovićs in 1448. Skanderbeg's troops which were going to help John Hunyadi were stopped by the Brankovic's troops, who was more or less a Turkish Vassal. Hungarian King John Hunyadi lost the battle after a 2-day fight, but essentially stopped the Ottoman advance northwards. Kosovo then became vassalaged to the Ottoman Empire.

In 1455, castles were constructed in Prishtina and Vushtrri, centres of the Ottoman vassalaged House of Branković.

The Ottoman Empire

The Ottomans brought Islamisation with them, particularly in towns, and later also created the Viyalet of Kosovo as one of the Ottoman territorial entities. This brought a great shift, as it brought institutional stability and peaceful coexistence among different ethnic groups and religions. Kosovo was taken by the Austrian forces during the Great War of 1683 - 1699 with help of 5,000 Albanians and their leader, a Catholic Archibishop Pjetër Bogdani. The archbishop died of plague during the war, and his grave was later reopened, with his body scattered and given to the dogs by the Ottomans because of his role in the rebellion. In 1690, the Serbian Patriarch of Peć Arsenije III, who previously escaped a certain death, led 37,000 families from Kosovo, to evade Ottoman wrath since Kosovo had just been retaken by the Ottomans. The people that followed him were probably mostly Serbs, but some Orthodox Albanians and others too. 20,000 people abandoned Prizren alone. Due to the terror from the Ottomans, other migrations of Orthodox people from the Kosovo area continued throughout the 18th century. It is also noted that some Serbs adopted Islam and some even gradually fused with the predominantly Albanianians and adopted their culture and even language.

The Rise of Serb Nationalism

In early 19th century the Serbian nationalism was in the rise. The Serbian elite, adopted an expansionist nationalist ideology that was looking with greed at the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. While it was more difficult for Serbs to expand to the North and East, where there were Serbs, Serbia extended south, where the Ottoman Empire was weakening. In 1846, "Nacertanije", written by Ilija Garasanin was issued, a document that shaped Serb nationalism. After the Congress of Berlin, the eastern part of the Vilayet of Kosovo fell in the hands of Serbs and all its Albanian population was expelled. Hundreds of villages were ploundered and the city of Nis was left virtualy with no Albanians. The small number of Albanians that were left behind, were forced to become Serbs.

Refugees from territories conquered in the 1876-1877 Serbo-Turkish war and 1877-1878 Russo-Turkish war inhabited almost every Kosovo and Macedonian town escaping from the Serbian army and population were committing against unarmed civilians. These populations are now known as 'muhaxher' (which means 'refugee', from Arabic muhajir) and are the ancestors of many who are still known by their same surnames, Muhaxheri.

The Rise of Albanian Nationalism

Albanians formed the League of Prizren in Prizren in the 19th century. Hundreds of Albanian leaders from all over Albania gathered and discussed the urgent issues concerning their territories. They successfully opposed any Serbian invasion attempts. Serbia complained to the Western Powers that the promised territories were not being held because the Ottomans were hesitating to do that. Western Powers put pressure to the Ottomans and in 1881, the Ottoman Army started the fighting against Albanians. The Prizren League created a Provisional Government with a President, Prime Minister (Ymer Prizreni) and Ministries of War (Sylejman Vokshi) and Foreign Ministry (Abdyl Frashëri). After three years of war, the Albanians were defeated. Many of the leaders were executed and imprisoned. In 1910, an Albanian uprising spread from Prishtina and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan's visit to Kosovo in June 1911. The Aim of the League of Prizren was to unite the four Albanian Vilayets by merging the majority of Albanian inhabitants within the Ottoman Empire into one Albanian State. However at that time Serbs have consisted about 40% of the whole Vilayt of Kosovo's overall population and were opposing the Albanian nationalism along with other Slavs and Turks in Kosovo.

Serbian Conquest of 1912

See also:Serbia in WWI

In 1912 during the Balkan Wars, most of Kosovo was conquered by Serbia while region of Dukagjini Valley Serbian: Metohija was captured by Montenegro. An exodus of the local Albanian population occured. This is best described by Leon Trotsky, who was the reporter for the 'Pravda' newspaper at the time. The Serbian authorities planned a recolonization of Kosovo. In the winter of 1915-1916 Kosovo saw a large exodus of Serbian army; tens of thousands of soldiers have died of starvation, extreme weather and Albanian reprisals as they were approaching the Allies in Corfu and Thessaloniki. .

Kingdom of Yugoslavia and WWII

The 1918-1929 period of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes witnessed a raise of the Serbian population in the region and decline in the non-Serbian. After the 1929-1941 Kingdom of Yugoslavia which introduced the Yugoslav nationality unifying all Kosovan Slavs, the Kingdom was invaded by the Axis forces. The greatest part of Kosovo became a part of Italian-occupied Fascist Albania, and smaller bits by the Nazi-Fascist Tsardom of Bulgaria and Nazi German-occupied Kingdom of Serbia. Since the Albanians had decided in the Conference of Bujan that Kosovo would remain Albanian. Prior to the surrender of Fascist Italy in 1943, the German forces took over direct control of their region. After numerous uprisings of Yugoslav Partisans, lead by Fadil Hoxha Kosovo was liberated after 1944 with the help of the Albanian partizans of the Comintern, and became a province of Kosovo and Metohija of one of the units of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, Serbia.


Kosovo in Socialist Yugoslavia

The Province of Kosovo was formed autonomous to protect its regional Albanian majority within the People's Republic of Serbia as a member of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1945 under the leadership of the former Partisan leader, Josip Broz Tito, but with a strictly limited status. Prior to Yugoslavia's name change to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Serbia's to the Socialist Republic of Serbia in 1963, the Autonomous Region of Kosovo gained more inner autonomy. In the 1974 constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo government received higher powers, including the highest governmental titles - President and Premier and a seat in the Federal Presidency which made it a de facto Socialist Republic within the SFRJ, but remaining as a Socialist Autonomous Region within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. Serbo-Croatian and Albanian were defined official on the Provincial level, Albanian as the local language and Serbo-Croatian as the language of the whole country. In the 1970s, an Albanian nationalist movement pursued full recognition of the Province of Kosovo as another Republic within the Federation, while the most extreme elements aimed for full-scale independence. Tito's arbitrary regime dealt with the situation swiftly, but only giving it a temporary solution. The ethnic balance of Kosovo witnessed unproportional increase as the number of Albanians tripled gradually rising from almost 65% to over 80% and the number Serbs barely increasing and dropping in the full share of the total population from some 25% down to 10%.

In 1981 the Kosovar Albanian students organized protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia. Those protests were harshly contained by the Serbian government. In 1986, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) was working on a document, which later would be known as the SANU Memorandum. An unfinished edition was filtered to the press. In the essay, SANU portrayed Serbia as a victim and called for the revival of Serb nationalism. During this time, Slobodan Miloševićs rise to power started in Serbia. Milošević used the discontent reflected in the SANU memorandum for his political goals.

Unrests in Kosovo

One of the events that contributed to Milošević's rise of power was the so-called Gazimestan Speech, delivered to 1 million people at the central celebration marking the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo, held at Gazimestan on 28 June, 1989. In the speech, Milošević criticised the "dramatical national divisions" and called Yugoslavia "a multinational community can survive only under the conditions of full equality for all nations that live in it."

Soon afterwards, the autonomy of Kosovo was revoked. Milošević, however, did not remove Kosovo's seat from the Federal Presidency, installing in it his own supporters to seize more power in the Federal government.

Many Albanians organized a peaceful active resistance movement, following the job losses suffered by some of them. Albanian schools and the medical care system were shut down.

On July 2, 1990 a so-called Kosovo parliament declared Kosovo an independent country. In September of that year, the parliament, meeting in secrecy in the town of Kaçanik, adopted the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo. Two years later, Kosovo organized a referendum which was observed by international organisations but was not recognized internationally. With an 80% turnout, 98% voted for Kosovo to be independent. In January, 1992 Albanians in Macedonia also voted for autonomy and independence in parts of western Macedonia. In the early nineties, Albanians organized a parallel state system which managed the non-violent resistance movement and organized a parallel system of education and healthcare, among other things. With the events in Bosnia and Croatia coming to an end, the Serb government started relocating some of the Serbian refugees from Croatia and Bosnia to Kosovo. In a number of cases, Albanian families were expelled from their apartments to make space for the refugees.

After the Dayton Agreement in 1995, Albanians organized into the Kosovo Liberation Army. Yugoslav forces allegedly committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the Serbian government claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian "terrorists". This triggered a 78-day NATO campaign in 1999. During the conflict, some 12,000 Kosovars were killed, of whom 9,000-10,000 were Albanians and 1,000-2,000 others (Serbs and Roma) and up to 700,000 Albanians and over 100,000 Serbs expelled. Some 3,000 Albanians are still missing. The number of Serbian soldier, policemen, and civilian deaths is considered to be around 3,000, but it's also disputed to be much more, as 600 people of Serb origin are still missing, believed dead.

see also: Kosovo War

With the arrival of NATO, a large number of Serbs fled the region, estimated at 100,000 by the UNHCR. Around 120,000 remain in Kosovo and oppose any rule by Albanians. Some 20,000 came back, mainly rural Serbs, while urban Serbs have largely integrated into Serbia and will not go back to Kosovo regardless of what their status will be. Many Serbs fear to return to their homes since they percieve not to be safe for them, even with UNMIK protection, notably the unrest in 2004, when 900 Serbian houses were burned and other property destroyed while the Serbian populace was closed into enclaves and had to concentrate to the north of Kosovo until today, causing a wave of 3,500 Serbian refugees. Among the numerous religious heritage sites were destroyed by the Albanian youth riotters. In total, 156 Orthodox Churches and Monasteries were damaged during the unrest in Kosovo. Many of the Churches and Monasteries were dating back to the 12th, 13th and 14th century.

The Status talks started in February 2006, it is set to end in the course of the year. The security of the minorities, will secure Kosovar Albanians they much demanded independence. Independence is the option supported mostly by the US and the UK but it is reported to have the blessing of the Contact Group.

Economy

UNMIK declared the Euro to be the official currency of the province in 2001 in the course of implementing a currency reform. This was undertaken to replace the previous widespread use of the Deutschmark, which had become the de facto currency even before the 1999 war. However, the Serbian dinar remains an official currency, used principally in the Kosovo Serb enclaves; it is only used sporadically outside of them. Most trade is conducted using the euro; Kosovo's administration uses the euro exclusively, and all commercial banks use the euro as the primary currency. Of other international currencies, the United States dollar and Swiss franc are the most widespread.

Demographics

According to the 2000 Living Standard Measurement Survey of the Statistical Office of Kosovo, Kosovo's total population is estimated between 1,8 and 2,0 million in the following ethnic proportions:

However, the figures are highly disputable. Some estimates are that there is an Albanian majority well above 90 percent. Others give much higher figures for Roma and Turks . There was a small minority of Circassians in Kosovo Polje but they were repatriated to the Republic of Adygea, in Southern Russia, following threats by the KLA

List of Presidents

List of Prime Ministers

Gallery

See also

References

  1. [http://www.elsie.de/pdf/B2002GatheringClouds.pdf Elsie, R. (ed.) (2002): Gathering Clouds. The roots of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. Early twentieth-century documents. Dukagjini Balkan Books, Peja (Kosovo, Serbia). ISBN 9951-05-016-6
  2. http://www.balkanpeace.org/cib/kam/kams/kams19.shtml
  3. BBC News: Circassians flee Kosovo conflict. Sunday, August 2, 1998 Published at 01:01 GMT 02:01 UK

External links

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