Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 03:22, 13 August 2012

Kerala Keralam
State
File:A typical houseboat in the Kerala backwaters near Alleppey.jpg
Coat of arms of KeralaCoat of arms
Location of Kerala in India
Map of Kerala
Country	India
Region	South India
Established	1 November 1956
Capital	Thiruvananthapuram
Largest city Largest Urban agglomeration	Thiruvananthapuram Kochi UA
Other major cities	Kozhikode, Kollam, Trissur, Kannur, Malappuram and Kottayam
Districts	14 total
Government
• Body	Government of India, Government of Kerala
• Governor	Hansraj Bhardwaj
• Chief Minister	Oommen Chandy (INC)
• Legislature	Unicameral (141 seats)
• Parliamentary constituency	20
• High Court	Kerala High Court
Area
• Total	38,863 km (15,005 sq mi)
• Rank	21st
Population
• Total	33,387,677
• Rank	12th
• Density	860/km (2,200/sq mi)
Time zone	UTC+05:30 (IST)
ISO 3166 code	IN-KL
HDI	0.921 (very high)
HDI rank	1st (2011)
Literacy	93.91% (ranked 1st in India)
Official languages	Malayalam, English
Website	kerala.gov.in
^* 140 elected, 1 nominated

Kerala (IPA: ['kɛrələ/'kɛrələm] Template:Lang-ml) is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was formed on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam-speaking regions.

The state has an area of 38,863 km (15,005 sq mi) and is bordered by Karnataka to the north and north-east, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Arabian Sea to the west. Thiruvananthapuram is the state capital; other major cities are Kochi (the financial and industrial hub) and Kozhikode. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics, five of the ten most livable cities in India are in Kerala.

Kerala has the highest Human Development Index of all Indian states; its literacy rate of 93.91% is the highest of any Indian state, and a survey in 2005 by Transparency International ranked it as the least corrupt state. It is also ranked as India's cleanest state. Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries during the Kerala Gulf boom, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community.

Kerala is an important international and internal tourist destination; the backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism, and tropical greenery are among its major attractions. National Geographic's Traveler magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 must-see destinations of a lifetime"; Travel + Leisure listed it as "one of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".

Etymology

The name Kerala takes the form Keralam in Malayalam, the main language of the state. Two thousand years ago, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil. K. M. George, a leading native Malayali linguist and historian of the language, has confirmed the widespread belief that Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. A 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by north Indian emperor Asoka the Great refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra (Sanskrit for "son of Kerala"; or "son of Chera", with some semantic connection to coconuts). The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to this Keralaputra as Celobotra.

History

Prehistory

Evidence of Kerala's early human occupation includes dolmens of the Neolithic era, in the Marayur area. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).

Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves (in Wayanad) are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 5000 BCE. The use of a specific Indus script pictogram in these caves suggests some relationship with the Indus Valley Civilization during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.

Kerala and ancient religious texts

According to Hindu mythology, the land of Kerala was recovered from the seabed by Parasurama, an avatar of Vishnu; hence Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram (The Land of Parasurama). Parasurama was an axe-wielding warrior sage. He threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to legend this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. Consensus among more scientific geographers agrees that a substantial portion of this area was indeed under the sea in ancient times. The legend later expanded, and found literary expression in the 17th or 18th century with Keralolpathi, which traces the origin of aspects of early Kerala society, such as land tenure and administration, to the story of Parasurama.

Another Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an asura and a prototypical king of justice, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the devas, driving them into exile. The devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to Patala (the netherworld) to placate the devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.

The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by name is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two great Hindu epics.

The Matsya Purana, which is among the oldest of the 18 Puranas, makes the Malaya Mountains of Kerala (and Tamil Nadu) the setting for the story of Lord Matsya, the first incarnation of Lord Vishnu, and King Manu, the first man and the king of the region.

Ancient period

Kerala was a major spice exporter as early as 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records.

The word Kerala is first recorded (as Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription (Rock Edict 2) left by the Maurya emperor Asoka (274–237 BCE). The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Asoka's time, the others being Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra. These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as Tamiḻakam. In the 1st century BCE, Tamil-speaking Dravidians established the Chera Dynasty, which ruled northern Kerala and western Tamil Nadu from a capital at Vanchi. Southern Kerala was ruled by the Pandya kings, with a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi). At later times the region fell under the control of the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas.

In the last centuries BCE the coast became famous among the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially black pepper. The Cheras had trading links with China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In the foreign-trade circles the region was identified by the name Male or Malabar. Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time. The value of Rome's annual trade with India as a whole was estimated at no less than 50,000,000 sesterces; contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for pepper. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala may have been Eudoxus of Cyzicus, around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, a king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Various Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana: the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.

Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. Jewish connection with Kerala started as early as 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, possibly started before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden. They intermarried with local people, and from this mixture the large Muslim Mappila community of Kerala are descended. In the 4th century, some Christians also immigrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community. Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas. According to the legends of these communities, the earliest mosque, synagogue(1568 CE), and Christian churches in India were built in Kerala. The combined number of Muslims, Christians, and Jews was relatively small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association.

Early medieval period

Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure. A Second Chera Kingdom ( c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram, was established by Kulasekhara Varman, which at its zenith ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamilnadu. During the early part of Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagerkovil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Kulasekara empire. During Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literatute, trade and the Bhakti cult of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period. For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.

The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land. The social system became fractured with internal divisions on the lines of caste. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas. However, King Ravi Varma Kulashekhara of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. But, after his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state fractured into small warring principalities governed by Nair-Brahmin chieftains. From these, the kingdoms of Venad (Quilon), Kolathiri (Cannanore), Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) emerged.

Colonial era

The monopoly of maritime spice trade in the Indian Ocean stayed with Arabs during the high and late medieval periods. However, the dominance of Middle East traders got challenged in the European Age of Discovery during which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper, became an influential activity for European traders. Around the 15th century, the Portuguese began to dominate the eastern shipping trade in general, and the spice-trade in particular, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498. The Zamorin of Calicut permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects. The Portuguese trade in Calicut prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked Zamorin and finally it led to conflicts among them. The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between Zamorin and king of Kochi; they allied with Kochi and when Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was at Kochi. During his reign, Portuguese managed to dominate over the relation with Kochi and established a few fortresses in Malabar coast. Nonetheless, Portuguese suffered severe set back from the attacks of Zamorin forces; especially the naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Calicut known as Kunjali Marakkars compelled them to seek a treaty. In 1571, Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam fort.

The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company, who took advantage of continuing conflicts between Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control of the trade. The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as Treaty of Mavelikkara, was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region. In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in kerala.

In 1766, Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore invaded northern Kerala. His son and successor, Tipu Sultan, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company, resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Tipu ultimately ceded Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s; both were annexed to Madras Presidency of British India in 1792. The Company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795. Thus, by the end of 18th century, the whole of kerala fell under the control of the Britsh, either administered directly or under suzerainty.

There were major revolts in Kerala during its transition to democracy in the 20th century; most notable among them are the 1921 Malabar Rebellion and the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar uprising in Travancore. In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rioted against Hindu zamindars and the British Raj. Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of 20th century, leading to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes; Malabar soon did likewise, and Cochin followed with a similar proclamation in 1948, after Independence.

Post Colonial period

After British India was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan, Travancore and Cochin joined the Union of India and on 1 July 1949 were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 January 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form Madras State in 1947.

On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara. In 1957, elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, Communist-led government came to power, under E. M. S. Namboodiripad. It was the first time a Communist government was democratically elected to power anywhere in the world. It initiated pioneering land reforms, leading to lowest levels of rural poverty in India.

Geography

Kerala is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate. The state has a coast of length 590 km (370 mi) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 km (22–75 miles). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; hence, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala’s terrain.

The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. Forty-one of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers, and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad (hence also known Palghat), where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks reach above 2,500 m (8200 ft). Anamudi, the highest peak in South India, is at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains comprising central Kerala, dominated by rolling hills and valleys. Generally ranging between elevations of 250 and 1,000 m (820 and 3300 ft), the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills include such formations as Agastya Mala and Anamala.

Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake Vembanad, Kerala’s largest body of water, dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200 km (77 sq mi) in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala. The most important of Kerala’s forty-four rivers include the Periyar (244 km), the Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chaliyar (169 km), the Kadalundipuzha River (130 km), the Valapattanam (129 km) and the Achankovil (128 km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64 km. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains. These conditions result in the nearly year-round waterlogging of such western regions as Kuttanad, 500 km of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental factors. The rivers also face problems such as sand mining and pollution. The state experiences several natural hazards such as landslides, floods, lightning and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history. The course of the river Periyar was changed, and the Arabian Sea receded several miles. The Kuttanad region became cultivable, and the Muziris (Kodungalloor) harbour became defunct. A new harbour was developed at Kochi.

Climate

With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon. About 65 percent of the rainfall occurs during the first season (June to August), corresponding to the southwest monsoon, and the rest during the second season (September to December), corresponding to northeast monsoon. Southwest monsoon: The moisture-laden winds, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, become divided into two parts: the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch. The Arabian Sea Branch of the Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats in Kerala, thus making the area the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon. Northeast monsoon: The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed during this season and the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it in the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the northeast monsoon is seen towards southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm (122 in.) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in.); the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in.) of orographic precipitation, the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails.

During summer, Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.

Flora and fauna

State symbols of Kerala

State animal	Indian elephant
State bird	Great Hornbill
State tree	Coconut tree
State flower	Cassia fistula

Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Almost one fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of medicinal plants.

Its 9,400 km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km and 100 km, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested. Two of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 453 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction.

Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia), anjili, mullumurikku (Erythrina), and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides). Living among them are such fauna as Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), Bengal Tiger, Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel. Reptiles include the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), viper, python, and Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris). Kerala's birds are legion—Malabar Trogon, the Great Hornbill, Kerala Laughingthrush, Darter, and Southern Hill Myna are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu (stinging catfish) and Choottachi (Orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus) are found.

Subdivisions

Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's six historical regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala).

Kerala's 14 districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 taluks; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Taluks of kerala are further divided into 1453 revenue villages. Consequent to the 74th Amendment to the Constitution of India, the Local self-government Institutions are to function as the third tier of Government and it constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 978 Grama Panchayats, 60 Municipalities, 5 Corporations and 1 Township. Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Pondicherry (Puducherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches.

In India, self-governance of the major cities rests with Municipal corporations; there are 5 such bodies in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kozhikode, Kollam and Thrissur. While Thiruvananthapuram (formerly known as Travancore) – the state capital – with a population of 750,000 in the city proper, is the largest city of Kerala, Kochi (the most densely populated city in the state) holds the second position. Kochi metropolitan area, with a population of 2.1 million, is the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala.

v t e Largest cities or towns in Kerala 2011 Census of India As per the population within their respective Municipal Corporation/Municipality limits
	Rank		District	Pop.
Thiruvananthapuram Kozhikode	1	Thiruvananthapuram	Thiruvananthapuram district	968,990	Kochi Kollam
	2	Kozhikode	Kozhikode district	609,224
	3	Kochi	Ernakulam district	602,046
	4	Kollam	Kollam district	388,288
	5	Thrissur	Thrissur district	315,957
	6	Kannur	Kannur district	232,486
	7	Alappuzha	Alappuzha district	180,856
	8	Kottayam	Kottayam district	138,283
	9	Palakkad	Palakkad district	131,019
	10	Manjeri	Malappuram district	97,102

Government

Following the Constitution of India, the State of Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy for its governance; universal suffrage is granted to state residents. The government structure is organized into the traditional three branches: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.

1. Legislature: The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies. The state sends 20 members to the Lok Sabha and 9 to the Rajya Sabha.
2. Executive: The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the President of India. The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with extensive executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor on advice of the Chief Minister. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.
3. Judiciary: The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located at Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices. Kerala High Court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.

Local governance: Though the local self-government bodies namely, Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations existed in Kerala since 1959, the major initiative to decentralize the governance in Kerala was started only in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction. With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in the year 1994, the state entered a new era of local self-governance. Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local-government with Gram panchayat, Block panchayat and District Panchayat forming the hierarchy. The acts ensure clear cut demarcation of power among these institutions. However, Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of Municipality designed at par with Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated these bodies to ensure efficient decentralization. As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40 per cent of the state plan outlay to the local government. The state has pioneered in many of these steps to empower local self-governance and it acted as a turning point in the nation's history of decentralization.

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (India) (UDF—led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (Kerala) (LDF—led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). At present, the UDF is the ruling coalition in government; Oommen Chandy of the INC is the Chief Minister of Kerala and V.S. Achuthanandan of the LDF is the Chief Opposition leader. Strikes, protests and marches are ubiquitous in Kerala because of the comparatively strong presence of labour unions.

Economy

Since independence, Kerala was managed as a democratic socialist welfare economy. Since the 1990s, liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed onerous Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and job creation. In fiscal year 2007–2008, the nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was ₹162,414.79 crore (US$19 billion). Recent GSDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1% and 5.99% in the 1990s). The state recorded 8.93% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005 compared with 4.80% nationally. Relatively few such enterprises are major corporations or manufacturers. Kerala's Human Development Index rating is the highest in India. This apparently paradoxical "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and not much high economic development results from the strong service sector.

Kerala's economy depends on emigrants working in foreign countries (mainly in the Persian Gulf countries such as United Arab Emirates or Saudi Arabia), and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. As of 2008, the Gulf countries altogether have a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who send home annually a sum of USD 6.81 billion, which is more than 15.13% of Remittance to India in 2008, the highest among Indian States.

The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications—63.8% of GSDP in 2002–2003) and the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GSDP) dominate the economy. Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income. Some 600 varieties of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop) are harvested from 3105.21 km (a decline from 5883.4 km in 1990) of paddy fields; 688,859 tonnes are produced per annum. Other key crops include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production, or 57,000 tonnes), rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.

Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.

Traditional industries manufacturing such items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people. Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. A small mining sector (0.3% of GSDP) involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite. Home gardens and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process outsourcing. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches; each branch served 10,000 persons, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have a banking facility in every village. Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%; underemployment, low employability of youths, and a 13.5% female participation rate are chronic issues, as is the practice of Nokku kooli, 'wages for looking on'. By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.

The state's 2005–2006 budget was ₹219 billion. The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹111,248 million in 2005, up from ₹63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached ₹10,809 million in 2005, nearly double the ₹6,847 million revenues of 2000. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.

The state treasury has suffered a loss of thousands of millions of rupees thanks to the state staging over 100 hartals annually in recent times. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹2000 crore.

Agriculture

Agriculture in Kerala has passed through many changing phases. The major change occurred in the 1970s, when rice production became less attractive because of increased availability of rice supply all over India and decreased availability of labour supply. Consequently, investment in rice production decreased significantly and a major portion of the land was shifted for the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops. Profitability of crops in Kerala is reducing because of a shortage of farm labourers, the high price of land and the uneconomic size of operational holding areas.

Kerala produces 97% of the national output of pepper and accounts for 85% of the area under natural rubber in the country. Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg—comprise a critical agricultural sector. The key agricultural staple is rice, with some six hundred varieties grown in Kerala's extensive paddy fields. Nevertheless, home gardens comprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector. Related animal husbandry is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalized, and the landless. Feeding, milking, breeding, management, health care, and concomitant micro-enterprises provide work for around 32 lakh (3.2 million) of Kerala's 55 lakh (5.5 million) households. The state government seeks to promote such activity via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the "Sunandini".

Fisheries

With 590 km of coastal belt, 400,000 hectares of inland water resources and about 220,000 active fishermen, Kerala is the leading producer of fish among the states of India. According to 2003–04 reports, about 1.1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608,000 tons in 2003–04. This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, about 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala industry.

The output of the sector is highly seasonal in nature and the major season is during the southwest monsoon. During this season, a suspended mud bank would be developed along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water and hence peak output for the fishermen. This unique phenomenon is locally called chakara. The fish landings consist of a large variety: pelagic species (59%), demersal species (23%), crustaceans and molluscs.

Transport

Roads

Kerala has 145,704 kilometres (90,536 mi) of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about 4.62 kilometres (2.87 mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an average of 2.59 kilometres (1.61 mi) in all India. Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road.

Roads in Kerala include 1,524 km of national highway (2.6% of the nation's total), 4341.6 km of state highway and 18900 km of district roads. Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways, NH 47 and NH 17, and the eastern side is accessible through various State Highways. There is also a Hill Highway (Kerala) proposed, to make easy access to eastern hills.

NH 17 connects Edapally (Kochi) to Panvel (Maharashtra) and is the longest stretch of national highway through the state. The other major national highway passing through the state is National Highway 47, which connects Salem to Kanyakumari and passes through the major towns and cities like Palakkad, Thrissur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram. The Salem-Kochi stretch of this highway is a part of North-South Corridor of the Indian highway system. The length of the National Highway 47 (India) through Kerala is 416.8 km. NH 49 (Kochi – Dhanushkodi), NH 208 (Kollam – Thirumangalam), NH 212 (Kozhikode – Mysore), NH 213 (Kozhikode – Palakkad), NH 220 (Kollam – theni) are the other national highways serving the state of Kerala.

The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala; it also oversees a few major district roads.

Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Kerala's road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.

Railways

The Indian Railways' Southern Railway line runs through the state, connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad.

Dates of beginning of railway transport in various sections of the state are given below:

Beypore–Tirur (12 March 1861); Shoranur–Ernakulam (1902); Shenkottai–Punalur (26 November 1904); Punalur–Thiruvananthapuram (4 November 1931); Ernakulam–Kottayam (1956); Kottayam–Kollam (1958); Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari (1979); Thrissur–Guruvayur (1994).

The railway network in the state is controlled by three divisions of Southern Railway, namely Trivandrum Railway Division, Palakkad Railway Division and Madurai Railway Division. Thiruvananthapuram Central is the busiest railway station in the state and second busiest in the Southern Railway Zone after Chennai Central. Kerala's major railway stations are Kannur, Kozhikode, Tirur, Shornur Junction, Palakkad Junction, Thrissur, Angamaly For Kalady, Ernakulam Town, Ernakulam Junction, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Tiruvalla, Chengannur, Kayamkulam Junction, Kollam Junction and Thiruvananthapuram Central.

Airports

Kerala has three major international airports, at Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Kozhikode. Two more international airports are proposed, at Kannur and Pathanamthitta. Trivandrum International Airport is the first international airport in an Indian non-metro city. The Cochin International Airport is the busiest and largest in the state, and was the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.

Inland water transport

Kerala, with numerous backwaters, is one of the few states in India where waterways are successfully used for commercial inland navigation. The transportation is mainly done with country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in Kerala. The total length of the inland waterways in the state is 1687 km. The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are lack of depth in the waterway caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation system and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system. A 205 km canal, National Waterway 3, runs between Kottapuram and Kollam.

Demographics

Template:India census population Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's population; at 819 persons per km, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 325 persons per km. Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest, and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%. Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 32 million by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.

Ethnicity

The 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly of Malayali descent. Kerala's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.

Languages

Languages of Kerala in 2001

Malayalam is Kerala's official language; Konkani, Tamil, Tulu, Kannada, Hindi, Mahl and various Adivasi (tribal) languages are also spoken by ethnic minorities, especially in the south-western region.

Religions

Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.2%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19.0%). In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.

According to 2001 Census of India figures, 56.2% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 24.7% are Muslims, 19% are Christians, and the remaining 1.1% follows other religions. The major Hindu castes are Ezhavas, Nairs, Nambudiri and Dalits. The rest of the Hindu castes, including those in the list of Other Backward Class (OBC), are minority communities. Islam and Judaism arrived in Kerala through Arab traders. Muslims of Kerala, generally referred to as Moplahs, mostly follow the Shafi'i Madh'hab under Sunni Islam. The major Muslim organizations are Sunni, Mujahid and Jama'at-e-Islami. Christianity is believed to have reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of St Thomas, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ. Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasrani) include Syro-Malabar Catholic, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Malankara Orthodox, Jacobite and Marthoma. Latin Rite Christians were converted by the Portuguese in the 16th and 19th centuries, mainly from communities where fishing was the traditional occupation. A significant Jewish community existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them migrated to Israel, leaving only a handful of families. The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth. Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district. Buddhism was dominant at the time of Ashoka the Great but vanished by the 8th century CE.

Adi Sankara, born in Kaladi, Kerala, propounded Advaita Vedanta, which is one of the most important influential doctrines in Hindu philosophy. Historically, steps taken by many progressive and tolerant Hindu kings and movements like that of Vaikunda Swami and Narayana Guru for social reform and tolerance helped to establish Kerala as one of the most socially progressive states in India. Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhavas and the Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system. Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status. However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.

Human Development Index

Kerala finds a unique place among the states of India, with the highest Human Development Index (HDI), a status for which the state is noted in many global platforms from 1981 onward, but it has a poor record of economic development coupled with a remarkably lower per capita income, even lower than the national average. Comparatively higher spending of the government in primary level education, health care and elimination of poverty from the 19th century onward has helped the state to keep a very high HDI, marked latest as 0.92 in India Human Development Report (2011), prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research. But, sustainability of this lopsided development model with low economic growth has been under question from many spheres. Nonetheless, the Human Development Report, 2005 prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development has already started aiding the economic development of the state.

According to a 2005–2006 national survey, Kerala has one of the highest literacy rates (94.59%) among Indian states and life expectancy (74 years) was among the highest in India in 2011. Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 19% (1993–1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s. By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively. These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare. This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.

Kerala has the highest life expectancy in the country, which is nearly 75 years and 78 years respectively for males and females. The life expectancy of Kerala is similar to that of developed nations in the world that shows the facilities for treatment and health. Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organisation designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas. For example, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered. Ayurveda (both elite and popular forms), siddha, and many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practiced. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation with practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation. These propagate via gurukula discipleship, and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments, and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists.

A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60) and low birthrate (18 per 1,000) make Kerala one of the few regions in the developing world to have undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway. In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97. The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states (estimated at 12 to 14 deaths per 1,000 live births)

Gender relations also form a part in the Quality of life indicators and according to Human Development Report (1996) published by United Nations Development Programme, Kerala's Gender Development Index was reported as 597 and higher than any other state of India. Many factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable female-to-male ratio, have contributed to this achievement. Kerala's female-to-male ratio (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India..

However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.Yet this is likely explained by the fact that, as mentioned above, Kerala has a higher ratio of senior citizens than India. Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is substantially higher than that of First World nations. Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on 3 million water wells is a problem worsened by the widespread lack of sewers. In respect of women empowerment also, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.

Education

Following the instructions of the Wood's despatch of 1854, both the princely states, Travancore and Cochin, launched mass education drives with the support from different agencies mainly based on castes and communities and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives. The commendable works of social leaders, such as Narayana Guru and Ayyankali, among the socially discriminated castes in Kerala, in tandem with the initiatives of community-based organizations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and different congregations of Christian churches, led to considerable progress in the mass education of Kerala.

In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognized as a totally literate state, though the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90 percent. The net enrollment in elementary education is almost 100 per cent and is almost balanced among different sexes, social groups and regions, unlike other states of India. The state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006–2007. According to the first Economic Census, conducted in 1977, 99.7 per cent of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within 2 km, 98.6 had a middle school within 2 km and 96.7 per cent had a high school or higher secondary school within 5 km, far ahead of national averages.

The educational system prevailing in the state schooling is for 10 years, which are streamlined into lower primary, upper primary and secondary school stages with a 4+3+3 pattern. After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional under-graduate (UG) programmes.

The majority of the public schools are affiliated with the Kerala State Education Board. Other familiar educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer English or Malayalam. Though the education cost is generally considered low in Kerala, according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households in Kerala was reported to be ₹ 41 for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also reveals that the rural-urban difference in the household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.

A few universities in Kerala are Kannur University, Mahatma Gandhi University, University of Calicut, University of Kerala, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala Agricultural University, and Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit. Premiere educational institutions in Kerala are the Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode (one of the thirteen Indian Institutes of Management), the National Institute of Technology Calicut (NITC), and the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST). Kerala also has a national law school, which is known as the National University of Advanced Legal Studies. Center for Development Studies offers M Phil and PhD level courses of Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi.

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts including results—series expansion for trigonometric functions.

Culture

The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it's an integral part of Indian culture. It has been elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures. However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has caused to develop a distinctive outlook in every sphere of culture such as lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions. The Malayalam calendar (also known as Kollavarsham), a solar calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala, serves as the official calendar of Kerala and finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.

Dance

The origin of dance and music in Kerala can be traced to the tribal art forms and folk songs which were performed in those early days to propitiate the local deities. With the arrival of Aryan Brahmins in Kerala (8th century CE), who were instrumental in the development of many semi-classical art forms of Kerala, Hindu temples and associated institutions took over the role of development of many ritualistic art forms; emergence of new temple arts like Koodiyattom, Koothu and Kathakali have to be seen in this context. Koodiyattom, which emerged as a popular temple art by 9th century, is a Sanskrit theatre tradition, and is officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Kerala natanam (an offshoot of Kathakali), Kaliyattam, Mohiniaattam (dance of the enchantress), Theyyam, Thullal and Padayani are other popular performing arts of Kerala. Of these, Kathakali and Mohiniattam are the most recognized Indian Classical Dance traditions from Kerala.

Popular dances in Kerala also include some non-Hindu religious dances like Margamkali, Parisamuttu and chavittu nadakom of Christians and Oppana of Muslims. Oppana has its roots in the Arab dances and it combines dance, rhythmic hand clapping, and ishal vocalizations. Margam Kali is a traditional group dance form traceable back to the 17th century, originally performed during Syrian Christian festivals. Nowadays, many of these art forms are largely performed only during marriage ceremonies or at youth festivals.

Music

Development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala. Development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularization of the genre in the 19th century. Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter. Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.

Cuisine

Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine. Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.

Breakfast dishes are frequently based on the rice preparations idli, puttu Idiyappam, or pulse-based vada or tapioca. These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payar pappadam, Appam, egg masala and fish curry.

Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar. Sadhya is a vegetarian dish, often served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.

Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, unniyappam and kuzhalappam.

Sea food specialities include karimeen, prawn, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.

Attire

Both men and women traditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles. Presently, North Indian dresses such as Salwar kameez are also popular among women in Kerala.

Literature

Malayalam literature is medieval in origin and includes such figures as the 14th-century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 17th-century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam), Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.

In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair and O. N. V. Kurup have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.

Elephants

Elephants have been an integral part of culture of Kerala. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated elephant population in India—about 700 Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals. These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. About 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants. In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the 'sons of the sahya. The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.

Media

The National Family Health Survey – 3, conducted in 2007, ranked Kerala as a state with the highest media exposure in India. Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages, but principally Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating Malayalam-language newspapers are Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Madhyamam, Deshabhimani, Mangalam, Kerala Kaumudi, Chandrika, Thejas, Janayugam, Janmaboomi, Deepika and Siraj Daily. Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi, India Today Malayalam, Madhyamam Weekly, Grihalakshmi, Vanitha, Dhanam, Chithrabhumi, and Bhashaposhini.

Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English and international channels via cable television. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are Asianet, Surya TV, Kiran TV, Mazhavil Manorama, Manorama News, Indiavision, Kairali TV, Kairali WE, Kairali People, Yes Indiavision, Asianet News, Asianet Plus, Amrita TV, Reporter, Jaihind, Jeevan TV, and Media One TV. All India Radio, the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Thrissur, Alappuzha, Kozhikode and Kannur Malayalam-language broadcasts. Television serials, reality shows and the Internet have become major sources of entertainment and information for the people of Kerala. A Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008. Regardless, Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.

BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Airtel, Vodafone, Idea, Tata Docomo and Aircel are the major cell phone service providers in the state. Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major ISPs are BSNL, Asianet Satellite communications, Reliance Communications, Airtel and VSNL. According to the Telecom Regulatory Commission of India (TRAI) report, as of January 2012 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 34.3 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 3.2 million, accounting for the telephone density of 107.77. Unlike in many other States, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.

Malayalam films carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes. Malayalam cinema takes a wide variety of themes in its making and it is far ahead of Hindi or Tamil cinema in terms of its artistic value, because of the reflection of social consciousness attributed to the literary connection it had from 1960s. It has been producing both parallel and mainstream cinema for years and won national recognition by winning the Presidents Awards for the cinemas Chemmeen, Nirmalyam and Swayamvaram. Directors from Kerala, like Adoor Gopalakrishnan, John Abraham, and G. Aravindan, have made a considerable contribution to the Indian parallel cinema. Kerala has also given birth to numerous talented actors, such as Bharath Gopi, Prem Nazir, Mammotty, Mohanlal, Suresh Gopi, Murali, Oduvil Unnikrishnan, Cochin Haneefa, Thilakan and Nedumudi Venu. Movies produced in Hindi, Tamil and English (Made in Hollywood) are popular among Keralites. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies. Since 1980s, actors Mammootty and Mohanlal have dominated the movie industry; Mammootty has won three national awards while Mohanlal has two to his credit.

The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India. The current Advisor of TRAI is Dr Sibichen K Mathew for the Karnataka and Kerala region.

Sports

Almost all traditional sports and games of Keralites failed to stand the test of time; they either disappeared from the land or have become just an art form performed during festivals. These include Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, Kilithattukali etc. However, Kalaripayattu, the mother of all martial arts in the world, is an exception and many people enthusiastically practice this indigenous martial sport. It has also attracted interest from foreign countries and found place in global media like BBC. Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.

Now, cricket and football have become the most popular sports in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. A few cricketers, like Tinu Yohannan, Shanthakumaran Sreesanth and Abey Kuruvilla, found places in the national cricket team. In spite of the popularity of cricket in the state, the Kerala cricket team has not yet been able to make good performance in the Ranji Trophy, the premier first-class cricket tournament in India, which leads to a conclusion that the standard of the Kerala cricket team is yet to match that of many other state teams. A cricket club from Kerala, the Kochi Tuskers, played for Kochi in the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2011. Nonetheless, the team was disbanded after one season because of conflict of interests among its promoters. Kerala is one of the very few states in India where football fan fervor exceeds that of cricket. Kerala has made many recognized achievements in national football, and has also contributed many notable footballers, like I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, and Jo Paul Ancheri. The Kerala state football team has won the Santhosh Trophy five times, in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001 and 2004. Also, they were the runner-ups for seven times, a record they share with the state team of Goa.

In sports, most admired achievements for Kerala come from athletics. Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state, P. T. Usha, Shiny Wilson and M.D. Valsamma are both Padma Shri as well as Arjuna Award winners while K. M. Beenamol and Anju Bobby George are Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna as well as Arjuna Award winners. T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Sinimol Paulose, Angel Mary Joseph, Mercy Kuttan, K. Saramma, K. C. Rosakutty and Padmini Selvan are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala. Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players. Other popular sports include badminton, basketball and kabaddi.

Tourism

Kerala is situated on the lush and tropical Malabar Coast. Kerala is one of the popular tourist destinations in India. Its culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. National Geographic's Traveller magazine names Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime". Travel and Leisure names Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century". Kerala's beaches, backwaters, mountain ranges and wildlife sanctuaries are the major attractions for both domestic and international tourists. The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.

Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination. But in 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism as an industry and it was the first state in India to do so. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. Many innovative marketing strategies were used and the advertisements branded Kerala with a catchy tagline Kerala, God's Own Country. Today, Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world. In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.

Kerala has also pioneered health and medical tourism in India and has attained international attention in this segment. Though the idea of health tourism in Kerala is heavily concentrated on Ayurveda, it is also a good destination for other forms of treatment, including allopathy and homeopathy. Ayurvedic tourism became very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies like Kottakkal Arya Vydyasala played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of Tourism Department. Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives and in this segment it promotes mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major products.

The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, which is currently growing at a rate of 13.31%. The revenue from tourism increased fivefold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the ₹190 billion mark in 2011. Moreover, the industry provides employment opportunity to 1.2 million people.

The most popular tourist attractions in the state are beaches, backwaters and hill stations. Major beaches are at Kovalam, Varkala, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal. Popular hill stations are at Munnar, Wayanad, Wagamon, Peermade, Nelliampathi and Ponmudi. Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: Periyar Tiger Reserve, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary, and Eravikulam National Park are the most popular among them. The "backwaters" are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that center around Alleppey, Kumarakom, Kollam and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August). Cities such as Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Kozhikode are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances.

Kerala is also a center of heritage and religious tourism sites. Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace are two notable heritage sites. The state is also famous for the large number of festivals (about 10,000 per year) it celebrates; of these, Onam and Thrissur Pooram attract a large inflow of foreign tourists. According to a survey conducted among foreign tourists, Elephants, fireworks display and huge crowd are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram. The main pilgrim tourist spots of Kerala are Sabarimala Temple, Aranmula Temple, Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Guruvayoor Temple, Chettikulangara Temple, Vadakumnathan Temple, Sarkara Devi Temple, Padanilam Parabrahma Temple, Beemapally mosque, Saint Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Malayattoor, Parumala Church (Pathanamthitta) and St. Francis Church, Kochi. Saint Alphonsa Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Bharananganam is also a destination of pilgrimage tourism.

Gallery

• Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple in Pathanamthitta district
• Mountain pass (ghat) in Wayanad district in daytime
• Mountain pass (ghat) in Wayanad district at night
• Thiruvathira kali, a dance performed by women in Kerala during Onam and Thiruvaathira festivals.
• Onappottan, a cultural image of Kerala, related to Onam.
• Oppana, a dance form among the Muslim community in Kerala Oppana, a dance form among the Muslim community in Kerala
• Margam Kali, a dance form among the Syrian Christian community in Kerala
• Paddy fields of Kerala in Sultan Bathery
• A house boat on the backwaters near Alleppey in Kerala A house boat on the backwaters near Alleppey in Kerala
• Resorts dot the length and breadth of Kerala.
• Munnar in Idukki district
• Sunset at Varkala Beach
• Kalaripayattu, a martial art of Kerala Kalaripayattu, a martial art of Kerala
• Forest river in Wayanad district
• Thrissur Pooram festival

See also

• Outline of Kerala
• Outline of India
• Index of India-related articles
• Bibliography of India
• Template:Misplaced Pages books link
• List of notable people from Kerala

Notes

The International Hydrographic Organisation defines the border between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Arabian Sea by a line running from Sadashivgad Lt. on west coast of India (14°48′N 74°07′E / 14.800°N 74.117°E / 14.800; 74.117) to Corah Divh (13°42′N 72°10′E / 13.700°N 72.167°E / 13.700; 72.167) and thence down the west side of the Lakshadweep and Maldive Archipelagos to the most southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives. However, the official website of the Government of Kerala and the Government of India states that Kerala is bordered on the west by Arabian Sea.

•  α: Around the 9th century, the Cheras fell from power. Several small kingdoms (swaroopams) formed under the leadership of chieftains, filling the resulting political vacuum.
  

Citations

1. Census of India, 2011. Census Data Online, Population.
2. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/9-litercy-26-30.pdf
3. Language in India
4. Asher et al. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAsherKumari1997pp._100,_416 (help)
5. George 1968, pp. xiii, 6, 7. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGeorge1968 (help)
6. Smith 1999, pp. 447ff. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith1999 (help)
7. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987). Political History of Modern Kerala. D C Books. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
8. Robert Caldwell (1 December 1998). A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages. Asian Educational Services. p. 92. ISBN 978-81-206-0117-8. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
9. "Unlocking the secrets of history". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 6 December 2004.
10. Subodh Kapoor (1 July 2002). The Indian Encyclopaedia. Cosmo Publications. p. 2184. ISBN 978-81-7755-257-7. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
11. Hindu.com
12. Tourism information on districts – Wayanad, official website of the Govt. of Kerala
13. "Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 29 September 2009.
14. Aiya VN (1906). The Travancore State Manual. Travancore Government Press. pp. 210–212. Retrieved 12 November 2007.
15. A Sreedhara Menon (1 January 2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
16. M. T. Narayanan (1 January 2003). Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar. Northern Book Centre. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-81-7211-135-9. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
17. Robin Rinehart (2004). Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. ABC-CLIO. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-57607-905-8. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
18. ^ "Literacy – official website of Govt of Kerala". Retrieved 3 October 2011.(1st) The breakup shows 94.2 for males and 87.86 for females.
19. ^ A. Sreedhara Menon (2008). Cultural Heritage of Kerala. D C Books. pp. 13–15. ISBN 9788126419036.
20. Goldberg, Ellen (2002). The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. SUNY Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7914-5325-4.
21. Kemmerer, Lisa (2011). Animals and World Religions. Oxford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-19-991255-1.
22. Dalal, Roshen (2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
23. Ragozin, Zenaide A. (2005). Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda. Kessinger Publishing. p. 341. ISBN 978-1-4179-4463-7.
24. Faces of Goa: a journey through the history and cultural revolution of Goa and other communities influenced by the Portuguese, Karin Larsen, p. 392).
25. Striving for sustainability, environmental stress and democratic initiatives in Kerala, p. 79; ISBN 81-8069-294-9, Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Richard W. Franke; Year: 2006.
26. ^ "Kerala." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 December 2011.
27. Vincent A. Smith; A. V. Williams Jackson (30 November 2008). History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great. Cosimo, Inc. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-1-60520-492-5. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
28. Kanakasabhai 1997, p. 10
29. Sadasivan 2000, pp. 105–6
30. James Oliver Thomson (1948). History of ancient geography – Google Books. Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1948. ISBN 978-0-8196-0143-8. Retrieved 30 July 2009.. See also
31. Joseph Minattur. "Malaya: What's in the name" (PDF). siamese-heritage.org. p. 1. Retrieved August 07, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
32. ^ K. K. Kusuman (1987). A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore. Mittal Publications. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9788170990260.
33. According to Pliny the Elder, goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See
34. "Official website". kerala.gov.in. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
35. Abraham Eraly (1 December 2011). The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India. pp. 246–. ISBN 978-0-670-08478-4. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
36. Iyengar PTS (2001). History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0145-9. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
37. Iyengar PTS (2001). History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. Asian Educational Services. pp. 192–195. ISBN 81-206-0145-9. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
38. De Beth Hillel, David (1832). Travels (Madras publication).
39. Lord, James Henry (1977). The Jews in India and the Far East; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN.
40. ^ Rolland E. Miller (1993). Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 50. ISBN 9788120811584.
41. Geoffrey Wainwright (2006). The Oxford History Of Christian Worship. Oxford University Press. p. 666. ISBN 9780195138863.
42. * Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2
43. Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L (31 August 1982). The Indian Christians of St Thomas. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 0-521-21258-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
44. Jonathan Goldstein (1999). The Jews of China. M.E. Sharpe. p. 123. ISBN 9780765601049.
45. Nathan Katz (2000). Who Are the Jews of India?. University of California Press. p. 245. ISBN 9780520213234.
46. Susan Bayly (2004). Saints, Goddesses and Kings. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. ISBN 9780521891035.
47. ^ K. Balachandran Nayar (1974). In quest of Kerala. Accent Publications. p. 86. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
48. A Sreedhara Menon (1 January 2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. p. 97. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
49. ^ A Sreedhara Menon (1 January 2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. pp. 123–131. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
50. Chaitanya 1972, p. 15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChaitanya1972 (help)
51. A Sreedhara Menon (1 January 2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. p. 138. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
52. Corn, Charles (1999). The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade. Kodansha America. ISBN 1-56836-249-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
53. Ravindran PN (2000). Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum. CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-5702-453-5. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
54. Curtin PD (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-521-26931-8.
55. ^ Mundadan AM (1984). Volume I: From the Beginning up to the Sixteenth Century (up to 1542). History of Christianity in India. Church History Association of India. Bangalore: Theological Publications.
56. J. L. Mehta (1 January 2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707 - 1813. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 324–327. ISBN 978-1-932705-54-6. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
57. K. K. N. Kurup (1 January 1997). India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars. Northern Book Centre. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-81-7211-083-3. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
58. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987). Political History of Modern Kerala. D C Books. p. 140. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
59. Superintendent of Government Printing (1908). Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras. Calcutta: Government of India. p. 22. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
60. "Emergence of Nationalism: Punnapra-Vayalar revolt". Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala). 2002. Archived from the original on 23 February 2005. Retrieved 14 January 2006.
61. Qureshi, MN (1999). Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924. Leiden : Brill. pp. 445–447. ISBN 90-04-10538-7. OCLC 231706684.
62. Bardwell L. Smith (1976). Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. BRILL. pp. 35–42. ISBN 978-90-04-04510-1. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
63. ^ Plunkett, Cannon & Harding 2001, p. 24
64. Conundrum of Kerala's struggling economy by Soutik Biswas BBC News, Kerala
65. ^ Government of Kerala 2005b.
66. Kerala – States and Union Territories – Know India National Portal of India
67. Marine fisheries of Kerala at a glance 2005 – Selected Indicators Dept. of Fisheries, Govt of Kerala
68. Map Showing Multi Hazard Zones in Kerala (Map). United Nations Development Programme. 2002. Archived from the original on 8 November 2006. Retrieved 12 January 2006.
69. Inland Waterways Authority of India 2005
70. Padmalal D, Maya K, Sreebha S & Sreeja R, 2007, Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India, Environmental Geology 54(4), 879–889. springerlink.com, Retrieved 17 July 2009.
71. "Kerela Tourism, Kerala Tour packages, Kerla Tours". Kerelatourism.com. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
72. "Kaduthuruthy in Kaduthuruthy India". India9.com. 7 June 2005. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
73. Chacko T (2002). "Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at Kariavattom, Kerala". Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci). {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
74. ^ Planning Commission, India (2007). Kerala Development Report. Academic Foundation. p. 223. ISBN 9788171885947.
75. Rao (2008). Agricultural Meteorology. PHI Learning. pp. 173–174. ISBN 9788120333383.
76. ^ Brenkert A (2003). "Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation". Joint Global Change Research Institute. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
77. "Opportunities in participatory planning" (PDF). Department of Town and Country Planning, Kerala. p. 14.
78. "Kerala Symbols". Public Relations Dept, Kerala.
79. ^ Government of Kerala 2004f, p. 141 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004f (help).
80. ^ Sreedharan TP (2004). "Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
81. Jayarajan M (2004). "Sacred Groves of North Malabar" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
82. Government of Kerala 2004f, pp. 142–145 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004f (help)
83. ^ "Districts : Kerala". Government of India portal. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
84. ^ "About Kerala". Government of India.
85. "Local Self Governance in Kerala". Government of Kerala.
86. "Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project". Local Self Government Department.
87. "India: metropolitan areas". World Gazetteer. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
88. "Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011" (PDF). Population of the urban local bodies in Kerala (2011). Government of Kerala. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
89. History of Kerala Legislature
90. "Our Parliament". Parliamentofindia.nic.in. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
91. "Responsibilities of Governor, Kerala Rajbhavan".
92. "Legislative Assembly of Kerala: Official Website". niyamasabha.org. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
93. "Protest against frequent strikes". The Hindu. Chennai, India: The Hindu. 5 July 2005. Retrieved 26 November 2007.
94. Trade Associations in Kerala: Their functioning and implications, S. Muralidharan, Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004
95. Kerala economy climbs to $23b by 2005
96. ^ Mohindra KS (2003). "A report on women Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Kerala state, India: a public health perspective". Université de Montréal Département de médecine sociale et prévention. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
97. ^ Government of Kerala 2004, p. 2 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004 (help).
98. "Pages" (PDF). Retrieved 30 July 2009.
99. ^ Varma MS (4 April 2005). "Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap". The Financial Express. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2007.
100. ^ Tharamangalam J (2005). "The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India" (PDF). Political Economy for Environmental Planners. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
101. K.P. Kannan, K.S. Hari (2002). "Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact 1972–2000".
102. GCC residency cap may force lakhs to return by Biju Govind; The Hindu – Tuesday, 19 August 2008
103. ^ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 24 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004c (help).
104. ^ Government of Kerala 2005c.
105. ^ Balachandran PG (2004). "Constraints on Diffusion and Adoption of Agro-mechanical Technology in Rice Cultivation in Kerala" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
106. ^ Joy CV (2004). "Small Coffee Growers of Sulthan Bathery, Wayanad" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
107. Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T. (January 2009). "Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study". Health Physics.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
108. "State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch" (PDF). Reserve Bank of India. 2002. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
109. "Now, you can bank on every village in Kerala". The Times Of India. 1 October 2011.
110. Kumar KG (8 October 2007). "Jobless no more?". The Hindu. Retrieved 3 October 2011. A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), Thiruvananthapuram, unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1 in 2003 to 9.4 in 2007.
111. Nair NG. Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-75-3. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
112. Government of Kerala 2004, p. 4 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004 (help).
113. "Men (Not) At Work". Outlook (magazine). 12 May 2008.
114. ^ Deaton A (22 August 2003). "Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999–2000" (PDF): 6. Retrieved 12 November 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
115. "Budget at a Glance" (PDF). Retrieved 3 October 2011.
116. "Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)". Fincomindia.nic.in. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
117. Memoranda from States: Kerala
118. Kerala: Hartals Own Country? 6 July 2008
119. Planning Commission, India (2007). Kerala Development Report. Academic Foundation. p. 66. ISBN 9788171885947.
120. Planning Commission, India (2007). Kerala Development Report. Academic Foundation. p. 51. ISBN 9788171885947.
121. ^ R. Quentin Grafton, Ray Hilborn, Dale Squires (2009). Handbook of Marine Fisheries Conservation and Management. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–12. ISBN 9780195370287.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
122. keralapwd.net
123. മാതൃഭൂമി തൊഴില്‍ വാര്‍ത്തയുടെ ഹരിശ്രീ സപ്ലിമെന്റ് 2006 സപ്റ്റംബര്‍ 30
124. Kumar VS (20 January 2006). "Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month". The Hindu. India Business Line. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
125. Kumar VS (2003). "Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP)". Public Works Department. Government of Kerala. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
126. Kumar KG (22 September 2003). "Accidentally notorious". The Hindu. India Business Line. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
127. History of Railways in Kerala
128. "Cabinet clearance for Kannur airport". The Hindu. India. 18 January 2008. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
129. "The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other". Rediff. 6 December 1999. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
130. Inland Waterways Authority of India website
131. Office of the Registrar General 2001
132. Government of Kerala 2004c harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004c (help).
133. Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 27 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGovernment_of_Kerala2004c (help).
134. Office of the Registrar General 2001b
135. Kalathil MJ (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-69-9. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
136. "Commissioner Linguistic Minorities (originally from Indian Census, 2001)". Archived from the original on 8 October 2007.
137. ^ "Population by religious communities – Census of India". Retrieved 12 April 2009.
138. Heller P (4 May 2003). "Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India". University of California: 49–50. Retrieved 25 February 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
139. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
140. T.K. Joseph (1955). Six St. Thomases Of South India. University of California. p. 27.
141. Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956
142. House for Sale Near Technopark, Trivandrum. "Kerala History – Jews of Kerala". Ananthapuri.com. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
143. "Introduction to Temples of Kerala: Evolution of Religion, Gods, Shrines and Temples". Retrieved 24 June 2009.
144. India.gov.in History of Kerala – Socio-Religious Reform Movement
145. Towards Modern Kerala, 10th Standard Text Book, Chapter 9, Page 101. See this PDF
146. Government of Kerala 2002b.
147. "Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008
148. Lindberg A (2004). "Modernization and Effeminization in India: Kerala Cashew Workers since 1930" (PDF). 18th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies (EASAS). Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
149. ^ United Nations Human Development Report: Kerala, India; 2005
150. "Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart". CNBC. 21 October 2011.
151. "Growth, reforms lift living standards in India: Human development Index". Economic Times. 2011.
152. Balaji, J. (22 October 2011). "Kerala tops in literacy rate, health services". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
153. Mohindra 2003, pp. 8–9 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMohindra2003 (help).
154. "EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring Report" (PDF). UNESCO. 2003: 156. Retrieved 12 November 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
155. Kutty VR (2000). "Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India" (PDF). Health Policy and Planning. 15 (1): 103–109. doi:10.1093/heapol/15.1.103. PMID 10731241. Retrieved 12 November 2007. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
156. "Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State"". United Nations Foundation. Retrieved 14 March 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
157. Kutty VR (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-60-5. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
158. ^ Unnikrishnan, E (2004). "Materia Medica of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 22 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
159. Angus Stewart,woodburn The Religious attiude: A psychological study of its differentiation ,1927
160. ^ Kutty VR (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. p. 6. ISBN 81-87621-60-5. Retrieved 12 November 2007.
161. Alagarajan M (2003). "An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis" (PDF). Population Research and Policy Review. 22 (5/6): 557. doi:10.1023/B:POPU.0000020963.63244.8c. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
162. ^ Krishnaswami P (2004). Neelakantan S, Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-66-4. Retrieved 31 December 2008.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
163. ^ Ammu Joseph (1999). Oommen M.A. (ed.). Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 479–486. ISBN 9788170227656.
164. United Nations Development Programme 2001, p. 1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFUnited_Nations_Development_Programme2001 (help)
165. Roy MKP (2004). Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality (PDF). ISBN ]. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
166. Planning Commission, India (2007). Kerala Development Report. Academic Foundation. pp. 53–58. ISBN 9788171885947.
167. ^ Planning Commission, India (2007). Kerala Development Report. Academic Foundation. pp. 255–258. ISBN 9788171885947.
168. D Suresh Kumar (13 October 2008). "Kerala tops primary education index". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
169. Srikumar Chattopadhyay (2006). Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala. Concept Publishing Company. p. 62. ISBN 9788180692949.
170. ^ "Education in Kerala". Government of India.
171. Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 55
172. Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 56
173. "Higher Education". Retrieved 3 October 2011.
174. Bhagyalekshmy 2004, pp. 6–7.
175. ^ A. Sreedhara Menon (1982). The Legacy of Kerala. D C Books. pp. 43–46. ISBN 9788126421572.
176. Pullapilly, Cyriac K. (1976). "The Izhavas of Kerala and their Historic Struggle for Acceptance in the Hindu Society". In Smith, Bardwell L. (ed.). Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. International studies in sociology and social anthropology. Vol. 22. Netherlands: E. J. Brill. pp. 26–30. ISBN 978-90-04-04510-1. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
177. The Hindu: UNESCO recognition for Koodiyattam
178. "UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity: "Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theatre"". Unesco.org. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
179. "Preserving the purity of Margamkali". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 29 April 2011.
180. ^ A. Sreedhara Menon (1982). The Legacy of Kerala. D C Books. pp. 48–51. ISBN 9788126421572.
181. Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 29.
182. Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 32.
183. A. Sreedhara Menon (1982). The Legacy of Kerala. D C Books. p. 41. ISBN 9788126421572.
184. "Kerala Cuisine". Ecotours.
185. Cooper KJ (20 October 1997). "For India, No Small Thing; Native Daughter Arundhati Roy Wins Coveted Booker Prize". Washington Post date=20 October 1997. Retrieved 28 December 2008. {{cite news}}: Missing pipe in: |work= (help)
186. Lyall, Sarah (15 October 1997). "Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain". New York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2007. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
187. "India's overworked elephants". BBC. 2010.
188. "General Review". Registrar of Newspapers for India. Archived from the original on 18 January 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2006.
189. "Google Malayalam News".
190. Ranjith KS (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Rural Libraries of Kerala (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 20–21. ISBN 81-87621-81-8. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
191. ^ "Press Release, TRAI" (PDF). TRAI. 2012.
192. "Tele-density in Kerala". The Hindu. 2011.
193. Menon, Sreedhara (2008). Cultural Heritage of Kerala. D C Books. pp. 128–129. ISBN 8126419032.
194. Datta, Amaresh (1987). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 751–753. ISBN 9788126018031.
195. "Magic of Sophia Loren". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 2 October 2003. Retrieved 200–07–12. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
196. Subburaj V.V.K. Sura's Year Book 2006. Sura Books. p. 620. ISBN 9788172541248.
197. The Hindu : NATIONAL / KARNATAKA : Adviser to TRAI appointed
198. gfilesindia:BreakingNews
199. ^ "Sports and Games in Kerala". Public Relations Dept, Kerala. 2002. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
200. Arnaud Van Der Veere (2012). Muay Thai. Meyer & Meyer Verlag. p. 8. ISBN 9781841263281.
201. 9788124107959 (2001). A Western Journalist on India: The Ferengi's Columns. Har-Anand Publications. p. 158. ISBN 9788124107959. {{cite book}}: |author= has numeric name (help)
202. "It's advantage Tinu at the Mecca of cricket". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 13 June 2002. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
203. ^ "India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 25 September 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
204. "Abey Kuruvilla-Profile". ESPN. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
205. AIFF Award Player of the Year – All India Football Federation
206. James Wray and Ulf Stabe (15 September 2007). "Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football". Monstersandcritics.com. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
207. "Past Winners". All India Football Federation. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
208. "Kerala State Athletics Association: History". Kerala State Athletics Association. Retrieved 12 June 2012.
209. David Abram, Nick Edwards (2004). The Rough Guide to South India. Rough Guides. p. 64. ISBN 9781843531036.
210. "Jimmy George". Sports Portal. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. Archived from the original on 14 May 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
211. ^ "Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world". The Hindu. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
212. "Kerala – The Gateway of India". Forbes. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
213. "Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime'". Travel Portal of India. 27 January 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
214. "Kerala – God's Own Country". Kerala Homestays. 27 January 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
215. http://www.keralatourism.org/destination-wise-foreign-2010.pdf
216. "Tourist statistics – 2008" (PDF). Government of Kerala, Tourism Department. Retrieved 22 October 2010.
217. ^ Santhanam K (27 January 2002). "An ideal getaway". The Hindu Magazine. Chennai, India: The Hindu. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
218. "Tourism beckons". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 11 May 2004. Retrieved 9 August 2006.
219. ^ Dasgupta Devashish (2011). Tourism Marketing. Pearson Education India. p. 203. ISBN 9788131731826.
220. "Tourist Statistics — 2006" (PDF). Department of Tourism. Government of Kerala. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
221. ^ "Tourist inflow to Kerala crosses 10 million mark". Business-Standard.
222. Planning Commission, India (2007). Kerala Development Report. Academic Foundation. p. 47. ISBN 9788171885947.
223. "Tourist Statistics — 2005 (Provisional)" (PDF). Department of Tourism. Government of Kerala. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
224. Tapan K Panda (2007). Tourism Marketing. ICFAI Books. pp. 173–177. ISBN 9788131404690.
225. M.R. Biju (2006). Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management. Mittal Publications. pp. 151–165. ISBN 9788183241298.
226. "The stars of Pooram show are jumbos". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 26 May 2006. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
227. "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organisation. 1953. Retrieved 7 February 2010.

References

• Asher, R. E.; Kumari, T. C. (1997). Malayalam. Routledge. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Bhagyalekshmy, S (2004). "Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music" (PDF). Information & Public Relations Department—Thiruvananthapuram (Government of Kerala). Retrieved 3 October 2011. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).
• Bhagyalekshmy, S (2004d). "Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music" (PDF). Information & Public Relations Department—Thiruvananthapuram (Government of Kerala): 29–37. Retrieved 3 October 2011. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).
• Government of Kerala (2001). "Ranking of districts by Sex Ratio and Population density" (PDF). Statistics for Planning 2001 (Government of Kerala). Retrieved 3 October 2011. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Government of Kerala (2002b). "Marumakkathayam". Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala). Archived from the original on 21 May 2006. Retrieved 29 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Government of Kerala (2005). "History & Culture: Early History". Government of Kerala. Retrieved 12 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Government of Kerala (2005b). "General Features". Government of Kerala. Retrieved 3 October 2011. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Government of Kerala (2005c). "Kerala at a Glance". Government of Kerala. Retrieved 22 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Government of Kerala (2006). "Towards an entitlement-based approach to poverty reduction: Development and application of entitlement index" (PDF). Government of Kerala. Retrieved 3 October 2011. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Inland Waterways Authority of India (2005). "Introduction to Inland Water Transport". IWAI (Ministry of Shipping). Archived from the original on 4 February 2005. Retrieved 19 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Kanakasabhai, V. (1997). The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0150-5. Retrieved 16 June 2009.

• Office of the Registrar General (2001). "Chapter 5: Density of Population". Census of India (2001). Retrieved 12 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Office of the Registrar General (2001b). "Census of India 2001: Provisional Population Totals". Census of India (2001). Retrieved 12 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Office of the Registrar General (2001c). "Number of Literates & Literacy Rates". Census of India (2001). Retrieved 12 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Office of the Registrar General (2004). "Data on Religion". Census of India 2001. Retrieved 18 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help).
• Omcherry, L (1999). "Music of Kerala". Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala. Archived from the original on 4 August 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).
• Plunkett, R; Cannon, T, Davis, P, Greenway, P; Harding, P (2001). "Lonely Planet South India". Lonely Planet. ISBN. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link).
• Rajeevan, B (1999). "Cultural Formation of Kerala". Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala. Archived from the original on 23 October 2005. Retrieved 12 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).
• Ramakrishnan, V (10 December 2001). "Communal tension high in Kerala". BBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).
• Sadasivan, S. N. (2000). A social history of India (illustrated ed.). APH Publishing. ISBN 978-81-7648-170-0. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
• Sunny, C (2004). "Domestic Violence Against Women in Ernakulam District" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 3 March 2006. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).

External links

• Template:Wikitravel
• Template:Dmoz

Government

• Official entry portal of the Government of Kerala
• Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala
• Directorate of Census Operations of Kerala

v t e Places adjacent to Kerala
Mahé Karnataka Lakshadweep Sea Kerala Tamil Nadu Indian Ocean

v t e State of Kerala
Capital: Thiruvananthapuram
Districts	Thiruvananthapuram KL-01 Kollam KL-02 Pathanamthitta KL-03 Alappuzha KL-04 Kottayam KL-05 Idukki KL-06 Ernakulam KL-07 Thrissur KL-08 Palakkad KL-09 Malappuram KL-10 Kozhikode KL-11 Wayanad KL-12 Kannur KL-13 Kasaragod KL-14
Topics	Arts Culture Demographics Economy Education Film Geography Roads Ports History Wildlife Government Tourism Sports
Symbols	Bird Great hornbill Animal Indian elephant Tree Coconut Flower Golden rain Fish Karimeen Fruit Jackfruit Insect Papilio buddha
Taluks	Adoor Alathur Aluva Ambalappuzha Chalakudy Changanassery Chavakkad Chengannur Cherthala Chirayinkeezhu Chittur Devikulam Eranad Hosdurg Idukki Iritty Kanayannur Kanjirappally Kannur Karthikappally Karunagappalli Kasaragod Kattakada Kochi Kodungallur Kollam Kondotty Konni Kothamangalam Kottarakkara Kottayam Koyilandy Kozhencherry Kozhikode Kunnamkulam Kunnathunad Kunnathur Kuttanad Mallapally Mananthavady Manjeshwaram Mannarkkad Mavelikkara Meenachil Mukundapuram Muvattupuzha Nedumangad Neyyattinkara Nilambur North Paravur Ottapalam Palakkad Pathanapuram Pattambi Payyanur Peermade Perinthalmanna Ponnani Punalur Ranni Sultan Bathery Taliparamba Thalapilly Thalassery Thamarassery Thiruvalla Thiruvananthapuram Thodupuzha Thrissur Tirur Tirurangadi Udumbanchola Vaikom Varkala Vatakara Vellarikundu Vythiri
Municipal corporations	Thiruvananthapuram Kozhikode Kochi Kollam Thrissur Kannur
Municipalities	Adoor Anthoor Alappuzha Aluva Angamaly Attingal Chalakudy Changanassery Chavakkad Chengannur Cherthala Chittur-Thathamangalam Eloor Guruvayur Irinjalakuda Iritty Kalamassery Kalpetta Kanhangad Karunagappalli Kasaragod Kattappana Kayamkulam Kodungallur Kondotty Kuthuparamba Kothamangalam, Kerala Kottakkal Kottarakkara Kottayam Koyilandy Kunnamkulam Malappuram Manjeri Maradu Mattanur Mavelikkara Muvattupuzha Nedumangad Neyyattinkara Nilambur Nileshwaram North Paravur Ottapalam Pala Palakkad Panoor Parappanangadi Paravur Pathanamthitta Payyanur Perinthalmanna Perumbavoor Ponnani Punalur Shoranur Sreekandapuram Tanur Thalassery Taliparamba Thiruvalla Thodupuzha Thrikkakkara Thrippunithura Tirur Tirurangadi Valanchery Vatakara Vaikom Varkala
Other towns	North Edappal Thavanur Puthanathani Kottakkal Angadipuram Mankada Kuttippuram Karipur Areekode Wandoor Vengara Vallikkunnu Olavanna Kunnamangalam Thamarassery Thiruvambady Kodencheri Balussery Perambra Nadapuram Kuttiady Lakkidi Vythiri Chundale Meppadi Kottappadi Part Muttil Padinharethara Meenangadi Panamaram Pulpally Peravoor Dharmadom Anjarakkandy Muzhappilangad Azhikode Cherukunnu Pappinisseri Kalliasseri Irikkur Alakode Thrikaripur Cheruvathur Bekal Udma Vellarikundu Parappa Karadka Kumbla Mangalpady Uppala Manjeshwar Central Peermade Vandiperiyar Kumily Rajakkad Munnar Devikulam Adimali Kolenchery Puthencruz Kunnathunad Kalady Malayattoor Chottanikkara Udayamperoor Varappuzha Sreemoolanagaram Nedumbassery Mala Kodakara Puthukkad Manaloor Pavaratty Chelakkara Vadakkencherry Alathur Nemmara Puthunagaram Malampuzha Sreekrishnapuram Lakkidi-Perur Thrithala South Parassala Balaramapuram Kattakada Chirayinkeezhu Kilimanoor Parippally Chathannoor Kottiyam Kundara Neendakara Chavara Oachira Sasthamkotta Kunnathur Anchal Kadakkal Pathanapuram Thenmala Kulathupuzha Kozhencherry Konni Ranni Mallapally Kumbanad Aranmula Kulanada Omallur Vadasserikara Parumala Mannar Charummoodu Ambalappuzha Mararikulam Aroor Kanjirappally Erumely Mundakayam Vazhoor Karukachal Pampady Puthuppally Kuravilangad Uzhavoor Thalayolaparambu Kaduthuruthy
Historical regions	Kolathunadu (Kingdom of Cannanore) Zamorin Malabar North Malabar South Malabar Cochin Venad (kingdom) Travancore Travancore–Cochin
India portal

Template:Link GA Template:Link FA

• Use dmy dates from March 2011
• Kerala
• States and territories of India
• States and territories established in 1956