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Blanchard's transsexualism typology (also Blanchard autogynephilia theory (BAT) and Blanchard's taxonomy) is a psychological typology of male-to-female transsexualism created by Ray Blanchard through the 1980s and 1990s, building on the work of his colleague, Kurt Freund. Blanchard divides male-to-female (MtF or M2F) transsexual people into two different groups: "homosexual transsexuals", who are attracted to men, and "non-homosexual transsexuals", who are "autogynephilic" (sexually aroused at the thought or image of themselves as a woman). The typology does not purport to identify the cause of transsexualism in natal males, but it has some implications for the cause—specifically, that the cause of transsexualism may not be the same for both groups.

Scientific criticism of the research and theory has come from John Bancroft, Jaimie Veale, Larry Nuttbrock, Charles Allen Moser, and others who argue that the theory is poorly representative of MtF transsexual people, reduces gender identity to a matter of attraction, is non-instructive, and that the research cited in support of the theory has inadequate control groups or is contradicted by other data. Supporters of the theory include J. Michael Bailey, Anne Lawrence, James Cantor, and others who argue that there are significant differences between the two groups, including sexuality, age of transition, ethnicity, IQ, fetishism, and quality of adjustment.

The theory has been the subject of protests in the transsexual and larger LGBT community, although it has its supporters. The issues with Blanchard's work were again the subject of criticism with the publication of Bailey's The Man Who Would Be Queen in 2003. In 2005, Blanchard distanced himself from Bailey's affirmation of the scientific certainty of the etiology.

Background

The early history of the study of transsexualism is sparse; however, the concept of a categorization of transsexual people can be seen as early as 1923 with the work of Magnus Hirschfeld. In 1966, Harry Benjamin wrote that researchers of his day thought that attraction to men, as a woman was the factor that distinguished a transvestite from a transsexual. In 1980 in the DSM III, a new diagnosis was introduced, that of "302.5 Transsexualism" under "Other Psychosexual Disorders". This was an attempt to provide a diagnostic category for a gender identity disorders. The diagnostic category, "Transsexualism", was for gender dysphoric individuals who demonstrated at least two years of continuous interest in transforming their physical and social gender status. The subtypes were 1. asexual, 2. homosexual (same anatomic sex), 3. heterosexual (other anatomic sex) and 0. unspecified. This was removed in the DSM IV, in which Gender Identity Disorder replaced transsexualism. Previous taxonomies, or systems of categorization, used the terms "classic transsexual" or "true transsexual," terms once used in differential diagnoses.

New terminology

In 1982, Kurt Freund reported evidence that there exist two types of cross-gender identity in male-to-female transsexual people, coined the term "homosexual transsexual" and hypothesized that gender dysphoria in "homosexual males" (male-to-female transsexual people attracted to men) is different from gender dysphoria in heterosexual males. His protege, Ray Blanchard notes that "Freund, perhaps for the first time of any author, employed a term other than 'transvestism' to denote erotic arousal in association with cross-gender fantasy."

Blanchard's observations at the Clarke Institute began with four types of male transsexual people based on their sexual orientation relative to their sex assigned at birth: homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual, and asexual (i.e., transsexual people attracted to men, women, both, or neither, respectively.) Blanchard conducted a series of studies of biological males with gender dysphoria, including male-to-female transsexual people, concluding that there exist two distinct types. One type of gender dysphoria/transsexualism manifests itself in individuals who are exclusively attracted to men, whom Blanchard referred to as homosexual transsexuals, adopting Freund's terminology The other type includes those who are attracted to females (gynephilic), attracted to both males and females (bisexual), and attracted to neither males nor females (analloerotic or asexual); Blanchard referred to this latter set collectively as the non-homosexual transsexuals. Blanchard claims that the non-homosexual transsexual people (but not the homosexual transsexual people) exhibit autogynephilia, which he defined as a paraphilic interest in having female anatomy.

Autogynephilia and autoandrophilia

Autogynephilia (/ˌɔːtoʊˌɡaɪnəˈfɪliə/; from Greek “αὐτό-” (self), “γυνή” (woman) and “φιλία” (love) — "love of oneself as a woman") is a term coined in 1989 by Ray Blanchard, to refer to "a man's paraphilic tendency to be sexually aroused by the thought or image of himself as a woman." Alternative terms proposed for this notion include automonosexuality, eonism, and sexo-aesthetic inversion. The DSM-IV-TR includes an essentially equivalent definition, and recognizes autogynephilia as a common occurrence in the transvestic fetishism disorder, but does not classify autogynephilia as a disorder by itself. The analogous term autoandrophilia refers to a woman's tendency to be sexually aroused by the thought or image of herself as a man. It classified as a type of transvestic fetishism in a proposed revision to the DSM-5. (Blanchard has served on the gender dysphoria sub-working group for the DSM-IV and of the paraphilia sub-working group for the DSM-5.)

Autogynephilia is most notable for its sole use in Blanchard's taxonomy to explain the presence of gender dysphoria in "non-homosexual" (gynephilic) male-to-female transsexuals, in contrast to the gender dysphoria observed in "homosexual" (androphilic) transsexual people. Autogynephilia has also been suggested to pertain to romantic love as well as to sexual arousal patterns.

Blanchard provides case examples to illustrate the autogynephilic sexual fantasies that people reported:

Philip was a 38-year-old professional man referred to the author's clinic for assessment....Philip began masturbating at puberty, which occurred at age 12 or 13. The earliest sexual fantasy he could recall was that of having a woman's body. When he masturbated, he would imagine that he was a nude woman lying alone in her bed. His mental imagery would focus on his breasts, his vagina, the softness of his skin, and so on—all the characteristic features of the female physique. This remained his favorite sexual fantasy throughout his life.

According to Blanchard, "An autogynephile does not necessarily become sexually aroused every time he pictures himself as female or engages in feminine behavior, any more than a heterosexual man automatically gets an erection whenever he sees an attractive woman. Thus, the concept of autogynephilia—like that of heterosexuality, homosexuality, or pedophilia—refers to a potential for sexual excitation" .

Blanchard classified four subtypes of autogynephilic sexual fantasies, but noted that "All four types of autogynephilia tend to occur in combination with other types rather than alone."

• Transvestic autogynephilia: arousal to the act or fantasy of wearing women's clothing
• Behavioral autogynephilia: arousal to the act or fantasy of doing something regarded as feminine
• Physiologic autogynephilia: arousal to fantasies of female-specific body functions
• Anatomic autogynephilia: arousal to the fantasy of having a woman's body, or parts of one.

There also exist biological males who report being sexually aroused by the image or idea of having some but not all female anatomy, such as having female breasts but retaining their male genitalia; Blanchard referred to this phenomenon as partial autogynephilia.

Autoandrophobia (from Greek “αὐτό-” (self), “άνδρας” (andras/man) and “φόβος” (phobos/fear) — "fear of oneself as a man") is a related but different term to autogynephilia which was coined by Moser (2010). Some male-to-female transsexual people in whom estrogen has been contraindicated (e.g., due to deep vein thrombosis) have found that antiandrogens alone were sufficient to relieve their gender dysphoria. This seems to suggest that male-to-female transsexual people are not just motivated to transition by autogynephilia, but also due to a desire to block their masculine characteristics. Such a symptom is not characteristic of other paraphilias. In any case, the relative roles of autoandrophobia and autogynephilia in gender dysphoria in male-to-female transsexual people is not entirely clear, and further research appears to be necessary to elucidate them.

"Non-homosexual" versus "homosexual" transsexual people

In Blanchard's taxonomy, non-homosexual biological males (Kinsey Scale 0-4) with gender identity disorder exhibit autogynephilia and are either attracted to women, both women and men, or are asexual. Homosexual transsexual males are attracted exclusively to men and do not exhibit autogynephilia.

Support for the theory comes from a wide range of demographic and psychological aspects of the subjects studied Blanchard's practice in the 1980s. Criticism of the theory is generally focused in two categories: the use of the terms "homosexual" and "non-homosexual" to refer to transsexual people by their sex-of-birth, and the data underlying the theory itself.

Justification for the two classifications

According to Blanchard (1985, 1987) key characteristics of homosexual transsexual people include conspicuous cross-gender behavior from childhood through adulthood, and a "homosexual" sexual orientation. Blanchard (1987) found in his studies that homosexual transsexual people were younger when applying for sex reassignment The average age of the non-homosexual transsexual people in Blanchard's sample is around 39, whereas the average of the homosexual transsexual people was 23.6. Moreover, the homosexual transsexual people reported that cross-gender wishes preceded cross-dressing by 3–4 years, whereas the non-homosexual transsexual people reported that their first cross-gender wishes occurred around the time they first cross-dressed. Blanchard also reports that they have a more convincing cross-gender appearance and functioned psychologically better than "non-homosexual" transsexual people. A lower percentage of the homosexual transsexual people reported being (or having been) married, and feeling sexually aroused while cross-dressing. Early studies had variously found that between 10% and 36% of homosexual transsexual people report a history of sexual arousal to cross dressing. Bentler (1976) found 23%, while Freund (1982) reported 31%. In a follow-up study of post-operative transsexual people, Blanchard found that both types of male-to-female transsexual people respond well to sex reassignment, but that the homosexual transsexual people are less likely to regret doing so.

Sexologists quantitatively measure sexual orientation using psychological personality tests or rely on self reports. Blanchard and Freund used the Masculine Identity in Females (MGI), and the modified androphilia scale. Homosexual transsexual people averaged a Kinsey Scale measurement of 5-6 or a 9.86±2.37 on the Modified Androphilia Scale.

In The Man Who Would Be Queen, J. Michael Bailey (2003) stated that the homosexual transsexual people from Chicago gay bars he studied were comfortable with prostitution, and that this type of transsexual has a male sexual appetite, but lusts after men. He supported Blanchard's typology of two forms of transsexualism in males—one that is an extreme type of homosexuality, and one that is an expression of autogynephilia. In "The Transsexual Phenomenon", Harry Benjamin (1966) wrote that a few dozen transsexual people "find prostitution a useful profession for emotional as well as practical reasons" before surgery.

Ken Zucker (2002) and Yolanda Smith (2005) independently found that homosexual transsexual people are of lower average IQ, social class, and age. They were on average in their mid-teens to mid-20s when they reported to a gender clinic for sex reassignment. The homosexual transsexual people are more likely to have recent immigrant status, non-intact families, non-Caucasian race, and childhood behavior problems). Bailey found that most homosexual transsexual people he interviewed from Chicago gay bars learned to live on the streets, resorting to prostitution, or shoplifting.

Blanchard does not consider sex with males to be a sole defining characteristic of being "homosexual" versus "non-homosexual". Concerning "non-homosexual" autogynephilic transsexual people who sleep with men, Blanchard writes: "The effective erotic stimulus in these interactions, however, is not the male physique of the partner, as it is in true homosexual attraction, but rather the thought of being a woman, which is symbolized in the fantasy of being penetrated by a man. For these persons, the male sexual partner serves...to intensify the fantasy of being a woman."

Leavitt and Berger also mentioned studies by Blanchard which suggest that heterosexual transsexual people will adjust their life stories to ensure that they get sex reassignment surgery.(Leavitt 1990) Blanchard considers self-report to be unreliable. Morgan (1978), Blanchard (1985), Lawrence (2005) and other researchers have asserted that many "non-homosexual" transsexual people systematically distort their life stories because "non-homosexuals" were often screened out as candidates for surgery and because some see "homosexual transsexual" as a more socially desirable diagnosis.

Blanchard (1996) and Zucker (2007) came to the general conclusion that birth order has some influence over sexual orientation in biological males in general, and homosexual male to female transsexual people in specific. This phenomenon is called the "fraternal birth order effect". In 2000 Richard Green wrote "Homosexual male-to-female transsexuals have a later than expected birth order and more older brothers than other subgroups of male-to-female transsexuals. Each older brother increases the odds that a male transsexual is homosexual by 40%." Green did not find a higher incidence of homosexuality in the younger brothers of homosexual transsexual people. Zucker and Blanchard wrote that studies have consistently supported the "fraternal birth order effect" that homosexual transsexual people have more brothers than sisters and are born later in birth order. In contrast, in their study using an Asian sample they found that the transsexual men had significantly more sisters than controls. Zucker attributes this to the preference for males in Korean society causing parents to stop having children once they have a boy. Therefore all male children are less likely to have older brothers and hence no fraternal birth order effect is observed. According to Bailey's interpretation of Blanchard's theory the causes of homosexual transsexuality are extreme examples of the causes of homosexuality in males.

Research by Blanchard, Zucker, and Green argues that the causes of homosexual transsexualism, transsexualism, and homosexuality overlap to a large degree.

Blanchard (1995) also said homosexual transsexual people were comparatively shorter and lighter in proportion to their height than non-homosexuals. Independent research done by Johnson (1990) and Smith (2005) concur with most of Blanchard's observations. Smith did not find a significant difference in height-weight ratio. Subsequent research has found only partial support of Smith's findings. Johson's 1990 work used the alternative term "androphilic transsexual", Johson wrote that there was a correlation between social adjustment to the new gender role and androphilia.

MacFarlane found that in New Zealand 90% of the transsexual prostitutes were Māori. Of these, 90% had sex with a male as a child and 22% had sex with a female. Every subject in the study considered their sexual activity with men to not be homosexual, as they considered themselves female. Maoris comprise 9% of the overall population. In The Man Who Would Be Queen J. Michael Bailey states that about 60% of homosexual transsexual people he studied in Chicago gay bars were Latina or black, while in his studies of gay males only 20% were non-white; to provide possible explanations for this disparity, Bailey quotes the opinions of two of his subjects who attributed the difference to genetics, or inflexible gender roles in their respective cultures. MacFarlane similarly concluded that cultural acceptance influenced the number of Māori transsexual prostitutes, but also greater detachment from their culture, a lower standard of education, fewer job opportunities, and cultural confusion due to the abandonment of old customs.

Criticisms

Physician and specialist in sexual medicine Charles Allen Moser criticized Blanchard's theory for using an overly-broad definition of autogynephilia, being insufficiently relevant to MtF transexual patients, failing to account for all information on sexual and romantic interests of homosexual and transexual people, relying too heavily on the questionable practice of phallometry and lacking critical supporting data. A modified version of the typology was published in 2010 that proposed variances in gender identity were driven by biological and childhood socialization factors but personality and environment determine whether psychological defence mechanisms are employed to repress these variances. In the presence of defence mechanisms, the typology predicts cross-dressing or atypical transsexuality, while their absence results in drag artists or classic transsexuality.

The label of "homosexual transsexual" has been criticized for relying on and describing individuals solely on the basis of birth sex rather than gender identity, a situation described as confusing and controversial among men seeking sexual reassignment, archaic, and demeaning. Benjamin, Leavitt, and Derger have all used the term in their own work. In 2008 sexologist John Bancroft expressed regret for having used this terminology, which was standard when he used it, to refer to transsexual women. He says that he now tries to choose his words more sensitively.

Transsexual community reaction

The concept began receiving attention outside of sexology when sexologist Anne Lawrence, a physician and sexologist who self-identifies as autogynephilic, published a series of web articles about the concept in the late 1990s. When Bailey published The Man Who Would Be Queen in 2003, which based its portrayal of male-to-female transsexual people on Blanchards taxonomy, an enormous controversy resulted. Transsexual activist Lynn Conway started an investigation into the publication of Bailey's book by the United States National Academy of Sciences and along with other activists leveled accusations of misconduct against Bailey. Northwestern University investigated Bailey, but did not reveal the findings of that investigation and did not comment on whether or not Bailey had been punished. According to a summary of the controversy written by intersex researcher and bioethics professor Alice Dreger, two of the four women who accused Bailey of misusing their stories were not mentioned anywhere in the book.

According to Leavitt and Berger, "transsexuals, as a group, vehemently oppose the homosexual transsexual label and its pejorative baggage." Trans man Aaron Devor wrote, "If what we really mean to say is attracted to males, then say 'attracted to males' or androphilic... I see absolutely no reason to continue with language that people find offensive when there is perfectly serviceable, in fact better, language that is not offensive." Still other transsexual people are opposed to any and all models of diagnosis which allow medical professionals to prevent anyone from changing their sex, and seek their removal from the DSM.

See also

• Autoeroticism
• Transsexual sexuality
• List of transgender-related topics

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55. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 18431641, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid= 18431641 instead.
56. Wilson, R (2004-12-10). "Northwestern U. Concludes Investigation of Sex Researcher but Keeps Results Secret". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 2012-02-10.
57. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 18431622, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=18431622 instead.
58. Shefer, Tamara; Boonzaier, Floretta (2006). The Gender of Psychology (Illustrated ed.). Juta and Company Limited. pp. 273–4, 282. ISBN 1-919713-92-1, 9781919713922. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)

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