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Muhammad (محمد also Mohammed and other variants), (Turkish: Muhammed) (c. 571–632) is a major figure in Islam. Muslims believe that he was God's final prophet, to whom the Qur'an was revealed. Non-Muslims consider him to be the founder of Islam.

According to traditional Muslim biographers, Muhammad was born (c. 570 in Mecca) and died (June 8 632 in Medina) in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia.

The name Muhammad means "the praised one" in Arabic, being a passive participle from the root Template:ArabDIN Template:Ar "to praise". Within Islam, Muhammad is known as "The Prophet" and "The Messenger". The Qur'an () also refers to him as the "Seal of the Prophets" (Arabic: Template:ArabDIN).

Summary

Born Muhammad ibn `Abdu'llah ibn `Abdu'l-Muttalib, he is said to have initially been a merchant who traveled widely. Muhammad often retreated to the mountains outside Mecca, for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in 610, at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called Hira, he was visited by the Angel Gabriel, who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the Qur'an (which was revealed to him over a period of about 23 years until his death).

He expanded his mission as a prophet, publicly preaching strict monotheism and warning of a Day of Judgment when all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject Judaism and Christianity, two other monotheistic faiths known to the Arabs, but said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect those teachings.

Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Eventually, in 622, he was forced to emigrate from Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the Hijra (the Migration). He settled in Yathrib (now known as Medina) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community.

War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad and his followers were victorious. They had in great part achieved their victory by building a tribal coalition. After the conquest of Mecca, the coalition was extended. By the time of Muhammad's death, he had unified much of Arabia under his rule, and launched military expeditions to the north, towards Syria and Palestine.

Under Muhammad's immediate successors, the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Iberia. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the Eastern Hemisphere, spreading Islam into China and Southeast Asia.

Sources for Muhammad's life

Most biographical sources of Muhammad were written by Muslims and were recorded in writing centuries after his death. There are only fragmentary and late references in non-Muslim historical records from the 7th century, and no inscriptions or archaeological remains from that time. The known non-Islamic accounts of Muhammad such as the Doctrina Iacobi records Muhammed as a Judeo-Arab preacher proclaiming the advent of a Jewish Messiah, and states that the Jews and Arabs were allies against the Byzantines, contradicting accounts in the Qur'an.

The traditional dates often given for Muhammad's life are 570-632 CE. The earliest biography known is the Life of the Apostle of God, by Ibn Ishaq who was born about 717 and died in 767. He thus wrote his biography well over 100 years after Muhammad died. He would not have been able to speak to any eyewitnesses, only to those who had heard their accounts, or accounts of their accounts. Furthermore, we possess Ibn Ishaq's work only in fragments quoted in a compilation of anecdotes and traditions composed by Islamic historian Ibn Hisham(???-834) and al-Tabari (838-923).

Other sources for biographies of Muhammad are: the military chronicles of Waqidi (745-822), the biographies of Ibn Sa'd (783-845), a student of Waqidi, later histories, Quranic commentaries, and the collections of oral traditions known as hadith. These texts were recorded more than a century, and often several centuries, after the death of Muhammad. There are some passages in the Qur'an that are believed to shed some light on Muhammad's biography, however, they require a great deal of interpretation to be useful.

Some skeptical scholars (Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of the Islamic sources, especially the hadith collections. They note for instance, that the earliest biography of Muhammad of Ibn Ishaq does not contain any dates or explicit details, yet later Islamic narratives have progressively more dates and minute details inserted into their accounts of Muhammad's life as the generations of scholars relay the story. By the time we arrive at contemporary renditions of Muhammad's story , the dates and details have exploded exponentially without explanation. They believe that many hadith, and other traditions, were manufactured, or doctored, to support one or another of the many political or doctrinal factions that had developed within Islam in its first century or later. The life of Muhammad was believed to be the exemplar for all Muslims; hence the importance of showing that Muhammad said or did something proving that a particular faction was right. If the skeptics are right, and much of the early material cannot really be trusted, then all that is factually known is what is contained in the summary above.

Other academic scholars, such as Montgomery Watt and Wilferd Madelung, have been much more willing to trust the Islamic sources. Their accounts of the life of Muhammad are similar to those held by most believing Muslims. These historical "traditionalists," both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's life.

There is a great deal of possibly unreliable material for a life of Muhammad and very little that is accepted by all non-Muslim academics. Gregor Schoeler summarizes it, in a 2003 article:

"The current research on the life of Muhammad is characterized by the fact that two groups of researchers stand directly opposed to one another: The one group advocates, somewhat aggressively, the conviction that all transmitted traditions, in part because of great inner contradictions, legendary forms, and so forth, are to be rejected. The other group is opposed to that view. According to these researchers, the Islamic transmission, despite all these defects, has at least a genuine core, which can be recognized using the appropriate source-critical methods. The difficulty certainly consists of finding criteria by which the genuine is to be differentiated from spurious."

Many, but not all of the first group of scholars would probably accept the first section of this article, the Summary. The second group of academics is more willing to accept the traditional Muslim accounts, shorn of hagiography and supernatural claims and based on the earliest accounts rather than later traditions.

Many Muslims accept even fuller accounts of Muhammad's life. They believe traditions not credited by non-Muslim scholars. However, Muslims are not of one mind on the subject. Some Muslims accept "naturalistic" versions pared of most supernatural elements; some Muslims believe in versions of Muhammad's life full of miracles. There are versions of Muhammad's life favoring different traditions within Islam. A Sunni version of Muhammad's life is very different from a Shi'a version. It is impossible to present one Muslim version. However, a few of the commonest traditions, ones that are not accepted by academics but widely believed by Muslims, are covered in a final section.

Life based on Islamic traditions

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Most Muslims, and the Western academics who are willing to trust some of the Islamic traditions, accept a much more detailed version of Muhammad's life.

Genealogy

According to tradition, Muhammad traced his genealogy back as far as Adnan, whom the northern Arabs believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (Ishmael), son of Ibrahim (Abraham) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's genealogy up to Adnan is as follows:

Muhammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) ibn Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn Adnan. (ibn means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.)

He was also called Abul-Qaasim by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son.

Childhood

Muhammad was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of Mecca. Some calculate his birthdate as 20 April, 570, while Shi'a Muslims believe it to be 26 April 570. Other sources calculate the year of his birth to be 571; tradition places it in the Year of the Elephant. Muhammad's father, Abdullah, had died almost six months before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother Amina and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who had become his guardian, also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe, the most powerful in Mecca.

Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the Kaaba) that wrongfully housed many different cult figures (idols). Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways.

Middle years

Muhammad became a merchant. One of his employers was Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow. She was impressed with Muhammad's character and intelligence, and proposed to him in the year 595. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.

Ibn Ishaq records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children: one son and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first revelation. His son Qasim died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima.

The Shi'a say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister.

The first revelations

Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (Hira) near Mecca in meditation and thought. Muslims believe that around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad was visited by the Angel Gabriel.

His wife Khadijah and her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal were the first to believe Muhammad was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's close friends, and Zaid bin Haarith, his adopted son. (The identity of the first male Muslim is a hotly debated topic.)

Until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received surat ad-Dhuha, whose words provided comfort and reassurance.

Around 613, Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Others believed and joined him.

Rejection

As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian king (called Al-Negashi, or "The King").

Several suras and parts of suras are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example al-Masadd, al-Humaza, parts of Maryam and al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, and Abasa.

In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as aamul hazn ("the year of sorrows.") Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured persecution: ostracism, an economic embargo and consequent poverty and hunger, even beatings and death threats.

Isra and Miraj

Some time in 620, Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with Angel Gabriel. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to the furthest mosque. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured Heaven and Hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the Temple Mount known as the Masjid al-Aqsa or furthest mosque, is the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven.

Hijra

By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then resolved to emigrate to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam, a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This Hijra or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).

Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of Aws and Khazraj. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Islamic tradition refers to the conversion to Islam of one of the leaders of the Jews named Ibn Salam. Muhammad had hoped that his conversion would be followed and that other Jews would also recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so.

Some academic historians attribute the change of qibla, the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former Temple in Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. According to Muslims, the change of qibla was seen as a command from Allah both reflecting the independence of the Muslims as well as a test to discern those who truly followed the revelation and those who were simply opportunistic.

Muhammad and his followers are said to have negotiated an agreement with the other Medinans, a document now known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book" could exist within the new Islamic State. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects.

War

Relations between Mecca and Medina rapidly worsened (see surat al-Baqara). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes.

Muhammad turned to raiding caravans bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding (al-ghazw) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by the Meccans' confiscation of the property they had left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims.

In March of 624, Muhammad led some 300 warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement.

Rule consolidated

To his followers, the victory in Badr appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood. Following this victory, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa, whom they believed to have broken a treaty by conspiring with the attacking Meccan forces. Muhammad and his followers were now a dominant force in the oasis.

After Khadija's death, Muhammad married again, to Aisha, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor).

Muhammad's daughter Fatima married Ali, Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married Uthman. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus, all four of the first four caliphs were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided. (See Succession to Muhammad for more information on the controversy on the succession to the caliphate).

Continued warfare

In 625 the Meccan general Abu Sufyan marched on Medina with 3,000 men. The ensuing Battle of Uhud took place on March 23, ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina.

In April 627 Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the Battle of the Trench.

Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the Banu Qurayza. They attacked and defeated the Banu Qurayza, and subsequently killed hundreds of the adult men of the tribe. This execution has been the subject of much controversy.

Following the Muslim's victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes.

The conquest of Mecca

By 628, the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad decided to return to Mecca, this time as a pilgrim. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of al-Hudaybiyah. While Muhammad would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year.

The agreement lasted only two years, however. Tribal allies of the Muslims and the Meccans clashed. The Muslims regarded this as a breach of the treaty. In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. After some scattered skirmishes, in which only twenty-four Meccans were killed, the Muslims seized Mecca. Muhammad promised a general amnesty to all but a few of the Meccans. Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad destroyed the idols in the Kaaba. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine.

Unification of Arabia

The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at Hunayn effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. This authority was not enforced by a regular government, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam.

Muhammad as a warrior

For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years.

Critics claim that Muhammad expanded his realm and imposed his religion by force. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare.

Family life

From 595 to 619, Muhammad had only one wife, Khadijah. After her death, he married Sawda bint Zama and Aisha (which marriage came first is disputed), then Hafsa. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of Maria al-Qibtiyya is also disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, or a wife.)

Muhammad had children by only two of these unions. Khadijah is said to have born him four daughters and a son; only one daughter, Fatima, survived her father. Shi'a Muslims dispute the number of Muhammad's children, claiming that he had only one daughter, and that the other "daughters" were step-daughters. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son, but the child died when he was ten months old.

Muhammad's marriages have been the subject of much criticism. Some consider it wrong that he had more wives than the four generally allowed by the Qur'an (although one Quranic verse makes an exception for Muhammad). They question the circumstances of some of his marriages, such as his marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh, his adopted son's ex-wife, and his marriage to Aisha, who may have been only nine years old when the marriage was consummated. See the main article for further details and a fuller presentation of the controversies.

Companions

The term Sahaba (companion) refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad. Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are considered the ultimate sources for the oral traditions, or hadith, on which much Muslim law and practice are based. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here.

List in alphabetic order:

Death

One day upon returning from a visit to a cemetery Muhammad became very ill. He suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. Muhammad finally succumbed to his malady around noon on Monday June 8, 632, in the city of Medina, at the age of sixty-three.

According to Shi'a Islam, Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at Ghadir Khumm. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or caliph. Sunni Muslims dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad. The matter is further discussed in the article Succession to Muhammad.

Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the Ridda Wars. With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the Middle East under the caliphs.

Descendants

Muhammad was survived by his daughter Fatima and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter Zainab, who had borne a daughter, Amma or Umama, who survived him as well.)

In Shi'a Islam, it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad's descendants.

Descendants of Muhammad are known by many names, such as sayyids, syeds سيد, and sharifs شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa, the Idrisids, the current royal families of Jordan and Morocco, and the Agha Khan Imams of the Ismaili branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others.

Popular Muslim traditions

These traditions are believed by many Muslims, but not accepted by secular academic historians.

Many Muslims believe that as an infant Muhammad was placed with a Bedouin wetnurse, Halima Sadia, as desert life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. Many stories are told of his life in the desert.

After he returned to Mecca, he is said to have been beloved by all around him because he was such a polite and honest child.

As a youth, he was called upon to solve a vexing political problem for his Meccan neighbors. They were rebuilding the Kaaba and feuding over which clan should have the honor of raising the Black Stone into place. Muhammad suggested that the heads of each clan raise the Black Stone on a cloth, so that all had the honor of lifting it. Muhammad then put the stone into its place.

As a young man and a merchant, Muhammad was known to be trustworthy and honest. The other Meccans called him "Al-Amin", the trustworthy one or the honest one. After he proclaimed his prophethood, however, his neighbors turned against him.

Muslim veneration for Muhammad

• A 16th century Persian miniature painting celebrating Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the Miraj. Muhammad's face is veiled, a common practice in Islamic art. A 16th century Persian miniature painting celebrating Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the Miraj. Muhammad's face is veiled, a common practice in Islamic art.

It is traditional for Muslims to illustrate and express their love and veneration for Muhammad in a number of different ways.

• When speaking or writing, Muhammad's name is often preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, Peace be upon him, or Peace be upon him and his descendants by Shias; in English often abbreviated as "(pbuh)" and "pbuh&hd", or just simply as "p".
• His contemporaries gave him the title Apostle of God (Arabic: Rasul-Allah or Rasulallah), which is also used by Muslims today.
• Concerts of Muslim and especially Sufi devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (see Muslim music, Qawwali).
• Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (Mawlid) with elaborate festivities. Some do not, believing that such festivities are modern innovations.
• Criticism of Muhammad is often equated with blasphemy, which is punishable by death in some Muslim states.
• Muhammad is often referred to with titles of praise.
• Beyond the stories accepted as canonical by Islamic scholars of hadith, or oral traditions, there are many folktales praising Muhammad and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life.
• Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad in art. Others have accepted such depictions. See Depiction of Muhammad.

Muhammad in other traditions

• Muhammad is also a prophet in the Mustaˤliyya, Nizarī, Alawites, Zikri, and the Ahmadiyya traditions. These are closely related to Islam, and are considered by their followers to be sects thereof, but mainstream Muslims see them as separate religions.
• The Druze, who accept most but not all Qur'anic revelations, also consider him a prophet.
• Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh.
• Some humanists see Muhammad, like Jesus and Buddha, as an important ethical leader.
• In the Middle Ages, Jews usually referred to Muhammad as ha-meshuggah ("the madman" or "possessed"), a title contemptuously used in the Hebrew Bible for impostors who think of themselves as prophets.
• Many Christians view Muhammad as a false prophet and not as the bringer of any divine revelation. During the Middle Ages, especially in places where there was frequent Christian-Muslim conflict, it was popular to depict Muhammad being tortured by the demons in Hell. One such example is in Dante's The Divine Comedy in which Muhammad is in the ninth ditch of the eighth circle of hell.

Historical significance

Before his death in 632, Muhammad had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia. Within a few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia under Islamic empire, and conquered Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Armenia, and much of North Africa. By 750, Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the Sassanid empire. The rest of North Africa came under Muslim rule, as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula, much of Central Asia, and parts of South Asia (including Sind, in the Indus Valley).

In the tenth century, the armies of the Ghaznavids conquered northern India bringing Islam into the mainly Hindu principalities east of the Indus river. The Ottoman conquests extended the sway of Islam over the Balkans, as well as much of the Caucasus. Even later, Islam expanded into much of Africa and Southeast Asia. Islam is now the faith of over a billion people all over the globe, and is now the second largest religion after Christianity by the number of adherents.

See also

Notes

1. Schoeler, Greg, " Foundations for a new biography of Muhammad: The production and evaluation of the corpus of traditions from 'Urwah b. Al-Zubayr", in Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins, Herbert Berg, ed., Brill, 2003
2. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum: The Lineage and Family of Muhammad by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri
3. USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts: About the Prophet Muhammad
4. Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. pp. p. 236. ISBN 082760198. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

References

• Andrae, Tor (2000). Mohammed: The Man and His Faith. Dover. ISBN 0486411362.
• Armstrong, Karen (1993). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0062508865.
• Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University Press (reissue 1996). ISBN ISBN 0192876058.
• Dashti, Ali (1994). Twenty-Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad. Mazda. ISBN 1568590296.
• Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. (Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute). ISBN 9698413006.
• Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1995). The Life of Muhammad. Islamic Book Service. ISBN 1577311957.
• Lings, Martin (1987). Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International, Limited. ISBN 0892811706.
• Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources, in Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32. E. J. Brill. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Richardson, Don (2003). Secrets of the Koran. Regal. ISBN 0-8307-3124-5, ISBN 0-8307-3123-7.
• Rodinson, Maxime (1961). Muhammad. New Publishers. ISBN 1565847520.
• Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807841285.
• Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1573927872.
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198810784.

External links

Non-sectarian biography

• Public Broadcasting System program on Muhammad
• Encarta Encyclopedia
• 1911 Encyclopedia article of Muhammad

Muslim biographies

• The earliest biography of Muhammad, by ibn Ishaq
• Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) - comprehensive and authoritative modern biography of the prophet
• Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) - as above but easier to navigate
• Biography by Harun Yahya
• About Muhammad
• Seerat Khaatamun NabiyyeenUrdu Biography.

Nonmuslim/Critical biographies

• William Muir: The Life of Mahomet

• 570 births
• 632 deaths
• Muhammad