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This article is about the Azerbaijani ethnic group. For a specific analysis of the population of the Republic of Azerbaijan, see Demographics of Azerbaijan.

The Azerbaijanis (in Azerbaijani: Azərbaycanlılar, Azeri Turks/Azəri Türkləri, Azeris/Azərilər) or Azarbaijanis (in Iran; also Azaris, Turks/Torks) are an ethnic group mainly found in northwestern Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijanis live in a region that spans the Caucasus to the northwestern Iranian plateau and are a diverse population that differs from north to south. The Azeris are typically at least nominally Muslim and have an ancient cultural heritage that consists of Turkic, Iranian, and Caucasian elements.

The Azeris are a cross-border group, where northerners and southerners vary somewhat, due to nearly two centuries of separate social evolution in Russian/Soviet influenced-Azerbaijan and Iranian Azarbaijan. The Azeri language is, in fact, mutually intelligible with both Turkmen and Turkish, as all of these languages can be traced back to the Turkic Oghuz. Azerbaijan's final division was formalized by the Turkmanchai Treaty between Persia and Russia in 1828, which ceded Azerbaijan, north of the Aras river to the Russian Empire.

The Azeris, as a result of this separate existence, range from mainly secularists in Azerbaijan to largely religious Muslims in Iranian Azarbaijan. Since Azerbaijan's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, there has been some renewed interest in religion and ethnic ties with Azeris in Iran.

History

Main articles History of Azerbaijan and History of Iran

Azerbaijan is believed to be eponymously named after Atropates, an Iranian Median satrap (governor), who ruled a region found in modern Iranian Azarbaijan called Atropatene. Atropates name is believed to be derived from the Old Persian roots meaning "protected by fire." In addition to Atropates, the region of Azerbaijan has seen a host of inhabitants and invaders including Caucasians, Ancient Iranians, Medes, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Oghuz Turks, Seljuks, Mongols, and Russians.

Ancient period

Caucasian Albanians are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of Azerbaijan and extended as far north as Dagestan. One of the earliest major invaders included the Scythians who arrived in the region in the ninth century BCE. A century after the Scythians, the Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras. The Medes forged a vast empire between 900-700 BCE, which was overthrown by the Achaemenids around 600 BCE. The Achaemenids, in turn, were defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE as the Median satrap Atropates was allowed to continue his rule over Atropene. Following the decline of the Seleucids based in Persia, native Caucasian Albanians briefly established an independent and semi-independent kingdom that barely lasted a century, as Armenian invaders briefly controlled the area from 99-66 CE. They were followed by the Romans who dominated the region until 224 CE when the Sassanids made the region into a vassal state. The Caucasian Albanians are believed to have been largely Christian by the third century and would remain so until the eighth century. Sassanid control came to an end with their defeat by Muslim Arabs in 642 CE.

Medieval period

Muslim Arabs defeated both the Sassanids and the Byzantine Empire as they marched into the Caucasus region. The Arabs made Caucasian Albania a vassal state where a Christian resistance led by Prince Javanshir finally surrendered in 667. Arab authors, between the 9th and 10th centuries, began to refer to the region between the Kura and Aras rivers as Arran. Arabs from Basra and Kufa came to Azerbaijan and seized vast lands that indigenous peoples abandoned, which allowed these Arabs and their descendents to become a land owning elite in the region. Conversion to Islam was slow as local resistance persisted for centuries and resentment grew as small groups of Arab elites began migrating to cities such as Tabriz and Maraghah. This influx of Arabs, though numerically small, sparked a major rebellion by Babak, "a man of obscure origins," who is considered both an Azeri and Iranian national hero, and who led an insurgency against the Arabs from 816-837 until he was forced to surrender at Budhdh in Iranian Azarbaijan. These rebellions prompted the Caliph Al-Ma'mun to create the iqta system, which which offered monetary rewards and even the governorship of the province to any one who could crush the insurgencies. Despite some pockets of continued local resistance, the vast majority of the inhabitants of Azerbaijan converted to Islam over the centuries.

Possibly the most important invasion of Azerbaijan began in the middle of the 11th century as nomadic Oghuz Turks began to move into the area. The Seljuk dynasty of the Oghuz overthrew Arab rule and established a vast empire that encompassed most of Southwest Asia. The Seljuk period marked the beginning of the turkification of Azerbaijan as the Azeri language and Turkic customs began to replace earlier Caucasian and Iranian ones. Local Iranian cultural influence survived however as can be seen in the works of Nezami Ganjavi, who wrote in Persian, while the emerging Turkic identity of the region was chronicled in various legendary epic poems or dastans. The oldest dastan is the Book of Dede Korkut, which relates allegorical tales and legends, many with pre-Islamic elements, about the early Turks in the Caucasus and Asia Minor. Turkic dominion was interrupted by the destructive invasions of the Mongols in 1227. The Mongols and (Mongol-descended dynasties) and Tamerlane ruled the region until 1405. Local Turkic rule returned with the Sunni Kara Koyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu, both of which dominated Azerbaijan until the rise of the local Shia Safavids, a Kurdish-descended and Azeri-speaking dynasty, in 1501.

Modern period

The Safavids established a vast empire that was multi-cultural (the dynasty was bilingual in both Azeri and Persian and Turko-Iranian in culture) and, at its height, encompassed most of the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions and lasted until 1722. Noted for its achievements in state building, architecture, and the sciences, the Safavid state crumbled due to internal decay and external pressures from the Russians and the Afghans.

After the Safavid state came brief Ottoman control followed by the conquests of Nadir Shah Afshar, a Sunni chieftain from Khorasan who reduced the power of the Shia. The brief reign of Karim Khan came next and was followed by the Qajars, a Turkic tribe, who ruled Azerbaijan and Iran starting in 1779. It was during the Qajar period that Russia loomed as a threat to Persian holdings in the Caucasus. The Russo-Persian Wars began in the 18th century and ended in the early 19th century with Gulistan Treaty of 1813 and the Turkmanchai Treaty in 1828, which effectively gave the northern portion of Azerbaijan to the Russian Empire. While the Azeris in Iran largely integrated into modern Iranian society, the Azeris in the north lived through the transition from the Russian Empire to brief independence from 1918-1920 and then incorporation into the Soviet Union. The Republic of Azerbaijan achieved independence in 1991, but found itself embroiled in a war over the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia.

Origins

Much has been debated about the ethnic, cultural, and linguistic origins of the Azerbaijani people. Ultimately, the 'debate' over the origins of the Azerbaijani people has to do with historic claims over their territory as well as modern nationalism. The debate basically involves three conflicting viewpoints: whether the Azeris are of a Turkic background, ultimately from Central Asia; or are an Iranian people who simply changed their language following Turkic invasions; or are indigenous to the Caucasus and simply adopted the Azerbaijani language, Persian cultural traits, and converted to Islam. Thus, determining whether a Turkic, Iranian, or Caucasian background defines the Azeris also has much to do with the historical views of Azeribaijani neighbors.

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Azeris:

"are of mixed ethnic origin, the oldest element deriving from the indigenous population of eastern Transcaucasia and possibly from the Medians of northern Persia. This population was Persianized during the period of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran (3rd–7th century AD), but, after the region's conquest by the Seljuq Turks in the 11th century, the inhabitants were Turkicized, and further Turkicization of the population occurred in the ensuing centuries."

This view supports some initial genetic studies conducted in the Republic of Azerbaijan that link the modern Azeris primarily to their neighbors in the Caucasus and, to a lesser extent, northwestern Iran. Further studies with Azeris in Iran will be required in order to fully determine to what extent the modern Azeris stem from Caucasian peoples (notably the Albanians and Armenians) and Iranians (primarily the Medes).

Turkic theory

The Turkic origin theory is mainly based upon the Azerbaijani language and favored by those who believe that centuries of heavy Turkic settlement, mainly starting with the Oghuz, helped shape Azerbaijan's Turkic identity. The earliest major Turkic incursion began with Mahmud of Ghazni (971-1040) and then accelerated considerably during the Seljuk period. The migration of Oghuz Turks from Turkmenistan, which is attested by linguistic similarity, remained high through the Mongol period, as many troops under the Ilkhans were Turkic as well. By the Safavid period, the turkification of Azerbaijan continued with the influence of Kizilbash ghazis and of the dynasty itself. The very name Azerbaijan is derived from the pre-Turkic name of the province 'Azarbayjan' or 'Adarbayjan' and shows a gradual language shift that took place as local names for the region survived the turkification process.

Many academics also support the presence of Turkic tribes in the region before the arrival of the Oghuz. According to Professor Peter B. Golden, "In the course of the seventh century, the two major tribal unions emerged in Azerbaijan under the Turk banner: the Khazars and the Bulgars...the Khazars formed the bulk of the Turk forces used by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius (610-640) in his counter-offensive against the Sasanids (rulers) in Azerbaijan." It is thus sometimes argued that early Turkic migrations began the process of turkification that was completed by the Oghuz centuries later, but it is believed that the early Turkic presence was most likely very minor in comparison to the native Caucasian (in the north) and Iranian-speaking (in the south) groups in the area.

The Book of Dede Korkut is the most prominent document that many claim as evidence of a substantial Oghuz migration into Azerbaijan. UNESCO recently celebrated the 1300th anniversary of this epic work. Despite its purported age, most academics believe that the Book of Dede Korkut originates sometime after the Oghuz entered the Caucasus, with its written text having been compiled in the 15th century. It is the Oghuz migration that most academics view as the most important to the Turkic origins of the Azeris and the most likely source of a Turkic background, but one that most likely involved the turkification of predominantly indigenous peoples.

Iranian theory

The Iranian origin theory is mainly based upon the ancient presence of the Medes in much of what is today Iranian Azarbaijan and Scythian invasions during the eighth century BCE. Herodotus and other historians chronicle the Median presence in northeastern Iran as well. It is believed though that the Medes may have mixed with an indigenous population themselves, the Caucasian Mannai, a group that is believed to have had Urartian and Northeast Caucasian origins.

In addition, there is a great deal of archaelogical evidence that the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism was prominent throughout the Caucasus, before Christianity, and that the influence of various Persian Empires added to the ancient Iranian character of the region.

Some also contend that the population of Azerbaijan had been thoroughly Persianized following the Sassanid period and were largely Persian-speakers by the time of the Oghuz invasions. Cultural similarities between modern Persians and Azeris are also pointed out as evidence of common origins. Moreover, since many well known Azerbaijani literary figures, such as Qatran Tabrizi, Shams Tabrizi, Nezami and Khaghani, wrote in Persian, prior to and during the Oghuz migration period, it is conjectured that the majority of the population may have also been largely Persian-speaking. Other common Perso-Azeribaijani features include Iranian place names such as Tabriz and Baku.

The sizeable population of Iranian Talysh and Tats in Azerbaijan is also considered evidence of the former Iranian character of the region. As a precursor to these modern groups, the ancient Azaris are hypothesized as the main ancestors of the modern Azerbaijanis as well. However, even Herodotus as well as Polybius and Strabo mention the region as a mixed one with both Iranian and non-Iranian groups, such as the Utii, a Caucasian group that still exists in Azerbaijan.

Caucasian theory

Many modern Azeris, not unlike the Turks of Turkey, have, during their journey into discovering their roots, come across forgotten possible ancestors. As many modern Turkish historians looked to the possibility that groups such as the Hittites may have contributed significantly to the modern Turks, many Azeris have also looked to ancient peoples in order to better understand their own background. In the case of the Azeris, there is some evidence that, in-spite of repeated invasions and migrations, an aboriginal element survived and thrived in what is today Azerbaijan even as the languages and religions changed over time. Academic Audrey L. Alstadt notes in her book, The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule, that many modern Azeris regard both the Oghuz Turks and the Albanians of the Caucasus as their ancestors, in particular as there is no political rivalry with either an extinct language group or the Oghuz who have undoubtedly bequeathed their language to the Azeris. Regardless, considerable information has been learned about the Caucasian Albanians, including their language and history in the region as well as their conversion to Christianity. In addition, some believe that the Udi language, which is a Caucasian language is a remnant of the ancient Albanians who were assimilated into various invading cultures over time. Lastly, ethnic animosity and rivalry with many of their neighbors has possibly prevented the modern Azeris from examining possible ties to their immediate neighbors, in particular the Armenians. What remains difficult to determine is the overall number of Turkic invaders which may not have been enough to alter the population dramatically in the genetic sense.

Genetics

The population of the Republic of Azerbaijan is undoubtedly diverse, but there appear to be distinct traits that have been discovered through genetic testing that may reveal much about the background of the modern Azerbaijanis. The genetic constitution of Azerbaijan, in terms of Y-Chromosome haplotypes, is much closer to their nearest geographic neighbors in the Caucasus, particularly Armenians and the Lezgins, than to the Turkic-speaking populations of Central Asia. A 2003 study found that: "Y-chromosome haplogroups indicate that Indo-European-speaking Armenians and Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanians are genetically more closely related to their geographic neighbors in the Caucasus than to their linguistic neighbors elsewhere." The authors of this study suggest that this indicates a language replacement of indigenous Caucasian peoples. Also, there is evidence of limited genetic admixture derived from Central Asian Turkic groups (specifically Haplogroup H12), in particular the Turkmen found across the Caspian Sea, that is higher than that of their neighbors including the Georgians, Armenians. MtDNA analysis seemed to indicate the possibility that the main relationship with Iranians is through a greater West Eurasian group that is secondary to that of the Caucasus, according to a study that did not include Azeris, but Georgians who have clustered with Azeris in other studies. The preliminary conclusion from the series of genetic testing shows the Azeris to be a somewhat mixed population with relationships, in order of greatest similarity, mainly with the Caucasus, followed by similarities with Iranians and other Near Easterners, Europeans, and to a lesser extent with Turkmen. In addition, genetic analysis of mtDNA and Y-chromosomes have shown that Caucasian populations are genetically intermediate between European and Near Eastern populations, but that they are more closely related to Near Eastern rather than European populations overall. Another study, conducted in 2003 by the Russian Journal of Genetics, compared Iranians in Azerbaijan (the Talysh and Tats) with Turkic Azerbaijanis and found that,

the genetic structure of the populations examined with the other Iranian-speaking populations (Persians and Kurds from Iran, Ossetins, and Tajiks) and Azerbaijanis showed that Iranian-speaking populations from Azerbaijan were more close to Azerbaijanis, than to Iranian-speaking populations inhabiting other world regions.

The conclusion from this study seems to indicate that groups within close geographic proximity to Azeris are genetically close in-spite of linguistic differences. These studies suffer from some drawbacks, including a lack of specific Azeribaijani test subjects from Iran, and any general conclusion must be drawn cautiously as a result. Analyses of autosomal chromosomes, X chromosome and a wider sampling are needed to verify these hypotheses.

Demographics

There are an estimated 24 to 33 million Azerbaijanis in the world, but census figures are difficult to verify. The vast majority live in Azerbaijan and Iranian Azarbayjan. Between 16 to over 23 million Azeris live in Iran, mainly in the northwestern provinces. Approximately 7,800,000 Azeris are found in the Republic of Azerbaijan. An additional diaspora that is believed to number in the millions is found in neighboring countries and around the world. There are sizeable communities in Turkey, Georgia, Russia, USA, Canada, Germany and other countries.

While population estimates in Azerbaijan are considered relatively reliable due to regular censuses taken, the figures for Iran remain more questionable. Since the early 20th century, successive Iranian governments have avoided publishing any statistics on ethnics groups. This policy has made it difficult to attain accurate statistics on the distribution and size of ethno-linguistic groups in Iran. The population size of Turkic-speaking ethnic groups are estimated to be higher in Iran than official publications. Officially Iran claims that Azeris make-up 24% of the population. However, many Iran scholars, such as Nikki Keddie, Patricia J. Higgins, Shahrough Akhavi, Ali Reza Sheikholeslami, and others support the view that Azeris may comprise as much as one third of Iran's population.

Diaspora

A large ex-patriot community of Azerbaijanis is found outside Azerbaijan and Iran. According to Ethnologue, there were over 1 million Azerbaijani-speakers of the north dialect (originating in Azerbaijan) in southern Dagestan, Armenia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan as of 1993. Other sources, such as national censuses, confirm the presence of Azeris throughout the former Soviet Union. The Ethnologue figures may be inaccurate in the case of Armenia where conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh has affected the population of Azeris there.

Ethnologue further reports that an additional 1 million or more Azerbaijani-speakers of the south dialect (originating in Iranian Azarbayjan and other parts of Iran) could be found in Afghanistan, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, and the USA as of 1997. However, these figures most likely are a reference to the Turkomans of Iraq, a distinct though related Turkic people, whose language is mutually intelligible with Azerbaijani, but with unique characteristics of its own.

Azeris in Azerbaijan

By far the largest group in Azerbaijan (over 90%), the Azeris generally tend to dominate most aspects of the country. Unlike most of their ethnic brethren in Iran, the majority of Azeris are staunch secularists as a result of decades of official Soviet atheism and highly Westernized. Also a legacy of the Soviet era, is the high literacy rate that currently is estimated at 98.8%. An early democratic legacy also exists as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, established in 1918, was the first democracy in the Muslim world. Following independence in 1991, Azeri society has been deeply impacted by the massive internal displacement as a result of the war over Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia that has left nearly 1 million displaced Azeris scattered throughout the country and put strains upon the economy. Azerbaijanis are increasingly tied to the growing oil industry, but high levels of corruption and autocratic rule have not produced many benefits for most Azeris. Many Azeris have also grown frustrated over the political process in Azerbaijan as the election of current President Ilham Aliyev has been described as, "marred by allegations of corruption and brutal crackdowns on his political opposition," which has raised international concern. Despite these problems however, there is a social and cultural renaissance in Azerbaijan as positive economic predictions and a political opposition that remains active appear determined to improve the lives of average Azeris.

Azeris in Iran

Azerbaijanis in Iran are mainly found in the northwest provinces: East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan, Ardebil, Zanjan, and parts of Markazi. Many also live in Tehran (one-third), Fars Province, and other regions of Iran. Generally, the Azeris in Iran have been, "a well integrated linguistic minority," according to academics such as anthropologist Patricia Higgins. In fact, until the Pahlavi period in the 20th century, "the identity of Iran was not exclusively Persian, but supra-ethnic," as much of the political leadership of Iran starting in the 11th century had been Turkic. The Iranian and Turkic groups were well integrated until 20th century notions of nationalism and communalism began to take shape and the often resented policies of the Pahlavis, which sometimes marginalized linguistic minorities. Yet despite some friction, Azerbaijanis in Iran came to be well represented at all levels of, "political, military, and intellectual hierarchies, as well as the religious hierarchy." Resentment came with Pahlavi policies that suppressed the use of the Azerbaijani language in local government, schools, and the press. However with the advent of the Iranian Revolution in 1979, emphasis shifted away from Persian/Iranian nationalism as the new government highlighted religion as the main unifying factor as well as various common cultural traits. Within the Islamic Revolutionary government, there emerged an Azeri faction led by Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari, who advocated greater regional autonomy (throughout Iran) and wanted the constitution to be revised to include secularists and opposition parties, which was denied. Currently, Azeris in Iran are closely aligned with Persians as:

The life styles of urban Azarbaijanis do not differ from those of Persians, and there is considerable intermarriage among the upper classes in cities of mixed populations. Similarly, customs among Azarbaijani villagers do not appear to differ markedly from those of Persian villagers.

In addition, Azeris in Iran are in high positions of authority with the Ayatollah Ali Khamenei currently sitting as the Supreme Leader in Iran. Azeris in Iran also remain quite conservative in comparison to most Azeris in the Republic of Azerbaijan. Nonetheless, since the Republic of Azerbaijan's independence in 1991 there has been renewed interest and contact between Azeris on both sides of the border.

Culture

Language and literature

The Azerbaijanis speak Azerbaijani (sometimes called Azerbaijani Turkish or Azeri), a Turkic language that is mutually intelligible with Turkish, with minor variations in accent, vocabulary and grammar. Other mutually intelligible Turkic languages include Turkmen and the Turkish spoken by the Turkomans of Iraq. The standard Azerbaijani language dates back to the 10th, mainly in oral form, and then began to develope as a literary language by the 13th centuries. Early Azerbaijani began in the form of oral history recitations (called dastans), including the Book of Dede Korkut and Koroglu, which also contained elements of Turkic mythology. Some of the earliest Azeri language writings of the past are traced back to the poet Nesîmî (died 1417) and then decades later Fuzûlî (1483–1556). Many highly regarded Azeri authors often wrote in Persian as well including Nezami Ganjavi (1141-1209) during the turkification transition period of the region. Safavid ruler Ismail I also wrote Azeri sufi poetry under the pen name Khatâ'i. Modern literature continued with an emphasis upon, "humanism", that is conveyed in the writings of Samed Vurgun, Reza Baraheni, Shahriar, and many others.

Religion

The majority of Azerbaijanis are Shia Muslims, but there are also Sunni Muslims, Jews, Zoroastrians, Christians and Bahá'ís. Between 25-40% of Azeris in the Republic of Azerbaijan are identified as nominal Sunni Muslims according to some reports.

Performance art

Azeris express themselves in a variety of ways, both ancient and modern, as can be seen in local dance, music, and the media. Azeri folk dances are ancient and not unlike that of their neighbors in the Caucasus and northwestern Iran as the performers sometimes come together in a group formed in a semi-circular or circular formation as, "The leader of these dances often executes special figures as well as signaling and changes in the foot patterns, movements, or direction in which the group is moving, often by gesturing with his or her hand, in which a kerchief is held."

Azeri music has a long tradition that can be traced back to singing bards known as Ashiqs, who make use of the saz (lute), which is common in other Turkic regions, and often sang dastans. Other musical instruments include the tar, duduk (wind instrument), Kamancha (fiddle), dhol (drums) and other various instruments. Azeri classical music is known as Mugham, an emotional singing performance. According to Iranian Azeri singer Hossein Alizadeh, "Historically in Iran, music faced strong opposition from the religious establishment, forcing it to go underground." Outside Iran, in Azerbaijan and diasporic communities, Azeri music has continued to evolve with western music becoming increasingly popular and a strong inspiration.

Azeri film and television is largely found in Azerbaijan, while many Iranian Azeris are prominent in the cinematic tradition of Iran, which has received a great deal of critical attention.

Sports

Institutions

Women

Notes

1. Iran: People - CIA: The World Factbook (retrieved 07 June 2006)
2. ^ Azerbaijani, South: A language of Iran - Ethnologue report (retrieved 07 June 2006)
3. Azerbaijan Republic
4. Turkey: Religions & Peoples - Encyclopedia of the Orient (retrieved 07 June 2006)
5. Azerbaijanis in Russia - 2002 Russian Census (retrieved 07 June 2006)
8. 2001 census
11. ^ Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan by Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins, ISBN 0810835509 (retrieved 07 June 2006). Cite error: The named reference "ISBN2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
12. ^ The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule by Audrey Altstadt, ISBN 0817991824 (retrieved 07 June 2006).
13. ^ Azerbaijan - US Library of Congress Country Studies (retrieved 07 June 2006) Cite error: The named reference "Library of Congress Azerbaijan" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
14. Voices of the Ancients: Heyerdahl Intrigued by Rare Caucasus Albanian Text by Dr. Zaza Alexidze - Azerbaijan International, Summer 2002 (retrieved 07 June 2006)
15. ^ Iran - "Islamic Conquest," US Library of Congress Country Studies (retrieved 07 June 2006) Cite error: The named reference "Library of Congress Iran" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
16. ^ A History of Islamic Societies by Ira Lapidus, p. 48, ISBN 0521779332 (retrieved 07 June 2006) Cite error: The named reference "ISBN3" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
17. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates by Hugh Kennedy, p. 166, ISBN 0582405254 (retrieved 07 June 2006).
18. The Safavid Empire - University of Calgary (retrieved 08 June 2006)
19. Shi'a: The Safavids - Washington State University (retrieved 08 June 2006)
20. Azerbaijani - Encyclopedia Britannica (retrieved 07 June 2006)
21. ^ Testing hypotheses of language replacement in the Caucasus: evidence from the Y-chromosome — Human Genetics (2003) 112 : 255–261 (retrieved 09 June 2006)
22. "The spread of Turkish in Azerbaijan" - Encyclopedia Iranica, (retrieved 11 June 2006)
23. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples by Peter B. Golden, ISBN 344703274X (retrieved 08 June 2006).
24. 1300th Anniversary of Kitab-i Dede Qorqud - UNESCO (retrieved 08 June 2006)
25. ^ "x. Azeri Literature in Iran" - Encyclopedia Iranica, (retrieved 10 June 2006)
26. Ancient Persia - Encyclopedia Americana (retrieved 08 June 2006)
27. Various Fire-Temples - University of Calgary (retrieved 08 June 2006)
28. Iranian Peoples: Azaris, Language of Azeri People and Pan-Turkism by Mohammad Taghi Sabokdel - The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (retrieved 08 June 2006)
29. Azerbaijan - Columbia Encyclopedia (retrieved 08 June 2006)
30. Tabriz (retrieved 08 June 2006)
31. "Report for Talysh" — Ethnologue. (retrieved 08 June 2006)
32. "Report for Tats" — Ethnologue. (retrieved 08 June 2006)
33. Media — Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume V18, Page 22 (retrieved 08 June 2006).
34. A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia — American Journal of Human Genetics, 71:466-482, 2002 (retrieved 09 June 2006)
35. Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor — American Journal of Human Genetics, 74:827-845, 2004 (retrieved 09 June 2006)
36. Genetic Structure of Iranian-Speaking Populations from Azerbaijan Inferred from the Frequencies of Immunological and Biochemical Gene Markers — Russian Journal of Genetics, Volume 39, Number 11, November 2003, pp. 1334-1342(9) (retrieved 09 June 2006)
37. ^ The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics edited by Ali Banuazizi and Myron Weiner, Part II: Iran, ISBN 0815622484 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
38. Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran: Clergy-State Relations in the Pahlavi Period by Shahrough Akhavi, ISBN 0873954564 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
39. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution by Nikki Keddie, ISBN 0300098561 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
40. Report for Azerbaijani, North — Ethnologue (retrieved 09 June 2006)
41. Peace Talks at Key West between Armenia and Azerbaijan — US State Department, April 3, 2001 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
42. Human Development Index, 12. Literacy and enrolment - Human Development Reports (retrieved 10 June 2006)
43. Caspian Country Rich in Petroleum - The Korea Times (retrieved 10 June 2006)
44. BTC_corruption_claim_COIWRP.pdf Report on corruption in Azerbaijan oil industry prepared for EBRD & IFC investigation arms - The Committee of Oil Industry Workers’ Rights Protection, October 2003 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
45. Azerbaijan: A New Muslim Ally for the U.S.? - FrontPageMagazine.com, May 22, 2006 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
46. Civil Society, Azerbaijan: Opposition parties prepare to vigorously contest parliamentary election - Eurasia.net, 3/28/05 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
47. ^ The Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity by Brenda Shaffer, ISBN 0262194775 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
48. Iran between Two Revolutions by Ervand Abrahamian, p. 131, ISBN 0691101345 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
49. "Shi'ite Leadership: In the Shadow of Conflicting Ideologies," by David Menashri, Iranian Studies, 13:1-4 (1980) (retrieved 10 June 2006).
50. "Contemporary Literature" - Azerbaijan International, Spring 1996, (4.1) (retrieved 10 June 2006).
51. Azerbaijan — US State Department, October 26, 2001 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
52. Avaz — Stanford University Persian Student Association (retrieved 09 June 2006).
53. "Music of the Turkic-Speaking World, Performance and the Master-Apprentice System of Oral Transmission" — Report by Razia Sultanova, SOAS, University of London, February, 2006 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
54. "Guba" — Azerbaijan: The Land of the Arts (retrieved 09 June 2006).
55. "Hossein Alizadeh Personal Reflections on Playing Tar" — Azerbaijan International, Winter 1997 (retrieved 09 June 2006).

References

• Altstadt, Audrey. The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule (Hoover Institution Press 1992).
• Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (Otto Harrasowitz 1992).

Online references

• A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 71:466-482, 2002
• Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 74:827-845, 2004
• Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus, Annals of Human Genetics, Volume 68, Page 205, May 2004
• Testing hypotheses of language replacement in the Caucasus: evidence from the Y-chromosome, Hum Genet (2003) 112, 255–261

See also

• List of Azerbaijanis
• Culture of Azerbaijan
• Demographics of Iran
• Demographics of Azerbaijan
• History of Azerbaijan
• Languages of Azerbaijan

• Azerbaijani society
• Ethnic groups in Dagestan
• Ethnic groups in Iran
• Ethnic groups in the Middle East
• Ethnic groups in Europe
• History of Azerbaijan
• Muslim communities
• Turkic peoples