Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 07:22, 8 September 2014

This article needs more reliable medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Red meat" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2014)

Red meat in traditional culinary terminology is meat which is red when raw and not white when cooked. Red meat also includes the meat of most adult mammals.

Definitions

Gastronomic

In gastronomy, red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with white meat. The exact definition varies by time, place, and culture, but the meat from adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is invariably considered red, while chicken and rabbit meat is invariably considered white. The meat of young mammals such as milk-fed veal calves, sheep, and pigs is traditionally considered white; while the meat of duck and goose is considered red. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: viandes noires — "black meats")

Nutritional

The old determinant of the nutritional definition of the color of meat is the concentration of myoglobin. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; pork and veal have 0.1–0.3%; young beef has 0.4–1.0%; and old beef has 1.5–2.0%.

According to the USDA all meats obtained from livestock (i.e., from mammals) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than chicken or fish.

Nutrition

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2011)

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B₁₂, thiamin and riboflavin). Red meat is the richest source of lipoic acid, a powerful antioxidant.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D. The liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.

Food pyramid

The 1992 edition of the USDA food guide pyramid has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat. The 2005 edition, MyPyramid, recommends lean forms of red meat.

Human health

Red meat is not a uniform product; its health effects can vary based on fat content, processing and preparation. Processed red meat is strongly linked to higher mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Studies of unprocessed red meat are more recent, and have so far produced mixed results. A 2010 Harvard University study covering over one million people, studied the effect of fresh (unprocessed) versus processed red meat and found processed meat to have significant health risks, but no statistically significant effect for unprocessed red meat. A massive study conducted by the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition and published in 2013 which followed over 400,000 subjects showed increased mortality among subjects that consumed processed meat regularly, but no effect for unprocessed red meat.

Cancer

The World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) and American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) classify red meat consumption as carrying an increased risk of contracting bowel cancer. In the United Kingdom approximately 21% of bowel cancers are associated with red meat consumption. The WCRF recommends limiting intake of red meat to less than 300g (11 oz) cooked weight per week, "very little, if any of which to be processed."

Red meat consumption also increases the risk of lung cancer.

There is suggestive evidence that red meat intake might increases the risk of oesophageal, pancreatic, stomach endometrial and bladder cancer.

There is no good evidence that red meat consumption increases breast cancer or prostate cancer risk.

Cardiovascular diseases

The postwar Seven Countries Study found a significant correlation between red meat consumption and risk of CHD and marked the beginning of our current understanding.

Many studies associate red meat consumption with cardiovascular diseases. Specifically red meat consumption is associated with ischemic heart disease, stroke, with greater intima-media thickness, (an indicator of atherosclerosis), acute coronary syndrome, A significant relationship between red meat and CHD has been found specifically for women,

Processed Meat Vs Unprocessed

The consensus on the role of red meat consumption to increased risk of cardiovascular diseases has changed in recent years. Studies that differentiate between processed and fresh red meat have failed to find a link between unprocessed red meat consumption and heart disease. A major Harvard University meta-study in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that the "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."

Mechanisms

Some mechanisms that have been suggested for why red meat consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease include: its impact on serum cholesterol, that red meat contains arachidonic acid, heme iron, and homocysteine., its high content of saturated fat. Bacteria in the digestive tract of people who eat meat have been found to produce a spike in TMAO when supplied with carnitine (abundant in red meat). TMAO is a metabolite that promotes atherosclerosis, a thickening of the arteries.

Risk

Those that eat more than 8 servings of red meat per month are 4.9 times more likely to have cardiac events than those eating less than four servings per month.

A 21-year follow up of about thirty thousand Seventh-day Adventists (adventists are known for presenting a "health message" that recommends vegetarianism) found that people who ate red meat daily were 60% more likely to die of heart disease than those who ate red meat less than once per week.

The risk of coronary disease due to high cholesterol can be mitigated by switching to a leaner red meat. According to one study, funded by the beef producers advocacy group, National Cattlemen's Beef Association, eating lean meat (both red and white) produced nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups.

Controversial studies

A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute found a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases, as well as increased mortality from all causes. This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire, which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy.

Diabetes

Red meat intake has been associated with an increased risk of type II diabetes. Interventions in which red meat is removed from the diet can lower albuminuria levels. Replacing red meat with a low protein or chicken diet can improve glomerular filtration rate.

Other findings have suggested that the association may be due to saturated fat, trans fat and dietary cholesterol, rather than red meat per se. An additional confound is that diets high in processed meat could increase the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.

One study estimated that “substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes”.

Obesity

The Diogenes project used data from ninety thousand men and women over about seven years and found that "higher intake of total protein, and protein from animal sources was associated with subsequent weight gain for both genders, strongest among women, and the association was mainly attributable to protein from red and processed meat and poultry rather than from fish and dairy sources. There was no overall association between intake of plant protein and subsequent changes in weight." They also found an association between red meat consumption and increased waist circumference.

A 1998 survey of about five thousand vegetarian and non-vegetarian people found that vegetarians had about 30% lower BMIs. A 2006 survey of fifty thousand women found that those with higher "western diet pattern" scores gained about two more kilograms over the course of four years than those who lowered their scores.

A ten-year follow up of 80,000 men and women found that "ten-year changes in body mass index was associated positively with meat consumption" as well as with weight gain at the waist. In a Mediterranean population of 8,000 men and women, meat consumption was significantly associated with weight gain. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed "consistent positive associations between meat consumption and BMI, waist circumference, obesity and central obesity."

A survey of twins found that processed meat intake was associated with weight gain. Western diets, which include higher consumption of red meats, are often associated with obesity.

Other health issues

Regular consumption of red meat has also been linked to hypertension, and arthritis.

Culture

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2011)

In some cultures, eating red meat is considered a masculine activity, possibly due to traditions of hunting big game as a male rite of passage.

See also

• White meat

Food portal

References

1. Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989
2. Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
3. "Iowa State Animal Science". Retrieved 2009-09-16.
4. "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
5. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet, September 1990, http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf
6. The Nutrition Reporter newsletter, Alpha-Lipoic Acid: Quite Possibly the "Universal" Antioxidant, July 1996, http://www.thenutritionreporter.com/Alpha-Lipoic.html
7. http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers
8. Harvard School of Public Health, Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat, 2008, http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html
9. "Inside the Pyramid". United States Department of Agriculture. 2005. Archived from the original on 2005-08-01.
10. ^ European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (7 March 2013). "Meat consumption and mortality – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". BMC Medicine. 11:63. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-63. Retrieved March 7, 2013. The results of our analysis support a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
11. "Eating processed meats, but not unprocessed red meats, may raise risk of heart disease and diabetes", Harvard School of Public Health 2010 press release
12. ^ "Bowel cancer risk factors". Cancer Research UK. 17 December 2013. Retrieved September 2014. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
13. http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/?p=recommendation_05
14. Xue XJ, Gao Q, Qiao JH, Zhang J, Xu CP, Liu J (2014). "Red and processed meat consumption and the risk of lung cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 33 published studies". Int J Clin Exp Med (Meta-analysis). 7 (6): 1542–53. PMC 4100964. PMID 25035778.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
15. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-9722522-2-5.
16. Song P, Lu M, Yin Q; et al. (2014). "Red meat consumption and stomach cancer risk: a meta-analysis". J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. (Meta-analysis). 140 (6): 979–92. doi:10.1007/s00432-014-1637-z. PMID 24682372. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
17. Ferrís J, Berbel O, Alonso-López J, Garcia J, Ortega JA (2013). "Environmental non-occupational risk factors associated with bladder cancer". Actas Urol Esp (Review). 37 (9): 579–86. doi:10.1016/j.acuro.2013.02.004. PMID 23618510. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
18. Alexander DD, Morimoto LM, Mink PJ, Cushing CA (2010). "A review and meta-analysis of red and processed meat consumption and breast cancer". Nutr Res Rev (Review & meta-analysis). 23 (2): 349–65. doi:10.1017/S0954422410000235. PMID 21110906. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
19. Alexander DD, Mink PJ, Cushing CA, Sceurman B (2010). "A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat intake and prostate cancer". Nutr J (Review & meta-analysis). 9: 50. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-9-50. PMC 2987772. PMID 21044319.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
20. Menotti A, Kromhout D, Blackburn H, Fidanza F, Buzina R, Nissinen A, for the Seven Countries Study Research Group (1999). Food intake patterns and 25-year mortality from coronary heart disease: Cross-cultural correlations in the Seven Countries Study. Eur J Epidemiol 15, 507–515.
21. Fung, T. T. et al. “Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women.” Stroke 35.9 (2004): 2014.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fraser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. Oh, Sun Min et al. “Association between meat consumption and carotid intima-media thickness in Korean adults with metabolic syndrome.” Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health = Yebang Ŭihakhoe Chi 43.6 (2010): 486–495
24. Kontogianni, M. D. et al. “Relationship between meat intake and the development of acute coronary syndromes: the CARDIO2000 case–control study.” European journal of clinical nutrition 62.2 (2007): 171–177.
25. Zyriax BC, Boeing H, Windler E (2005). Nutrition is sometimes thought to be a powerful independent risk factor for coronary heart disease in women-The CORA study: a population-based case–control study. Eur J Clin Nutr 59, 1201–1207.
26. Micha, R.; Wallace, S. K.; Mozaffarian, D. (1 June 2010). "Red and Processed Meat Consumption and Risk of Incident Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Circulation. 121 (21): 2271–2283. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
27. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2010-releases/processed-meats-unprocessed-heart-disease-diabetes.html
28. Gotto AM, LaRosa JC, Hunninghake D, Grundy SM, Wilson PW, Clarkson TB et al. (1990). The cholesterol facts. A summary relating dietary fats, serum cholesterol and coronary heart disease. Circulation 81, 1721–1733.
29. Leaf A, Weber PC (1988). Cardiovascular effects of n-3 fatty acids. N Engl J Med 318, 549–557.
30. Malaviarachchi D, Veugelers PJ, Yip AM, MacLean DR (2002). Dietary iron as a risk factor for myocardial infarction. Public health considerations for Nova Scotia. Can J Public Health 93, 267–270.
31. Verhoef P, Stampfer MJ, Buring JE, Gaziano JM, Allen RH, Stabler SP et al. (1996). Homocysteine metabolism and risk of myocardial infarction: relation with vitamins B6 and B12 and folate. Am J Epidemiol 143, 845–859.
32. "New Health Culprit Carnitine Found in Red Meat". The Wall Street Journal. 2013-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-07.
33. "It's Not Just the Fat: There's Another Way Red Meat May Harm the Heart". Time Magazine. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
34. "Culprit in Heart Disease Goes Beyond Meat's Fat". The New York Times. 2013-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
35. "Chemical in Red Meat Linked to Heart Disease". Voice of America. 2013-04-09. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
36. "Carnitine chemical, not fat, may explain link between red meat and heart disease". CBS News. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
37. "Red meat linked to heart disease". NBC News. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
38. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602713, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602713 instead.
39. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 6720674, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=6720674 instead.
40. Science Daily, Study Shows Lean Red Meat Can Play A Role In Low-Fat Diet, 1999, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990702075933.htm
41. Davidson MH, Hunninghake D, Maki KC, Kwiterovich PO, Kafonek S (June 1999). "Comparison of the effects of lean red meat vs lean white meat on serum lipid levels among free-living persons with hypercholesterolemia: a long-term, randomized clinical trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 159 (12): 1331–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.159.12.1331. PMID 10386509.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
42. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 19307518, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=19307518 instead.
43. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 19752416, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=19752416 instead.
44. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 2621022, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=2621022 instead.
45. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 11682365, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=11682365 instead.
46. Song, Y. et al. “A prospective study of red meat consumption and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and elderly women.” Diabetes Care 27.9 (2004): 2108.
47. Fung, T. T. et al. “Dietary patterns, meat intake, and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women.” Archives of internal medicine 164.20 (2004): 2235.
48. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.2337/diacare.25.3.417, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.2337/diacare.25.3.417 instead.
49. de Mello, V. D. F. et al. “Withdrawal of red meat from the usual diet reduces albuminuria and improves serum fatty acid profile in type 2 diabetes patients with macroalbuminuria.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83.5 (2006): 1032.
50. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.2337/diacare.25.4.645, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.2337/diacare.25.4.645 instead.
51. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 11508264, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=11508264 instead.
52. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1093/ije/19.4.953, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1093/ije/19.4.953 instead.
53. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/s00125-003-1220-7, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/s00125-003-1220-7 instead.
54. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.3945/ajcn.111.018978 instead.
55. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/ijo.2010.254, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/ijo.2010.254 instead.
56. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 9622343, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=9622343 instead.
57. Schulze, M. B. et al. “Dietary Patterns and Changes in Body Weight in Women.” Obesity 14.8 (2006): 1444–1453.
58. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 1381044, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=1381044 instead.
59. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 16469996, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=16469996 instead.
60. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.45, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/ijo.2009.45 instead.
61. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/ijo.2010.1, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/ijo.2010.1 instead.
62. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.203;, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/ijo.2009.203; instead.
63. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.179, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/ijo.2009.179 instead.
64. Pattison, D. J. et al. “Dietary risk factors for the development of inflammatory polyarthritis: evidence for a role of high level of red meat consumption.” Arthritis & Rheumatism 50.12 (2004): 3804–3812.
65. "Real Men Eat Meat". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.

External links

v t e Meat
Poultry	Cassowary Rooster Chicken Duck Emu Goose Ostrich Pigeon Quail Rhea Turkey
Livestock	Alpaca Beef Beefalo Bison Buffalo Camel Cat Goat Dog Donkey Snails Frog Guinea pig Horse Lamb and mutton Llama Pork Veal Yak Żubroń
Game	Alligator Bat Bear Bushmeat Boar Crocodile Elephant Fox Iguana Kangaroo Monkey Mouse Pangolin Rat Hare Rabbit Snake Turtle Venison Dog Wolf
Fish	Anchovy Basa Bass Carp Catfish Cod Crappie Eel Flounder Grouper Haddock Halibut Herring Kingfish Mackerel Mahi Mahi Marlin Milkfish Orange roughy Pacific saury Perch Pike Pollock Salmon Sardine Shark Sole Swai Swordfish Tilapia Trout Tuna Walleye
Shellfish and other seafood	Abalone Calamari Chiton Clam Crab Crayfish Dolphin Lobster Mussel Octopus Oyster Scallop Seal Shrimp/prawn Sea cucumber Sea urchin Whale Sea squirt Jellyfish
Insects	Ants Black soldier fly maggots Cicada Crickets Flour Grasshoppers (locust) Mealworm Mezcal worm Silkworm Mopane worm Palm grub
Cuts and preparation	Aged Bacon Barbecued Biltong Braised Burger Charcuterie Chop Confit Corned Cured Cutlet Dried Dum Fermented Fillet/supreme Forcemeat Cretons Pâté Fried Frozen Ground Ham Jerky Kebab Kidney Liver Luncheon meat Marinated Meatball Meatloaf Offal Pickled Pemmican Poached Potted Rillettes Roasted Salt-cured Salumi Sausage Smoked Steak Stewed Tandoor Tartare
List articles	Meat dishes Beef Chicken Fish Goat Lamb Pork Ham Seafood Veal Steaks Meatball Smoked foods Sausage Other Countries by meat consumption Countries by meat production Food and drink prohibitions Meat substitutes
Ethics and psychology	Ethics of eating meat Carnism Animal rights Psychology of eating meat Meat paradox
Alternatives	Vegetarianism Semi-vegetarianism Pescetarianism Pollotarianism Plant-based diet Meat alternative Veganism
Meat science	Beef hormone controversy Drip loss Feed conversion ratio Preservation Tenderness Water holding capacity
Meat industry	Broker Branch house Butcher Cutter Environmental impact Factory farming Jobber Packing Slaughter Slaughterhouse
Related subjects	Arachnophagy Cannibalism Case-ready meat Meat diaper Cultured meat Entomophagy Marbled Artificial Mystery meat Offal Non-vegetarian food in India Pink slime Raw meat Red meat Roadkill cuisine Warmed-over flavor White meat
Food portal  Category: Meat

• Meat