| Revision as of 04:26, 27 October 2014 editThibbs (talk | contribs)28,090 edits No it doesn't. The temporal sense of "while" gives an incorrect meaning. The correct meaning is concessive so we use "although" or "whereas". Undid revision 631269183 by Muscat Hoe (talk)← Previous edit | Revision as of 06:34, 27 October 2014 edit undo71.162.231.110 (talk) ←Replaced content with 'ACTUALLY IT'S ABOUT ETHICS IN GAMES JOURNALISM.'Tag: blankingNext edit → | ||
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| ACTUALLY IT'S ABOUT ETHICS IN GAMES JOURNALISM. | |||
| {{about|a type of ant|the 2014 video game culture controversy|Gamergate controversy}} | |||
| ] | |||
| A '''gamergate''' (pronounced {{IPA-en|ˈɡæmərˌɡeɪt|}}) is a reproductively viable female ] that is able to reproduce with mature males when the ] is lacking a ]. Most commonly occurring within the primitive species of the ], gamergate females differ from their fellow workers by a combination of elevated fecundity and aggression-related mutilation of competitors' secondary sexual characteristics. Subsequent to their first mating event, however, aggression is no longer needed as females secrete chemical signals that lead the workers to accept their role as reproducers for the colony. | |||
| Gamergates exist in colonies with winged and ] queens as well as singly in monogynous colonies and alongside other reproductively viable gamergates in polygynous colonies. Most gamergate species are solitary generalist foragers living in arid environments. | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| The term "gamergate" derives from the Greek words {{lang|grc|γάμος}} (''gámos'') and {{lang|grc|ἐργάτης}} (''ergátēs'') and means "married worker." It was coined in 1983 by geneticist ]<ref name=peeters84/> and was first used in scientific literature by entomologists Christian Peeters and Robin Crewe in a 1984 paper published in '']''.<ref name=veron/> The definition typically found in entomological dictionaries is "mated, egg-laying worker,"<ref name=barrows/><ref name=gordh/> and is drawn from the glossary of ] and ]'s 1990 book, '']''.<ref name=barrows/> | |||
| ==Overview== | |||
| There exist between one hundred and two hundred different species of queenless ants (roughly 1% of all ants), most of which fall within the ]. Whereas female workers in colonies with a queen are ] incapable of mating, in gamergate societies a single reproductive worker and sometimes a cadre of dominant female workers have active ovaries.<ref name=noel/> Gamergate lifespan is short compared to queens in queenright colonies, but gamergates can be replaced by other dominant workers in the colony without risking colony survival. Reproductive investment in gamergate females is thus optimized because non-differentiated gamergates (i.e. reproductively inactive workers) function as laborers.<ref name=choe/> | |||
| ===Caste structure=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Within gamergate colonies all females are born reproductively viable and thus represent potential gamergates. Prior to differentiation as a gamergate, a dominant female worker must physically inhibit its sisters. For example in the case of ''Diacamma australe'', the first females to reach maturity will clip off the thoracic gemmae of their sisters. This mutilation greatly reduces the attractiveness of the female as a mate. Thereafter persistent domination of worker females by gamergates via physical aggression all but ensure that they will not produce male offspring.<ref name=bourke/> In ''Diacamma nilgiri'' gamergates use dominance interactions to monopolize reproduction without mutilation of sister workers.<ref name=karnik/> The same is true for ''Streblognathus peetersi'' which engage in non-injurious aggression "games" to determine dominance.<ref name=veron/> For all gamergate species, the act of mating eliminates the need to physically dominate female workers. Instead newly produced pheromones or signaling chemicals ensure that workers remain nonreproductive. Although it is unknown to what degree these chemicals act as pheromones or as signals, support for the signaling hypothesis can be found in the loss of gamergate reproductive inhibition of workers as the gamergate grows older and her fecundity diminishes.<ref name=bourke/> | |||
| When a reproductive gamergate dies, it is replaced by a former dominant worker who becomes a new gamergate. New gamergates often emerge from the female cohort closest to maturity at the time of death of the previous gamergate, but in some cases this event triggers adult female workers to differentiate directly to gamergates. For example, when a queen dies in a '']'' colony, workers of the colony will begin to fight for dominance to become the next queen and produce the next eggs.<ref name=gorman/> Because reproductively inactive workers are able to become reproductive again after the death of the gamergate, some gamergate species can be considered ] rather than truly ]s.<ref name=crespi/> | |||
| In colonies with queens, gamergates, and workers, gamergates occupy an intermediate caste.<ref name=noel/> Research on ] species displaying gamergate social structures has found that there is a fecundity-based hierarchy within the gamergate caste as well. In a study on '']'' sp., it was found that higher-ranked gamergates had more fully developed ]s than low-ranked gamergates. The near absence of sterile gamergates suggests to researchers that particularly low-ranked gamergates may be expelled from their colonies.<ref name=ito/> A three-tiered gamergate hierarchy also occurs within ''Streblognathus peetersi'' with only alpha-gamergates reproducing while beta- and gamma-gamergates await a chance to reproduce when an alpha-gamergate has lost her fecundity or died.<ref name=veron/> Challenges to top-ranked gamergates from workers of the lower-hierarchies are risky for the challenger because gamergates of species like '']'' may mark the challenger by stinging her with special chemicals only produced by the dominant gamergate. These chemicals signal other workers to immobilize the challenger by biting her appendages and holding her for up to a few days until the threat has passed.<ref name=monnin/> | |||
| The role that the dominated worker plays in selection of reproductive females is seen in the expulsion of infertile gamergates in ''Amblyopone'' colonies,<ref name=ito/> and it is even more apparent in ''Dinoponera quadriceps'' where workers may choose to ignore the chemical marker applied by the dominant gamergate. If the dominant gamergate is less reproductively fit than the challenger, workers may instead bite the appendages of the gamergate and hold her immobilized allowing a more fecund challenger to establish herself as the new alpha-gamergate. By playing a part in the selection of gamergates, dominated workers are able to increase their indirect reproduction.<ref name=noel/> | |||
| ===Social structure variation and ecology=== | |||
| There is variation within the social structure of ant colonies with a gamergate caste. Some species such as ''Harpegnathos saltator'',<ref name=peeters95/> '']'' spp., ''Gnamptogynes menadensis'', and ''Rhytidoponera confusa'' have a winged alate queen caste, a gamergate caste, and a non-reproductive worker caste.<ref name=peeters01/> Some species that normally have a queen caste have been shown to persist for long periods of time by relying on the gamergate caste. For example, a colony of '']'' in 1998 was collected and lasted three years reproducing without a queen ant.<ref name=dietemann/> | |||
| Queenless species with only gamergates and workers may have a ] structure with a single gamergate female reproducing for the entire colony like a queen or they may have a ] structure with multiple reproductive gamergates laying ] eggs. Examples of monogynous queenless species include ''Pachycondyla krugeri'', ''P. sublaevis'', ''Diacamma australe'', ''D. rugosum'', ''Platythyrea lamellosa'', and ''Streblognathus aethiopicus'' among others.<ref name=peeters91/> For monogynous gamergates, social regulation is based on morphometry (sexual attractiveness) and fecundity (ovarian oogenesis). Examples of polygynous queenless species include ''Ophthalmopone berthoudi'', ''O. hottentota'', ''Dinoponera quadriceps'', and all known queenless species of ''Rhytidoponera'' spp.<ref name=peeters91/> In the queenless '']'' (junior synonym of '']''), foreign males visit underground nests to mate with the polygynous gamergate workers.<ref name=antweb-pachycondyla/> | |||
| Yet other systems exist for example in ''Pachycondyla'' spp. where gamergates and ]s share a colony with workers.<ref name=tebeau/> | |||
| Ecologically, gamergate species from different tribes and genera often tend to share certain characteristics. Most gamergate species are solitary generalist foragers living in arid environments.<ref name=choe/> Like ergatoid systems, the evolution of gamergate social structure is hypothesized to be a response to frequent colonial fission events such as periodic flooding or changes in microclimate such as might occur in harsh arid climates. Myrmecologists Christian Peeters and Fuminori Ito have also suggested that "the evolution of gamergate reproduction appears strongly associated with the adaptive benefits of secondary polygyny (e.g. increased colony lifespan and resource inheritance), and it is the preferred option in species having workers able to reproduce sexually."<ref name=peeters01/> | |||
| ==Classification dispute== | |||
| The utility of "gamergate" as a morphological designation is not without critics. Within the field of ] it is a matter of dispute whether ] should be defined primarily by reproductive role or by physical morphology. Notably, Alfred Buschinger has argued that the term "worker" should be applied only to those ants who make up the non-reproductive caste and "queen" should be applied only to reproductively viable female ants regardless of their physical appearance. Hölldobler and Wilson suggest that the two positions can be semantically resolved and that the most fruitful approach would be to keep classification "somewhat loose, incorporating either anatomy or roles in a manner that maximizes convenience, precision, and clarity of expression."<ref name=holldobler/> | |||
| ==Genera with gamergates== | |||
| This list may be incomplete and may require expansion: | |||
| *Poneromorph subfamilies | |||
| **Amblyoponinae | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=ito/> | |||
| **Ectatomminae | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=peeters87/> | |||
| **Ponerinae | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=antweb-diacamma/> | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=haskins/> | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=peeters00/> | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=schmidt/> | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=peeters85/>/'']''<ref name=antweb-pachycondyla/> | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=schilder/> | |||
| ***'']''<ref name=antweb-streblognathus/> | |||
| *Myrmicinae | |||
| ::*'']''<ref name=dietemann/> | |||
| ::*'']''. Note: Although the asexual ''Pristomyrmex'' females may technically meet the "gamergate" definition, Hölldobler and Wilson argue that it stretches the definition beyond its useful limits when applied to species practicing ].<ref name=holldobler/> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em|refs= | |||
| <ref name=antweb-diacamma>{{cite web |url=http://www.antweb.org/description.do?name=Diacamma&rank=genus&project=allantwebants |title= Genus: ''Diacamma'' |date= |website=antweb.org |publisher=] |accessdate=12 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=antweb-pachycondyla>{{cite web |url=http://www.antweb.org/description.do?genus=pachycondyla&species=berthoudi&rank=species&project=allantwebants |title= Species: ''Pachycondyla berthoudi'' |date= |website=antweb.org |publisher=] |accessdate=12 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=antweb-streblognathus>{{cite web |url=http://www.antweb.org/description.do?subfamily=ponerinae&genus=streblognathus&rank=genus&project=allantwebants|title= Genus: ''Streblognathus'' |date= |website=antweb.org |publisher=] |accessdate=12 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=barrows>{{cite book |last= Barrows|first= Edward M.|date= 2011|title= Animal Behavior Desk Reference: A Dictionary of Animal Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution|edition= Third|chapter= Caste - Gamergate|location= |publisher= CRC Press|page= 75|isbn= 9781439836514}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=bourke>{{cite book |last= Bourke|first= Andrew F. G.|date= 1995|title= Social Evolution in Ants: Monographs in behavior and ecology|chapter= 7 - Kin Conflict: Reproduction (Part 2 - Queen Policing, Queen Control, and Queen Signaling)|location= |publisher= ]|pages= 239–240|isbn= 9780691044262}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=choe>{{cite book |last1= Choe|first1= Jae C.|last2= Crespi|first2= Bernard J.|date= 1997|title= The Evolution of Social Behaviour in Insects and Arachnids|chapter= Morphologically 'Primitive' Ants|location= |publisher= ]|page= 385|isbn= 9780521589772}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=crespi>{{cite book |last= Crespi|first= Bernard J.|editor-last= Martins|editor-first= Emília P.|date= 1996|title= Phylogenies and the Comparative Method in Animal Behavior|chapter= 9 - Comparative Analysis of the Origins and Losses of Eusociality: Causal Mosaics and Historical Uniqueness (Part 6 - Formicidae)|location= |publisher= ]|page= 272|isbn= 9780195092103}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=dietemann>{{cite journal|last1= Dietemann|first1= V.|last2= Peeters|first2= C|last3= Hölldobler|first3= B.|authorlink3= Bert Hölldobler|date= 2004|title= Gamergates in the Australian ant subfamily Myrmeciinae |journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0028-1042|volume= 91|issue= 9|pages= 432–435}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=gordh>{{cite book |last= Gordh|first= Gordon|authorlink= Gordon Gordh|date= 2011|title= A Dictionary of Entomology|chapter= Gamergate|location= |publisher= ]|page= 608|isbn= 9781845935429}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=gorman>{{cite news|last1= Gorman|first1= James|title= The Ant Queen Is Dead. Let the Battles Begin|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/27/science/the-ant-queen-is-dead-let-the-battles-begin.html|accessdate= 12 August 2014|publisher= ]|issn= 0362-4331|date= 27 May 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=haskins>{{cite journal|last1= Haskins|first1= Caryl Parker|authorlink1= Caryl Parker Haskins|last2= Zahl|first2= P. A.|date= 1971|title= The reproductive pattern of Dinoponera grandis Roger (Hymenoptera, Ponerinae) with notes on the ethology of the species|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0033-2615|volume= 78|issue= |pages= 1–11|doi= }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=holldobler>{{cite book |last1= Hölldobler|first1= Bert|authorlink1= Bert Hölldobler|last2= Wilson|first2= E. O.|authorlink2= E. O. Wilson|date= 1990|title= ]|chapter= Caste and Division of Labor|location= |publisher= ]|pages= 301 & 305|isbn= 9780674040755}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=ito>{{cite journal |last= Ito|first= Fuminori|date= 1993|title= Social organization in a primitive ponerine ant: queenless reproduction, dominance hierarchy and functional polygyny in Amblyopone sp. (reclinata group) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae)|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0022-2933|volume= 27|issue= 6|pages= 1315–1324|doi= 10.1080/00222939300770751}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=karnik>{{cite journal |last= Karnik|first= Nutan|last2= Channaveerappa|first2= H.|last3= Ranganath|first3= H. A.|last4= Gadagkar|first4= Raghavendra|authorlink4= Raghavendra Gadagkar|date= 2010|title= Karyotype instability in the ponerine ant genus ''Diacamma''|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0022-1333|volume= 89|issue= 2|pages= 173–82|doi= 10.1007/s12041-010-0023-0}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=monnin>{{cite journal |last= Monnin|first= Thibaud|last2= Ratnieks|first2= Francis L. W.|last3= Jones|first3= Graeme R.|last4= Beard|last4= Richard|date= 5 September 2002|title= Pretender punishment induced by chemical signalling in a queenless ant|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0028-0836|volume= 419|issue= 6902|pages= 61–65|doi= 10.1038/nature00932}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=noel>{{cite press release |last= Noël|first= Carine|date= 6 September 2002|title= How queenless ants regulate their conflicts|url= http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/en/pres/compress/fourmis2.htm|location= Paris|publisher= ]|accessdate=2014-09-10}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters84>{{cite journal |last= Peeters|first= Christian|last2= Crewe|first2= Robin|date= 1984|title= Insemination Controls the Reproductive Division of Labour in a Ponerine Ant|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0028-1042|volume= 71|issue= 1|pages= 50–51|doi= 10.1007/BF00365989}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters85>{{cite journal |last= Peeters|first= Christian|last2= Crewe|first2= Robin M.|date= 1985|title= Worker reproduction in the ponerine ant Ophthalmopone berthoudi: an alternative form of eusocial organization|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0340-5443|volume= 18|issue= 1|pages= 29–37|doi= 10.1007/BF00299235}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters87>{{cite journal |last= Peeters|first= Christian P.|date= 1987|title= The Reproductive Division of Labour in the Queenless Ponerine Ant Rhytidoponera sp. 12|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0020-1812|volume= 34|issue= 2|pages= 75–86|doi= 10.1007/BF02223826}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters91>{{cite book|last= Peeters|first = Christian P.|editor1-last= Veeresh|editor1-first= G. K.|editor2-last= Mallik|editor2-first= B.|title= Social Insects and the Environment: Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of IUSSI, 1990 (International Union for the Study of Social Insects)|date= 1991|publisher= Brill Academic Pub|isbn= 978-9004093164|page= 234|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=ZsMUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA234|accessdate= 12 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters95>{{cite journal |last= Peeters|first= Christian|last2= Hölldobler|first2= Bert|authorlink2= Bert Hölldobler|date= November 1995|title= Reproductive cooperation between queens and their mated workers: The complex life history of an ant with a valuable nest|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0027-8424|volume= 92|issue= 24|pages= 10977–10979|doi= 10.1073/pnas.92.24.10977}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters00>{{cite journal |last= Peeters|first= Christian|last2= Hölldobler|first2= Bert|authorlink2= Bert Hölldobler|date= 2000|title= Sexual reproduction by both queens and workers in the ponerine ant ''Harpegnathos saltator''|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0020-1812|volume= 47|issue= 4|pages= 325–332|doi= 10.1007/PL00001724}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=peeters01>{{cite journal |last= Peeters|first= Christian|last2= Ito|first2= Fuminori|date= 2001|title= Colony Dispersal and the Evolution of Queen Morphology in Social Hymenoptera|journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0066-4170|volume= 46|issue= |pages= 601–30|doi= 10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.601}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=schilder>{{cite journal |last1= Schilder|first1= Klaus|last2= Heinze|first2= Jürgen|last3= Hölldobler|first3= Bert|authorlink3= Bert Hölldobler|date= January 1999|title= Colony structure and reproduction in the thelytokous parthenogenetic ant ''Platythyrea punctata'' (F. Smith) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) |journal= ]|publisher= ]|issn= 0020-1812|volume= 46|issue= 2|pages= 150–158|doi= 10.1007/s000400050126}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=schmidt>{{cite book|last1= Schmidt|first1= Chris A.|title= Molecular phylogenetics and taxonomic revision of ponerine ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae)|date= 2011|publisher= ProQuest, UMI Dissertation Publishing|isbn= 978-1244009004|page= 142|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=Sby7w0Hec6EC&pg=PA142|accessdate= 12 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=tebeau>{{Cite thesis |last= Tebeau|first= Andrew|title= Reproductive strategies and colony relatedness in the invasive ponerine and ''Pachycondyla chinensis'' (Emery)|type= |pages= 18–19|url= |year= 2009|publisher= ]. Republished by ''All Theses'' (Paper 626)|accessdate= }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=veron>{{cite journal |last= Véron|first= Géraldine|date= February 2005|title= La reine des fourmis couronnée au combat|url= http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/journal/1965.htm|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20050210024631/http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/journal/1965.htm|archivedate=10 February 2005|journal= Le Journal du CNRS|publisher= ]|issn= 0994-7647|volume= |issue= 181|pages= 50–51|doi= |accessdate=9 September 2014}}</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 06:34, 27 October 2014
ACTUALLY IT'S ABOUT ETHICS IN GAMES JOURNALISM.