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{{pp-protected|reason=Persistent ]|expiry=4 July 2015|small=yes}} {{pp-protected|reason=Persistent ]|expiry=4 July 2015|small=yes}}
] all ]ians, get the hell out of my country". This was during a 1979 ] student protest of the ''']'''.]]
{{Discrimination sidebar}} {{Discrimination sidebar}}
"'''Anti-Iranian sentiment'''" (]: احساسات ضدایرانی) refers to feelings and expression of hostility, hatred, ], or ] towards ] and its culture, and towards persons based on their association with Iran and Iranian culture. Its opposite is ]. '''Anti-Iranian sentiment''' (]: احساسات ضدایرانی) or '''Iranophobia'''<ref name="RamIranophobia">Ram, H. (2009): ''Iranophobia: The Logic of an Israeli Obsession'', Stanford University Press, ISBN 9780804760676</ref> refers to feelings and expression of hostility, hatred, ], or ] towards ] and its culture, and towards persons based on their association with Iran and Iranian culture. Its opposite is ].


Historically, prejudice against ] was prominent in the ], particularly on the part of ] following the ].{{cn|date=June 2015}} Historically, prejudice against ] was prominent in the ], particularly on the part of ] following the ]. More recently, anti-Iranian sentiment has been prominent also in the ] and in international media.<ref name="RamIranophobia"/>


==In the Arab world== ==In the Arab world==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px black; float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ style="background:#f99;" colspan="2"|Results of 2014 ] poll.<br />Views of Iran's influence by country<ref>{{cite web |url=http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/country-rating-poll.pdf |title=BBC World Service poll |publisher=BBC |date=3 June 2014}}</ref><br>Sorted by Pos-Neg
!Country polled !! Positive !! Negative !! Neutral !! Pos-Neg
|-
| {{flagcountry|USA}} || 5 || 88 || 7 || <span style="color:red;">-83</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Israel}} || 2 || 84 || 14 || <span style="color:red;">-82</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Germany}} || 4 || 85 || 11 || <span style="color:red;">-81</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Canada}} || 6 || 83 || 11 || <span style="color:red;">-77</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|UK}} || 7 || 83 || 10 || <span style="color:red;">-76</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|France}} || 8 || 84 || 8 || <span style="color:red;">-76</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Spain}} || 6 || 78 || 16 || <span style="color:red;">-72</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Australia}} || 11 || 78 || 11 || <span style="color:red;">-67</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|South Korea}} || 12 || 74 || 14 || <span style="color:red;">-62</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Japan}} || 5 || 53 || 42 || <span style="color:red;">-48</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Kenya}} || 16 || 62 || 22 || <span style="color:red;">-46</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Russia}} || 11 || 49 || 40 || <span style="color:red;">-38</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Mexico}} || 13 || 49 || 38 || <span style="color:red;">-36</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Peru}} || 13 || 46 || 41 || <span style="color:red;">-33</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Nigeria}} || 29 || 54 || 17 || <span style="color:red;">-25</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|China}} || 18 || 40 || 42 || <span style="color:red;">-22</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Turkey}} || 24 || 46 || 30 || <span style="color:red;">-22</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|India}} || 22 || 37 || 41 || <span style="color:red;">-15</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Ghana}} || 37 || 41 || 22 || <span style="color:red;">-4</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Indonesia}} || 40 || 35 || 25 || 5
|-
| {{flagcountry|Pakistan}} || 51 || 21 || 28 || 30
|-
|}
</div>
{{mainarticle|Iran–Arab relations}} {{mainarticle|Iran–Arab relations}}
==="Ajam"=== ==="Ajam"===
The word "]" is derived from the root A-J-M and refers to "unclear, vague and/or incomprehensible" as opposed to Arabi which means "clear, understandable, with perfect Arabic tongue".<ref>Al-Fairouzabadi; The Surrounding Ocian (Al Qamoos Al Muheet) ''in Arabic''</ref><ref>Ibn Manthoor; The Tounge of the Arabs (Lisan Al Arab) ''in Arabic''</ref><ref>Al-Bustani, P.; Surrounding the Surrounding (Muheet Al Muheet) ''in Arabic''</ref><ref>Abu Al-Azm, Abdul Ghani; The Rich (Al Ghani) ''in Arabic''</ref> The word "]" is derived from the root A-J-M and refers to "unclear, vague and/or incomprehensible" as opposed to Arabi which means "clear, understandable, with perfect Arabic tongue".<ref>Al-Fairouzabadi; The Surrounding Ocian (Al Qamoos Al Muheet) ''in Arabic''</ref><ref>Ibn Manthoor; The Tounge of the Arabs (Lisan Al Arab) ''in Arabic''</ref><ref>Al-Bustani, P.; Surrounding the Surrounding (Muheet Al Muheet) ''in Arabic''</ref><ref>Abu Al-Azm, Abdul Ghani; The Rich (Al Ghani) ''in Arabic''</ref>


Ajam came to mean "one who mumbles" (کند زبانان)<ref>], '''Arab und 'Agam''. Muhammedanische Studien I. Halle. 1889-1890. I p.&nbsp;101. tr. London 1967-1971, I, p.&nbsp;98] use of words with the root ''něm-'' ("mute") to refer to the ]) and came to be "applied especially to Persians".<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica, p. 700">''Encyclopædia Iranica]'', p. 700.</ref> To Persian eyes and in Persian sources, Ajam came to mean "one who mumbles" (کند زبانان)<ref>], ''Arab und 'Agam''. Muhammedanische Studien I. Halle. 1889-1890. I p.&nbsp;101. tr. London 1967-1971, I, p.&nbsp;98 ] use of words with the root ''něm-'' ("mute") to refer to the ]) and came to be "applied especially to Persians".<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica, p. 700">''Encyclopædia Iranica]'', p. 700.</ref> To Persian eyes and in Persian sources,


{{quote|The distinction of ''Arab'' and ''Ajam'' is already discernible in pre- and early Islamic literature Cf. the ''Ajam Temtemī''.|]|<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica, p. 700"/><ref>Goldziher. ''Muhammedanische Studien I'', p. 103. tr I, p. 99</ref>}} {{quote|The distinction of ''Arab'' and ''Ajam'' is already discernible in pre- and early Islamic literature Cf. the ''Ajam Temtemī''.|]|<ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica, p. 700"/><ref>Goldziher. ''Muhammedanische Studien I'', p. 103. tr I, p. 99</ref>}}
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The Umayyid Arabs are even reported to have prevented the mawali from having '']s'', as an Arab was only considered worthy of a ''kunya''.<ref>Jurji Zaydan, p. 228 (زیدان، جرجی، تاریخ تمدن اسلام ، ترجمه علی جواهرکلام، تهران: امیرکبیر ، چاپ نهم ، 137)</ref> They were required to pay taxes for not being an Arab: The Umayyid Arabs are even reported to have prevented the mawali from having '']s'', as an Arab was only considered worthy of a ''kunya''.<ref>Jurji Zaydan, p. 228 (زیدان، جرجی، تاریخ تمدن اسلام ، ترجمه علی جواهرکلام، تهران: امیرکبیر ، چاپ نهم ، 137)</ref> They were required to pay taxes for not being an Arab:


{{quote|During the early centuries of Islam when the Islamic empire was really an 'Arab kingdom', the Iranians, Central Asians and other non-Arab peoples who had converted to Islam in growing numbers as Mawali or 'clients' of an Arab lord or clan, had in practice acquired an inferior socio-economic and racial status compared to Arab Muslims, though the Mawali themselves fared better than the empire's non-Muslim subjects, the Ahl al-dhimma ('people of the book'). The Mawali, for instance, paid special taxes, often similar to the jizya (poll tax) and the kharaj (land tax) levied on the Zoroastrians and other non-Muslim subjects, taxes which were never paid by the Arab Muslims.|{{according to whom|date=June 2015}}|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID=101275|title=The Institute of Ismaili Studies - Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khurasan and Transoxania During Umayyad and Early 'Abbasid Times|work=iis.ac.uk}}</ref>}} {{quote|During the early centuries of Islam when the Islamic empire was really an 'Arab kingdom', the Iranians, Central Asians and other non-Arab peoples who had converted to Islam in growing numbers as Mawali or 'clients' of an Arab lord or clan, had in practice acquired an inferior socio-economic and racial status compared to Arab Muslims, though the Mawali themselves fared better than the empire's non-Muslim subjects, the Ahl al-dhimma ('people of the book'). The Mawali, for instance, paid special taxes, often similar to the jizya (poll tax) and the kharaj (land tax) levied on the Zoroastrians and other non-Muslim subjects, taxes which were never paid by the Arab Muslims.|{{according to whom|date=June 2015}}|<ref></ref>}}


====References in Persian literature==== ====References in Persian literature====
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====Iran–Iraq War==== ====Iran–Iraq War====
Early on in his career, Saddam Hussein and ] ideologues targeted the Arabs of southwest Iran in an endeavour to have them separate and join 'the Arab nation.' <ref name=autogenerated1>Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography by Efraim Karsh, Inari Rautsi, Dr Joseph M Stowell- P145</ref> Hussein made no effort to conceal ] in his war against Iran (which he called "the second Battle of al-Qādisiyyah).<ref name=autogenerated1 /> An intense campaign of propaganda during his reign meant that many school children were taught that Iran provoked Iraq into invading and that the invasion was fully justified.<ref>Con Coughlin. Saddam: His Rise and Fall, page 19. ISBN 978-0-06-050543-1: Quoted from Samir al-Khalil. Republic of Fear, 1989. University of California press. pg 17</ref> Early on in his career, Saddam Hussein and ] ideologues targeted the Arabs of southwest Iran in an endeavour to have them separate and join 'the Arab nation.' <ref name=autogenerated1>Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography by Efraim Karsh, Inari Rautsi, Dr Joseph M Stowell- P145</ref> Hussein made no effort to conceal ] in his war against Iran (which he called "the second ]).<ref name=autogenerated1 /> An intense campaign of propaganda during his reign meant that many school children were taught that Iran provoked Iraq into invading and that the invasion was fully justified.<ref>Con Coughlin. Saddam: His Rise and Fall, page 19. ISBN 978-0-06-050543-1: Quoted from Samir al-Khalil. Republic of Fear, 1989. University of California press. pg 17</ref>


On 2 April 1980, a half-year before the outbreak of the war, Saddam Hussein visited al-Mustansiriyyah University in Baghdad. By drawing parallels to the 7th-Century defeat of Persia in the ], he announced: On 2 April 1980, a half-year before the outbreak of the war, Saddam Hussein visited al-Mustansiriyyah University in Baghdad. By drawing parallels to the 7th-Century defeat of Persia in the ], he announced:
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==In the United States== ==In the United States==
] all ]ians, get the hell out of my country". This was during a 1979 ] student protest of the ''']'''.]]
{{See also|Iranian American|United States-Iran relations}}


<div style="font-size: 90%">
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px black; float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ style="background:#f99;" colspan="2"|Results of 2014 ] poll.<br />Views of Iran's influence by country<ref>{{cite web |url=http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/country-rating-poll.pdf |title=BBC World Service poll |publisher=BBC |date=3 June 2014}}</ref><br>Sorted by Pos-Neg
!Country polled !! Positive !! Negative !! Neutral !! Pos-Neg
|-
| {{flagcountry|USA}} || 5 || 88 || 7 || <span style="color:red;">-83</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Israel}} || 2 || 84 || 14 || <span style="color:red;">-82</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Germany}} || 4 || 85 || 11 || <span style="color:red;">-81</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Canada}} || 6 || 83 || 11 || <span style="color:red;">-77</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|UK}} || 7 || 83 || 10 || <span style="color:red;">-76</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|France}} || 8 || 84 || 8 || <span style="color:red;">-76</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Spain}} || 6 || 78 || 16 || <span style="color:red;">-72</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Australia}} || 11 || 78 || 11 || <span style="color:red;">-67</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|South Korea}} || 12 || 74 || 14 || <span style="color:red;">-62</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Japan}} || 5 || 53 || 42 || <span style="color:red;">-48</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Kenya}} || 16 || 62 || 22 || <span style="color:red;">-46</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Russia}} || 11 || 49 || 40 || <span style="color:red;">-38</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Mexico}} || 13 || 49 || 38 || <span style="color:red;">-36</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Peru}} || 13 || 46 || 41 || <span style="color:red;">-33</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Nigeria}} || 29 || 54 || 17 || <span style="color:red;">-25</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|China}} || 18 || 40 || 42 || <span style="color:red;">-22</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Turkey}} || 24 || 46 || 30 || <span style="color:red;">-22</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|India}} || 22 || 37 || 41 || <span style="color:red;">-15</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Ghana}} || 37 || 41 || 22 || <span style="color:red;">-4</span>
|-
| {{flagcountry|Indonesia}} || 40 || 35 || 25 || 5
|-
| {{flagcountry|Pakistan}} || 51 || 21 || 28 || 30
|-
|}
</div>
{{See also|Iranian American|United States-Iran relations}}
According to the ] (PAAIA), nearly half of Iranian Americans surveyed in 2008 by ] have themselves experienced or personally know another Iranian American who has experienced discrimination because of their ethnicity or country of origin. The most common types of discrimination reported are airport security, ], employment or business discrimination, ] and discrimination at the hands of immigration officials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/08/dec/1117.html|title=Survey of Iranian Americans: 84% Support Establishing U.S. Interest Section in Iran|publisher=|accessdate=8 February 2015}}</ref> According to the ] (PAAIA), nearly half of Iranian Americans surveyed in 2008 by ] have themselves experienced or personally know another Iranian American who has experienced discrimination because of their ethnicity or country of origin. The most common types of discrimination reported are airport security, ], employment or business discrimination, ] and discrimination at the hands of immigration officials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/08/dec/1117.html|title=Survey of Iranian Americans: 84% Support Establishing U.S. Interest Section in Iran|publisher=|accessdate=8 February 2015}}</ref>


The ] of the U.S. embassy in Tehran in November 1979 precipitated a wave of anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States, directed both against the ] and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mehdi|last=Bozorgmehr|title=No solidarity: Iranians in the U.S.|url=http://www.Iranian.com/Opinion/2001/May/Iranians/index.html#3a|work=The Iranian|date=2001-05-02|accessdate=2007-02-02| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070210193243/http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2001/May/Iranians/index.html| archivedate= 10 February 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The ] of the U.S. embassy in Tehran in November 1979 precipitated a wave of anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States, directed both against the ] and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mehdi|last=Bozorgmehr|title=No solidarity: Iranians in the U.S.|url=http://www.Iranian.com/Opinion/2001/May/Iranians/index.html#3a|work=The Iranian|date=2001-05-02|accessdate=2007-02-02| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070210193243/http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2001/May/Iranians/index.html| archivedate= 10 February 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>


=== Apple === ===Litigation===

In 2012, an Apple store in ] refused to sell an ] to an American citizen of Iranian background after hearing her speaking ] to a relative. An Apple store manager cited the U.S. trade sanctions which prohibits the sale of goods to Iran, however, in this case, the Apple store did not know anything besides her ethnicity. Another Iranian-American from ] reported similar treatment by the Apple store after trying to help an Iranian student purchase an ].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/19/apple-store-refuses-to-sell-ipad-to-iranian_n_1609734.html | work=Huffington Post | title=Apple Refuses To Sell iPad, iPhone To Iranians | date=2012-06-19 | first=Craig | last=Kanalley}}</ref>
*In 2009, ] & Co. agreed to pay $1.55 million to resolve a ] lawsuit accusing the securities firm of discriminating against an Iranian employee. The government accused the firm of refusing to promote Majid Borumand and later firing him on the basis of his national origin and religion.<ref name="iranian.com">http://www.iranian.com/main/node/52319 {{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref>

===Sanctions against Iranian scientists===

The ] has been creating obstacles for research of Iranian scientists, according to the 2004 ruling of the ], which tied their scientific work to trade embargo of Iran.{{cn|date=July 2015}}

===In the media and government===
Politically conservative commentator ] has referred to Iranians as "ragheads" (though she later on clarified that she was referring to the government figures, she would later come out in support of ] protesters in 2009)<ref>", 7 July 2008.</ref> and ] has called the Iranian people "rug merchants".

The '']'' recently{{when|date=June 2015}} ran a cartoon that portrayed Iran as a sewer with ]es crawling out of it.<ref>", National Iranian American Council.</ref>

In May 2005, ] broadcast a special program called ''Iran: The Nuclear Threat'', hosted by ]. Kaveh Afrasiab, an analyst and expert on Iran who once worked with Wallace at ], noted that the program "lacked the minutest evidence of objectivity, displaying instead piles of prejudice on top of prejudice reminding one of the Iraq weapons of mass destruction threat played up by the right-wing, sensationalist network during 2002 and early 2003, duping millions of American viewers about the authenticity of the Bush administration's allegations against the regime of ]".<ref name=Kaveh>{{cite news|last=Afrasiabi|first=Kaveh|title=U.S. Media and Iran's Nuclear Threat|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/GE11Ak01.html|newspaper=Asia Times Online|date=11 May 2005}}</ref>

In October 2007, ], a senior official at ], shocked several British MPs when she declared "I hate all Iranians".<ref>{{cite news|last=Walters|first=Simon|title=I Hate All Iranians, U.S. Aide Tells MPs|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-484762/I-hate-Iranians-US-aide-tells-MPs.html|newspaper=The Daily Mail|date=29 September 2007|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Limbert|first=John W.|title=Negotiating with Iran: Wrestling the Ghosts of History|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|page=188|year=2009|isbn=9781601270436}}</ref>

In 2009 ], a ] professor, warned about the dangers of allowing ] to get too close to power during the 2009 ] (AIPAC) conference:<ref>{{cite news|last=Disney|first=Patrick|title=Amanpour is Being Attacked Because She's Iranian|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/10/mar/1237.html|newspaper=Payvand News|date=26 March 2010}}</ref>
{{cquote|Iran can have behind the scenes leverage over ]s, many of whom occupy key positions in the ]s and are even being brought now into the administration...What this means is that we have to be extremely cautious about what we take away from ] communities when it comes to understanding Iran.}}

====Comic books====
Examples of the stereotyping of Iranians as terrorists and anti-West are found in ]s. ], a comic book writer and editor, notes in the postscript of '']'':

{{cquote|"these sagas (comic books) are more than just entertainments, at least to many readers; they are the post-industrial equivalent of folk tales and as such, they have gone pretty deeply into a lot of psyches."}}

In the story, Batman's ], the ] tries to sell ] extremists a ] before fleeing to Iran. The Joker then meets ] ] who appoints him as the formal ambassador to the ]. In this function, the Joker addresses the ], saying he and the "country's current leaders...have a lot in common", before attempting to lethally gas the assembly.<ref name="SHAHEEN">{{cite web |title=The Comic Book Arab|publisher=AMEU|work=The Link|url=http://www.ameu.org/page.asp?iid=142&aid=186&pg=1 |accessdate=May 25, 2008 |date=November–December 1991 |author=Shaheen, Jack}}</ref> The portrayal of Iran was later ]ned to the fictional Middle Eastern state of ] and the panel with the image of the Ayatollah removed. ] first appeared in the comic book '']'' as a 17-year-old Muslim boy from ] who witnesses the, ] led, invasion of his country. Outraged, he becomes the Middle East's counterpart to Captain America before he is finally killed by Captain America.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kincheloe|first1=Joe L.|last2=Steinberg|first2=Shirley R.|last3=Stonebanks|first3=Christopher Darius|title=Teaching Against Islamophobia|publisher=Peter Lang|page=101-102|year=2010|isbn=9781433103360}}</ref>


===Hollywood's depiction of Persians and Iranians=== ====Hollywood's depiction of Persians and Iranians====
Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s, Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has vilified Iranians as in <ref>''The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception''. Praeger, 1997; Greenwood, 1995.</ref> television programs such as '']'',<ref>''Los Angeles Times'': June 27, 2010.</ref> '']'', '']'' (1986), and<ref>, ''New York Times''.</ref> ''Escape From Iran: The Canadian Caper'' (1981), which was based on a true story.<ref>"", (1981) (TV), IMDB.</ref> Critics maintain that Hollywood's "tall walls of exclusion and discrimination have yet to crumble when it comes to the movie industry's persistent misrepresentation of Iranians and their ]".<ref>{{cite web Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s, Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has vilified Iranians as in <ref>''The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception''. Praeger, 1997; Greenwood, 1995.</ref> television programs such as '']'',<ref>''Los Angeles Times'': June 27, 2010.</ref> '']'', '']'' (1986), and<ref>, ''New York Times''.</ref> ''Escape From Iran: The Canadian Caper'' (1981), which was based on a true story.<ref>"", (1981) (TV), IMDB.</ref> Critics maintain that Hollywood's "tall walls of exclusion and discrimination have yet to crumble when it comes to the movie industry's persistent misrepresentation of Iranians and their ]".<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.campaigniran.org/casmii/index.php?q=node/1646 |url = http://www.campaigniran.org/casmii/index.php?q=node/1646
Line 164: Line 188:
|publisher = Asia Times|date = March 15, 2007}}</ref> |publisher = Asia Times|date = March 15, 2007}}</ref>


====''Not Without My Daughter''==== =====''Not Without My Daughter''=====
The 1991 film '']'' was criticized for its portrayal of Iranian society. Filmed in ], it was based on the ]-nominated autobiography by ]. In the book and film, an American woman (Mahmoody) traveled to Tehran with her young daughter to visit her Iranian-born family of her husband. Mahmoody's husband then undergoes a strange transformation in Iran, ranging from an educated and sophisticated citizen to an abusive, backwards peasant, eventually deciding that they will not return to the United States. Betty is told that she can divorce him and leave, but their daughter must stay in Tehran under ]. Ultimately, after 18 months in Iran, Betty and her daughter escape to the American embassy in Turkey. The 1991 film '']'' was criticized for its portrayal of Iranian society. Filmed in ], it was based on the ]-nominated autobiography by ]. In the book and film, an American woman (Mahmoody) traveled to Tehran with her young daughter to visit her Iranian-born family of her husband. Mahmoody's husband then undergoes a strange transformation in Iran, ranging from an educated and sophisticated citizen to an abusive, backwards peasant, eventually deciding that they will not return to the United States. Betty is told that she can divorce him and leave, but their daughter must stay in Tehran under ]. Ultimately, after 18 months in Iran, Betty and her daughter escape to the American embassy in Turkey.


Several Western critics, including ] of the '']'' and Caryn James of the '']'', criticized the film for stereotyping Iranians as misogynistic and fanatical. According to Ebert, the film depicts Islamic society "in shrill terms", where women are "willing or unwilling captives of their men", deprived of "what in the West would be considered basic ]". Furthermore, Ebert says, "No attempt is made—deliberately, I assume—to explain the Muslim point of view, except in rigid sets of commands and rote statements".<ref>{{cite news|last=Ebert|first=Roger|title=Not Without My Daughter|publisher=Chicago Sun Times|date=1991-01-11|url=http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19910111/REVIEWS/101110303/1023|accessdate=2007-03-20|authorlink=Roger Ebert}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=New York Times|last=James|first=Caryn|title=Embrace the Stereotype; Kiss the Movie Goodbye|date=1991-01-27|accessdate=2007-03-20|url=http://movies2.nytimes.com/mem/movies/review.html?res=9D0CE3DE1630F934A15752C0A967958260}}</ref> Ebert then contends, "If a movie of such a vitriolic and spiteful nature were to be made in America about any other ethnic group, it would be denounced as racist and prejudiced."<ref>Ebert, Roger. "Not Without My Daughter", '']'', January 11, 1991.</ref> Several Western critics, including ] of the '']'' and Caryn James of the '']'', criticized the film for stereotyping Iranians as misogynistic and fanatical. According to Ebert, the film depicts Islamic society "in shrill terms", where women are "willing or unwilling captives of their men", deprived of "what in the West would be considered basic ]". Furthermore, Ebert says, "No attempt is made—deliberately, I assume—to explain the Muslim point of view, except in rigid sets of commands and rote statements".<ref>{{cite news|last=Ebert|first=Roger|title=Not Without My Daughter|publisher=Chicago Sun Times|date=1991-01-11|url=http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19910111/REVIEWS/101110303/1023|accessdate=2007-03-20|authorlink=Roger Ebert}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=New York Times|last=James|first=Caryn|title=Embrace the Stereotype; Kiss the Movie Goodbye|date=1991-01-27|accessdate=2007-03-20|url=http://movies2.nytimes.com/mem/movies/review.html?res=9D0CE3DE1630F934A15752C0A967958260}}</ref> Ebert then contends,
{{cquote|If a movie of such a vitriolic and spiteful nature were to be made in America about any other ethnic group, it would be denounced as racist and prejudiced.<ref>Ebert, Roger. "Not Without My Daughter", '']'', January 11, 1991.</ref>}}


According to Jane Campbell, the film
According to Jane Campbell, the film "only serves to reinforce the media stereotype of Iranians as terrorists who, if not actively bombing public buildings or holding airline passengers hostage, are untrustworthy, irrational, cruel, and barbaric."<ref>{{cite book|last=Campbell |first=J. |title=Portrayals of Iranians in U.S. Motion Pictures|year= 1997|page= 180}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.Iranian.com/Opinion/Aug98/Media/index.html|title=THE IRANIAN: Features, Iranins in U.S. media, Yahya Kamalipour|work=iranian.com}}</ref>


{{cquote|...only serves to reinforce the media stereotype of Iranians as terrorists who, if not actively bombing public buildings or holding airline passengers hostage, are untrustworthy, irrational, cruel, and barbaric.<ref>Campbell, J. ''Portrayals of Iranians in U.S. Motion Pictures''. 1997. p. 180. See also .</ref>}}
The film was also criticized in Iran. A 2002 ] article claimed that the film " smears...against Iran" and "stereotyped Iranians as cruel characters and wife-beaters". In a Finnish documentary, ''Without My Daughter'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.netnative.com/news/02/nov/1078.html|title=Finnish documentary counters anti-Iran propaganda in US film|work=netnative.com}}</ref> film maker ] tells Mahmoody's husband's side of the story, showing Iranian eyewitnesses accusing the Hollywood film of spreading lies and "treasons". Alice Sharif, an American woman living with her Iranian husband in Tehran, accuses Mahmoody and the filmmakers of deliberately attempting to foment anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.netnative.com/news/02/nov/1078.html|title=Finnish documentary counters anti-Iran propaganda in US film|date=2002-11-22|publisher=Islamic Republic News Agency|format=reprint|accessdate=2007-03-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070220204740/http://www.netnative.com/news/02/nov/1078.html| archivedate= 20 February 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=]|url=http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117920473.html?categoryid=31&cs=1|title=Without My Daughter|last=Nesselson|first=Lisa|date=2003-04-10|accessdate=2007-03-20}}</ref>


The film was also criticized in Iran. A 2002 ] article claimed that the film " smears...against Iran" and "stereotyped Iranians as cruel characters and wife-beaters". In a Finnish documentary, ''Without My Daughter'',<ref></ref> film maker ] tells Mahmoody's husband's side of the story, showing Iranian eyewitnesses accusing the Hollywood film of spreading lies and "treasons". Alice Sharif, an American woman living with her Iranian husband in Tehran, accuses Mahmoody and the filmmakers of deliberately attempting to foment anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.netnative.com/news/02/nov/1078.html|title=Finnish documentary counters anti-Iran propaganda in US film|date=2002-11-22|publisher=Islamic Republic News Agency|format=reprint|accessdate=2007-03-20| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070220204740/http://www.netnative.com/news/02/nov/1078.html| archivedate= 20 February 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=]|url=http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117920473.html?categoryid=31&cs=1|title=Without My Daughter|last=Nesselson|first=Lisa|date=2003-04-10|accessdate=2007-03-20}}</ref>
====''Alexander''====

=====''Alexander''=====
The 2004 film '']'' by American director ] has been accused of negative and inaccurate portrayal of Persians.<ref>"", ''RadioFreeEurope''.</ref> The 2004 film '']'' by American director ] has been accused of negative and inaccurate portrayal of Persians.<ref>"", ''RadioFreeEurope''.</ref>


====''300''==== =====''300''=====
The 2007 film '']'', an ] of ]'s 1998 ], was criticized for its "racist"<ref>{{cite news |title=A racist gorefest |publisher=] |accessdate=2007-03-21 |url=http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/masoud_golsorkhi/2007/03/the_release_of_the_box.html | location=London | first=Masoud | last=Golsorkhi | date=2007-03-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070321231252/http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/masoud_golsorkhi/2007/03/the_release_of_the_box.html| archivedate= 21 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> portrayal of combatants in the Persian army at the ]. Reviewers in the United States and elsewhere "noted the political overtones of the West-against-Iran story line and the way Persians are depicted as ], sexually flamboyant and evil in contrast to the noble Greeks".<ref>{{cite news |last=Karimi |first=Nasser |publisher=] |format=reprint |title=Iranians Outraged by `300' Movie |url=http://film.guardian.co.uk/apnews/story/0,,-6478028,00.html |date=2007-03-13 |accessdate=2007-03-14 | location=London| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070317053547/http://film.guardian.co.uk/apnews/story/0,,-6478028,00.html| archivedate= 17 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> With bootleg versions of the film already available in ] with the film's international release and news of the film's surprising success at the U.S. ], it prompted widespread anger in Iran. ] of '']'' reported, "All of Tehran was outraged. Everywhere I went yesterday, the talk vibrated with indignation over the film".<ref name="300 v. 70m">{{cite news |last=Moaveni |first=Azadeh |publisher=] |title=''300'' Versus 70 Million Iranians |date=2007-03-13 |accessdate=2007-03-14 |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1598886,00.html?cnn=yes| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101637/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1598886,00.html?cnn=yes| archivedate= 16 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Newspapers in Iran featured headlines such as "Hollywood declares war on Iranians" and "300 AGAINST 70 MILLION" (Iran's population). '']'', an independent Iranian newspaper, said that "he film depicts Iranians as demons, without culture, feeling or humanity, who think of nothing except attacking other nations and killing people".<ref name="300 v. 70m"/> Four Iranian ] have called for Muslim countries to ban the film,<ref name="the guardian">{{cite news|last=Tait|first=Robert|publisher=]|date=2007-03-14|accessdate=2007-03-14|title=Iran accuses Hollywood of 'psychological warfare'|url=http://film.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,2033630,00.html | location=London| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070317054239/http://film.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,2033630,00.html| archivedate= 17 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> and a group of Iranian film makers submitted a letter of protest to ] regarding the film's alleged misrepresentation of Iranian history and culture.<ref>See '']'' newspaper, accessed March 15, 2007 </ref> Iran's cultural advisor to president ] has called the film an "American attempt for ] against Iran".<ref>{{cite news |title=واكنش مشاور رئیس جمهور به فیلم 300 |publisher=Sharif News |accessdate=2007-03-21 |url=http://sharifnews.com/?22728| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101445/http://www.sharifnews.com/?22728| archivedate= 16 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The 2007 film '']'', an ] of ]'s 1998 ], was criticized for its "racist"<ref>{{cite news |title=A racist gorefest |publisher=] |accessdate=2007-03-21 |url=http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/masoud_golsorkhi/2007/03/the_release_of_the_box.html | location=London | first=Masoud | last=Golsorkhi | date=2007-03-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070321231252/http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/masoud_golsorkhi/2007/03/the_release_of_the_box.html| archivedate= 21 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> portrayal of combatants in the Persian army at the ]. Reviewers in the United States and elsewhere "noted the political overtones of the West-against-Iran story line and the way Persians are depicted as ], sexually flamboyant and evil in contrast to the noble Greeks".<ref>{{cite news |last=Karimi |first=Nasser |publisher=] |format=reprint |title=Iranians Outraged by `300' Movie |url=http://film.guardian.co.uk/apnews/story/0,,-6478028,00.html |date=2007-03-13 |accessdate=2007-03-14 | location=London| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070317053547/http://film.guardian.co.uk/apnews/story/0,,-6478028,00.html| archivedate= 17 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> With bootleg versions of the film already available in ] with the film's international release and news of the film's surprising success at the U.S. ], it prompted widespread anger in Iran. ] of '']'' reported, "All of Tehran was outraged. Everywhere I went yesterday, the talk vibrated with indignation over the film".<ref name="300 v. 70m">{{cite news |last=Moaveni |first=Azadeh |publisher=] |title=''300'' Versus 70 Million Iranians |date=2007-03-13 |accessdate=2007-03-14 |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1598886,00.html?cnn=yes| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101637/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1598886,00.html?cnn=yes| archivedate= 16 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Newspapers in Iran featured headlines such as "Hollywood declares war on Iranians" and "300 AGAINST 70 MILLION" (Iran's population). '']'', an independent Iranian newspaper, said that "he film depicts Iranians as demons, without culture, feeling or humanity, who think of nothing except attacking other nations and killing people".<ref name="300 v. 70m"/> Four Iranian ] have called for Muslim countries to ban the film,<ref name="the guardian">{{cite news|last=Tait|first=Robert|publisher=]|date=2007-03-14|accessdate=2007-03-14|title=Iran accuses Hollywood of 'psychological warfare'|url=http://film.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,2033630,00.html | location=London| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070317054239/http://film.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,,2033630,00.html| archivedate= 17 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> and a group of Iranian film makers submitted a letter of protest to ] regarding the film's alleged misrepresentation of Iranian history and culture.<ref>See '']'' newspaper, accessed March 15, 2007 </ref> Iran's cultural advisor to president ] has called the film an "American attempt for ] against Iran".<ref>{{cite news |title=واكنش مشاور رئیس جمهور به فیلم 300 |publisher=Sharif News |accessdate=2007-03-21 |url=http://sharifnews.com/?22728| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101445/http://www.sharifnews.com/?22728| archivedate= 16 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>


Line 183: Line 210:
According to '']'', Iranian critics of ''300'', ranging from bloggers to government officials, have described the movie "as a calculated attempt to demonise Iran at a time of intensifying U.S. pressure over the country's nuclear programme".<ref name="the guardian"/> An Iranian government ] described the film as "hostile behavior which is the result of cultural and psychological warfare".<ref name="the guardian"/> Moaveni reported that the Iranians she interacted with were "adamant that the movie was secretly funded by the U.S. government to prepare Americans for going to war against Iran".<ref name="300 v. 70m"/> According to '']'', Iranian critics of ''300'', ranging from bloggers to government officials, have described the movie "as a calculated attempt to demonise Iran at a time of intensifying U.S. pressure over the country's nuclear programme".<ref name="the guardian"/> An Iranian government ] described the film as "hostile behavior which is the result of cultural and psychological warfare".<ref name="the guardian"/> Moaveni reported that the Iranians she interacted with were "adamant that the movie was secretly funded by the U.S. government to prepare Americans for going to war against Iran".<ref name="300 v. 70m"/>


] of ] states,
] of ] states, "If ''300'', the new battle epic based on the graphic novel by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley, had been made in ], it would be studied today alongside '']'' as a textbook example of how ] fantasy and ] myth can serve as an incitement to ]. Since it's a product of the post-ideological, post-] 21st century, ''300'' will instead be talked about as a technical achievement, the next blip on the increasingly blurry line between movies and video games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2161450|title=A Movie Only a Spartan Could Love|author=Stevens, Dana|publisher=]|date=March 8, 2007|accessdate=2008-06-22| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080617221745/http://www.slate.com/id/2161450?| archivedate= 17 June 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>

{{cquote|If ''300'', the new battle epic based on the graphic novel by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley, had been made in ], it would be studied today alongside '']'' as a textbook example of how ] fantasy and ] myth can serve as an incitement to ]. Since it's a product of the post-ideological, post-] 21st century, ''300'' will instead be talked about as a technical achievement, the next blip on the increasingly blurry line between movies and video games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2161450|title=A Movie Only a Spartan Could Love|author=Stevens, Dana|publisher=]|date=March 8, 2007|accessdate=2008-06-22| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080617221745/http://www.slate.com/id/2161450?| archivedate= 17 June 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>}}


==The Netherlands== ==The Netherlands==
The requests of the Ministry of Education and Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands to monitor Iranian students has led to a situation that Iranian students cannot study at the ] in the city of ] and ] in the city of ]. The latter university had even asked the ] (the Dutch intelligence service) to monitor the Iranian students. AIVD stated that it was not their duty to do this and the University has decided to stop admitting any applicants from Iran no matter what degree they are seeking. The reason provided by the Dutch government is that it fears the theft of sensitive ] that could assist the Iranian government in constructing nuclear weapons. After protests were lodged, the Dutch government announced again that the Iranian students and the Dutch citizens of Iranian extraction, are not allowed to study at many Dutch universities and some areas in the Netherlands are off-limits to them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraansestudenten.nl/#Nieuws|title=IraanseStudenten: Stop verdachtmaking van Iraniers|publisher=|accessdate=8 February 2015}}</ref> The requests of the Ministry of Education and Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands to monitor Iranian students has led to a situation that Iranian students cannot study at the ] in the city of ] and ] in the city of ]. The latter university had even asked the ] (the Dutch intelligence service) to monitor the Iranian students. AIVD stated that it was not their duty to do this and the University has decided to stop admitting any applicants from Iran no matter what degree they are seeking. The reason provided by the Dutch government is that it fears the theft of sensitive ] that could assist the Iranian government in constructing nuclear weapons. After protests were lodged, the Dutch government announced again that the Iranian students and the Dutch citizens of Iranian extraction, are not allowed to study at many Dutch universities and some areas in the Netherlands are off-limits to them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraansestudenten.nl/#Nieuws|title=IraanseStudenten: Stop verdachtmaking van Iraniers|publisher=|accessdate=8 February 2015}}</ref>


Additionally, several other universities stated that the government had prohibited them from admitting students from Iran, and technical colleges weren't to allow Iranian students access to knowledge of nuclear technology.<ref>http://www.nisnews.nl/public/030108_2.htm</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraansestudenten.nl/?Nieuws|title=IraanseStudenten: Stop verdachtmaking van Iraniers|work=iraansestudenten.nl}}</ref> It was noted that this was the first time after the ] occupation during the Second World War that ethnic-, religion- or racial-based restrictions were imposed in this part of Europe. ], a parliamentarian of the ] (SP), condemned this '']'', deliberately using a German word which is associated with the Second World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seniorplaza.nl/1930-1945.htm|title=1930-1945|work=seniorplaza.nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://harryvanbommel.sp.nl/weblog/2007/12/29/berufsverbot-voor-iraanse-studenten/|title=Weblog Harry van Bommel » Berufsverbot voor Iraanse studenten|work=sp.nl}}</ref> Although the Dutch authorities state that the ]'s resolution 1737 (2006) authorizes them and obliges all member states of the UN to take such a measure, the Netherlands remains the only country to have done so.<ref>http://iraansestudenten.nl/docs/briefiraansestudenten.pdf</ref> Additionally, several other universities stated that the government had prohibited them from admitting students from Iran, and technical colleges weren't to allow Iranian students access to knowledge of nuclear technology.<ref>http://www.nisnews.nl/public/030108_2.htm</ref><ref></ref> It was noted that this was the first time after the ] occupation during the Second World War that ethnic-, religion- or racial-based restrictions were imposed in this part of Europe. ], a parliamentarian of the ] (SP), condemned this '']'', deliberately using a German word which is associated with the Second World War.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Although the Dutch authorities state that the ]'s resolution 1737 (2006) authorizes them and obliges all member states of the UN to take such a measure, the Netherlands remains the only country to have done so.<ref>http://iraansestudenten.nl/docs/briefiraansestudenten.pdf</ref>


==Turkey== ==Turkey==
According to a 2013 survey 75% of Turks look at Iran unfavorably against 14% with favorable views.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Poushter|first1=Jacob|title=The Turkish people don’t look favorably upon the U.S., or any other country, really|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/31/the-turkish-people-dont-look-favorably-upon-the-u-s-or-any-other-country-really/|agency=]|date=31 October 2014}}</ref> Political scientist ] writes that there are two significant groups in Turkey that are hostile towards Iran: "the ] and the ultra-] elite" and the "ultranationalists with ] aspirations" (such as the ]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hunter|first1=Shireen T.|authorlink1=Shireen Hunter|title=Iran's Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order|date=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|isbn=9780313381942|page=}}</ref> Canadian author ] also suggests that pan-Turkist groups (the Grey Wolves in particular) have encouraged anti-Iranian sentiments.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Farrokh|first1=Kaveh|authorlink1=Kaveh Farrokh|url=http://www.rozanehmagazine.com/NoveDec05/AZPartIIb.html |title=Pan-Turanianism Takes Atim At Azerbaijan: A Geopolitical Agenda|work=Rozaneh Magazine|quote=Pan-Turanian activists have attempted to turn these celebrations into anti-Persian events. There are reports that Grey Wolves activists from Turkey and the Republic of Azerbaijan join the celebrations, chant anti-Iranian slogans and distribute anti-Iran literature.}}</ref> According to a 2013 survey 75% of Turks look at Iran unfavorably against 14% with favorable views.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Poushter|first1=Jacob|title=The Turkish people don’t look favorably upon the U.S., or any other country, really|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/31/the-turkish-people-dont-look-favorably-upon-the-u-s-or-any-other-country-really/|agency=]|date=31 October 2014}}</ref> Political scientist ] writes that there are two significant groups in Turkey that are hostile towards Iran: "the ] and the ultra-] elite" and the "ultranationalists with ] aspirations" (such as the ]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hunter|first1=Shireen T.|authorlink1=Shireen Hunter|title=Iran's Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order|date=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|isbn=9780313381942|page=}}</ref> Canadian author ] also suggests that pan-Turkist groups (the Grey Wolves in particular) have encouraged anti-Iranian sentiments.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Farrokh|first1=Kaveh|authorlink1=Kaveh Farrokh|contribution=|title=Pan-Turanianism Takes Atim At Azerbaijan: A Geopolitical Agenda|website=Rozaneh Magazine|quote=Pan-Turanian activists have attempted to turn these celebrations into anti-Persian events. There are reports that Grey Wolves activists from Turkey and the Republic of Azerbaijan join the celebrations, chant anti-Iranian slogans and distribute anti-Iran literature.}}</ref>


Historically, the ] Muslims were discriminated in the ] as they were associated with their Iranian/Persian neighbors. In Turkey, relatively large communities of ], ] and ] are ] ], while some areas in Eastern Anatolia, notably ] and ], are ].<ref>Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat in der Türkei der Gegenwart, pp. 107-108.</ref> Historically, the ] Muslims were discriminated in the ] as they were associated with their Iranian/Persian neighbors. In Turkey, relatively large communities of ], ] and ] are ] ], while some areas in Eastern Anatolia, notably ] and ], are ].<ref>Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat in der Türkei der Gegenwart, pp. 107-108.</ref>


==Azerbaijan== ==Azerbaijan==
] activists from ]]]

According to political adviser Eldar Mamedov, "Anti-Iranian policies carried out by various Azerbaijani governments since the 1990s."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mamedov|first1=Eldar|title=Azerbaijan: Time to Address the Potential Salafi Danger|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/70721|work=eurasianet.org|publisher=]|date=31 October 2014}}</ref> According to political adviser Eldar Mamedov, "Anti-Iranian policies carried out by various Azerbaijani governments since the 1990s."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mamedov|first1=Eldar|title=Azerbaijan: Time to Address the Potential Salafi Danger|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/70721|work=eurasianet.org|publisher=]|date=31 October 2014}}</ref>



Revision as of 22:04, 2 July 2015

A man is raising a sign that reads "deport all Iranians, get the hell out of my country". This was during a 1979 Washington, D.C. student protest of the Iran hostage crisis.
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Anti-Iranian sentiment (Persian: احساسات ضدایرانی) or Iranophobia refers to feelings and expression of hostility, hatred, discrimination, or prejudice towards Iran and its culture, and towards persons based on their association with Iran and Iranian culture. Its opposite is Persophilia.

Historically, prejudice against Iranians was prominent in the Arab World, particularly on the part of Arabs following the Islamic conquest of Persia. More recently, anti-Iranian sentiment has been prominent also in the United States and in international media.

In the Arab world

Main article: Iran–Arab relations

"Ajam"

The word "ajam" is derived from the root A-J-M and refers to "unclear, vague and/or incomprehensible" as opposed to Arabi which means "clear, understandable, with perfect Arabic tongue".

Ajam came to mean "one who mumbles" (کند زبانان)(similar to the Slavic use of words with the root něm- ("mute") to refer to the Germans) and came to be "applied especially to Persians". To Persian eyes and in Persian sources,

The distinction of Arab and Ajam is already discernible in pre- and early Islamic literature Cf. the Ajam Temtemī.

— Encyclopædia Iranica,

In general, ajam was a pejorative term, used by Arabs because of their contrived social and political superiority in early Islam.

— Encyclopædia Iranica,

However, Arabic dictionaries state that the word Ajami is used for all non-Arabs, a term used by Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddimah. Though,

In Arabic linguistic usage, the non-Arabs designated by the term 'ajam are primarily Persians.

— Franz Rosenthal, "The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History By Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman",

and it is believed that Ibn Khaldun that in speaking of 'ajam', he had meant Persians.

Anti-Iranianism in early Islamic period

Patrick Clawson states that "The Iranians chafed under Umayyid rule. The Umayyids rose from traditional Arab aristocracy. They tended to marry other Arabs, creating an ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians. Even as Arabs adopted traditional Iranian bureaucracy, Arab tribalism disadvantaged Iranians."

The conquest of Persia and beyond was thus seemingly intended to raise new revenues. Naturally, the native population did not appreciate this exploitation. Many Arab Muslims believed that Iranian converts should not clothe themselves as Arabs, among many other forms discrimination that existed. Mu'awiyah, in a famous letter addressed to Ziyad ibn Abih, the then governor of Iraq, wrote:

Be watchful of Iranian Muslims and never treat them as equals of Arabs. Arabs have a right to take in marriage their women, but they have no right to marry Arab women. Arabs are entitled to inherit their legacy, but they cannot inherit from an Arab. As far as possible they are to be given lesser pensions and lowly jobs. In the presence of an Arab, a non-Arab shall not lead the congregation prayer, nor they are to be allowed to stand in the first row of prayer, nor to be entrusted with the job of guarding the frontiers or the post of a qadi.

— Mu'awiyah

Mistreatment of Iranians and other non-Arabs during early Islam is well documented. To begin with, the Umayyids did not recognize equal rights of a mawali and believed that only "pure Arab blood" was worthy of ruling. Neither did they make any effort to mend relations with the mawali after making declarations such as:

We blessed you with the sword (referring to the conquests) and dragged you into heaven by chains of our religion. This by itself is enough for you to understand that we are superior to you.

— ,

The Umayyid Arabs are even reported to have prevented the mawali from having kunyas, as an Arab was only considered worthy of a kunya. They were required to pay taxes for not being an Arab:

During the early centuries of Islam when the Islamic empire was really an 'Arab kingdom', the Iranians, Central Asians and other non-Arab peoples who had converted to Islam in growing numbers as Mawali or 'clients' of an Arab lord or clan, had in practice acquired an inferior socio-economic and racial status compared to Arab Muslims, though the Mawali themselves fared better than the empire's non-Muslim subjects, the Ahl al-dhimma ('people of the book'). The Mawali, for instance, paid special taxes, often similar to the jizya (poll tax) and the kharaj (land tax) levied on the Zoroastrians and other non-Muslim subjects, taxes which were never paid by the Arab Muslims.

— ,

References in Persian literature

Zarrinkoub presents a lengthy discussion on the large flux and influence of the victorious Arabs on the literature, language, culture and society of Persia during the two centuries following the Islamic conquest of Iran in his book "Two Centuries of Silence".

Suppression of Iranian languages

After the Islamic conquest of the Sassanid Empire, during the reign of the Ummayad dynasty, the Arab conquerors imposed Arabic as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. Not happy with the prevalence of the Iranian languages in the divan, Hajjāj ibn Yusuf ordered the official language of the conquered lands to be replaced by Arabic, sometimes by force. According to Biruni

When Qutaibah bin Muslim under the command of Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef was sent to Khwarazmia with a military expedition and conquered it for the second time, he swiftly killed whomever wrote the Khwarazmian native language that knew of the Khwarazmian history, science and culture. He then killed all their Zoroastrian priests and burned and wasted their books, until gradually the illiterate only remained, who knew nothing of writing and hence their history was mostly forgotten.

— Biruni From The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries,

It is difficult to imagine the Arabs not implementing anti-Persian policies in light of such events, writes Zarrinkoub in his famous Two Centuries of Silence, where he exclusively writes of this topic. Reports of Persian speakers being tortured are also given in al-Aghānī.

Shi'a Islam and Iranians

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Predominantly Shia Iran has always exhibited a sympathetic side for Ali and his progeny. Even when Persia was largely Sunni, this was still evident as can be seen from the writings remaining from that era. Rumi for example praises Ali in a section entitled "Learn from Ali". It recounts Ali ibn Abi Talib's explanation as to why he declined to kill someone who had spit in his face as Ali was defeating him in battle. Persian literature in praise of Ali's progeny is quite ubiquitous and abundant. These all stem from numerous traditions regarding Ali's favor of Persians being as equals to Arabs.

Several early Shi'ite sources speak of a dispute arising between an Arab and an Iranian woman. Referring the case to Ali for arbitration, Ali reportedly did not allow any discrimination between the two to take place. His judgment thus invited the protest of the Arab woman. Thereupon, Ali replied, "In the Quran, I did not find the progeny of Ishmael (the Arabs) to be any higher than the Iranians."

In another such tradition, Ali was once reciting a sermon in the city of Kufah, when Ash'as ibn Qays, a commander in the Arab army protested, "Amir-al-Momeneen! These Iranians are excelling the Arabs right in front of your eyes and you are doing nothing about it!" He then roared, "I will show them who the Arabs are!" Ali immediately retorted, "While fat Arabs rest in soft beds, the Iranians work hard on the hottest days to please God with their efforts. And what do these Arabs want from me? To ostracize the Iranians and become an oppressor! I swear by the God that splits the nucleus and creates Man, I heard the prophet once say, just as you strike the Iranians with your swords in the name of Islam, so will the Iranians one day strike you back the same way for Islam."

When the Sassanid city of Anbar fell to the forces of Mu'awiyeh, news reached Ali that the city had been sacked and plundered spilling much innocent blood. Early Shi'ite sources report that Ali gathered all the people of Kufa to the mosque and gave a fiery sermon. After describing the massacre, he said, "If somebody hearing this news now faints and dies of grief, I fully approve of it!" It is from here that Ali is said to have had more sympathy for Iranians while author S. Nureddin Abtahi claims that Umar highly resented them.

Modern times

It was in Baghdad where the first Arab nationalists, mainly of Palestinian and Syrian descent, formed the basis of their overall philosophies. Prominent among them were individuals such as Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (the Mufti of Jerusalem) and Syrian nationalists such as Shukri al-Quwatli and Jamil Mardam. Sati' al-Husri, who served as advisor to the Ministry of Education and later as Director General of Education and Dean of the College of Law, was particularly instrumental in shaping the Iraqi educational system. Other prominent Pan-Arabists were Michel Aflaq and Khairallah Talfah, as well as Sati' al-Husri, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, Zaki al-Arsuzi and Sami Shwkat (brother of Naji Shawkat). These individuals formed the nucleus and genesis of true pan-Arabism.

Sati' al-Husri's campaigns against schools suspected of being positive towards Persia are well documented. One dramatic example is found in the 1920s when the Iraqi Ministry of Education ordered Husri to appoint Muhammad Al-Jawahiri as a teacher in a Baghdad school. A short excerpt of Husri's interview with the teacher is revealing:

"Husri: First, I want to know your nationality.
Jawahiri: I am an Iranian.
Husri: In that case we cannot appoint you."

Saddam Hussein Al Majid Al Tikriti forced out tens of thousands of people of Persian origin from Iraq in the 1970s, after having been accused of being spies for Iran and Israel. Today, many of them live in Iran.

Iran–Iraq War

Early on in his career, Saddam Hussein and pan-Arab ideologues targeted the Arabs of southwest Iran in an endeavour to have them separate and join 'the Arab nation.' Hussein made no effort to conceal Arab Nationalism in his war against Iran (which he called "the second Battle of al-Qādisiyyah). An intense campaign of propaganda during his reign meant that many school children were taught that Iran provoked Iraq into invading and that the invasion was fully justified.

On 2 April 1980, a half-year before the outbreak of the war, Saddam Hussein visited al-Mustansiriyyah University in Baghdad. By drawing parallels to the 7th-Century defeat of Persia in the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, he announced:

"In your name, brothers, and on behalf of the Iraqis and Arabs everywhere, we tell those cowards who try to avenge Al-Qadisiyah that the spirit of Al-Qadisiyah as well as the blood and honor of the people of Al-Qadisiyah who carried the message on their spearheads are greater than their attempts."

Saddam also accused Iranians of "murdering the second (Umar), third (Uthman) and fourth (Ali) Caliphs of Islam", invading the three islands of Abu Musa and Greater and Lesser Tunbs in the Persian Gulf and attempting to destroy the Arabic language and civilization.

In the war, Iraq made extensive use of chemical weapons (such as mustard gas) against Iranian troops and civilians as well as Iraqi Kurds. Iran expected a condemnation by UN of this act and sent allegation to UN. At time (-1985) the UN Security Council issued statements that "chemical weapons had been used in the war." However, in these UN-statements Iraq was not mentioned by name, so that the situation is viewed as "in a way, the international community remained silent as Iraq used weapons of mass destruction against Iranian as well as Iraqi Kurds" and it is believed that the United States had prevented UN from condemning Iraq.

In December 2006, Hussein said he would take responsibility "with honour" for any attacks on Iran using conventional or chemical weapons during the 1980–1988 war, but he took issue with charges he ordered attacks on Iraqis.

On the execution day, Hussein said, "I spent my whole life fighting the infidels and the intruders, I destroyed the invaders and the Persians." He also stressed that the Iraqis should fight the Americans and the Persians. Mowaffak al Rubiae, Iraq's National Security adviser, who was a witness to Hussein's execution described him as repeatedly shouting "down with Persians." Hussein built an anti-Iranian monument called Hands of Victory in Baghdad in 1989 to commemorate his declaration of victory over Iran in the Iran-Iraq war (though the war was considered by many to have ended in stalemate). After his fall, it was reported that the new Iraqi government had organized the Committee for Removing Symbols of the Saddam Era and that the Hands of Victory monument had begun to be dismantled. However, the demolition was later halted.

Other Arab states

Some Arab states show hostility to Iran. Al-Salafi magazine, quoted in The Times, states, "Iran has become more dangerous than Israel itself. The Iranian revolution has come to renew the Iranian presence in our region. This is the real clash of civilisations."

In January 2007, Saudi Arabian King Abdullah said that attempts to convert Muslim Sunnis to the Shi'a branch of Islam would not succeed and that Sunnis would always make up the majority of the world's Muslims. Although Abdullah did not mention Iran by name, his comments appeared to be aimed at easing Arab concerns over the Shi'a nation's growing influence in the Middle East. "We are following up on this matter and we are aware of the dimensions of spreading Shi'ism and where it has reached", Abdullah told the Kuwaiti Al-Siyassah daily. "However, we believe that this process will not achieve its goal because the majority of Sunni Muslims will never change their faith", he added. Ultimately, "the majority of Muslims seems immune to any attempts by other sects to penetrate it (Sunnism) or diminish its historical power." While there have been no specific examples of Iranians trying to convert Sunnis, Arabs fear such conversions would accompany Iran's growing powers.

Al-Qaeda

Al-Qaeda has been increasingly singling out Iran and Shiites, describing the "Persians" as the enemy of Arabs and complicit in the occupation of Iraq.

In the United States

Results of 2014 BBC World Service poll.
Views of Iran's influence by country
Sorted by Pos-Neg
Country polled Positive Negative Neutral Pos-Neg
 United States 5 88 7 -83
 Israel 2 84 14 -82
 Germany 4 85 11 -81
 Canada 6 83 11 -77
 United Kingdom 7 83 10 -76
 France 8 84 8 -76
 Spain 6 78 16 -72
 Australia 11 78 11 -67
 South Korea 12 74 14 -62
 Japan 5 53 42 -48
 Kenya 16 62 22 -46
 Russia 11 49 40 -38
 Mexico 13 49 38 -36
 Peru 13 46 41 -33
 Nigeria 29 54 17 -25
 China 18 40 42 -22
 Turkey 24 46 30 -22
 India 22 37 41 -15
 Ghana 37 41 22 -4
 Indonesia 40 35 25 5
 Pakistan 51 21 28 30
See also: Iranian American and United States-Iran relations

According to the Public Affairs Alliance of Iranian Americans (PAAIA), nearly half of Iranian Americans surveyed in 2008 by Zogby International have themselves experienced or personally know another Iranian American who has experienced discrimination because of their ethnicity or country of origin. The most common types of discrimination reported are airport security, social discrimination, employment or business discrimination, racial profiling and discrimination at the hands of immigration officials.

The Iranian hostage crisis of the U.S. embassy in Tehran in November 1979 precipitated a wave of anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States, directed both against the new Islamic regime and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up. In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.

Litigation

  • In 2009, Merrill Lynch & Co. agreed to pay $1.55 million to resolve a U.S. government lawsuit accusing the securities firm of discriminating against an Iranian employee. The government accused the firm of refusing to promote Majid Borumand and later firing him on the basis of his national origin and religion.

Sanctions against Iranian scientists

The United States has been creating obstacles for research of Iranian scientists, according to the 2004 ruling of the US Department of the Treasury, which tied their scientific work to trade embargo of Iran.

In the media and government

Politically conservative commentator Ann Coulter has referred to Iranians as "ragheads" (though she later on clarified that she was referring to the government figures, she would later come out in support of Green Revolution protesters in 2009) and Brent Scowcroft has called the Iranian people "rug merchants".

The Columbus Dispatch recently ran a cartoon that portrayed Iran as a sewer with cockroaches crawling out of it.

In May 2005, Fox News broadcast a special program called Iran: The Nuclear Threat, hosted by Chris Wallace. Kaveh Afrasiab, an analyst and expert on Iran who once worked with Wallace at ABC, noted that the program "lacked the minutest evidence of objectivity, displaying instead piles of prejudice on top of prejudice reminding one of the Iraq weapons of mass destruction threat played up by the right-wing, sensationalist network during 2002 and early 2003, duping millions of American viewers about the authenticity of the Bush administration's allegations against the regime of Saddam Hussein".

In October 2007, Debra Cagan, a senior official at The Pentagon, shocked several British MPs when she declared "I hate all Iranians".

In 2009 Martin Kramer, a Harvard professor, warned about the dangers of allowing Iranian Americans to get too close to power during the 2009 American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) conference:

Iran can have behind the scenes leverage over Iranian Americans, many of whom occupy key positions in the think tanks and are even being brought now into the administration...What this means is that we have to be extremely cautious about what we take away from Iranian diaspora communities when it comes to understanding Iran.

Comic books

Examples of the stereotyping of Iranians as terrorists and anti-West are found in comic books. Dennis O'Neil, a comic book writer and editor, notes in the postscript of Batman: A Death in the Family:

"these sagas (comic books) are more than just entertainments, at least to many readers; they are the post-industrial equivalent of folk tales and as such, they have gone pretty deeply into a lot of psyches."

In the story, Batman's nemesis, the Joker tries to sell Lebanese extremists a nuclear weapon before fleeing to Iran. The Joker then meets Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini who appoints him as the formal ambassador to the United Nations. In this function, the Joker addresses the United Nations General Assembly, saying he and the "country's current leaders...have a lot in common", before attempting to lethally gas the assembly. The portrayal of Iran was later retconned to the fictional Middle Eastern state of Qurac and the panel with the image of the Ayatollah removed. Colonel Abdul al-Rahman first appeared in the comic book The Ultimates as a 17-year-old Muslim boy from Iranian Azerbaijan who witnesses the, Captain America led, invasion of his country. Outraged, he becomes the Middle East's counterpart to Captain America before he is finally killed by Captain America.

Hollywood's depiction of Persians and Iranians

Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s, Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has vilified Iranians as in television programs such as 24, John Doe, On Wings of Eagles (1986), and Escape From Iran: The Canadian Caper (1981), which was based on a true story. Critics maintain that Hollywood's "tall walls of exclusion and discrimination have yet to crumble when it comes to the movie industry's persistent misrepresentation of Iranians and their collective identity".

Not Without My Daughter

The 1991 film Not Without My Daughter was criticized for its portrayal of Iranian society. Filmed in Israel, it was based on the Pulitzer-nominated autobiography by Betty Mahmoody. In the book and film, an American woman (Mahmoody) traveled to Tehran with her young daughter to visit her Iranian-born family of her husband. Mahmoody's husband then undergoes a strange transformation in Iran, ranging from an educated and sophisticated citizen to an abusive, backwards peasant, eventually deciding that they will not return to the United States. Betty is told that she can divorce him and leave, but their daughter must stay in Tehran under Islamic law. Ultimately, after 18 months in Iran, Betty and her daughter escape to the American embassy in Turkey.

Several Western critics, including Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times and Caryn James of the New York Times, criticized the film for stereotyping Iranians as misogynistic and fanatical. According to Ebert, the film depicts Islamic society "in shrill terms", where women are "willing or unwilling captives of their men", deprived of "what in the West would be considered basic human rights". Furthermore, Ebert says, "No attempt is made—deliberately, I assume—to explain the Muslim point of view, except in rigid sets of commands and rote statements". Ebert then contends,

If a movie of such a vitriolic and spiteful nature were to be made in America about any other ethnic group, it would be denounced as racist and prejudiced.

According to Jane Campbell, the film

...only serves to reinforce the media stereotype of Iranians as terrorists who, if not actively bombing public buildings or holding airline passengers hostage, are untrustworthy, irrational, cruel, and barbaric.

The film was also criticized in Iran. A 2002 Islamic Republic News Agency article claimed that the film " smears...against Iran" and "stereotyped Iranians as cruel characters and wife-beaters". In a Finnish documentary, Without My Daughter, film maker Alexis Kouros tells Mahmoody's husband's side of the story, showing Iranian eyewitnesses accusing the Hollywood film of spreading lies and "treasons". Alice Sharif, an American woman living with her Iranian husband in Tehran, accuses Mahmoody and the filmmakers of deliberately attempting to foment anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States.

Alexander

The 2004 film Alexander by American director Oliver Stone has been accused of negative and inaccurate portrayal of Persians.

300

The 2007 film 300, an adaptation of Frank Miller's 1998 graphic novel, was criticized for its "racist" portrayal of combatants in the Persian army at the Battle of Thermopylae. Reviewers in the United States and elsewhere "noted the political overtones of the West-against-Iran story line and the way Persians are depicted as decadent, sexually flamboyant and evil in contrast to the noble Greeks". With bootleg versions of the film already available in Tehran with the film's international release and news of the film's surprising success at the U.S. box office, it prompted widespread anger in Iran. Azadeh Moaveni of Time reported, "All of Tehran was outraged. Everywhere I went yesterday, the talk vibrated with indignation over the film". Newspapers in Iran featured headlines such as "Hollywood declares war on Iranians" and "300 AGAINST 70 MILLION" (Iran's population). Ayende-No, an independent Iranian newspaper, said that "he film depicts Iranians as demons, without culture, feeling or humanity, who think of nothing except attacking other nations and killing people". Four Iranian Members of Parliament have called for Muslim countries to ban the film, and a group of Iranian film makers submitted a letter of protest to UNESCO regarding the film's alleged misrepresentation of Iranian history and culture. Iran's cultural advisor to president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has called the film an "American attempt for psychological warfare against Iran".

Moaveni identified two factors which may have contributed to the intensity of Iranian indignation over the film. First, she describes the timing of the film's release, on the eve of Norouz, the Persian New Year, as "inauspicious." Second, Iranians tend to view the era depicted in the film as "a particularly noble page in their history". Moaveni also suggests that "the box office success of 300, compared with the relative flop of Alexander (another spurious period epic dealing with Persians), is cause for considerable alarm, signaling ominous U.S. intentions".

According to The Guardian, Iranian critics of 300, ranging from bloggers to government officials, have described the movie "as a calculated attempt to demonise Iran at a time of intensifying U.S. pressure over the country's nuclear programme". An Iranian government spokesman described the film as "hostile behavior which is the result of cultural and psychological warfare". Moaveni reported that the Iranians she interacted with were "adamant that the movie was secretly funded by the U.S. government to prepare Americans for going to war against Iran".

Dana Stevens of Slate states,

If 300, the new battle epic based on the graphic novel by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley, had been made in Germany in the mid-1930s, it would be studied today alongside The Eternal Jew as a textbook example of how race-baiting fantasy and nationalist myth can serve as an incitement to total war. Since it's a product of the post-ideological, post-Xbox 21st century, 300 will instead be talked about as a technical achievement, the next blip on the increasingly blurry line between movies and video games.

The Netherlands

The requests of the Ministry of Education and Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands to monitor Iranian students has led to a situation that Iranian students cannot study at the University of Twente in the city of Enschede and Eindhoven University of Technology in the city of Eindhoven. The latter university had even asked the AIVD (the Dutch intelligence service) to monitor the Iranian students. AIVD stated that it was not their duty to do this and the University has decided to stop admitting any applicants from Iran no matter what degree they are seeking. The reason provided by the Dutch government is that it fears the theft of sensitive nuclear technology that could assist the Iranian government in constructing nuclear weapons. After protests were lodged, the Dutch government announced again that the Iranian students and the Dutch citizens of Iranian extraction, are not allowed to study at many Dutch universities and some areas in the Netherlands are off-limits to them.

Additionally, several other universities stated that the government had prohibited them from admitting students from Iran, and technical colleges weren't to allow Iranian students access to knowledge of nuclear technology. It was noted that this was the first time after the German occupation during the Second World War that ethnic-, religion- or racial-based restrictions were imposed in this part of Europe. Harry van Bommel, a parliamentarian of the Dutch Socialist Party (SP), condemned this berufsverbot, deliberately using a German word which is associated with the Second World War. Although the Dutch authorities state that the UN security council's resolution 1737 (2006) authorizes them and obliges all member states of the UN to take such a measure, the Netherlands remains the only country to have done so.

Turkey

According to a 2013 survey 75% of Turks look at Iran unfavorably against 14% with favorable views. Political scientist Shireen Hunter writes that there are two significant groups in Turkey that are hostile towards Iran: "the military establishment and the ultra-Kemalist elite" and the "ultranationalists with pan-Turkist aspirations" (such as the Grey Wolves). Canadian author Kaveh Farrokh also suggests that pan-Turkist groups (the Grey Wolves in particular) have encouraged anti-Iranian sentiments.

Historically, the Shia Muslims were discriminated in the Ottoman Empire as they were associated with their Iranian/Persian neighbors. In Turkey, relatively large communities of Turks, Kurds and Zazas are Alevi Shia, while some areas in Eastern Anatolia, notably Kars and Ağrı, are Twelver Shia.

Azerbaijan

According to political adviser Eldar Mamedov, "Anti-Iranian policies carried out by various Azerbaijani governments since the 1990s."

See also

References

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  71. Karimi, Nasser (2007-03-13). "Iranians Outraged by `300' Movie". London: Associated Press. Archived from the original (reprint) on 17 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-14. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
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  73. ^ Tait, Robert (2007-03-14). "Iran accuses Hollywood of 'psychological warfare'". London: The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-14. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  74. See Baztab newspaper, accessed March 15, 2007
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  77. "IraanseStudenten: Stop verdachtmaking van Iraniers". Retrieved 8 February 2015.
  78. http://www.nisnews.nl/public/030108_2.htm
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  80. 1930-1945
  81. Weblog Harry van Bommel » Berufsverbot voor Iraanse studenten
  82. http://iraansestudenten.nl/docs/briefiraansestudenten.pdf
  83. Poushter, Jacob (31 October 2014). "The Turkish people don't look favorably upon the U.S., or any other country, really". Pew Research Center.
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  85. Farrokh, Kaveh. "Pan-Turanianism Takes Atim At Azerbaijan: A Geopolitical Agenda". Rozaneh Magazine. Pan-Turanian activists have attempted to turn these celebrations into anti-Persian events. There are reports that Grey Wolves activists from Turkey and the Republic of Azerbaijan join the celebrations, chant anti-Iranian slogans and distribute anti-Iran literature. {{cite web}}: |contribution= ignored (help); External link in |contribution= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  86. Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat in der Türkei der Gegenwart, pp. 107-108.
  87. Mamedov, Eldar (31 October 2014). "Azerbaijan: Time to Address the Potential Salafi Danger". eurasianet.org. Open Society Institute.

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