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| {{merge from|Draft:Wallemia sebi|date=April 2016}} | |||
| {{Taxobox | {{Taxobox | ||
| | image = Wallemia_sebi.jpg | | image = Wallemia_sebi.jpg | ||
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| | species = '''''W. sebi''''' | | species = '''''W. sebi''''' | ||
| | binomial = ''Wallemia sebi'' | | binomial = ''Wallemia sebi'' | ||
| | synonyms = ''Torula epizoa Corda''(1829), ''Sporendonema sebi'' (1832), ''Sporendonema epizoum''(1934) | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| '''''Wallemia sebi''''' is a ] fungus of the phylum ].<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| '''''Wallemia sebi''''' is a brown ] or ] commonly found in indoor air dust, soil and dried and salty foods (bread, cakes, sugar, dried fish, dates, bacon, jams). It is xerophilic, meaning it thrives in arid environments or substrates with little free water. To isolate this fungus, media with low water activity need to be used, with solutes such as glycerol, high sugar content or high salt content. It is present in a significant proportion of human dwellings. | |||
| It is commonly found on highly sugared or salted materials, such as jams, bread, cakes, sugar, bacon, salted meets, and salted fish.<ref name=Moore1986/> It is also found in indoor air, house dust, and soil.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| On ] media with low water activity, ''W. sebi'' forms slow growing brown colonies with a fine velvety texture. The ] (asexual spores) are produced in long chains derived from a conidiogenous cell on branches of ], and are often in groups of four. Only the asexual stage is observed in culture, although analyses of its ] indicate the presence of mating genes and genes involved in ].<ref name=Padamsee2012/> | |||
| Under salty conditions, ''W. sebi'' produces ] causing ].<ref name=Botic2012/> It has been rarely reported to cause subcutaneous infections in humans.<ref name=Guarro2008/> | |||
| One distinctive feature of ''W. sebi'' is its relationship with ]. Most fungi are profoundly affected by the availability of water. The ability to tolerant environments with low ] has been found mostly in ], but rarely in ].<ref name=Padamsee2012/> However, ''W. sebi.'' can adjust its morphology and physiology to adapt to different environmental conditions and survive osmotic stress.<ref name=Padamsee2012/> ''Wallemia sebi'' have lower limits for growth below water activity of 0.75 (0.69-0.75)]<ref name=Arora1991/>, while most microorganisms are limited to 0.95 and above.<ref name=Garry1981/> | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' has been isolated from hair, hay, textiles and man.<ref name=onions1981/>. It can grow slowly without additional solute in the growth medium, and form small, reddish-brown, powdery colonies. <ref name=Moore1986/> | |||
| ==Taxonomy== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' is currently recognized as a species of the genus '']'',<ref name=mycobank2014 /> which is first introduced by Johan-Olsen in 1887 for a single species '']'' Johan-Olsen.<ref name=Padamsee2012/> A large number of synonyms were used before it was classified in ''Wallemia'', including ''Torula epizoa'' Corda, ''Sporendonema epizoum'' Corda, ''Sporendonema sebi'' Fr., and ''Sporotrichum navale'' Joly.<ref name=mycobank2014 /> The most commonly used synonyms is ''S. sebi'',<ref name=onions1981/> which was named to refer to the fact that the ] are ].<ref name=smith1967/> It was only until 1970, when von Arx synonymized ''Sporendonema'' with ''Wallemia'', ''W.sebi'' is combined with S. sebi.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| Wallemia sebi, along with ''W.ichthyophaga'' and ''W.muriae'', the other two specie in genus ''Wallemia'', are considered to be ] presently.<ref name=Zalar2005/> ''Wallemia sebi'' can be distinguished from the other two in that it showed growth also on media without additional solutes, while ''W.ichthyophaga'' and ''W.muriae'' grow only in the present of additional solutes.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| The earliest synonym of ''W. sebi'' recorded is ''Torula epizoa'' Corda, which is originated from salty meant in Belgium in 1829.<ref name=Zalar2005/> In 1832, Fries synonymized ''Torula epizoa'' Corda as ''Sporendonema sebi'' that describe tasteless solid fat extracted from animal fat.<ref name=Zalar2005/> ''Sporendonema sebi'' was commonly used in literatures until in 1977 when von Arx synonymized genus ''Sporendonema'' and '']''. ''Wallemia sebi'' then becomes a popular ''Wallemia'' species and frequently cited in studies.<ref name=Zalar2005/> Frank and Hess studies the ''Sporendonema epizoum'' (synonym of W. sebi) that grow on dried salted fish and suggested it to be ] in 1941. ''Wallemia sebi'' is now recognized as ] fungi because of independence of solute used to lower the water activity.<ref name=PittHocking1977/> Pitt and Hocking report that ''W.sebi'' grows more rapidly in NaCl that other solutes at neutral pH, but have no requirement for NaCl as a solute in 1977.<ref name=PittHocking1977/> This species is abundant in house dust and suspected to be a causative agent for atopic diseases in the study conducted by Sakamono ''et al.'' in 1989.<ref name=Sakamoto1989/> The toxicity of ''W. sebi'' was studies and toxins walleminol and walleminon was found in 1990s.<ref name=Wood1990/><ref name=Frank1999/> (Wood 1990 and Frank et al. 1999) ''Wallemia sebi'' was suggested to cause allergological problems resulting in ] in 1998.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| ==Micromorphology== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' has transparent ], that are usually 1.5-2.5 µm wide, forming a compact ].<ref name=Zalar2005/> ], the specialized stalks for asexual reproduction, are parallel arranged and usually unbranched.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The conidiogenous cells are cylindrical and produce arthrospore-like ] in package of four.<ref name=Zalar2005/> Conidia are cylindrical initially and soon become spherical in shape, approximately 2–2.5 µm in diameter, and form long bending chains up to 1 mm long.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| ==Growth media== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' can grow slowly on specialized fungal media with low water activity<ref name="domsch"/> without additional solutes.<ref name=Zalar2005/> On ], ''W. sebi'' forms small brown colonies with a fine velvety texture, that have long rows of spores that may round up and become free at maturity.<ref name=onions1981/> The colonies usually can grow to 2-2.5 millimeters, and sometimes to 4 to 5 millimeters in diameter.<ref name=onions1981/> ''Wallemia sebi'' typically grow on MEA, MY50G, W-4 and W-10 agar.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| On MEA, the ''W. sebi'' colonies grow to 3-6 millimeters in diameter.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The colonies formed are usually compact and powdery, and are rust brown to purplish-brown in color.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The punctiform colonies are typically spreading deeply into MEA agars.<ref name=Zalar2005/> On MY50G, the colonies can grow up to 12 millimeters with yellowish brown color.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The powdery colonies are formed due to the strong sporulation.<ref name=Zalar2005/> On W-4 agar, the colonies can grow to 4-8 micrometer in diameter.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The exudates can be observed on W-10 agar and they are present as yellow droplets.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The shape of colonies in all agars is typically domed with or without short marginal spreading area.<ref name=Zalar2005/> The marginal area can be shaggy or irregular with white color or similar color as the colony.<ref name=Zalar2005/> | |||
| ==Genome== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' has a compact genome of 9.8 Mb with few repeats, which is one of the smallest genomes in ] and in Agaricomycota. <ref name=Padamsee2012/>Three gene family expansions that were observed in ''W. sebi'' were considered significant, including ], Stress responsive alpha-beta barrel, and ], and they may be responsible for the survival ''W.sebi'' in low water activity.<ref name=Padamsee2012/> There are also genes involved in High Osmolality Glycerol signaling pathway being observed in ''W.sebi'', and are suggested to play an important role in the adaptation to osmotic stress.<ref name=Padamsee2012/> ''Wallemia sebi'' also have a large number of transporters that allow it to survive in ] situation.<ref name=Padamsee2012/> | |||
| ==Secondary metabolite and toxicity== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' produces ] compounds like walleminol, walleminone<ref name=Desroches2014/>, wallemia A and C, and azasteroid UCA1064-B<ref name=Desroches2014/> A newly conducted study also observes a light yellow oil-like metabolite that produced by ''W.sebi'' called wallimidione (1-benzylhexahydroimidazo pyridine-3,5-dione), and it might be the most toxic of all metabolic productions.<ref name=Desroches2014/> | |||
| The first toxic compound found in ''W.sebi'' was isolated and named walleminol A by Wood et al. in 1990 in their study on toxic metabolite of ''W.sebi''. <ref name=Wood1990/> They suggested that walleminol A causes toxic effects in range of in vitro systems such as mammalian cell lines, protozoa and brine shrimp.<ref name=Wood1990/> The toxin contains two hydroxyl groups, four methyl groups, and two or three ring structures in the molecule.<ref name=Wood1990/> The ] of this compound is 236.<ref name=Wood1990/> The toxicity level is comparable with mycotoxins like ] and ].<ref name=Wood1990/> However, the toxic metabolite only applies in culture environment, the mycotoxin does not necessarily produce in food. The most recent study on secondary metabolism of ''W. sebi'' found six compounds including walleminone, tryptophol, tryptophol, phenylacetic acid, ''p''-hydroxybenzoic acid, and wallimidione.<ref name=Desroches2014/> This study did not isolate walleminol like the previous studies did, but they found new metabolite, wallimidione.<ref name=Desroches2014/> | |||
| Secondary metabolite production is very dependent on growth medium.<ref name=Arora1991/> ''Wallemia sebi'' might not produce mycotoxin in foods or feeds.<ref name=Arora1991/> It has been rarely reported to cause subcutaneous infections in humans.<ref name=Guarro2008/> | |||
| ==Impact on food== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' invade the food with low ], and the food contamination has been reported in many foodstuffs across a broad range of habitats.<ref name=Arora1991/> For example, ''W.sebi'' is one of the most common fungi that ever isolated from spices. Along with other ] fungi, they cause the loss of flavor and volatile components, production of off-flavors, and clumping in ground spices.<ref name=Arora1991/> Also, ''W. sebi'' is considered to be the principle fungus spoiling dried and salt fish. Reports of ''W.sebi'' contamination on dried fish comes from temperate regions mostly.<ref name=Arora1991/>''W. sebi'' invasion can make salted and dried fish look brown.<ref name=Garry1981/> Besides dried seafood, it is also commonly found in high sugar foods. ''W. sebi'' is typically found in jam and cake.<ref name=wood1984/> There is also one case report on dried fruit, the spoiling fried papaya.<ref name=Arora1991/> In addition, it is found in condensed milk and forms characteristic ‘bottoms’ in sweetened condensed milk.<ref name=Garry1981/> In terms of cereals and bread, there are case reports of isolation of ''W. sebi'' on Australian cereals and bread.<ref name=Pitt1975/> Finally, ''Wallemia sebi'' was found to be a dominant contaminant of milled rice and flours.<ref name=Saito1971/> It can be isolated from brown rice, which stored for a long time under natural conditions.<ref name=TsurutaSaito1980/> | |||
| Although ''W. sebi'' is found to present in a wide range of dried foods, there is little report on mycotoxins being produced in food.<ref name=Arora1991/> | |||
| ==Impact on built environment== | |||
| ===Building material=== | |||
| Fungal growth often need adequate temperatures, nutrient substances, and some level of moisture.<ref name=Flannigan2001/> The requirements may vary between species. Like other ] fungi, ''Wallemia sebi'' would grow on surfaces that are damp rather than wet.<ref name=Flannigan2001/> Since the indoor environments that is suitable for human habitation often satisfy the growth requirement for ''W. sebi'', ''W.sebi'' would be observed in building wallpaper if the water activity is not controlled as low.<ref name=Flannigan2001/> | |||
| The finishing material and moisture level of constructions is critical in terms of fungal growth prevention. Poor moisture control (e.g. fail to dry material in constructions) will result in the growth of ] and ] fungi.<ref name=Flannigan2001/> Furthermore, it is more challenging to prevent the growth of ] than ] fungi, because it requires the water activity to be extremely low.<ref name=Flannigan2001/> For example, dry the building material to the extent of under 0.9 aw ] only will prevent the growth of ] fungi, but not capable of controlling the colonization of ].<ref name=Flannigan2001/> ''Wallemia sebi'', which has low demanding for water, was expected to grow on surfaces with 0.65-0.85 ].<ref name=Flannigan2001/> Therefore, in order to prevent the growth of ''W. sebi'', the water activity should be less than 0.65 aw, which can be achieved by drying the materials within forty-eight hours under normal building temperatures. | |||
| ===House dust=== | |||
| ''Wallemia sebi'' is abundant in settled dust in home <ref name=Desroches2014/>, it has been first reported in Japan by Sakamoto ''et al.'' in 1989.<ref name=Sakamoto1989/> It was also detected in house dust in Canada, USA and western Europe.<ref name=Desroches2014/> The potential of fungi in indoor sources to cause asthma is not well documented, but ''W. sebi'' is one of the indoor fungi that has been found to cause ]. <ref name=Sakamoto1989/> | |||
| ===Health effect=== | |||
| The health effect of chronic exposure to airborne fungi in indoor environment is known to be associated with both allergens and inflammatory compounds.<ref name=Finn2014/> Exposure to ''Wallemia sebi'' is suspected to cause allergic sensitization.<ref name=Conrad2013/> One study found twenty percent of children between age of 3 to 14 express IgE sensitization to ''W. sebi''. <ref name=SimonNobbe2008/> There are also reports suggest the increase the risk of respiratory symptoms, asthma exasperation, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, rhinosinusitis, bronchitis and respiratory infections associate the exposure of building and house fungi, including ''W.sebi''.<ref name=Finn2014/> | |||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
| {{Reflist|refs= | {{Reflist|30em|refs= | ||
| <ref name=Botic2012>{{cite journal |vauthors=Botic T, Kuncic MK, Sepcic K, Knez Z, Gunde-Cimerman N |year=2012 |title= Salt induces biosynthesis of hemolytically active compounds in the xerotolerant food borne fungus Wallemia sebi) |journal= FEMS Microbiol Lett |volume=326 |pages=40–46 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02428.x}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name= |
<ref name=Botic2012>{{cite journal |author= Botic T, Kuncic MK, Sepcic K, Knez Z, Gunde-Cimerman N. |year=2012 |title= Salt induces biosynthesis of hemolytically active compounds in the xerotolerant food borne fungus Wallemia sebi) |journal= FEMS Microbiol Lett |volume=326 |pages=40–46 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02428.x}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name=Conrad2013>{{cite journal|last1=Conrad|first1=A|last2=Seiwert|first2=M|last3=Hünken|first3=A|last4=Quarcoo|first4=D|last5=Schlaud|first5=M|last6=Groneberg|first6=D|title=The German Environmental Survey for Children (GerES IV): reference values and distributions for time-location patterns of German children.|journal=International journal of hygiene and environmental health|date=January 2013|volume=216|issue=1|pages=25-34|pmid=22410199}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Guarro2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Guarro J, Gugnani HC, Sood N, Batra R, Mayayo E, Gene J, Kakkar S |year=2008 |title= Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis caused by Wallemia sebi in an immunocompetent host) |journal= J Clin Microbiol |volume=46 |pages=1129–1131 |doi=10.1128/jcm.01920-07}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=SimonNobbe2008>{{cite journal|last1=Simon-Nobbe|first1=B|last2=Denk|first2=U|last3=Pöll|first3=V|last4=Rid|first4=R|last5=Breitenbach|first5=M|title=The spectrum of fungal allergy.|journal=International archives of allergy and immunology|date=2008|volume=145|issue=1|pages=58-86|pmid=17709917}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Padamsee2012>{{cite journal |author= Padamsee M, Kumar TK, Riley R, Binder M, Boyd A, Calvo AM, Furukawa K, Hesse C, Hohmann S, James TY, LaButti K, Lapidus A, Lindquist E, Lucas S, Miller K, Shantappa S, Grigoriev IV, Hibbett DS, McLaughlin DJ, Spatafora JW, Aime MC. |year=2012 |title= The genome of the xerotolerant mold Wallemia sebi reveals adaptations to osmotic stress and suggests cryptic sexual reproduction) |journal= Fungal Genet Biol |volume=49 |pages=217–226 |doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2012.01.007}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Guarro2008>{{cite journal |author= Guarro J, Gugnani HC, Sood N, Batra R, Mayayo E, Gene J, Kakkar S. |year=2008 |title= Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis caused by Wallemia sebi in an immunocompetent host) |journal= J Clin Microbiol |volume=46 |pages=1129–1131 |doi=10.1128/jcm.01920-07}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=mycobank2014>{{cite web|title=Wallemia sebi|url=http://www.mycobank.org/Biolomics.aspx?Table=Mycobank&pages=200&ViewMode=Basic|website=Mycobank|accessdate=1 October 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="domsch">{{cite book|last=Domsch|first=K.H.; W. Gams, W.; Andersen, T.-H.|title=Compendium of soil fungi|year=1980|publisher=Academic Press|location=London, UK|isbn=9780122204029|edition=2nd}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Moore1986>{{cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=RT|title=A note on Wallemia sebi.|journal=Antonie van Leeuwenhoek|date=1986|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183-7|pmid=3729378}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Zalar2005>{{cite journal|last1=Zalar|first1=P|last2=Sybren de Hoog|first2=G|last3=Schroers|first3=HJ|last4=Frank|first4=JM|last5=Gunde-Cimerman|first5=N|title=Taxonomy and phylogeny of the xerophilic genus Wallemia (Wallemiomycetes and Wallemiales, cl. et ord. nov.).|journal=Antonie van Leeuwenhoek|date=2005|volume=87|issue=4|pages=311-28|pmid=15928984}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Desroches2014>{{cite journal|last1=Desroches|first1=TC|last2=McMullin|first2=DR|last3=Miller|first3=JD|title=Extrolites of Wallemia sebi, a very common fungus in the built environment.|journal=Indoor air|date=2014|volume=24|issue=5|pages=533-42|pmid=24471934}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=barron1968>{{cite book|last1=Barron|first1=G.L.|title=The genera of Hyphomycetes from soil|date=1968|publisher=Williams & Wilkins|location=Baltimore, MD|isbn=9780882750040}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=howard2003>{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=ed. by Dexter H.|title=Pathogenic fungi in humans and animals|date=2003|publisher=Dekker|location=New York, NY|isbn=0824706838|edition=2nd}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=onions1981>{{cite book|last1=Onions|first1=A.H.S.|last2=Allsopp|first2=D.|last3=Eggins|first3=H.O.W.|title=Smith's introduction to industrial mycology|date=1981|publisher=Arnold|location=London, UK|isbn=0-7131-2811-9|edition=7th}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=smith1967>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=George|title=An introduction to industrial mycology|date=1967|publisher=Edward Arnold Ltd.|location=London|isbn=0713122080}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Barron1968>{{cite book|last1=Barron|first1=George|title=The Genera of Hyphomycetes from soil|date=1968|publisher=The Williams and wilkins company|location=Baltimore|lccn=68014275}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Arora1991>{{cite book|editor-last1=Arora |editor-first1=Dilip K.|editor2=Elmer H. Marth|editor3=K.G. Mukerji|title=Foods and feeds|date=1991|publisher=M. Dekker|location=New York, N.Y.|isbn=0-8247-8491-X}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Garry1981>{{cite book|editor=Garry T. Cole|title=Biology of conidial fungi|date=1981|publisher=Acad. Press|location=New York |isbn=0-12-179502-0}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=wood1984>{{cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=G.M.|title=Assessment of toxigenic moulds in foods by means of biological screening method|journal=Mycotoxins in animal and Human Health|date=1984|pages=95-105}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Pitt1975>{{cite journal|last1=Pitt|first1=J. I.|title=Xerophilic fungi and the spoilage of foods of plant origin|journal=Water Relations of Foods|date=1975|pages=273-307}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Saito1971>{{cite journal|last1=Saito, M. et al.|title=Screening tests using HeLa cells and mice for the detection of mycotoxin-producing fungi isolated form foodstuffs|journal=Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine|date=1971|volume=41|pages=1-20}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=TsurutaSaito1980>{{cite journal|last1=Tsuruta|first1=O|last2=Saito|first2=M|title=Mycological damage of domestic brown rice during storage in warehouse under natural conditions|journal=Nikon Kin Gakkai Kaiho|date=1980|volume=21|pages=121-125}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=PittHocking1977>{{cite journal|last1=Pitt|first1=J. I.|last2=Hocking|first2=A. D.|title=Influence of solute and hydrogen ion choncentration on the water relations of some xerophilic fungi|journal=Journal of General Microbiology|date=1977|volume=101|pages=35-40}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Sakamoto1989>{{cite journal|last1=Sakamoto|first1=T|last2=Urisu|first2=A|last3=Yamada|first3=M|last4=Matsuda|first4=Y|last5=Tanaka|first5=K|last6=Torii|first6=S|title=Studies on the osmophilic fungus Wallemia sebi as an allergen evaluated by skin prick test and radioallergosorbent test.|journal=International archives of allergy and applied immunology|date=1989|volume=90|issue=4|pages=368-72|pmid=2613343}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Frank1999>{{cite journal|last1=Frank et al|title=Walleminol and wal- leminone, novel caryophyllenes from the toxigenic fungus Wallemia sebi|journal=Tetrahedron Letter|date=1999|volume=40|pages=133–136}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Wood1990>{{cite journal|author=Wood et al|title=Studies on a toxic metabolite from the mould Wallemia|journal=Food Additives and Contaminants|date=1990|volume=7|pages=69-77}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Finn2014>{{cite journal|last1=Finn|first1=RD|last2=Bateman|first2=A|last3=Clements|first3=J|last4=Coggill|first4=P|last5=Eberhardt|first5=RY|last6=Eddy|first6=SR|last7=Heger|first7=A|last8=Hetherington|first8=K|last9=Holm|first9=L|last10=Mistry|first10=J|last11=Sonnhammer|first11=EL|last12=Tate|first12=J|last13=Punta|first13=M|title=Pfam: the protein families database.|journal=Nucleic acids research|date=January 2014|volume=42|issue=Database issue|pages=D222-30|pmid=24288371}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Flannigan2001>{{cite book|editor=Brian Flannigan|title=Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments : diversity, health impacts, investigation and control|date=2001|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton |isbn=0-415-26800-1}}</ref> | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| {{Mycoses}} | |||
| ] | ] | ||
Revision as of 17:39, 26 June 2016
| Wallemia sebi | |
|---|---|
| |
| Wallemia sebi colonies | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Basidiomycota |
| Subdivision: | Agaricomycotina |
| Class: | Wallemiomycetes |
| Order: | Wallemiales |
| Family: | Wallemiaceae |
| Genus: | Wallemia |
| Species: | W. sebi |
| Binomial name | |
| Wallemia sebi | |
| Synonyms | |
|
Torula epizoa Corda(1829), Sporendonema sebi (1832), Sporendonema epizoum(1934) | |
Wallemia sebi is a xerophilc fungus of the phylum Basidiomycota.
It is commonly found on highly sugared or salted materials, such as jams, bread, cakes, sugar, bacon, salted meets, and salted fish. It is also found in indoor air, house dust, and soil.
One distinctive feature of W. sebi is its relationship with water activity. Most fungi are profoundly affected by the availability of water. The ability to tolerant environments with low water activity has been found mostly in Ascomycota, but rarely in Basidiomycota. However, W. sebi. can adjust its morphology and physiology to adapt to different environmental conditions and survive osmotic stress. Wallemia sebi have lower limits for growth below water activity of 0.75 (0.69-0.75)aw, while most microorganisms are limited to 0.95 and above.
Wallemia sebi has been isolated from hair, hay, textiles and man.. It can grow slowly without additional solute in the growth medium, and form small, reddish-brown, powdery colonies.
Taxonomy
Wallemia sebi is currently recognized as a species of the genus Wallemia, which is first introduced by Johan-Olsen in 1887 for a single species W.ichthyophaga Johan-Olsen. A large number of synonyms were used before it was classified in Wallemia, including Torula epizoa Corda, Sporendonema epizoum Corda, Sporendonema sebi Fr., and Sporotrichum navale Joly. The most commonly used synonyms is S. sebi, which was named to refer to the fact that the conidia are endospores. It was only until 1970, when von Arx synonymized Sporendonema with Wallemia, W.sebi is combined with S. sebi.
Wallemia sebi, along with W.ichthyophaga and W.muriae, the other two specie in genus Wallemia, are considered to be xerophilc presently. Wallemia sebi can be distinguished from the other two in that it showed growth also on media without additional solutes, while W.ichthyophaga and W.muriae grow only in the present of additional solutes.
History
The earliest synonym of W. sebi recorded is Torula epizoa Corda, which is originated from salty meant in Belgium in 1829. In 1832, Fries synonymized Torula epizoa Corda as Sporendonema sebi that describe tasteless solid fat extracted from animal fat. Sporendonema sebi was commonly used in literatures until in 1977 when von Arx synonymized genus Sporendonema and Wallemia. Wallemia sebi then becomes a popular Wallemia species and frequently cited in studies. Frank and Hess studies the Sporendonema epizoum (synonym of W. sebi) that grow on dried salted fish and suggested it to be halophilic in 1941. Wallemia sebi is now recognized as xerophilic fungi because of independence of solute used to lower the water activity. Pitt and Hocking report that W.sebi grows more rapidly in NaCl that other solutes at neutral pH, but have no requirement for NaCl as a solute in 1977. This species is abundant in house dust and suspected to be a causative agent for atopic diseases in the study conducted by Sakamono et al. in 1989. The toxicity of W. sebi was studies and toxins walleminol and walleminon was found in 1990s. (Wood 1990 and Frank et al. 1999) Wallemia sebi was suggested to cause allergological problems resulting in farmer’s lung disease in 1998.
Micromorphology
Wallemia sebi has transparent hyphae, that are usually 1.5-2.5 µm wide, forming a compact mycelium. Conidiphores, the specialized stalks for asexual reproduction, are parallel arranged and usually unbranched. The conidiogenous cells are cylindrical and produce arthrospore-like conidia in package of four. Conidia are cylindrical initially and soon become spherical in shape, approximately 2–2.5 µm in diameter, and form long bending chains up to 1 mm long.
Growth media
Wallemia sebi can grow slowly on specialized fungal media with low water activity without additional solutes. On agar, W. sebi forms small brown colonies with a fine velvety texture, that have long rows of spores that may round up and become free at maturity. The colonies usually can grow to 2-2.5 millimeters, and sometimes to 4 to 5 millimeters in diameter. Wallemia sebi typically grow on MEA, MY50G, W-4 and W-10 agar.
On MEA, the W. sebi colonies grow to 3-6 millimeters in diameter. The colonies formed are usually compact and powdery, and are rust brown to purplish-brown in color. The punctiform colonies are typically spreading deeply into MEA agars. On MY50G, the colonies can grow up to 12 millimeters with yellowish brown color. The powdery colonies are formed due to the strong sporulation. On W-4 agar, the colonies can grow to 4-8 micrometer in diameter. The exudates can be observed on W-10 agar and they are present as yellow droplets. The shape of colonies in all agars is typically domed with or without short marginal spreading area. The marginal area can be shaggy or irregular with white color or similar color as the colony.
Genome
Wallemia sebi has a compact genome of 9.8 Mb with few repeats, which is one of the smallest genomes in Basidiomycota and in Agaricomycota. Three gene family expansions that were observed in W. sebi were considered significant, including heat shock protein, Stress responsive alpha-beta barrel, and amino acid transporter, and they may be responsible for the survival W.sebi in low water activity. There are also genes involved in High Osmolality Glycerol signaling pathway being observed in W.sebi, and are suggested to play an important role in the adaptation to osmotic stress. Wallemia sebi also have a large number of transporters that allow it to survive in hyperosmotic situation.
Secondary metabolite and toxicity
Wallemia sebi produces secondary metabolic compounds like walleminol, walleminone, wallemia A and C, and azasteroid UCA1064-B A newly conducted study also observes a light yellow oil-like metabolite that produced by W.sebi called wallimidione (1-benzylhexahydroimidazo pyridine-3,5-dione), and it might be the most toxic of all metabolic productions.
The first toxic compound found in W.sebi was isolated and named walleminol A by Wood et al. in 1990 in their study on toxic metabolite of W.sebi. They suggested that walleminol A causes toxic effects in range of in vitro systems such as mammalian cell lines, protozoa and brine shrimp. The toxin contains two hydroxyl groups, four methyl groups, and two or three ring structures in the molecule. The molecular weight of this compound is 236. The toxicity level is comparable with mycotoxins like penicillic acid and citrinin. However, the toxic metabolite only applies in culture environment, the mycotoxin does not necessarily produce in food. The most recent study on secondary metabolism of W. sebi found six compounds including walleminone, tryptophol, tryptophol, phenylacetic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and wallimidione. This study did not isolate walleminol like the previous studies did, but they found new metabolite, wallimidione.
Secondary metabolite production is very dependent on growth medium. Wallemia sebi might not produce mycotoxin in foods or feeds. It has been rarely reported to cause subcutaneous infections in humans.
Impact on food
Wallemia sebi invade the food with low water activity, and the food contamination has been reported in many foodstuffs across a broad range of habitats. For example, W.sebi is one of the most common fungi that ever isolated from spices. Along with other xerophilic fungi, they cause the loss of flavor and volatile components, production of off-flavors, and clumping in ground spices. Also, W. sebi is considered to be the principle fungus spoiling dried and salt fish. Reports of W.sebi contamination on dried fish comes from temperate regions mostly.W. sebi invasion can make salted and dried fish look brown. Besides dried seafood, it is also commonly found in high sugar foods. W. sebi is typically found in jam and cake. There is also one case report on dried fruit, the spoiling fried papaya. In addition, it is found in condensed milk and forms characteristic ‘bottoms’ in sweetened condensed milk. In terms of cereals and bread, there are case reports of isolation of W. sebi on Australian cereals and bread. Finally, Wallemia sebi was found to be a dominant contaminant of milled rice and flours. It can be isolated from brown rice, which stored for a long time under natural conditions.
Although W. sebi is found to present in a wide range of dried foods, there is little report on mycotoxins being produced in food.
Impact on built environment
Building material
Fungal growth often need adequate temperatures, nutrient substances, and some level of moisture. The requirements may vary between species. Like other xerophilic fungi, Wallemia sebi would grow on surfaces that are damp rather than wet. Since the indoor environments that is suitable for human habitation often satisfy the growth requirement for W. sebi, W.sebi would be observed in building wallpaper if the water activity is not controlled as low.
The finishing material and moisture level of constructions is critical in terms of fungal growth prevention. Poor moisture control (e.g. fail to dry material in constructions) will result in the growth of hydrophilic and xerophilic fungi. Furthermore, it is more challenging to prevent the growth of xerophile than hydrophilic fungi, because it requires the water activity to be extremely low. For example, dry the building material to the extent of under 0.9 aw water activity only will prevent the growth of hydrophilic fungi, but not capable of controlling the colonization of xerophile. Wallemia sebi, which has low demanding for water, was expected to grow on surfaces with 0.65-0.85 aw. Therefore, in order to prevent the growth of W. sebi, the water activity should be less than 0.65 aw, which can be achieved by drying the materials within forty-eight hours under normal building temperatures.
House dust
Wallemia sebi is abundant in settled dust in home , it has been first reported in Japan by Sakamoto et al. in 1989. It was also detected in house dust in Canada, USA and western Europe. The potential of fungi in indoor sources to cause asthma is not well documented, but W. sebi is one of the indoor fungi that has been found to cause allergic sensitization.
Health effect
The health effect of chronic exposure to airborne fungi in indoor environment is known to be associated with both allergens and inflammatory compounds. Exposure to Wallemia sebi is suspected to cause allergic sensitization. One study found twenty percent of children between age of 3 to 14 express IgE sensitization to W. sebi. There are also reports suggest the increase the risk of respiratory symptoms, asthma exasperation, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, rhinosinusitis, bronchitis and respiratory infections associate the exposure of building and house fungi, including W.sebi.
References
- ^ Zalar, P; Sybren de Hoog, G; Schroers, HJ; Frank, JM; Gunde-Cimerman, N (2005). "Taxonomy and phylogeny of the xerophilic genus Wallemia (Wallemiomycetes and Wallemiales, cl. et ord. nov.)". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 87 (4): 311–28. PMID 15928984.
- ^ Moore, RT (1986). "A note on Wallemia sebi". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 52 (2): 183–7. PMID 3729378.
- ^ Padamsee M, Kumar TK, Riley R, Binder M, Boyd A, Calvo AM, Furukawa K, Hesse C, Hohmann S, James TY, LaButti K, Lapidus A, Lindquist E, Lucas S, Miller K, Shantappa S, Grigoriev IV, Hibbett DS, McLaughlin DJ, Spatafora JW, Aime MC. (2012). "The genome of the xerotolerant mold Wallemia sebi reveals adaptations to osmotic stress and suggests cryptic sexual reproduction)". Fungal Genet Biol. 49: 217–226. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2012.01.007.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Arora, Dilip K.; Elmer H. Marth; K.G. Mukerji, eds. (1991). Foods and feeds. New York, N.Y.: M. Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8491-X.
- ^ Garry T. Cole, ed. (1981). Biology of conidial fungi. New York : Acad. Press. ISBN 0-12-179502-0.
- ^ Onions, A.H.S.; Allsopp, D.; Eggins, H.O.W. (1981). Smith's introduction to industrial mycology (7th ed.). London, UK: Arnold. ISBN 0-7131-2811-9.
- ^ "Wallemia sebi". Mycobank. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
- Smith, George (1967). An introduction to industrial mycology. London: Edward Arnold Ltd. ISBN 0713122080.
- ^ Pitt, J. I.; Hocking, A. D. (1977). "Influence of solute and hydrogen ion choncentration on the water relations of some xerophilic fungi". Journal of General Microbiology. 101: 35–40.
- ^ Sakamoto, T; Urisu, A; Yamada, M; Matsuda, Y; Tanaka, K; Torii, S (1989). "Studies on the osmophilic fungus Wallemia sebi as an allergen evaluated by skin prick test and radioallergosorbent test". International archives of allergy and applied immunology. 90 (4): 368–72. PMID 2613343.
- ^ Wood; et al. (1990). "Studies on a toxic metabolite from the mould Wallemia". Food Additives and Contaminants. 7: 69–77.
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Desroches, TC; McMullin, DR; Miller, JD (2014). "Extrolites of Wallemia sebi, a very common fungus in the built environment". Indoor air. 24 (5): 533–42. PMID 24471934.
- Guarro J, Gugnani HC, Sood N, Batra R, Mayayo E, Gene J, Kakkar S. (2008). "Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis caused by Wallemia sebi in an immunocompetent host)". J Clin Microbiol. 46: 1129–1131. doi:10.1128/jcm.01920-07.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Wood, G.M. (1984). "Assessment of toxigenic moulds in foods by means of biological screening method". Mycotoxins in animal and Human Health: 95–105.
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- ^ Brian Flannigan, ed. (2001). Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments : diversity, health impacts, investigation and control. Boca Raton : CRC Press. ISBN 0-415-26800-1.
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| Fungal infection and mesomycetozoea | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Superficial and cutaneous (dermatomycosis): Tinea = skin; Piedra (exothrix/ endothrix) = hair |
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| Subcutaneous, systemic, and opportunistic |
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| Mesomycetozoea | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ungrouped | |||||||||||||||||||||||